/>-&>
* 
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
             Washington
Founded 1836
U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
             Public Health Service 
.';
 
I 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA   AMERICANA.


                       A

         POPULAR  DICTIONARY

                       OF

ARTS, SCIENCES LITERATURE, HISTORY POLITICS AND
                   BIOGRAPHY,

          BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME;

                     INCLUDING

    A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES

                       IN

           AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY;

                       ON

THE  BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF THE GERMA>


      CONWERSATSONS-tEXICON.

                     EDITED BY

            FRANCIS LIEBER,

                    ASSISTED BY

      E. WIGGLESWORTH AND T. G. BRADFORD.
Vol. X.
             CAREY AND LEA.
SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART—IN NEW YORK
         BY G. & C. & II. CARVILL—IN BOSTON BY
               CARTER & HENDEE.

                    1832. 
        Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by
                         Carey and Lea,
In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
AH

   V.  \0 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA   AMERICANA.
Pen, Writing-Pens.   It is well known
that the ancients employed a certain reed,
the nature of which is not precisely ascer-
tained, for writing.  The reeds were split,
and  shaped to a  point like our quills.
When goose-quills first  came into use, or
who first borrowed from the  emblem of
folly the  instruments  of wisdom, is  not
known.  It has been asserted, that quills
were used for writing as early as the fifth
century, according to the history of Con-
stantius.  The oldest certain account is a
passage of Isidore, who died 636 A. D.,
and  who, among the instruments employ-
ed for writing, mentions reeds and feath-
ers.   There exists, also, a poem on a pen,
written in the same century,  and to be
found in  the works of Adhelm, the  first
Saxon who wrote in Latin.  Alcuin (q. v.),
the  friend and teacher of Charlemagne,
mentions writing-pens  in the eighth cen-
tury.  After that time, proofs exist which
put the question of their use  beyond dis-
pute.  Mabillon (q. v.) saw a manuscript
gospel of the ninth century, in which the
evangelists were represented with pens in
their hands.  Calami properly signify the
reeds which the ancients used in writing.
Modern authors often use  the word  as a
Latin  term for pens, and it is probable
that the  same was employed to signify
quills before the  time of Isidore.  Reeds
were used for a considerable time after the
introduction of writing-pens.  In convents
they were retained  a  long time for the
initials only.   By some letters of Erasmus
to Reuchlin, it appears that the former re-
ceived three  reeds from  the latter,  and
expressed a wish that Reuchlin, when he
procured more, would send some of them
to a certain  learned man in England.
Quills, for some reason, were, about the
year 1433, extremely rare in Venice. We
learn from  the familiar letters of learned
men of that time, that they were equally
troubled by the rarity of quills and by the
difficulty of making good ink.   Of late,
steel pens have been much used and im-
proved, and for certain purposes,  as for
signing bank notes, to  make the signatures
uniform, they appear well adapted ; as also
for people who cannot make pens; but,
on  the whole, the quill affords  a much
easier and handsomer  chirography.
  Penal Law.  (See  Criminal Laic.)
  Penance ; every penalty borne for the
expiation  of an  offence.  In the early
Christian  church,  this ancient judicial
principle was transferred to religious pen-
ance, that is, to the atonement which the
sinner has to make, for his trespasses, to
God and the church.   According  to the
doctrine of the Protestants, it is not among
the sacraments.  This doctrine considers
compunction and  faith as the only  ele-
ments of  repentance and  reformation.
Penance is considered by the  Catholic
church a  sacramental  institution.  The
conditions  for the  necessary transition
from bad to good, are a humble conscious-
ness of guilt.  The conversion itself is a
change hi the soul of  man, effected by the
power of God, but necessarily connected
with an exterior alteration.  The power
of forgiving sins, in the literal sense of the
word, say the Catholics, has been trans-
ferred by Christ to the apostles, and to
the church ; but the latter can forgive the
sins only of the truly repentant  and con-
verted sinner.   To  bring  him  to the
knowledge of himself,  the  church has
established  confession; to calm his con-
science,  absolution ;  for the instruction
and discipline  of the converted, she in- 
4
PENANCE—PENDULUM.
flicts  penance, as a  satisfaction to his
own conscience and to God.  Confession
was not invented by Innocent III, but
only enjoined by him at least once a year.
It is followed by absolution, according to
the authority transmitted to the church,
and by the imposition of such penances
as are necessary to free from the conse-
quences  of sin.   The council  of Trent
declares, in sess. xiv, c. 8, that satisfaction
for sin is effected only by Christ, and it is
left for the individual  to bring forth fruits
worthy of repentance.  Days of penance
and fasting are holy days, which, in certain
countries, are fixed annually, or after gen-
eral calamities, for the purpose of a gene-
ral expression of penitence, or with the
view of appeasing the anger of the Deity.
The great day of fasting among the Jews
is the Long Night.   The Christians imi-
tated these fast-days.
   Penates ; the  private or public  gods
of the Romans; in the former sense, they
resembled the Lares (q. v.), with whom they
are often confounded.  Not  only every
house, but every city, had its Penates, and
the latter were  the  public  gods.   The
most celebrated at Rome were those that
protected the empire.  These were brought
into Italy by iEneas, together with Vesta
and her eternal fire.   According to Varro
and Macrobius, the Penates were rude im-
agcsof wood orstone,furnishcd with a spear;
and generals, on their departure, and con-
suls, pretorsand dictators, when they retired
from office, sacrificed  victims before them.
  Pencil ;  an instrument used by paint-
ers for laying on their colors.   Pencils are
of  various  kinds, and made  of various
materials; the larger  sorts are made of
boar's bristles, the thick ends of which are
bound to a stick, large or small, according
to the uses they are designed  for;  these,
when large,  are  called  brushes.   The
finer sorts of pencils are made of camels',
badgers'  and squirrels' hair, and of the
down of swans; these are tied at the up-
per end  with a piece of strong thread, and
enclosed in  the barrel  of a quill.  Good
pencils,  when drawn  between the lips,
come to a fine point.
   Lead Pencils.  (See Plumbago.)
   Pencil of Rays; a number  of rays di-
verging from some luminous point, which,
nfter  passing  through a lens, converge
r>.gain to a point.
   Pendant.  Two paintings or prints of
equal dimensions, which  are attached in
corresponding positions to the  same wall,
are called pendants to each other.
   Pendant, or Pennant; a sort of long
narrow banner displayed from the mast-
 head of a ship-of-war, and usually ter-
 minating in two ends or points, called the
 swallow's-tail.  It denotes that a vessel is
 in  actual service.—Broad pendant  is a
 kind of flag  terminating in one  or two
 points, used  to distinguish the chief of a
 squadron.—Pendant is also a short piece
 of  rope, fixed on each side, under the
 shrouds, upon the heads of the main and
 fore masts.
  Pendulum, in dynamics, is a  simple
 ponderous body, so suspended by a flexi-
 ble cord from an axis of suspension, that
 it is at liberty to vibrate by  the action of
 its  own gravity alone,  when it is once
 raised, by any external force, to the right
 or left of its quiescent  position;  and,  in
 demonstrating the theory of its motion,
 mathematicians  are  obliged to  assume,
 that there is no rigidity in  the cord, no
 friction at the axis of suspension, no re-
 sistance to motion made by the air, and
 no variation in the total length of the cord,
 arising  from  the variable  temperature  or
 moisture of the atmosphere; and if these
 assumptions were strictly correct, a pen-
 dulum, once put in motion, would con-
 tinue to move,  ad infinitum, without a
 further accession of any external force;
 but, when the pendulum is applied a3 the
 regulator of a clock,  for which purpose it
is admirably  adapted,  the  assumptions
 which we have  stated,  require an equal
 number  of  mechanical corrections, of
 which  the  theory,  simply considered,
 takes no notice.  In horology, therefore,
 the  pendulum must be considered not
 simply as a self-moving pendulous body,
 without any tendency to come to  a state
 of rest, but as a body  whose motion  is
 perpetuated  by  repeated  accessions  of
 force in aid of its own gravity, and whose
 vibrations are rendered isochronal by a
 nice adaptation  of  mechanical contriv-
 ances, that prevent or remedy the influ-
 ence of all natural impediments  to uni-
 form and uninterrupted motion. The first
 kind of penduhnn (the theoretical) is called
 a mathematical or simple  pendulum, the
 other the physical or compound pendulum.
 In the mathematical pendulum, the matter
 of the pendulous ball or bob is supposed
 to be collected into one point, so that the
 centres of gravity and of oscillation coin-
 cide.  The doctrine of the  pendulum is
 of the highest importance, but, as it can-
 not be fully developed without the aid  of
 mathematics, nor rendered  clear  without
 diagrams, we can state  only some of the
 most  obvious  properties   and  circum-
 stances connected with it.   A pendulum,
 once put in motion, would  never ceuse to 
PENDULUM -PENN.
5
oscillate in arcs, were it not for the fric-
tion at the point of suspension, and the
resistance of the air.  Neither of  these
circumstances can  ever  be  avoided en-
tirely, but their  effect  may  be rendered
comparatively slight  by  giving  to the
weight a lenticular shape, and suspending
the rod on  a sharp edge, on  which  it
plays with very little friction.   The  times
of the vibrations of a pendulum depend,
1.  on the magnitude of the angle of elon-
gation, viz. that angle by which the heavy
body of the pendulum is removed  from
the vertical  line; 2. upon the length of
the pendulum; and  3. upon the accele-
rating power of gravity.  If all these cir-
cumstances are perfectly equal in the case
of two pendulums, they  will perform an
equal number of oscillations in the  same
time ; but if there is a difference in either
of the circumstances, the oscillations will
differ immediately.  Thus, if one pendu-
lum is shorter than  the other, and all the
other circumstances  equal,  the shorter
pendulum  will  move  quicker than the
longer.  The law which has been found
to exist is, that the  lengths of the pendu-
lums are in  an inverse proportion to the
squares of  their oscillations; hence the
times of the oscillations are  inversely as
the square roots of the lengths of the pen-
dulums.   Hence a pendulum  which  is
four times as long as another, will vibrate
with but half the rapidity, or the shorter
pendulum will  perform  two  oscillations
whilst the larger performs but one.   The
pendulum does not perforin its oscillations
in equal  times  in  all parts of the  earth.
This is owing to the third of the circum-
stances enumerated above,  upon which
the oscillations depend.  The gravity, or,
what is the  same tiling,  the power  of at-
traction in the earth, does not operate ev-
ery where with equal force on the pendu-
lum, which, therefore, in some parts of the
earth, oscillates more slowly than in others.
The cause of this lies in the centrifugal
force (q. v.), or  in the diminution of the
power of gravity caused by it.  This be-
comes  more perceptible  the nearer  the
 place where the pendulum  is  observed
is  to  the  equator.   (See  Earth.)   At
the  equator, therefore,  a pendulum  vi-
 brating seconds must be somewhat shorter
 than at a distance from  it.  The length
 of a seconds pendulum at the equator is,
 according to Biot, 39.011084 inches: in
 latitude 45°, 39.116820, in 90°, 39.221956.
 If the  globe  were  a perfect  spheroid,
 the meridians would  be  perfect ellipses,
 and in such case the length of seconds
 pendulums would immediately  afford a
                   1*
basis for a calculation of the length of the
degrees in the various latitudes j but actu-
al measurements  have shown that the
meridians contain some irregularities, from
which it has been justly concluded, that
the earth has not a perfectly regular form,
but deviates more or less from the shape
of a sphere.  We can, therefore, properly
draw  conclusions from the oscillations of
the pendulum respecting  the power of
gravity only, and not respecting the  form
of the earth.  Besides the friction of the
rod, &c,  and the resistance of  the air,
there  are also other circumstances which
influence the oscillations of the pendulum.
These are the changes of heat and  cold.
Heat lengthens the rod of the pendulum,
cold contracts it; hence common pendulum
clocks go much quicker in winter; and the
change of temperature in rooms which are
heated during the day influences them con-
siderably.  Many contrivances have been
devised for overcoming this inconvenience.
One is, by making pendulums of the  form
of a gridiron, consisting of several parallel
bars of different metals, so connected that
the effect of one set of them counteracts
that  of the  others.   These have  been
very  successful.   Rods  are  sometimes
made of certain kinds of wood, well sea-
soned, which are little  influenced by the
weather.    Astronomical  clocks of the
present day do not err to  the amount of
one beat or oscillation of the pendulum in
a year..  A common  clock is  merely a
pendulum with wheel-work attached to it,
to record the number of vibrations, and
with a weight or spring to counteract the
retarding effects of friction and the resist-
ance of the air.   Huygens, who developed
the doctrine of the pendulum, which had
been  treated already  by Galileo, first ap-
plied  it to  clocks, and thus became  the
inventor of the pendulum  clock (in 1656).
(See  Clock.)—For the application of pen-
dulums  to  horology,  see  Berthond's
Essai sur  VHorlogerie  (Paris, 1763, 2
vols., 4to.).—See, also, Biot's treatise Sur la
Longueur  du Pendule a Secondes, in the
third  volume of his TraiU d'Astronomit
Physique (second  edition, Paris,  1810).—
See,  also, Bode's Anleitung zur Kenntniss
der Erdkugel (second edition, Berlin, 1803).
   Penelope.  (See Ulysses.)
   Penguin. (See Pinguin.)
   Penitentiaries.   (See Prisons.''
   Penn, William,  was born  in London, in
 1644. lie was the only  son of William
 Penn, of the county of Wilts, vice-admiral
 of England in the time of Cromwell, and
 afterwards knighted by king Charles  HT
 for  his  successful services  against  the 
6
PENN.
Dutch.   He  appears to have  been seri-
ously inclined  from his youth,  having
imbibed religious  impressions as early as
his twelfth year, which were  soon after-
wards confirmed by the ministry of Thom-
as  Loe,  an  eminent preacher  among
the people called Quakers, then newly as-
sociated in religious fellowship.  In his
fifteenth year, he was,  notwithstanding,
entered  as a  gentleman  commoner  of
Christ-church, Oxford, where, meeting
with some other students who  were de-
voutly inclined, they ventured to hold pri-
vate meetings among themselves, wherein
they both preached and prayed.  This
gave great offence  to the  heads  of the
college,  by whom  these zealous tyros
were at  first only confined  for non-con-
formity ; but persisting in their religious
exercises,  they were finally expelled  the
university.  On his  return home,  his fa-
ther  endeavored  in vain to  divert him
from his religious pursuits, as being likely
to stand in the way of his  promotion in
the world; and at  length,  finding him
inflexible in what  he now conceived to be
his religious duty,  beat him  severely, and
turned him out of doors.  Relenting, how-
ever, at the intercession of his mother, and
hoping to gain his point by  other  means,
he sent his son to  Paris, in company with
some persons of quality ; whence  he re-
turned so  well  skilled in the French lan-
guage, and other polite accomplishments,
that  he  was  again  joyfully received  at
home.   After his return from  France, he
was  admitted  of  Lincoln's Inn,  with a
view of studying the law, and  contiuued
there till  his twenty-second year,  when
his father committed to him  the manage-
ment of a considerable estate in Ireland—
a circumstance which unexpectedly prov-
ed the occasion of his finally adhering to
the despised cause of the Quakers, and
devoting  himself  to a religious life.  At
Cork, he  met again with Thomas Loe,
the person  whose  preaching  had  af-
fected him so early in life.   At a meet-
ing in that city, Loe began his declaration
with these penetrating words, " There is a
faith that overcomes the world, and there
is a faith that is overcome by the world ;"
which so  affected Penn,  that  from that
time he constantly attended  the meetings
of the Quakers, though in a time  of hot
persecution.  He was soon afterwards, with
many others, taken at a meeting in Cork,
and carried before the mayor, by  whom
they were committed to prison ;  but young
Penn w;.s  soon released, on application to
the earl of  Orrery,  then lord  president
cf Mint.-: ;r.  His father, being informed of
his conduct,  remanded him home;  and,
finding him  unalterably  determined  to
abide by his own convictions of duty,  ir:
respect to plainness of speech and deport-
ment, he would have  compounded  with
him, if he would only  have consented  to
remain uncovered  before the  king, the
duke (afterwards James II), and himself.
Being  disappointed in  this, he  could no
longer-endure the sight of his son, and a
second time drove  him from his family.
Yet alter a while, becoming convinced  of
his integrity, he permitted him to return ;
and though he never openly countenanced
him, he would use his interest to get him
released, when imprisoned for his attend-
ance at religious meetings.  In the year
1668, in the twenty-fourth year of his age,
Penn first  appeared as a minister and an
author; and it was on account of his sec-
ond  essay, entitled the Sandy  Founda-
tion  Shaken,  that he was imprisoned  in
the Tower, where  he remained seven
months, during which time he  wrote his
most   celebrated  work,  No   Cross no
Crown, and  finally obtained his release
from confinement by an exculpatory \ in-
dication, under  the title  of Innocency
with her open Face.  In 1670, the meet-
ings  of dissenters were forbidden, under
severe  penalties.  The Quakers, however,
believing it their religious duty, continued
to meet as usual; ami when forcibly kept
out of  their meeting-houses, they assem-
bled as near to them as they could in the
street.   At one of these meetings, William
Penn preached to the people thus assem-
bled for divine worship; for which pious
action  he  was  committed to  Newgate,
and, at the next session at the Old Bailey,
was  indicted  for "being present  at, and
preaching to,  an unlawful, seditious, and
riotous assembly."   He pleaded his own
cause,  though menaced by the recorder,
and was finally  acquitted by  the jury;
but he was, nevertheless, detained in New-
gate, <*d the jury fined.  Sir William died
this year, fully  reconciled to  his son,  to
whom he left a plentiful estate, taking leave
of him in these memorable words: "Son
William, let nothing in this world tempt
you to  wrong your conscience.  So will
you keep peace at home, which will be a
feast to you in a day of trouble."  Shortly
after this event,  Penn travelled, in the ex-
ercise  of his  ministry, into Holland and
Germany.  In the year 1672,  he married
Guhelma  Maria  Springett, whose father
(sir William)  having  bten killed at the
siege of Bamber, in the civil  wars, her
mother had married Isaac Penington,  of
Chalfont, in Bucks, an eminent minister 
PENN.
7
  and writer among the Quakers.   In 1677,
  in company with George Fox and Robert
  Barclay, the celebrated apologist, he again
  set sail" on a religious visit to Holland and
  Germany, where he and his friends  were
  received  by many  pious  persons as the
  ministers  of Christ, particularly at  Her-
  wer.lcn, by the princess Elizabeth of the
  llhin;', ('laughter of the king of Bohemia,
  and  iTiand-daughter of  Janses I of  Eng-
  land."  The persecutions of dissenters con-
  tinuing  to  rage,   notwithstanding  their
  repeated applications to  parliament  for
  sufferance and protection,  William  Penn
  now turned his thoughts towards a settle-
  ment in the new world, as a place where
  lih-nself and his friends  might enjoy their
--'religious  opinions  without  molestation,
  ;:iid'wh<-Te an  example might be set to the
  nations of a just  and righteous govern-
  ment.   "There  may be room there,"
  said h;>, "though  not  here, for such  a
  holy experiment."  He therefore, in 1631,
  solicited  a patent from  Charles II,  for  a
  province  in North Amerioa, which  the
  king readily granted, in consideration of
  his father's services, and of a debt still due
  to him from the crown.   Penn soon after
  published a description of the  province,
  proposing easy terms of settlement to such
  us might  be disposed to go thither.  He
  also wrote to  the Indian natives, inform-
  ing them of his desire to hold his posses-
  sion with their  consent   and  goodwill.
  He  then  drew  up  the  Fundamental
  Constitution   of  Pennsylvania, and the
  following year he published the Frame
  of Government,  a law of  which  code
  hell out a greater degree of religious lib-
  erty than had at that time been allowed
  in the world.   " All .persons living in this
  province, who confess  and acknowledge
  the One Almighty  and  Eternal God to be
  the  Creator, Upholder,  and Ruler of the
  world,  and that  hold themselves obliged
  in conscience to live peaceably and justly
  in civil society, shall in no wise be mo-
  lested or prejudiced for  their religious
   persuasion or practice, in  matters of faith
   and worship;  nor shall they be compelled
   at any time' to frequent or maintain  any
   religious worship, place or ministry  what-
   soever." Upon the publication of these pro-
   posals, many respectable families removed
   to the  new province;  the city of  Phila-
   delphia was laid out,  upon the banks  of
   the Delaware; and in  1682, the proprie-
   tor  visited  his newly-acquired territory,
   where he remained about two years, ad-
   justing  its  concerns,  and  establishing a
   friendly  intercourse  with  his colonial
   neighbors; during which period no less
than fifty sail arrived  with  settlers from
England, Ireland, Wales,  Holland, and
Germany.  Soon after Penn returned  to
England', king Charles died ; and the. re-
spect which  James  II bore to the late
admiral,  who had recommended his son
•to his favor, procured to  him free access
at court.   He made use of this advantage
to solicit the discharge of his persecuted
brethren, fifteen  Ivundred  of whom  re-
mained  in prison at the decease of the
late king.  In 1686, having taken lodgings
at Kensington, to be near the court,  he
published  a  Persuasive  to Moderation
towards  Dissenting Christians, &c, hum-
bly submitted to  the King and  his great
Council, which is thought  to have has-
tened, i? it did not  occasion, the  king's
proclamation   for   a   general   pardon,
which was followed the  next year by his
suspension of the  penal laws.  At  the
revolution, in 1688, Penn's intimacy with
the abdicated monarch created suspicions,
of which he  repeatedly cleared himself
before authority,  until he was accused by
a profligate wretch, whom the parliament
afterwards declared to be a  cheat and an
impostor.  Not caring to expose himself
to the oaths of such a man, he withdrew
from  public  notice,  till 1693.  In  that
year, through the mediation of his friends
at court, he  was once more admitted to
plead his own cause .before the king  and
 council, and was again acquitted  of all
 suspicion  of guilt.  The most  generally
 known  production of his temporary  se-
 clusion  bears the title of  Fruits of Soli-
 tude, in Reflections  and Maxims relating
 to the  Conduct of Human Life.  Not
 long after his restoration to society, he
 lost his  wife, Guliolma, to  which he  said
 all his other, troubles were  as nothing in
■comparison.  He travelled, however,  the
 same year, in the west of England, and in
 the ne'xt prosecuted an application  to par-
 liament for  the  relief of his friends,  the
 Quakers, in the case of oaths. In the year
 1696, he married a second wife, Hannah,
 the daughter of Thomas Callowhill, an
 eminent merchant of Bristol,  and soon
 after  buried  his eldest  son, Springett, a
 remarkably  pious  and  promising youth.
 In 1698, he travelled in Ireland,  and re-
 sided the following year  at Bristol.  In
 1699, he again sailed for Pennsylvania, with
 his second wife  and family, intending to
 make his province the place of their fu-
 ture residence; but advantage was taken
 of his absence to  undermine proprietary
 .governments,  under color of the king's
 prerogative, and he thought it necessary
 to return to England again in 1701.  After 
8
PENN—PENNSYLVANIA.
 his arrival, the measure was laid aside,
 and Penn became once  more welcome at
 court,  on the accession of queen Anne.
 In  1710, finding the  air near the city to
 disagree with  his declining  health,  he
 took a handsome  seat  in  Buckingham-
 shire,  at which he  continued  to reside
 during the remainder of his life.  In the
 year 1712, he had three  distinct  fits of the
 apoplectic kind. The last of these so im-
 paired his memory and  understanding as
 to render him ever after unfit for public
 action  ; but he continued to deliver, in the
 meeting at Reading, short, but sound and
 sensible expressions.  In 1717, he scarcely
 knew bis old acquaintance, or could  walk
 without leading. He died in 1718.  The
 writings of Penn (first  published in  two
 volumes folio) bespeak his character as a
 Christian and a philanthropist.   Of his
 ability as a politician and  legislator, the
 prosperity of Pennsylvania is  a lasting
 monument.
  Pe.nnalism is the name for the torments
 and impositions to which the elder stu-
 dents in German universities used to sub-
ject the younger  ones,  called  Pennale
 (pen-cases), afterwardsybze*.  This abuse
 was carried to a great extent ; and books
 written 200 years ago exhibit a real bar-
 barity  of manners in  this respect.    In
 1661 and 1663, the German empire thought
 it necessary to enact laws against pennal-
 ism.  It corresponds  to  the English yj/g"-
ging; and, though few traces of it exist at
 present in Germany, it is still customary,
 in  most schools,  to  greet  the   " foxes"
 (scholars who ascend from  a lower  class
 into a higher) with  a sound beating; and
 we find in Byron's Life, by Moore, to what
 an  extent fagging has  been carried  in
 England. It is said that pennalism origi-
 nated in the Italian universities (Bologna,
 &c), which  is very probable, as the stu-
 dents at these universities  kept  together
 in  " nations," in  order  to  protect  each
 other, and young students weut  with rec-
 ommendations  to the senior of those na-
 tions.  But in those rude times, the weak,
 who wanted protection, were every where
 exposed to the brutal abuse of the stronger.
 Among mechanics, apprentices and young
 journeymen   were  subjected  to  similar
 discipline—a  consequence  of the  rude
 feudalism which had  penetrated every
 part of society. Others derive these prac-
 tices from the chapters of the  clergy,
 among whom every  new canon  was
 obliged to pay a certain sum for a banquet
 on  his entrance ; and it is  a well known
 fact, that many of the customs, songs (de-
 cent and indecent), &c. of German stu-
dents,  originated  in the  chapters  and
monasteries.  (See Feast of Fools.)
  Pennant, Thomas, an  English natu-
ralist and antiquary, born at Downing, in
Flintshire,  in  1726, studied at Oxford.
His first production was an account of an
earthquake felt in Flintshire, April 2,1750,
which appeared   in  the  Philosophical
Transactions, in 1756; and, the following
year, he was chosen a member of the
royal society of Upsal, through  the influ-
ence of Linnauis.   He commenced, in
1761, a body of British Zoology, which
first  appeared  in four vols, folio, and was
republished in  quarto  and octavo,  and
translated  into  German by C.  Theoph.
Muit.   This work was followed by his
Indian  Zoology  (1769) ;   Synopsis  of
Quadrupeds  (1771); Genera  of Birds
(1773); History  of Quadrupeds (1781);
Arctic  Zoology (1786);  and  Index to
Buffon's Natural History of Birds (1787).
In 1765, Mr.  Pennant took a journey to
the continent,  when he visited Buffon,
Haller, Pallas, and  other eminent foreign-
ers.  He was admitted  into the  royal so-
ciety in 1767; and, in 176U, he undertook
a tour into Scotland, of which he publish-
ed an account  in  1771, and a second vol-
ume appeared  in  1776,  relating to a sec-
ond  tour  in  the  same  country, and  a
voyage to  the  Hebrides.   In  1778,  ho
published a tour in Wales; to which  was
afterwards  added,  in another volume, a
Journey to Snowdon.   He produced, in
1782, a narrative of a Journey from Ches-
ter to  London; and in 1790  appeared
his amusing work, An Account of London
(4to.).  In 1793, he professedly took leave
of the public in a piece of autobiography
—the Literary Life  of the late Thomas
Pennant; but he subsequently committed
to the press a History of Whiteford  and
Holywell, in his native  county.   He died
in 1798. After his death appeared Outlines
of the Globe (4 vols., 4t.o.),  forming a por-
tion  of a  very  extensive  undertaking,
which  was never completed, and some
other posthumous publications.   His skill
in the selection of interesting subjects for
discussion,  and his felicity of illustration,
attracted admirers, rather than the extent
of his researches, or the profundity of his
observations.
  Pennsylvania, one of the United States,
as now limited, extends from N. lat. 39°
43' to N. lat. 42° 16', and from  74° 3.V to
80° 31' W. Ion. from Greenwich.   It is
bounded north by New York; east by the
river Delaware, which  separates it from
New Jersey; south-east by the  state of
Delaware;  south by Maryland  and part 
PENNSYLVANIA.                            9
of Virginia, and  west by the latter and
the state of Ohio.  It lies nearly in the
form of a  parallelogram.  Darby, in his
Geographical View, states that its greatest
length  is due west from  Bristol,  on the
Delaware river, to the eastern border of
Ohio county, in  Virginia, through 5° 5C
of longitude, along N. latitude 40° £'.  This
distance, on that  line of latitude, is-equal
to  315 American  statute miles.   The
greatest breadth  is 176  miles, from the
Virginia  line to the extreme  northern an-
gle, on lake Erie; and the mean breadth,
157.   The same writer  calculates the
area at above 47,000 square  miles, and
30,080,000  statute acres.   The original
Swedish colony   came  over  in   1638,
under the government and protection of
Sweden.  The Dutch and the Finns had
also settled on  the Delaware, before the
British conquest of the New Netherlands,
in 166-1.  In 1682, William Penn founded
a colony, having, previously obtained  a
charter from Charles  II, which put him
in possession of the soil and  government
of the country.  This charter was granted
in consideration of an unsettled pecuniary
account between the government and the
'State of Penn's father.   The emigration
 roni Wales  into  Pennsylvania was as
 arly as 1683.  The emigrants purchased
 : large body -of land, and called the  seve-
ral  settlements after  favorite  places in
Wales.  The Indian right was respected
by William Penn, and his sense of justice
induced him to make an equitable pur-
chase from the aborigines, notwithstand-
ing his charter; and the same policy was
pursued  by the  constituted  government
after the revolution, as the state of Penn-
sylvania  made" iwxv purchases from the
native  proprietors at a fair price, and hi
open treaty, in 1784.   Though the state
ot* Pennsylvania  might  have  considered
the proprietary claims  as a royalty, to
which the independent government could
lawfully succeed,  yet, as a  peculiar ac-
knowledgment  of the merits and ekiims
of William Penn  and  his family, by an
act of the legislature, the sum of £130,000
sterling, together  with  a confirmation of
title to  all the manor lands,  which  were
ten per cent, on all surveyed lands in the
province, was to  be offered  to  the Penn
family, which offer was by them accepted.
This  was   a  liberal  compensation  for
revolutionary losses, considering that, in
the year  1712,   William Penn  offered
to the  queen of  England  the govern-
ment and  soil  of the province for the
sum of £12,000,  payable in four years.
This was  certainly owing to  his pecu-
niary embarrassments;; and  although  he
actually entered into a  contract for this
purpose, yet an  apoplectic attack ren-
dered  him  incapable of perfecting the
legal forms.   The  litigated question with
the state of Connecticut touching the
right of territory in the northern part of the
state, was depending from the year 1750
until a few years since, when  the public
and private  rights of soil were settled in
favor =of Pennsylvania, under conciliations
and restrictions, determined by special acts
of the Pennsylvania legislature and the
decisions of the supreme court of the U.
States.  The seat of the state government
was transferred from Philadelphia to Lan-
caster  in the year 1799, and the progress
of improvement and population caused it,
in 1812, to  be removed  to  Harrisburg,
where handsome buildings are erected for
the accommodation of the legislature and
the  officers  of the government.   The
whole state  is divided into  52 counties,
viz.  Adams,  Alleghany, Armstrong, Bea-
ver,  Bedford, Perks, Bradford, Bucks,
Butler, Cambria, Centre,  Chester, Clear-
field,  Columbia, Crawford, Cumberland,
Dauphin, Delaware, Erie, Fayette, Frank-
lin, Green, Huntingdon, Indiana, Jefferson,
Juniatta, Lancaster,  Lebanon,  Lehigh,
Luzerne,  Lycoming, M'Kean,  Mercer,
Mifflin, Montgomery, Northampton, North-
uinberland,  Perry,  Philadelphia,   Pike,
Potter, Schuylkill, Somerset, Susquehan-
nah, Tioga, Union,Vinango,Warren,Wash-
ington,  Wayne,   Westmoreland,  York.
There are three incorporated cities in'this
state—Philadelphia, Pittsburg and Lancas-
ter.  There  are very few counties which
have not a borough and  many populous
towns, the  most considerable  of which
are Harrisburg, Reading, Easton, Carlisle,
York, Chambersburg, Brownsville, Wash-
ington, &c.   By an estimate of the  popu-
lation  in 1782, it was  supposed  to  be
330,000.  By the •census  of  1790, it was
ascertained  to be  434,373.   In 1800, it
was  602,545.  In  1810.  it  was 810,091.
In 1820, it was 1,049,458 ; and in 1831, it
was 1,347,672.  The government of Penn-
sylvania consists of three branches—legis-
lative, executive and judicial.  The legis-
lature consists of a senate and a house of
representatives.  By the present constitu-
tion, .the house of representatives cannot
exceed  100,  and  are chosen annually.
The senate,  whose number  cannot  be
more than one third of the lower house,
are chosen  for four years, one fourth of
their body annually ; at  this period both
branches  are full.   The  governor  is
elected for tlirce years, but  cannot hold 
10
PENNSYLVANIA.
the office more than nine years in twelve.
These elections are all by the people and
by  ballot.  All judicial officers are  ap-
pointed by the governor during good be-
havior, and are removable by address of
both houses or  by impeachment.   The
inhabitants   are   principally  descended
from the English, Welsh, Irish, Scotch
and Germans, also French, Swedes, and a
few Dutch.  The language is generally a
pure English, but, in many counties, the
German prevails to a considerable extent.
The character of the PennsyIvanians is
somewhat diversified by difference  of ex-
traction  and various modes of education,
but this  is chiefly in minor points.   The
facilities of receiving education are great.
There is a university in Philadelphia, and
colleges have been established at Carlisle,
Canonsburg, Washington,  Pittsburg, and
Meadville, and provision has been made
by the legislature for the establishment of
an academy in every county  in the state.
There  are  also flourishing  Moravian
schools at Bethlehem, Nazareth and Litiz;
and, bv the will of the late  Stephen Gi-
rard, of Philadelphia, a fund of $2,000,000
(to  be augmented, if necessary, by rents
of real property, and residuary personal
estate)  has  been  appropriated  for  the
establishment of a college  for the educa-
tion  of orphan children.  The different
religious  denominations in Pennsylvania
are Presbyterians,  Methodists, German
Calviilists,  German Lutherans, Friends,
Episcopalians, Baptists, Roman Catholics,
Seceders, Covenanters, Universalists,Swe-
denborgians, Jews and Unitarians.  With
regard  to the face of the country,  the
mountains strike the eye, at the first glance
on a map, as the most prominent natural
features.   The  Appalachian  system in
the U. States generally  extends in a di-
rection deviating not veiy essentially from
south-west to north-east, but in Pennsyl-
vania, the whole system is inflected from
that course, and traverses the state in a
serpentine direction.  Towards the south
boundary, the mountains lie  about north-
north-east, gradually inclining  more east-
vvardly as they penetrate northward, and,
in  the  central  counties,  many  of the
chains lie nearly east and west.  But, as
they extend towards the northern  border
of the state, they again gradually incline
to the north-east, and enter New York
and New Jersey in nearly that direction.
The principal ridges on the east side of
the Susquehannah, are the Kittatinny or
Blue mountains, behind which, and nearly
parallel to them,  are  Peters, Tuscarora
and Nescopeck mountains.  On the west
side  of the Susquehannah are the Kitta-
tinny ridges, comprising  the North or
Blue, the Horse and the Tuscarora moun-
tains, Sherman's hill, Sideling hill, Rag-
ged, Great Warrior's, Tussey's and Wills s
mountains;  then  the great  Alleghany
ridge,  which, being  the  largest,  gives
name to the whole;  and west of this are
the Chestnut ridges,  including the Laurel
hill.  Between the Juniatta river  and the
west branch of the Susquehannah are
Jack's, Tussey's, Nittany and  Bald Eagle
mountains.  The mountain area has been
estimated  at 6750 square  miles,  or very
nearly one seventh part of the superficies
of the  state.  Some  of these mountains
admit of cultivation almost to their sum-
mits, and  the valleys between them are
often of a rich black soil, suited to the
various kinds of  grass and grain.  The
other parts of the state are generally level
or agreeably diversified  with  hills and
vales.  The  principal rivers are the Dela-
ware, Susquehannah, Schuylkill,  Lehigh,
Alleghany, Monongahela,  Ohio, Juniatta,
Youhiogeny, and Clarion, formerly desig-
nated as  Toby's  creek.   Besides  these
main streams, Pennsylvania is watered by
numerous large creeks and rivulets, to as
great a degree as the same extent of coun-
try in  any part of the  U. States.  This
state deserves credit for  her numerous
improvements in  turnpike  roads, canals,
rail-roads  and bridges, which have been
constructed  in a  superior style of excel-
lence and  durability.  The first turnpike
road in the U. States was made in Penn-
sylvania.  (For further  information with
regard to these internal  improvements,
see the various heads.)  The soil of Penn-
sylvania  is  much diversified ;  in  some
parts it is  ban-en, but a great proportion
of it is fertile, and a considerable  part
very excellent.   West of the mountains,
the soil of the first quality is a deep black
mould, equal in fertility to any part of the
U. States.  Wheat is the  most important
article of produce.  Indian corn, rye,
buckwheat, barley, oats, flax, hemp, beans,
peas and  potatoes  are  extensively culti-
vated.  Apples, cherries, pears,  peaches
and  plums  are  abundant.   The trees
natural to  the  soil  are  hemlock, pine,
hickory, walnut, wild cherry, locust, ma-
ple,  chestnut, mulberry, oak, gum sassa-
fras,  elm  and  poplar.   The magnolia
glauca grows in  low grounds,  and  the
acuminata attains to  a great height among
the western mountains.  Grapes are com-
mon, and some of them, mellowed by frost,
with the addition of sugar, make a pleas-
ant wine.  The wild plum and crab apple 
PENNSYLVANIA—PENSACOLA.                   11
grow in abundance.  Foreign grapes have
in some counties been cultivated to advan-
tage, and wine and brandy, of good quali-
ty,  have been  made.   This  article  of
manufacture has hitherto been a matter
of experiment  only.  The sugar-maple,
in the western and northern parts of the
state, is  abundant, and  the inhabitants
generally  make  therefrom  a  sufficient
quantity of sugar for home consumption.
Iron ore is distributed, in  large quantities,
in many parts of the state, and the manu-
facture of iron from the ore, through the
furnace, the forge, the foundery, the rolling
and slitting mill, the nail cutting machine,
up to the finest cutlery, is carried on to a
greater extent than in  any other state in
the Union.  Copper, lead and alum ap-
pear in some  parts of the state.   Lime-
stone and marble, of  the  finest quality
for   the  purposes of  architecture  and
statuary, abound  in various  parts  of the
state.  In the middle counties, anthracite,
and in the  western, bituminous  coal, is
found in great  abundance.   This state is
famous for its breed of draught horses, and
nature has abundantly supplied the forests
with game.  Deer, turkeys, pheasants and
partridges are  numerous.   Wild ducks
are found on almost eveiy stream.   Wild
geese, swans and  pigeons are migratory,
and frequently found  in   large  flocks.
Singing birds of various notes and plu-
mage are common.  In the eastern rivers
are found rock-perch, bass, shad and her-
ring, which come from  the sea  in large
shoals.   In  the western waters there is a
species of catfish, weighing from  50  to
100 pounds; likewise  pike, of an enor-
mous weight and size, are  found.  Stur-
geon is common to both sections of the
state.  In the smaller streams, trout, pike,
chub, sun-perch, mullet, catfish and white
salmon are found in their several seasons.
Bears, panthers, wild cats, foxes, wolves,
beavers, otters and raccoons are  more or
less common, in proportion to the progress
of settlement and cultivation.  Rabbits and
squirrels are sull  abundant.  In  the low
grounds are found minks, muskrats, and
opossums.   Of the numerous tribe of
snakes, the bite of the  rattlesnake and
copperhead alone is deadly.  The Penn-
sylvania farmer  lives as comfortably as
any one of his station  in any part  of the
world.   Commodious farm  houses of
stone or brick, extensive barns and farm
buildings, show the agricultural prosperity
of the state.   Log and frame houses are
 common in the new settled country.   In
 the towns and villages is a considerable
 proportion  of brick  and  stone  houses.
Pennsylvania exceeds all the other states
in the variety and extent of her manufac-
tures, some of which are pf superior ex-
cellence.  Those of iron have been men-
tioned.  The various  fabrics from  wool
and cotton give ample employment to the
capitalist and the  artisan.  All the neces-
saries of life, and many of its luxuries, are
to be found  in this state, the produce of
its soil and the labor of its citizens.  (For
the exports of this state, see articles Phila-
delphia, and  Pittsburg.)
  Pennsylvania  University. (See Phil-
adelphia.)
  Penn Township; a small township in
Philadelphia county, Pennsylvania.  This
place was selected by the late Mr. Girard,
for the establishment of a school for or-
phans.  The site is about two miles from
the old court-house in Philadelphia.
  Penny.  (See Sterling Money.)
  Penny Post.   (See Posts.)
  Pennyroyal ; a species of mint (mentha
pulegium),  formerly  in considerable  re-
pute as a medicine, but now almost totally
neglected. In this country, the same name
is applied to the hedeoma pidegioides, a
small plant,  allied to, and  not very differ-
ent  in  its  sensible properties from the
former,  nor, indeed,  from the other spe-
cies  of mint.  (See Mint.)
  Penobscot; the largest river of Maine.
The western and principal  branch rises
in the western part of the state, and unites
with the eastern  branch 54  miles north-
east  of Bangor.  After the junction, it runs
south by west,  till it flows into  the head
of Penobscot bay, between the towns of
Penobscot  and Prospect.   It is navigable
for ships to  Bangor, where the tide termi-
nates, 52 miles north  of Owl's  Hea(', at
the  entrance  of  the bay.   Many towns
on the banks of the Penobscot are beauti-
ful and  flourishing.
  Penobscot Bay, at the mouth of Pe-
nobscot river, on  the  coast of Maine, is a
large and beautiful bay, and  affords great
advantages  for navigation.   It   contains
several   islands.  Its  entrance,  between
the  Isle  of Holt and Owl's Head, is eigh-
teen miles wide, and its length from north
to south is  about thirty miles.   Lon.  68°
40' to 68° 56' W.; lat.  44° to 44° 30' N.
   Pensacola, the capital of West Flori-
da, is situated on a bay of the same name
in  lat.  30° 28' N, and lon. 87° 12' W.
The shore is low and sandy, but the town
 is built  on  a gentle ascent.  It  is in the
 form of a parallelogram, and the length i&
 nearly  a mile.  Only small vessels  car.
 approach the town, but the bay is one of
 the  most safe and capacious in  the gulf 
12
PENSACOLA—PEON Y.
of Mexico.   It  has  been selected  as  a
naval  station  and depot.  A stream of
fresh water runs through the town.  It is
regarded as comparatively a healthy place.
The present population may be a little
more than 2000.
  Pensioner; a person who receives  a
pension from  government.—Grand Pen-
sionary was the prime minister of the states
of the province  of  Holland,  who was
called  by them  advocate-general of the
province.  He had no deciding voice in
the assembly of the states, but only pro-
posed  the   measures  to  be discussed.
He collected the votes, drew  up the re-
ports, opened all memorials addressed to
the states, transacted  business with the
foreign ministers, superintended the reve-
nue  and  the maintenance of rights and
privileges, and took care,  in general, of
the  welfare of the province.   He  took
part  in the  doings of the college of the
counsellors, who exercised the sovereign
power  in the absence of the  estates, and
was  permanent  deputy to the  general
estates  of the United Netherlands.   The
influence of this first  magistrate was veiy
great in  Holland,  and, therefore,,  in all
the Netherlands.  His term of office was
five  years,  after the  lapse of which he
was  generally  rechosen.  The  French
revolution and its  consequences put an
end to  this office; but Napoleon, in 1805,
made a state-pensionary director of the
republic.  (See Schimmelpennink.)
  Pentaolot.  (See Pentapla.)
  Pentameter ;  a verse consisting of
five feet.  These feet are two spondees or
dactyles,  two dactyles and one  spondee,
which  latter is so  severed, that  its first
syllable follows the two first feet, and its
last  syllable concludes the verse.   The
final syllable may also  be short.   The
scheme of the pentameter is, therefore, as
follows:



The ancient grammarians, who in this way
make of the pentameter a verse of five feet,
can give no other reason for so doing, than
that there does not exist, as they say, any
foot of one syllable.  To the ear, howev-
er, and in its essential character, the pen-
tameter is,  as well as the hexameter, a
verse of six parts, having in the third di-
vision  a  long syllable, and in the  last a
long or  a  short syllable,  on which we
dwell  as long as on two  long  sylla-
bles, so that the pentameter requires as
much time in pronouncing as the hexam-
eter.  The  pentameter receives a gentle
and  lovely  character  from  this iloublt
pause, by "which it is distinguished  essen-
tially from the majestic hexameter, (q. v.)
Ovid therefore says, that Cupid created it
for his sport, by robbing the  hexameter
of two syllables.  If used alone, the pen-
tameter would  become monotonous  and
tiresome ; it is, therefore, never employed
except alternately with  the hexameter,
which always  precedes it.  The  metre
thus composed of hexameters  and pen-
tameters was called by the ancients the
elegiac, and each two verses  a distich.
(See Distich, and Elegy.) The character of
the pentameter, however, is not exclusively
gentle.  It  may be very poignant if used
in an epigram, the point of which is made
to coincide  with the abrupt termination
of the pentameter.  A distich of Schiller
compares the hexameter to  the  rising of
the water of a fountain, and  the pentame-
ter to the falling back of the  same.
  Pentapla, Pentaglot ; a Bible in five
languages.
  Pentateuch.  (See Hebrew Language,
and Moses.)
  Pentecost (from ittvrriKoaTv, the fiftieth);
a Jewish festival, celebrated  fifty  days
after the  passover, in  commemoration of
the promulgation of the law on mount
Sinai.   It was also called  the  Feast  of
Weeks, because  it occurred at the end of
a week of weeks, or seven weeks.  It is
also a festival of the Christian church, oc-
curring fifty days after Easter (q. v.), in
commemoration of  the  descent of the
Holy Ghost on the disciples.  It is called
Whitsuntide by the English,  according to
some, from  White Sunday Tide (time), be-
cause those who were newly baptized ap-
peared at church in a white dress between
Easter and Pentecost.
  Pentelic Marble.   (See Marble.)
  Penthesilea.  (See Amazons.)
  Pentheus ;  nephew  of Cadmus, and
his successor as king of Thebes.  He op-
posed the introduction of the worship of
Bacchus, and for this offence was torn to
pieces by the Bacchantes, among whom
were his own mother and sisters, acting,
probably, under the direct influence of the
god,  like the rioters in the late outrages at
Bristol, after they had broken  open  the
wine-cellars of the town-house.
  Penumbra.   (See Eclipse.)
  Peon, in the language of Hindoostan; a
foot-soldier, armed with sword and target.
In common use, the word denotes a foot-
man so armed,  employed to run before
the palanquin.   Piada is   the  original
word, of which peon is a corruption.
  Peony.  (See Paony.) 
PEPE—PEPYS.
13
  Pepe.  (See Naples and Sicily, Revo-
lution of.)
  Peplum.   (See Panathenaum.)
  Pepper (piper); an  extensive  genus
of plants, constituting a  distinct natural
family—the piperacea.  The species are
mostly  succulent,  perennial, herbaceous
or shrubby, often climbing, dichotomous,
and jointed.  The leaves are very simple,
and  sometimes  peltate,  smooth, veined,
pubescent, or rough.  The  flowers are
disposed  in  nearly filiform  aments, are
destitute of either calyx or corolla, and
are separated by very small scales; these
aments  or spikes are opposite to the leaves,
or terminal.   The fruit consists of a berry
containing a single  seed.  The species
of pepper are  almost  strictly  confined
within  the   limits  of th-e  tropics, and
abound  particularly in the equatorial re-
gions of America.   A  single species has
been discovered in East  Florida,  inhab-
iting as far north  as  lat. 39°.  They are
inconspicuous, often insignificant  plants,
in their  appearance, and present little va-
riety in  the  shape of their  leaves.  The
P. nigrum,  which furnishes the  black
pepper  of commerce, is a native  of the
East Indies, and is besides  cultivated on
an extensive scale in that part of the
globe.   It is a climbing plant, and is sup-
ported on a pole or small  tree planted for
this purpose, which gives to the pepper
grounds an appearance somewhat similar
to the  hop  fields in  northern  climates.
The stems are smooth and spongy, pro-
vided with broad, ovate, acuminate, seven-
nerved leaves, and bearing little globular
berries,  which, when ripe, are of a bright
red color.  The pepper of Malacca, Java,
and especially of Sumatra, is  the most
esteemed.  Formerly,  the export of this
article to  Europe  was exclusively in the
hands  of the Portuguese, but it is now
open to  all nations.  Its culture  has been
introduced into the Isle of France, and
thence  into  Cayenne  and other parts of
tropical  America, where  it has  succeed-
ed perfectly.  Black pepper has always
formed  an extensive branch of commerce;
the ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  were
acquainted with it, and, at the present day,
no spice is so generally used;  the con-
sumption is prodigious in  all parts of the
globe, but the southern Asiatics seem  to
employ  it the  most  frequently.  White
pepper is nothing more than the best and
soundest of the berries, gathered  when
fully ripe, and deprived of their external
skin, by steeping them in salt water for
about a week, at the  end of which time
the skins  burst; they  are then  dried  in
  vol.  x.         2
the sun, rubbed between the hands,  and
winnowed to separate  the hulls;  it  is
much less pungent than the entire berries.
The leaves of the P. betel, a native of the
same parts of the globe, serve to enclose
a few slices of the areca nut (thence com-
monly called betel nut), and a little shell
lime,  which  substances together form  a
masticatory as much in use among these
nations as  is  tobacco in Europe  and
America.   It stains the saliva of a brick-
red color, and corrodes by degrees the sub-
stance of the teeth, but the consumption
is,  notwithstanding, prodigious, and  it
forms  a very extensive branch of com-
merce.   The true cubebs is the  berry
of a third  species of pepper (P. cubcba),
also from  the same countries.  The  ber-
ries are globular, and about  as  large as
those of the black pepper; they are lonie,
stimulant  and carminative, and are  fre-
quently used medicinally by the Asiatics.
We must not confound this with tho tailed
pepper, also  called cubebs, which  is the
product of the  uvaria  zeylanica, an en-
tirely different plant, although it is used for
the same  purposes.  In the year ending
September 30,1830, there were imported
into the  U.  States 2,275,947 pounds ©f
block pepper, and  there  were exported
2,160,889.  (See Cayenne Pepper.)
  Pepperell, sir  William, a lieutenant-
general in the service of the British king
before the American revolution, was born
in the district of Maine (Massachusetts),
and, about the year 1727, was chosen one
of his majesty's council,  to which he  was
annually reelected until his death—a peri-
od  of thirty-two years.  He  possessed a
vigorous  frame, and much  energy  and
firmness   of  character, which rendered
him of great utility to a country exposed
to  a  ferocious  enemy.  He  was bred a
merchant, but the principal portion of his
time was spent in the  discharge of the
duties of a soldier.  He rose to the highest
military honors.   When  the expedition
against Louisburg was  contemplated, he
was commissioned  by the governors of
New  England to  command  the troops,
and, investing the city in the beginning of
May,  1745, soon  forced k to capitulate.
To reward his services, the king created
him a baronet of Great Britain.  He died
at his seat in  Kittery, Maine, July 6, 1759,
aged  sixty-three.   He was distinguished
for his social  qualities.
  Peppermint.  (See Mint.)
  Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the admi-
ralty in the reigns of Charles II and James
II,  was born at Brampton, in Hunting-
donshire, and educated at Cambridge.  lie 
u
PEPYS—PERCUSSION LOCKS.
 early acquired, the patronage of Montagu,
 afterwards eail  of  Sandwich, who em-
 ployed him as secretary in the expedition
 for  bringing Charl s  II  from  Holland.
 On his return, he was appointed one  of
 the  principal officers of the navy.   In
 1673, when  the  king  took the admiralty
 into his own hands, he  appointed Mr.
 Pepys secretary  to  that office.  He was
 employed under lord Dartmouth, in the
 expedition against Tangier, and  often ac-
 companied the duke of York in his naval
 visits to Scotland,  and coasting cruises.
 On the accession of William and Maiy,
 he published  his Memoirs relating to the
 navy for ten years  preceding, and led a
 retired life from this time till his  death,  in
 1703.  He was president of the  royal so-
 ciety for ten years.   He left a large collec-
 tion  of manuscripts to Magdalen college,
 Oxford,  consisting  of  naval  memoirs,
 prints, and five large folio volumes of an-
 cient English  poetry, begun  by  Sel-
 den, and  carried down  to  1700, from
 which the Reliques of Ancient English
 Poetry, by doctor Percy, are, for the most
 part, selected.  His Diary affords a curious
 picture of the dissolute court of Charles  II.
  Pera ;  a  suburb  of  Constantinople,
 connected with the suburb of Galata, and
 formerly the  quarter  of the  principal
 Greeks, Armenians, Jews and Franks, ex-
 cept the French who resided in Galata.
 There were  here four Greek churches,
 and one Roman Catholic,  and some mon-
asteries.  The Christian ambassadors also
resided here, and the  European  style  of
dress and living prevailed here;  it was
therefore called  by  the  Turks  Swine's
 Quarter*   It was almost entirely destroyed
by fire in August, 1831. The palaces of the
 Austrian and Swedish missions escaped.
  Perceval, Spencer, second son of John
 Perceval, earl of Egmont, born  1762, re-
ceived his. education  at  Harrow,  and
Trinity college, Cambridge, of which  he
became  a member about the year 1775.
 On quitting the university, he studied law.
 He soon distinguished himself as a sound
 constitutional lawyer, and obtained a silk
 gown.   In 1801,  he  became solicitor-gen-
eral, and, in  1802, attorney-general.  On
 the formation of the new ministry, in 1807,
 after the death of  Mr. Fox, he was ap-
 pointed chancellor of the  exchequer.   In
 this post he  continued till May  11, 1812,
 when, while in the act of approaching the
 door of the house of commons,  a person
 named Bellingham, who  nad for  some
 time previously presented a variety of me-
 morials respecting some alleged  ill  treat-
 ment received in Russia,  shot him dead,
with a pistol, in the lobby.  The assassin,
who avowed that he had  been waiting
with the view of destroying lord Leveson
Gower, the ambassador to the court of St.
Petersburg,  made no attempt to escape,
and was instantly arrested.  Although  a
plea of insanity was set up by his counsel,
he was found guilty, and  executed on the
18th of the same month.
  Percussion Locks ; a late and very use-
ful invention. The percussion lock has no
pan.  In the place of the pan, a small tube
projects horizontally from the side of the
gun. In this tube another small tube stands
perpendicularly. The cock, instead of be-
ing formed to hold a flint, is  shaped some-
what  like a hammer, with a hollow to fit
upon  the  tube  last mentioned. On  this
tube a little cap of copper is placed, in the
bottom of which is a  chemical mixture
that kindles by percussion.  This percus-
sion is produced by the cock, which there-
fore requires a very strong spring.  The
powder is made in various ways, and of
different materials; among others, of mer-
cury,  purified  nitric  acid,  and spirit of
wine freed from water.   The copper caps
in which this chemical powder is placed
are  two  and a half  lines long and two
lines wide. Sometimes the powder is also
formed in pills, and then a somewhat dif-
ferent contrivance is required to place the
pills, covered with a little wax, to protect
them  from  moisture, in  the  small tube.
The advantages of a percussion lock are
great:  1. Provided the spring of the cock
is strong, and the chemical powder good,
the  gun cannot miss fire (as to the  lat-
ter,  the sportsman must  choose a good
chemist); while common locks are exposed
to miss fire from many causes—bad flints,
bad steel, bad priming, and  weak springs.
2. The chemical powder explodes much
more  rapidly and forcibly than common
powder, and therefore explodes the pow-
der in the gun itself more forcibly, so as to
produce a prompter  and more effectual
discharge.  3. The moisture of the air has
hardly any  influence: in a violent  rain,
the  lock is  as sure to  give fire as in the
driest day.   4.  The danger of an uninten-
tional discharge is avoided :  as long as the
copper cap is not placed on the little tube,
the gun cannot go off, even  if the cock is
snapped  by mistake; while,  with  other
guns, there is always danger, even when
no priming has  been  put in the pan, be-
cause  some grains  may always  escape
through the  touchhole, and the cock  may
always be accidentally snapped. The caps
or pills which  the sportsman must  carry
with him are  not dangerous,  because it 
PERCUSSION LOCKS—PERFECTIBILITY.             15
requires  a very strong percussion to ex-
plode the powder.  (For its manufacture,
see Mercury, vol. viii, p. 421.)  Percussion
locks have come very  much into use, and
attempts have even been made to introduce
them into  armies,  though the expense of
the chemical powder may be an objection.
  Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, in
Ireland,  a  descendant  of the  family of
Northumberland, was  born  in  Bridge-
north in  1728, and  was  graduated  at
Christ-church, Oxford, in 1753.  In 1769,
he  was appointed  chaplain to the king,
and, in  1778,  raised to the deanery of
Carlisle,  which he resigned  four  years
after for the Irish bishopric of Dromore.
The most  popular of his works are his
Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (in  3
vols., 8vo.), and a poem, the Hermit of
Warbworth.  He was well skilled in the
Icelandic and several of the Oriental lan-
guages,   especially the  Chinese,  from
which he  made some translations.   His
other writings are a Key to the New Tes-
tament, a new version  of Solomon's Song,
with translations of Mallet's Northern An-
tiquities,  and of some pieces of Icelandic
poetry.   He also published a curious do-
mestic record,  long extant  in  the Percy
family, and known  as the Northumberland
Household-Book—a  document valuable
for the light it  throws  on manners.   His
death took  place at Dromore, Sept. 30,
1811.
   Perdiccas ;  the name of several kings
of  Macedonia,  and, at a later period, of
the most distinguished general of Alexan-
der, a noble Macedonian, who attended
him on his campaign to Asia, and enjoyed
his confidence  above all others. Alexan-
der, just before his death, gave him his
signet-ring,  the emblem of regal  power,
and, by this action, seemed to fix upon him
as his successor to  the throne.  Perdiccas
was ambitious enough to desire this eleva-
tion ; but the influence of his enemies and
rivals prevented him  from receiving  a
higher rank than that of guardian of the
heir to the throne.  He succeeded, how-
ever, in making himself second only to the
king. But he aspired still higher, and was
engaged in a war with his rival Ptolemy,
when his soldiers mutinied, partly owing
to his own arrogance.  He  was assas-
sinated by his soldiers in Egypt B. C. 321,
three years after he had been appointed
guardian to the successor of Alexander.
  Pere de Lachaise.  (See Lachaise.)
  Peregrinus  Proteus, a notorious char-
acter, who flourished in the first half of the
second century, was bom at Parium, in My-
sia. After many excesses, he was charged
with parricide, and was obliged to flee.
He went to Palestine, became a Christian,
and, by his zeal, which brought him to a
dungeon, gained the name of a martyr.
He received support and sympathy from
every quarter, till the prefect of Syria set
him  at liberty.   He now recommenced
his wanderings,  was excluded from the
church for his vices, and then gave him-
self up to  the most  disgraceful excesses.
An object of universal abhorrence, he de-
sired at least to finish his career in an ex-
traordinary  manner.   He  accordingly
gave  out  that he  should burn  himself
alive at the Olympic games.  This hexlid,
in presence of  an immense  multitude
A. D. 168.  Much interest has been given
to the history of this singular character bj
the romance of Wieland.
  Perennial,  in botany, is  applied to
those plants whose roots will abide many
years, whether they retain their leaves in
winter or not.  Those which retain their
leaves are called evergreens ; but such as
cast their leaves are called deciduous.
  Perfectibility; the capacity of being
made perfect.  It  is a  word  used in
philosophy, religious and  moral,  with
reference to individuals and to society, to
the present and the future  state.   Moral
duties include not Only the duties which
we owe to others, but also the  great duty
which we owe to ourselves, to  strive un-
interruptedly for the improvement of our
mental and moral  faculties.   This sup
poses that our own improvement is in our
own power, which  has been doubted by
certain philosophers, materialists and oth-
ers, who make our  whole moral condition
dependent upon causes beyond our con-
trol, thus denying, in fact, a moral condi-
tion.  The question whether we can ever
attain, on earth,  to  a state of perfection,
resolves itself into  this—whether we can
ever,  in  this world,  acquire  a  perfect
knowledge of our  duties, and a  perfect
will to perform them.  The consideration
of the hinderances to  such a will  and
knowledge belongs to the great question
of the origin of evil.  But, however im-
perfect may be all the attainments that we
can make in tins world, on which point
every one's own conscience will satisfy
him better than the most elaborate reason-
ing, no one should  be deprived  by such
considerations  from  striving for all  the
improvement within his power.  To stop,
or to go badkwards, is  to  be  wretched.
Secondly, as to the perfectibility of soci-
ety.   It  was loudly maintained by some
French  writers, at the beginning of the
revolution of the last century, that society 
16                   PERFECTIBILITY—PERICLES.
was making a progress which must ulti-
mately end in  a perfect state.   Whether
they meant that the individuals composing
society would become perfect, or referred
to some  unintelligible  perfection  in  the
social system, distinct from  the  individu-
als composing it, history and the experi-
ence of every reflecting man sufficiently
prove  the  notion to be visionary.  For
some centuries, the European races seem
to have  been  improving in several  re-
spects ; in others, however, they have es-
sentially  retrograded; and, however great
the improvement, on  the whole, may be,
few, we  believe, think that the state of
human society will ever become perfect;
but this is no more discouraging than  the
corresponding imperfection in the case of
the individual.  (See Civilization.) Thirdly,
as to perfectibility in a future state.   Of
course, we cannot mean by future  perfec-
tion the possibility of attaining unlimited
power, wisdom  and  goodness, because
this would destroy all difference between
ourselves and  God.  The  word perfecti-
bility, used in reference to man, can, of
course, mean nothing more than a capaci-
ty of unending improvement, and  reason
d #es not rebuke the hope of such a prog-
ress.  It has been asked whether the hap-
piness to  be expected from constant prog-
ress  in a future state would not be coun-
terbalanced by a despondency arising from
the consciousness of  imperfection, which
would only increase with the increase of
knowledge.  Such a question seems suf-
ficiently answered by the happiness which
virtuous  effort, and  a consciousness of
improvement, gives on earth.  The beau-
tiful illustration  of Leibnitz,  when  he
compared the  relation between blessed
spirits and the  Deity  to that existing  be-
tween  the asymptote  (q. v.) and the  hy-
j>erbola,the former of which is mathemat-
ically proved to approach the latter ad in-
finitum, without ever reaching  it, is  well
known; but, though a beautiful compar-
ison, it throws no light upon the question.
" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither
have  entered into the  heart of man, the
things which God hath prepared for them
that love  him."
   Pergolesi.   (See the last page  in  the
Appendix, end of this volume.)
   Peri.  The Peris, in Persian mythology,
are the descendants  of fallen spirits, ex-
cluded from paradise until their penance
is accomplished.
   Pericardium, in anatomy,'is a mem-
branous bag filled with water, which con-
tains the heart in  man and many other
animals.
  Pericarpium, among botanists; a coy
ering or case for the seeds of plants.
  Pericles, one of the  most celebrated
statesmen of Greece, whose  age (about
B. C. 444) was the most flourishing period
of Grecian  art  and science, was born at
Athens.  His father was Xanthippus, a
general celebrated for his victory over the
Persians at Mycale.  Damon, Anaxagoras,
and  Zeno of Elea, were his instructed
Connected  by family relations with the
aristocracy, he at first avoided taking part
in the concerns of state, both  on account
of the jealousy with which the multitude
viewed this party, and because Cimon was
already at its head.  He therefore aimed,
at first, only to gain the favor of the  pop-
ular  party.   Cimon was  munificent and
affable; Pericles,on the contrary,shunned
festivals and all public amusements.  He
was never seen abroad,  but in the Pryta-
neum and the popular assembly, and his
manners were  characterized by gravity
and dignity.  As he was not a member of
the  Areopagus,  he used all  his  influence
to diminish the consideration of that body,
and instigated Ins friend Ephialtes to make
that tribunal an object of jealousy in the
eyes of the people, and  to procure  the
passage of a decree transferring the in-
vestigation and decision of most cases to
other courts. His eloquence was so ele-
vated and powerful, that it was said of
him that he thundered and lightened in
his speeches, and his countrymen called
him the Olympian.  He carefully avoided
all that could displease the people, and
even submitted  to indignities  with  the
greatest patience.  It is said that a com-
mon citizen followed him to  his house
one evening from a popular assembly, re-
viling him  at every step.  He ordered  a
servant to  light the man home with  a
torch.  When the popular party procured
the accusation of Cimon, Pericles was one
of the judges.  He conducted, however,
with great  moderation, and spoke of his
distinguished fellow-citizen with due re-
spect.  The banishment  of his rival re-
moved all obstructions to  the execution of
his ambitious designs.  As Cimon had fed
and clothed the people, Pericles also pro-
vided for the wants of the needy from the
public treasury.  In the war which broke
out between the Athenians and Laceda>
monians, B. C. 458,  Pericles  exposed
himself to the greatest dangers in the un-
successful engagement at Tanagra, and
soon after invaded the Peloponnesus with
a fleet and a small army.  To please the
people, who desired the return of Cimon,
he caused  a decree to be passed for bis 
PERICLES.
17
recall.   By means of his sister, however,
Pericles had made a private  agreement
with Cimon, by which the command of
the army was left to  the latter, and the
 overnment of the state was to be in the
 ands of Pericles.  On the death of Ci-
mon, he became, as it were,  prince of
Athens; for, although  the aristocracy set
up against  him Thucydides, the son of
Melesias, a  relation of Cimon, he was too
unequal to maintain the opposition.   " If
I should throw him to  the ground," said
he once of Pericles, " he would say that
he had never been prostrated, and would
persuade the spectators to believe him."
From this time, Pericles ruled the state,
but without assuming the title of prince,
and  endeavored to occupy the  people
with the establishment of new colonies or
warlike  enterprises.   By his great public
works, he flattered the vanity of the Athe-
nians, while  he lieautified the city,  and
employed many laborers and artists.  To
pay the expenses of these undertakings,
he caused the public treasury of Greece
to  be transported from Delos  to Athens,
and justified this act of perfidy by saying
that the  money had been raised to defend
the nation  from  the invasion of barba-
rians ; and, as this end had  been attained
by the  exertions  of the  Athenians, the
allies had no further right to inquire  into
the expenditure of the funds.  His per-
sonal integrity in pecuniary matters  was
above suspicion.  Of this we have a  re-
markable example:  During  an expedi-
tion  against Euboea, the Lacedaemonians
invaded Attica, as the allies of  the Mega-
rians. Pericles averted an attack by bribing
the tutor of the Spartan king.  When he
submitted his accounts for examiiiation,
ten talents  were  charged for  secret  ser-
vices, and  the  Athenians were  satisfied
without any further account.   Pericles
finally made himself master of the impor-
tant island-of Euboea, B.C. 447, and, soon
after, concluded a truce of thirty years
with the Spartans.  To set bounds to the
popular power, which  he had hitherto
labored  to increase, he now procured the
revival of an old law, declaring no person
a citizen of Athens whose  father  and
mother were not both Athenian citizens,
and caused 5000 individuals, who had be-
fore been free, to be sold as slaves.  This
act is a proof of the  great influence of
Pericles, and, doubtless, obtained -die ap-
probation of a  majority  of the  citizens,
whose importance  was  increased by a
diminution   of their  numbers.   Pericles
took advantage  of the  armistice  with
Sparta to make war upon the Samians
(B. C. 440), who opposed the pretensions
of Athens.  He  was partly persuaded to
undertake this war by Aspasia.  (q. v.)
The expedition, in which  she attended
Pericles, ended in the subjugation of the
island a*»d the restoration of the demo-
cratic government.   The Samians  soon
rose and expelled the Athenian garrison;
but Pericles again reduced them to sub-
jection.  On bis return to Athens, he de-
livered the celebrated  funeral oration in
memory of those who had perished in the
expedition, which had such an effect upon
his audience, that  the  women crowded
about him, and wreathed his temples with
flowers. Thucydides was banished in the
struggles of parties, and the importance
of Pericles was  greatly increased, till the
jealousy of the Athenians awoke, when
they found those hopes  abortive which
had been excited by the events that pre-
ceded the Peloponnesian war.  Some of
the friends of Pericles became the objects
of  public  prosecutions—Anaxagoras, his
venerable  instructer, on a charge of irre-
ligion; Aspasia on account of her connex-
ion with Pericles. He undertook to plead
her cause himself, and was so affected that
he forgot his dignity, and burst into tears.
He procured her acquittal;  but he with-
drew Anaxagoras from  the attacks of his
enemies, by conducting him from Attica
under his own protection.  When the Spar-
tans, who had  assumed the  protection of
the smaller states of Greece, sent to  Ath-
ens, demanding  a  compensation for the
injuries  which had been  done to these
states, and threatening war in case of re-
fusal, Pericles persuaded the Athenians to
reject the proposal, and thus  became the
author of the fatal Peloponnesian  war.
(See Peloponnesus.)  Some maintain that
his object was to keep his countrymen
employed  abroad, in  order to avert  their
attention from his government, particularly
as his enemies were daily increasing, and
that Aspasia entertained a violent hatred
against  Sparta.  The  probability is, that
Pericles, misled  by his views of the dig-
nity and importance of the Athenian re-
public, would consent to  no concessions,
particularly as such a  measure would be
fatal to his own  greatness.  At the com-
mencement of the  war (B. C. 431),  Peri-
cles recommended  to  the  Athenians to
turn all their  attention to the defence of
the city and to  naval  armaments, rathei
than to the protection of their territories.
Accordingly, as he was made commander-
in-chief, notwithstanding the murmurs of
the Athenians, he allowed  the  superior
forces of the Spartans  and their allies to 
18                        PERICLES—PERIER.
advance to Acharnae, in Attica, without
resistance, and, at the same time,  sent a
fleet to the shores of Peloponnesus, to
Locris and iEgina, which  took twofold
vengeance for the ravages in Attica. After
the Peloponnesians had retired, he  invad-
ed the territory  of Megaris, which had
been the cause of the war.  At the end
of this campaign, he delivered a  eulogy
over those who had fallen in their coun-
try's service.   The next year, a  plague
broke out at  Athens, which made such
dreadful havoc, that Pericles was  obliged
to summon all his fortitude to sustain his
countrymen and  himself.  To  occupy
their attention, he  fitted out a large fleet,
and sailed to Epidaurus; but the mortality
among his troops prevented him from effect-
ing any thing important. He returned with
a small force; but the Athenians no longer
put confidence in him.  He was deprived
of the command,  and  obliged to pay a
heavy fine, though no  particular crime
was charged  against  him.   The fickle
people, however, soon recalled him to the
head  of the state, and  gave  him more
power than he had before enjoyed. But,
amid  his numerous civil cares, he  was
afflicted by domestic calamities.  His eld-
est son, Xanthippus, who had lived at va-
riance with him, died of the plague. The
same disease carried off his sister,and many
of his nearest relatives and friends, and,
among the rest, Paralus, his only remain-
ing son by his first marriage.  This afflic-
tion moved him to tears. To console him
for this loss, the Athenians repealed the
law which he had himself previously in-
U*oduced,  in  regard to children  whose
parents were  not both citizens, and thus
placed his son by Aspasia among the citi-
zens.   But his  strength was  gone: he
sunk  into a lingering sickness, and died
B. C.  429, in the third  year of the Pelo-
ponnesian war.  When he lay upon his
death-bed,  his friends, in their lamenta-
tions,  spoke of  his great achievements;
but he suddenly started up and exclaimed,
"In these  things  I have many  equals;
but this is my  glory, that I have never
c\ «sed an  Athenian to  wear mourning."
By the death of Pericles, Athens lost her
most distinguished citizen, to whom, al-
th uigh deficient in severe virtue, is not to
be  denied greatness of soul.  His educa-
tion enlightened his mind, anu raised him
nbove the prejudices of his age.  His am-
otion was to give his country supremacy
tjver all the states of Greece, and, while he
■died it, Athens maintained this rank both
h an intellectual and political view.  To
I tiiclet  the  city  was  indebted  for its
finest  ornaments—the  Parthenon,  the
Odeon, the Propylamm, the Long Walls
numerous statues, and other works of art.
The golden age of Grecian art, the age of
Phidias (q. v.), ceased with Pericles.  His
name  is  therefore connected  with  the
highest glory of art, science and power in
Athens; and if he is  accused of having
conducted the city to the edge of  that
precipice  from which she could not es-
cape, yet  he must receive the praise of
having contributed greatly to  make her
the intellectual queen of all the states of
antiquity.
  Perier, Casimir, formerly  a banker,
and member of the French chamber of
deputies,  in  which he  was one  of the
most  distinguished  liberal orators,  was
born at Grenoble, in 1777, and, after finish-
ing his education at the college  of the
oratory in Lyons, entered the  military
service at an early age.   He served with
honor in the campaigns of Italy (1799 and
1800), but on the death of his father, a re-
spectable merchant, he abandoned the  pro-
fession of arms  for mercantile business.
In 1802, he established a banking house i*
company with his brother, in the manage-
ment of which he acquired an intimate
acquaintance with the most  difficult and
important questions of public  credit and
finance.  Cotton manufactories, machine
manufactories, and several other manufac-
turing establishments, were carried  on by
the brothers, and Casimir introduced im-
provements  into the  processes.  In 1815
Casimir  Perier   published  a  pamphlet
against the system of foreign loans, char-
acterized by clearness and soundness of
views, and in 1817 he was elected to rep-
resent the department of  the Seine in
the  chamber of deputies.  Here he was
no less distinguished as the firm and elo-
quent advocate  of constitutional princi-
ples, than as an enlightened and sagacious
financier.  In  the revolution of 1830, he
took  a decided  part in favor  of the na-
tional liberties; was one of the deputation
appointed to wait on marshal Marmont
during the three days;  a member of the
municipal commission of the  provisional
government, July 28; but did not  sign
their declaration of the dethronement of
Charles X.  When Charles made his last
effort  to  retain  the throne,  he ordered
the duke of Mortemart  to form a minis-
try, who made  M. Perier minister of
finance, and general Gerard that of  war.
August 5th, Perier was  chosen president
of the chambers, and on the  12th form-
ed  one of the first  cabinet of the  new
kiug, without holding the port-folio of any 
PERIER—PERIOD.                            19
department. In March, 1831, he succeeded
Laffitte as president of the council, with
the department  of the  interior;  Louis
(q. v.) being minister of finance, S6bastiani
of foreign affairs, and De Rigny  of the
marine.  (See France, in the Appendix, at
the end  of the  work.)   The  chief en-
deavor of M. Perier's ministry,  so far,
appears  to be to keep  France at peace
with Europe, and thereby to make com-
merce and manufactures flourish, to estab-
lish civil liberty and  repress the military
spirit; and, secondly,  to  render the gov-
ernment  more firm.   The opposition re-
proach him with ignominiously courting
the favor of the absolute monarchs, with
having deprived France of the honorable
and  elevated position due to her in the
European system, with  being  unwilling
to follow up, frankly, the principles of
the "July revolution,"  and with  having
sacrificed Italy to Austria, and Poland to
Russia.
  Perigee, or  Perigeum.   (See Apo-
gee.)
  Perihelion, or Periiielium ; that point
in the orbit of a  planet, or comet, which
is nearest to the sun ;  being the extremity
of  its transverse axis,  nearest  to that
focus  in which  the  sun is  placed, and
thus opposed to the aphelion, which is the
opposite  extremity of the same axis.  The
ancient astronomers used, instead  of this,
the term perigceum,  as  they placed  the
earth  in  the centre.   The perihelion dis-
tances of the several planets, the mean
distance  of the earth  from the sun being
taken  as unity, are as follows:
Mercury, .1815831
Venus,   .7164793
         .9831468
        1.4305595
        2.2797800
        2.4122190
Earth,
Mars,
Vesta,
Juno,
Ceres,   2.6890660
Pallas,  2.5222080
Jupiter, 5.1546127
Saturn, 9.4826022
Uranus,19,1366347
    (See Aphelion.)
  Perillus.   (See Phalaris.)
  Perimeter, in geometry; the  bounds
or limits  of  any  figure or body  The
perimeters of surfaces or figures are lines ;
those of bodies are surfaces.  In circular
figures, instead of perimeter, we say cir-
cumference, or periphery.
  Period (from the Greek itspio&os, a cir-
cuit) ;  a  division of time, or of events
occurring in  it   The  astronomer calls
the time of a revolution  of a heavenly
body, or the time occupied in its return to
the  same point of its  orbit,  its period.
(See Planets, and Kepler.)—In chronology,
period  denotes a division of time, during
which certain phenomena complete their.
courses,  which are repeated  in  never-
ending succession.  Chronology depends
entirely upon astronomy;  and before the
latter had made known the true motions
of the heavenly  bodies, the former re-
mained in a confused state.  The princi-
pal periods of the Greeks  were—Meton's
lunar period of 19 years, or 6940 days,
according to which the Greeks computed
their astronomical calendar from 432 B. C.;
the period of Calippus (330 B. C), or that
of Alexander, which comprised 4 times 19,
or 76 years minus 1 day; and the  still
more accurate  period of Hipparchus, of
304 years, which made the tropical  solar
year only 6 minutes  and 16 seconds too
long.  The Roman indiction (q. v.) was a
period of 15 years, the origin of which is
not very clear.  The Julian period, in-
vented by Scaliger, consisting of  7980
Julian years, was intended  to reduce to
the same result the different computations
of the year of the birth of  Christ from the
creation.  It is the product of the num-
bers 28, 19 and 15; or the  solar, lunar and
indiction  cycle.  (See  Cycle.)  After 28
times 19, or 532 years, the new and full
moons return in the same  order, upon the
same day of the  week and month, in the
Julian calendar,  and the  three chrono-
logical cycles (the solar cycle of 28 years,
the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the indic-
tion  cycle of 15 years) recommence at the
same time.  This period is also called the
  freat Paschal  cycle, and the Victorian or
  lionysian period. The year of the birth
of Christ, in the Julian period, is 4714.  It
is now little used, as we reckon by years
before and after  Christ.—In  history,   a
period is a certain division of time, deter-
mined by events, giving to it the character
of a  whole.  A judicious  division of his-
tory into periods  is veiy necessary  for  a
clear view of the whole,  and,  in fact, is
the  necessary result  of an   intelligent
method of studying history.  The ancients
wrote general  history ethnographically
(q. v.), and chronologically, or in the way
of annals. Bossuet, in his  Discours sur
VHistoire universelle, and Offerhaus, in his
Compendium Histories universalis, divided
history by centuries, and by subdivisions
of the latter;  but modern historians  have
preferred to divide universal history by pe-
riods. Voltaire, in his Essai sur I'Histoire
gtnerale, Millot, Condillac, Gatterer, Schlo-
zer,and,ingeneral,all the principal modern
historians, have followed this plan.   The
progress of civilization and of civil liberty
is more important than the order of dy-
nasties, or the fluctuations of power; and
the periods of history ought to be founded
upon the various stages or manifestations 
20
PERIOD.
of these.  A judicious division into pe-
riods can be effected only by a clear and
philosophical  view  of history.   Philo-
sophical views are the great object of the
study; but incautious philosophizing often
leads  the  reader to  deductions   drawn
from his  own imagination rather than
from a rigid scrutiny of facts.  The di-
vision of history into periods, founded on
general views, requires,  therefore, great
care.  The philosophico-historical school
of Germany,  at  the  head of which,  at
present, we may put professor Hegel, has
fallen into glaring errors  in this  respect.
This same censure, however, by no means
belongs to all the  philosophical  historians
of that country, but should be confined  to
the school which is particularly  termed
philosophical.  The division into  periods
must vary, both  according to the chief
aim  of the historian and according to the
amount of historical knowledge  existing
in his time.  Thus a historian  who pro-
poses to write  a  history  of religions,  or
who thinks that religious revolutions have
always been the most important, and are
the best standards by which to measure
the other changes  in human society, will
establish his division into  periods  accord-
ingly.   Another  will take, as his basis,
the  political changes of  nations.  The
most  perfect  division  would  be  that
which should adopt,  as the basis  of each
period, that feature which was the most
strongly characteristic of it, which is not
always easy, as one  principle often con-
tinues strongly operative, while  another
has risen to an important influence, threat-
ening to supersede it  In such a  division
of universal history, civilization, religion,
government, learning, important  inven-
tionsr  &c,  would all become, in turn,
the  bases of the  various periods. (See
Epochs, and History.)
  A period, or sentence,  in  writing, is a
series of logically connected passages; a
passage developed in properly connected
parts.  Aristotle's definition, which makes
it a discourse  having its beginning and
end  in itself, is indistinct.  Every passage
would then be a period; and, on the other
hand, a  whole speech,  a whole work,
would be a period.   Periods should not
be too long, but it is impossible to fix the
limits distinctly.   Cicero's rule, that a pe-
riod  ought not to be  louger  than four
hexameters, is as insufficient as the other,
that it should be sufficiently short to  be
spoken at one breath, without exhaustion
of the lungs.  If it is properly constructed,
the  voice finds  resting-places  enough;
and, if its parts are logically connected, it
is not difficult  to follow their connexion
and to form a distinct conception  of the
whole.  In some languages, the rules for
the  construction  of periods  are stricter
than in others:  some  allow great liberty.
To the former  belongs the English lan-
guage ; to the latter, the Greek, Latin and
German.   The genius of the German
language, in  particular, allows of very
long and involved periods, in  which per-
spicuity frequently suffers seriously; and
it often  happens that the whole meaning
of a long sentence in that language de-
pends upon the last word,  so  that we are
kept in suspense as to the ideas conveyed,
until the decisive ".vord  appears.   The
following rules  should be observed in the
construction of a period:  1. The  chief
idea must be made prominent, whilst  the
secondary  ideas are  presented with  a
force proportioned  to their  importance j
2.  there should be  a certain proportion
between the length of the different mem-
bers ;  3.  the  subordinate parts should
each serve for the more distinct explana-
tion of the preceding, and should not be
too much accumulated ; 4. the ideas to be
conveyed should be presented in a certain
gradation, from the  less  distinct  to  the
more  distinct,  from  the  weaker  to  the
stronger, the  less important to the more
important,  except the contrary effect is
expressly intended.    Important as  the
logical and grammatical arrangement of a
period is, the musical and rythmical is by
no  means to  be neglected.   Much  de-
pends here upon tact, but study can much
improve this.  There is a harmony in lan-
guage which, if it cannot convince, yet can
strongly affect, can cany the reader along,
or impress a  sentiment indelibly.  Yet
undue refinement, an overlabored  choice
of phrase, is  to be  studiously avoided.
The rhythm of a period (the numerus) cor-
responds to the metre  in poetry,  and is
important for all languages,  particularly
for  those which, like the Greek or Ger-
man,  have a real  prosody.   Only a few
general rules can be given for rhythm:  the
ear of the  writer or speaker must be his
principal guide.  The beginning of a pe-
riod should be fitted to gain the attention
of the hearer.  Hence it is well to choose
such words as fill the ear; e. g. in lan-
guages  which  have  a prosody, the first
pawn {— «w/v^vA the ionicus  a  majore
(-----v^ w), the third epitrites (-----w —)>
and some others.  The conclusion  oogbt
to satisfy the ear by its firm and full sound..
The following feet are therefore desirable:
the fourth paxm (w^^ —), the amphibra-
chys (s^ — v>), the antibacchius (-----^\ 
PERIOD—PERIODICALS.                        21
the dactylus iambus (— www —), the  di-
trochteus (— w — w), which it is best to
have  in one word, and the dactylus tro-
ch/Bus (— ww — w), which, however, on
account of its hexametrical form, is to be
used  with great caution.   The period
should have a proper proportion of pauses,
so  as to  be  equally removed from total
irregularity, and from a constantly-return-
ing symmetry which approaches to metri-
cal rhythm.  The  construction of sen-
tences  attained a  perfection  with the
Greeks, which  has  not been reached by
any other nation, for two reasons,—their
deep  and  universal feeling of the beauti-
ful, and the richness of their charming
idiom in participles and well-sounding
terminations.  The Romans  imitated the
Greeks, but the example of Cicero is not
to be  closely followed, as he amplifies his
phrases too much.
   In  physiology, periods designate  the
various stages in the developement and
decay of  the animal organization, which
are distinguished by a marked character;
as the period of childhood, of puberty, &c.
Periods. also denote, in  medicine,  those
repetitions of phenomena which we  ob-
serve in certain diseases, e. g. in intermit-
tent fevers, the increase of the disorder in
the evening, &c.  Periodical diseases are
such  as, at certain times, make regular at-
tacks, or are attended with regular aggra-
vations.  This property is very common,
and there is hardly a disease in which  it
has not been observed in the case of some
individual.   On the contrary, there is no
disease which always pursues  its course
periodically.
   Periodicals, in  the proper sense of
the word, are all publications which  ap-
pear  at regular intervals; and in the wide
sense which the word has now received,
it may even be considered as embracing
those publications which, as is  not unfre-
quently the case in Germany, appear from
time  to time, yet neither at  regular inter-
vals nor in numbers of a fixed amount of
pages (Zwanglose Hefte).  The periodical
 press,  comprising  newspapers,  reviews,
 magazines, annual  registers, &c, devoted
 to religion, politics, the  sciences, arts,
 amusements, husbandry,  &c, is one of
 die most  interesting and most momentous
 consequences of the invention of the art
 of printing. At first, slips of paper con-
 taining a few particulars, intended princi-
 pally For  the gratification of curiosity, peri-
 odicals have now become one of the most
 important parts of the machinery of so-
 ciety, particularly in England, France and
 the U. States.  Without an acquaintance
with this department  of literature,  the
present state of knowledge  and civiliza-
tion  cannot be understood, and the histo-
rian  will find it essential to a comprehen-
sion  of the great movements of our time,
Chateaubriand threw Villele  from his sad-
dle, by articles in the Journal desDibats; and
when we see editors of newspapers draw-
ing  up a  protest so  noble and histor-
ical as that of the Paris editors  on July
26, 1830,  and  immediately  afterwards
shedding their blood for the rights there-
in maintained; and  find statesmen like
Brougham, Mackintosh, Peel, contributing
articles to English reviews,—we cannot be
surprised at the importance of the peri-
odical press.  We have given, in the article
Newspapers, a sketch  of the history and
present state of that  branch  of periodical
literature.  The first journal of the char-
acter of  a review was  the Journal des
Savants, established in 1663.  Its success
gave rise to Les JVbuvelles de la Ripub-
lique des Lettres, by  Bayle; Le  Mercure,
by Vise ;  Le  Journal de Trivoux, set  up
by P. Catrou, a  Jesuit; in  Italy, to the
Giornale de' Literati; in Germany, to the
Acta Eruditorum (q. v.).  In  England, the
first  review of this sort was  the Monthly,
commenced in 1749, and still published.
(For further  information, see the arti-
cle Review.)   The  utility of  periodicals
has  been very great;  they  have spread
knowledge through quarters to which the
bulky  productions of the sixteenth and
seventeenth century  never  could  have
penetrated.  The reviews,  in particular,
have done much to promote the cause of
truth and just thinking.   But the period-
ical  press, like  every thing else in the
world, has its bad side as well as its good,
and  one of its bad consequences has been
a taste  for  superficial  accomplishment.
Periodicals, however, have become a mat-
ter of necessity, as the circle  of civiliza-
tion has widened, as the various nations
have become more and more interested in
each other, and as the great interests of
mankind have been more deeply investi-
gated  and more universally  discussed.
For a citizen of Athens, the market and
the  gymnasia may  have afforded a suf-
ficient supply  of news to keep  him  ac-
quainted with the events generally inter-
 esting to  his  community;  the  wits of
 Florence  may  have  found the  shop of
 Burchiello (q. v.) a sufficient centre of in-
 telligence ; but our times  require much
 more  regular,  extensive  and  effectual
 means for the diffusion of information on
 the  events and productions of the day, and
 for  the discussion of the numberless  im- 
22           PERIODICALS—PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY.
portant subjects which occupy the minds
of men.
  Periosteum.  (See Bone.)
  Peripatetic Philosophy.  The phi-
losophy of AristoUe (q. v.)  received this
name either from his custom of teaching
while walking (ircpmarnv), or from the place
where it was taught—a walk planted with
trees.  We can give but a brief sketch
of the system  of this powerful mind.
Philosophy was to Aristotle the science of
knowledge.   Direct knowledge, by which
we  know immediately the general and
necessary, rests on experience.  According
to him, logic, as a preparatory science, as
the organ  of all  science, has the prece-
dence of all.  Logic either  treats of ap-
pearances, and is then called dialectics; or
of truth, and is then called analytics.  In
his Physics, he opposes the two  systems
then prevailing (that of emanation, which
taught that all things emanated from God;
and the atomic, which explained the origin
of things by the concourse of atoms, eter-
nal, like God), and assumes the eternity
of the world.   According to  him, the
heavens are of a more  perfect and divine
nature than other  bodies.  In the centre
of the heavens is the earth, round and sta-
tionary. The stars, like the sky, beings of a
higher nature, but of grosser matter, move,
though not of themselves, but by the im-
pulse of  the primum  mobile.   Every
change  presupposes  a substratum (sub-
stance),  that by which a thing becomes
possible; a form, by which  a thing be-
comes real; and  privation,  inasmuch as
the existence of a certain form is founded
on the exclusion of others.   All change or
motion takes place in regard to substance,
quantity, quality and place.   There are
three kinds of substances—those alternate-
ly in motion and at rest, as  the animals;
those perpetually  in motion, as the sky;
and those eternally stationary.   The last,
in themselves immovable and imperish-
able, are the source and origin of all mo-
tion.  Among them there must be one first
being, unchangeable, which  acts  without
the intervention of any other being.   All
that  is proceeds from it; it is the most
perfect intelligence—God.  The immedi-
ate  action of this first mover—happy in
the contemplation of himself— extends on-
ly to the  heavens ;  the other  inferior
spheres are moved by other incorporeal
and eternal substances, which the popular
belief adores as gods, and to which it attrib-
utes bodies, contrary to their nature.   The
soul is the principle of life in the organic
body, and is inseparable from the body.
As faculties of the soul, Aristotle enume-
rates the faculty of generation and nu-
trition ;  of sensation, memory and  recol-
lection ; the faculty of thinking, or the un-
derstanding ;  and the faculty  of desiring,
which is divided into appetite and volition.
The ethical principles of Aristotle  have
been often misunderstood, partly on ac-
count of the degeneracy  of  his school;
and he has been considered a supporter of
the philosophy whose principle is  pleas-
ure ; but to Aristotle, the best  and highest
(i. e. that which is desirable  for itself) is
the happiness which originates from vir-
tuous actions.   Virtue, according to him,
consists in acting according to nature: by
the expression "according to nature," he
means, keeping the mean between the two
extremes of the  too much and the too
little.  Thus valor, in his view the first of
virtues, is a mean between cowardice and
rashness;  temperance  is an  observance
of the mean in respect to  sensual enjoy-
ments.  Human actions, to be called mor-
al, must be independent of external mo-
tives ; otherwise they are but phenomena,
the laws of which belong to physics, and
are therefore indifferent  to the practical
philosopher.   Self-action,  and  conse-
quently  the power to act or not to act, to
act in one  way or another, is the condition
of all morality.  Perfect happiness can be
attained only in political  society or the
state; but  the  best form  of state  polity
must  be determined  by  circumstances.
The school of Aristotle (the peripatetic
school) continued  at Athens uninterrupt-
edly till  the time  of Augustus.  Among
those  who  proceeded from it are Theo-
phrastus,  author  of  several  works  on
natural  history;  Strato  of  Lampsacus,
whose views are  but  imperfectly known
to us from  some fragments preserved by
Cicero and Plutarch; and Demetrius Pha-
lereus. (q. v.)  No one of the philosophical
schools  of antiquity maintained its influ-
ence so long as the peripatetic.   Even
down  to  modern times,  its principles
served as the rule  in philosophical  inqui-
ries, and some countries still  honor Aris-
totle as  an  infallible master  of wisdom.
The Arabians did not first make him known
to the  philosophers of modern  Europe,
but they extended  his authority.  The
acuteness and profoundness which appear
in his works, his dogmatic tone, his subtile
distinctions, and the technical  language,
first introduced by him into  philosophy,
pleased  them  more thau Plato's  philo-
sophical doubts and allegorical  language.
But we  find him in the Christian church
as early as  the  time of the Arian contro-
versy; and while  the  influence of Plato 
PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY—PERJURY.              23
was diminished by the heresies of Plato-
nizing teachers,  that  of Aristotle, which
the commentaries of Boe'thius on his trans-
lation of Aristotle's works contributed to
extend, was continually increasing.  (See
Scholastics.) When the works of Aristotle
again began to be read in the original lan-
guage, a peripatetic sect, differing from the
scholastic, arose, in the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries, which was  divided into
the Averroists and Alexandrians (so called,
from  celebrated  commentators on Aris-
totle).   To the  former  belonged Alex.
Achillinus, Zimara and Caesalpinus; to the
latter, the famous Pomponatius and others.
  Peripetia ;  an unexpected   change,
which takes place in the condition of the
chief person of an epic or dramatic poem,
a novel,  &c.  Aristotle gives, as an in-
stance, the scene in GSdipus, in which the
news intended to relieve the king's fears,
and to cheer him,  produces  the  contrary
effect, by  discovering to him  his origin.
Necessary as the peripetia is  for giving in-
terest to great compositions, a ludicrous
effect is  often produced by  young poets
heaping misfortunes upon their heroes, to
surprise  the reader with  an unexpected
deliverance. The Germans call such com-
positions Rettungsstiicke (saving-pieces).
   Periphery.  (See Circle.)
   Peripneumonv.  (See Pneumony.)
   Peripteral Temple.  (See Architec-
ture,  p. 341.)
   Peristyle.  (See Architecture,  p. 341.)
   Perizonius, James,  a  learned Dutch
philologian of the seventeenth century,
born at  Damme in  1601, studied at De-
venter and Leyden, and became professor
of history, rhetoric and Greek, at the latter
place, where  he died in 1715.  His his-
torical and philological works  are nume-
rous.  The principal are Animadversiones
Historical  (1685),  a treasure of learning ;
Origines Babylonicce etJEgyptiaea (1711);
editions  of ^Elian's Various Histories, of
the Minerva ofSanctius, &c.
   Perjury, by the common  law of Eng-
land, is a  crime committed  by one who,
being lawfully required to  depose the
truth in any judicial proceeding,  wilfully
swears falsely in  a point material to the
question  in dispute.   It has, however,
been held, that a man may be indicted for
perjury for swearing that he  believed a fact
to be true, which he knew to  be  false.
The common law  takes no notice of any
false swearing, but such as  is committed
in some court of justice, having power to
administer the oath, or before some officer
or magistrate invested with similar author-
ity, in some proceeding relative to a civil
suit or criminal prosecution; for the  law
esteems all  other oaths  unnecessary, at
least, and hence will not punish the breach
of them.  Thus, if a person swears falsely
in a voluntary affidavit in any extrajudicial
matter, he is not liable to any punishment.
By  numerous statutes in  England  and
America, the  penalties of perjury have
been extended to false oaths by electors,
bankrupts,  insolvent debtors,  &c.   By
the English law, the evidence of one  wit-
ness alone is not sufficient to  convict on
an indictment for perjury ; in  such case,
there would be only one  oath  against an-
other ;  but it is sufficient  if corroborated
by other independent evidence.   Suborna-
tion of perjury is the offence of procuring
a man to commit perjury.  By the  law
of Moses (Deuteronomy xix, 19), if a man
testify falsely against his  brother, it shall
be done unto him as he had thought to do
against his brother.  And this  is the prin-
ciple adopted in the laws of many of the
states of* modern Europe.   By  the law of
the Twelve Tables, " perjurii pana divina,
exitium; humana, dedecus."  Gellius, xx. 1,
mentions, that some persons who had  per-
jured themselves, by giving false testimo-
ny, were thrown from the Tarpeian rock.
The civil law punished perjury committed
in swearing by the name of God, in  civil
cases, by infamy (Digest, lib. ii, tit. 4; Code,
lib. xii. tit. 1); but the punishment of per-
jury committed in swearing by the safety
of the emperor, was death (Code, iv. 1:2);
by the genius of the prince, beating and
scourging (Dig. lib. xii,  tit. 2, 13).   The
punishment of perjury, by the  common
law in England was, anciently, death  ; af-
terwards banishment, or cutting out the
tongue ; then forfeiture of goods.  At the
present time, it is fine, imprisonment, and
pillory, at the discretion  of the court, to
which the statute Geo. II,  c. 25 adds  a
power in the court to order the offender
to be sent to the house of correction for a
term not exceeding seven years, or to be
transported for the same period.  The of-
fender is  incapacitated  from  giving  evi-
dence in a court of justice ; but a pardon
will restore his competency.   By the law
of the U. States, the punishment on  con-
viction  for  perjury committed  in  any
cause depending in any of the courts of
the U. States, or  in any deposition taken
in pursuance of the laws of the U. States,
is imprisonment not  above three years,
and fine not exceeding $800, pillory one
hour, and disqualification for being a wit-
ness until the judgment is reversed.   By
the  capitularies of  Charlemagne  and
Louis le Dibonnaire, perjury was punished 
24
PERJURY—PERNAMBUCO.
 by cutting off the  hand.  By  the  Na-
 poleon code, perjury in criminal  cases
 is  punishable  by confinement  at  hard
 labor for a limited time.  If the party ac-
 cused is  sentenced to a severer  punish-
 ment, the perjurer is to suffer the  like.
 In cases of correctional or police jurisdic-
 tion,  it  is  punishable  by  confinement.
 Perjury  in civil suits,  is punishable by
 civic degradation.  By the Prussian code,
 promulgated  by Frederic  William  in
 1794,  whoever, whether he appears as a
 party or as a witness,  perjures himself, is
 to be  excluded for ever from his employ-
 ments, rights and civil profession, to un-
 dergo  an ignominious exposition as a per-
 jured  person, or to be  publicly declared
 such, and, in addition thereto, to be con-
 demned to confinement from one to three
 years.  If the perjury be  with  a view to
 profit  the perjurer,  he is to forfeit a sum
 quadruple of that which he endeavored to
 obtain. If the perjury is committed  in a
 capital case, and an innocent person is, in
 consequence, condemned, the punishment
 of the perjurer is death ; and in cases not
 capita], the punishment  of the perjurer is
 to be proportioned to the crime  of which
 the innocent person was accused and con-
 victed. By the law of Spain (in 1804), per-
jury, in civil causes, is punishable with ten
 years'  condemnation  to the galleys;  and
 in criminal cases, in which the punish-
 ment for the offence charged does not ex-
 tend to death, public  infamy and  perpet-
 ual condemnation to  the galleys.  (John-
 ston's Civil Law of Spain, L. vii, tit.  17,
 lib. 8,  Rec.)
  Perki.n Warbeck.  (See Warbeck.)
  Perkins, doctor Elisha,the inventor of
 the metallic  tractors, was  bom at Nor-
 wich,  Connecticut, in January, 1740, and
 was educated by his  father, doctor Joseph
 Perkins,  for  the profession  of medicine.
 He was indebted to nature for uncommon
endowments, both bodily and mental.   In
person he was six feet high, and of re-
markable  symmetry.  He possessed  ex-
traordinary ability to endure fatigue.   His
reputation and success as a physician were
considerable,  but he is principally known
by his  metallic tractors. These were form-
ed by  him from a composition which  he
discovered after  numerous experiments
with various kinds of metals, during seve-
ral years,  he  having  conceived the idea
that metallic substances might have an in-
fluence on the nerves and muscles of an-
imals,  and be capable of being converted
to useful  purposes as external agents in
medicine.  They consisted of two instru-
ments, one of the appearance of steel, the
 other  of brass,  and were  about three
 inches in length, and pointed at one end.
 The manner in which they were applied
 was, by drawing the points over the affect-
 ed parts, in a downward direction, for about
 twenty minutes each time.  The com-
 plaints in which this operation was found
 most  useful, were  local  inflammations
 in general, pains in the  head, face, teeth,
 breast, side, stomach, back, rheumatism,
 &c.  Doctor Perkins procured  a patent
 for his discovery, and the success which it
 obtained was great, not only in this coun-
 try, but on the other side of the Atlantic.
 The professors  of three  universities in
 America  gave attestations in favor of its
 efficacy.  In Copenhagen, twelve physi-
 cians and surgeons, chiefly professors and
 lecturers  in the Royal Frederic's Hos-
 pital, commenced a course of experiments,
 accounts of which were published in an
 octavo volume.  They introduced the term
 Perkinism, in honor of the discoverer, and
 asserted that it was of great importance to
 the physician.  In London, a Perkinian in-
 stitution, as it was called, was established,
 principally with the view of benefiting the
 poor by the use of the tractors; and, in a
 pamphlet  giving an account of the insti-
 tution, it was stated  that  the communi-
 cations  of cases were from disinterested
 and intelligent characters from almost ev-
 ery quarter of Great Britain,  including
 professors, regular physicians, surgeons and
 clergymen.  A computation of  the cures
 said to have been effected, presents  the
 number of one million five hundred thou-
sand.   It  may be well deemed a matter
of surprise, after what we have stated, that
the tractors have  sunk into oblivion ;  but
such is the fact.   During the prevalence
of yellow fever in New York,  in 1799,
doctor  Perkins  went thither for the pur-
pose of testing the merits of a highly  an-
tiseptic remedy which he had introduced
into practice; but after about four weeks
of unremitted  assiduity  in attending  the
sick, he took the disease himself, and died
at the age of 59 years.  He was a man of
great liberality of  character and of strict
honor and integrity.  In address and col-
loquial powers, few of his profession  ex
 celled him.
  Permutations. (See Combinations.)
  Pernambuco ; the name generally given
to the two cities of Olinda and  Recife, in
Brazil.  The former contains 4000 inhab-
itants, and is the see  of a bishop.  It  lies
about three miles north-east of the latter, in
lat. 8°  S.  It was formerly more popu-
lous and flourishing, but since its capture
 by the Dutch in 1640, its commerce and 
PERNAMBUCO—PERRAULT.
25
 nanufactures have deserted it for the lat-
ter.  (See Recife.)
  Peron, Francois,a distinguished French
naturalist, born at Cerilly, in 1775, studied
in the  college at that place, and, in 1792,
joined the army on  the Rhine.   Having
been  captured  at Kaiserslautern, in about
a year he was exchanged, and, having lost
the sight of one eye,  was discharged from
the service, and  returned  to Cerilly,  in
August,  1795.  He then obtained admis-
sion into the school  of medicine at Paris,
where he  applied himself closely to his
studies, and also attended the lectures of
the museum of natural history.   When
the expedition  to  the South seas, under
captain Baudin, had been projected, Peron,
with some difficulty,  obtained the situation
of zoologist   The vessels appointed for
 this service, the Geographer and the Natu-
 ralist,  sailed  from   Havre,  October 19,
 1800,  and  returned  to  France  in April,
 1804.  They had  visited New  Holland,
 and many of  the Australian and  Poly-
 nesian islands; and  during  the whole of
 the voyage, Peron seized eveiy opportuni-
 ty for augmenting the stores of science, by
 making collections and observations. After
 his return, he was  employed,  in  con-
 junction with captain Freycinet, to draw
 up an account of the voyage, and, with M.
 Le Sueur, to describe the new objects of
 natural history which had been procured.
 Peron  died  December  14,  1810.  His
 works are, Observations sur PAnthropologie;
 and Voyage de De'couvertes aux Terres Au-
 strales (1807—1816, 3 vols., 4to.); an un-
 finished  History  of the Medusae,  frag-
 ments of which have been published, and
 several  valuable  memoirs  on subjects of
 natural history.
   Perouse, La.   (See Lapirouse.)
   Perpendicular,  in  geometry; a line
 falling directly on another line, so  as to
 make equal  angles  on  each side; called
 also a normal  line.  These lines may be
 straight  lines or curves.  A plane is per-
 pendicular to  another plane, if a line
 drawn on  one of them, perpendicular to
 the line of intersection, forms right an-
 gles with a perpendicular line on the oth-
 er plane drawn to the same point  (See
 Plumb Line.)  A vertical line is one per-
 pendicular to a horizontal line (a line par-
 allel  to  the  surface  of calm water),  so
 called because it passes  from our vertex
 or zenith (q. v.) down to the nadir (q. v.),
 so that the vertical line is a particular kind
 of perpendicular line.
   Perpetual Motion ; a  motion which
 is supplied and renewed from itself, with-
 out the  intervention of external  causes.
   vol. x.         3
The problem of a perpetual motion con-
sists in the inventing of a machine which
has the principle  of its  motion within
itself; and numberless schemes have been
proposed for its  solution.  The difficulty
is, that the  resistance of the air, the fric-
tion of the  parts of the  machine,  &c,
necessarily  retard, and  finally  stop, the
motions of machines, and therefore seem
to render perpetual motion an  impossi-
bility.  Attempts have recently been made
to produce a perpetuum  mobile, by means
of galvanism ;  a  metallic bar, being placed
between  two  diy galvanic columns,  is
alternately attracted by each column.
  Perpetuity, in the doctrine of annui-
ties, is the number of years in which the
simple interest of any principal sum will
amount to the same as the principal itself;
or  it  is the number of years'  purchase  to
be given  for an annuity  which is  to con-
tinue  for ever; and it is found by dividing
£100  by the rate ofinterest agreed upon :
thus, allowing 5 per cent., the perpetuity is
Z™ = 20.
   5
   Perpignan; a city of France, capital
of East Pyrenees, about  a league from the
Mediterranean sea; lon. 2° 54' E.; lat.42°
42' N.; population, 15,350. It is a place of
strength, and  accounted one of the keys
of the kingdom, on the side of Spain.  It
is mostly ill built and gloomy.  The trade
consists in  corn,  wool,  iron and wine.
The manufactures are woollen and silk.
   Perrault.  Of four  brothers of this
name, who lived during the reign of Louis
XIV, the  most known  are Claude (born
1613, died 1688),  a  physician,  naturalist
and architect, from whose designs the cel-
ebrated fagadc of the Louvre (q. v.) and
the observatory  at Paris were  built; and
Charles (bom  1633, died 1703), a  man of
erudition, but of little taste, whose verses
have   not   outlived   his  day.    Colbert
availed himself of their assistance m found-
ing the French academy of art, of which
Charles was the librarian.  His poem Le
Siccle de Louis le Grand, which  he read
before the academy in 1687, gave rise  to
the famous  controversy  on  the compara-
tive merits  of the ancients and moderns.
In his ParaUele  des Anciens et  Modernes
(1688—96), in  the form of a dialogue, he
maintains that the moderns have carried
art and science,  which were in a state of
infancy among the ancients, to the highest
perfection,  and  have excelled them  in
their  works.  This opinion was  warmly
attacked by Boileau, and  zealously de-
fended by  Fontenelle and  Hudart de  la
Motto.  Perrault was also author of Le$ 
26            PERRAULT—PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS.
Hommes illustres de France (1696—1700).
The Conies de ma Mere I'Oyc (Tales  of
Mother Goose), of which he is the reputed
author, has procured for him, but perhaps
unjustly,  the  title of  "inventor  of the
Freucli Fairy Tales."   (See Fairies.)
  Perron, Anquetil  du.  (See Jnquitil
du Perron, and Zeniavcsta.)
  Perry,Oliver. (SeeAppendix to this vol.)
  Perry.  (See  Pear.)
  Persecution  of  Christians.   The
persecutions which the early Christians
underwent were a natural consequence
of the anxiety  which the free spirit of the
Christian doctrine and worship,  so oppo-
site to the religious institutions previous-
ly  existing, excited  among  Jews  and
heathens.   As long as the Jewish  state
continued,  the  Christian  communities
established within  its  limits hail  little
reason  to  expect toleration, as  even the
founder of their religion had been regard-
ed as a stirrer up of sedition, on account
of his opposition to the ordinances of the
Jewish church, which were zealously de-
fended  by the Pharisees, who formed the
ruling party;  and the sanhedrim could
not forgive his followers for regarding him
as the true .Messiah. But, as this body had
not power to carry its  wishes  into effect,
and the Christians abstained  from  open
violation  of the  public peace,  there was
no  general persecution of  them in Pales-
tine under the sanction of the Roman au-
thorities ; and only some of the heads  of
the congregations at. Jerusalem, such as
Stephen and the  apostles James the  elder
and James the younger,  sufS red martyr-
dom,—the  former forty-three, the  latter
sixty-three years after Christ.  But the
Jews in the towns of the Roman empire,
where  they had made  settlements, and
where Christian congregations soon sprung
up, excited against them the suspicions of
the magistrates, who, at first, may have con-
sidered the Christians  as an unimportant
Jewish sect, or  have tolerated the  new
worslup with less reluctance, since the in-
troduction of a new divinity had little in
it to startle the mind of a heathen.  Nero,
indeed, ascribed to the Christians the con-
flagration of the  city of Rome kindled by
himself, and, in the year 64,  subjected  them
to a dreadful  persecution, in which the
apostles Peter and Paul suffered; but this
was more an exercise of imperial tyranny
than of  policy,  or  an intolerant spirit.
This first persecution does not appear to
have extended far beyond  Rome.  There
arose, however,  a second, in the year 95,
because Domitian, deceived by  the  royal
title which the  Christians gave to Jesus,
after fruitless inquiries for the supposed
relations of Jesus  and pretenders to  the
crown, caused many of his followers, par-
ticularly in Asia Minor, to be banished, or
put to death.   What is  called the third
persecution of the Christians, took place in
the time of Trajan, who  issued an edict
against secret societies, which was follow-
ed, in 105, by a prohibition of  their meet-
ings, and the punishment of some  refrac-
tory individuals, because  the Roman pro-
consuls (for example, Pliny the younger,
in Bithynia) considered the refusal  of  the
Christians to pay the usual homage to  the
image of the emperor as deserving of pun-
ishment ; and their suspicions were awak-
ened by the independent character of  the
followers of the new faith, and their devia-
tion from the national customs. Charges
of outrage and sedition, principally excited
and spread abroad  by the Jews, increased
the unfavorable disposition of the heathens
towards the Christians.  It was said that
they were accustomed, in  their assemblies,
to eat human flesh (a  misconception  of
the eucharist), and to practise shameful
vices, and not only to aim at the destruc-
tion of the old religion, but at the over-
throw of the Roman imperial throne, and
the  foundation  of  a new   monarchy.
These  reports easily grew out of their
peculiar habits.  The obscurity in  which
they enveloped themselves, on account of
their  well-founded  apprehensions;  the
spirit  of their associations,  which, kept
them separate from the rest of  the world;
their secret meetings for religious exer-
cises, often held by night,—were sufficient
to furnish materials for suspicion: and the
extravagant expectations which  many
among them entertained  of the near  re-
turn of Christ, their zeal  against heathen
manners and customs, and their open op-
position  to the worship of idols, from
which they annually converted  thousands,
excited the heathen priests and magistrates
against all that bore the name of Christiau.
Yet the followers of  the new religion, be-
ing almost entirely confined to the lower
class, and being split  into a  variety  of
sects, chiefly Gnostics,  which  were con-
tinually increasing, were objects rather of
contempt than  of  fear; and, next  to the
protection  of an  overruling Providence,
it is principally owing  to this  circum-
stance that, notwithstanding several occa-
sions for new persecutions, and notwith-
standing the  zeal  with which their doc-
trines were assailed  by heathen  philoso-
phers (as, for example, Gelsus,  who wrote
against Christianity about 140), they  en-
joyed  above fifty years  of undisturbed 
PERSECUTION  OF CHRISTIANS.
27
tranquillity, until the fourth persecution
so called.   In  Asia  Minor,  they  were
violently  assailed,  about  the  year  160,
by the heathen populace;  and the Chris-
tian  apologist Justin  Martyr, and the
bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp, were put to
death.  About the year 177, Marcus Aure-
lius treated the new congregations in Gaul,
at Vienne and Lyons, With great severity,
and  many Christians  suffered martyr-
dom (fourth persecution).  About the end
of the second century, a strong disposition
was manifested to unite tho congregations,
which  had been hitherto independent of
one another, into one church.  The spir-
itual teachers, too,  growing holder with
the increase of their distinctions and  priv-
ileges, showed a disposition to grasp more
authority,  and often came into  collision
with the  civil  magistrates; and the Chris-
tians, having become numerous and  pow-
erful, openly  derided the pagan  worship,
now sinking into decline.  These circum-
stances led to wild outbreaks of the hea-
then populace, bent on  revenging the in-
sults offered to their gods (about 192), and
a dreadful slaughter ensued.  The empe-
ror Septimius Severus, moreover, in 202,
forbade the accession of new converts  to
the Jewish and Christian religions, and this
decree was followed by still severer op-
pressions of the Christians.   Dreadful tor-
tures were  employed by the Roman magis-
trates,  at that time, in  order  to compel
the Christians, of every age and sex, to
deny their  religion.   Many yielded to the
storm, with the intention  of returning  to
Christianity in more peaceful times; yet
not a few preferred  death to apostasy, and
gained the martyr's crown, and the admi-
ration of Christian  posterity.  (See  Mar-
tyrs, and Saints.)  After this fifth persecu-
tion, the  Christians enjoyed toleration and
peace from 211,  under Caracalla, Macri-
nus and  Heliogabalus, and, under Alexan-
der Severus, even  privileges and distinc-
tion.  The restraints imposed upon  them
by the emperor Maximian (235)  received
the  name of the  sixth persecution,  al-
though, properly speaking, only Christian
teachers  and clergymen were oppressed
by this  emperor;  but the  oppressions
which many of the congregations under-
went were inflicted  without his commaud.
Private hatred, in  fact, often  led to out-
rages against the  Christians, and excited
the populace to  assail  them.  This hap-
pened at Alexandria, in the latter years of
the"reign of the emperor Philip the Ara-
bian, who  was,  personally, well-affected
towards  them.  But his  successor, De-
cius, began his reign (249) with  a perse-
cution of the Christians  (the  seventh)
throughout his kingdom.  The universal-
ity of this persecution,  and  the persever-
ance and cruelty with which  it was pur-
sued, made it plain that the emperor's pur-
pose was to extirpate them entirely, and
induced  many to fall from  their  faith.
Fortunately,  however,  from  the   rapid
changes in the government  at this period,
the persecuting policy was not very stead-
ily  followed.  Valerian,  in 257, put to
death few but the clergy (eighth persecu-
tion) ; and the execution  of the edict  of
Aurelian against  the Christians (274, the
ninth persecution, as it was called.) was pre-
vented by  his violent  death.   A severe
persecution (the  tenth) took place  under
the emperor Diocletian, at the instigation «••
his ministers, Galerius and other enemies
of the Christians, in 303.  Throughout die
Roman  empire,  their churches were de-
stroyed, their sacred books  collected and
burned, and all imaginable means of inhu-
man violence employed to induce them to
renounce their faith.  As they were ac-
cused, moreover, of a rebellious spirit, and
of kindling a conflagration  in the  royal
palace at Nicomedia, thousands suffered
martyrdom.  Constantius Chlorus, a sove-
reign' favorable to them, was unable to
protect them entirely in  his  Gallic and
British provinces ; and in Greece, Illyria,
Italy and Spain, Galerius, Maximinus and
Licinius  pursued them  with  imprison-
ments and executions, principally directed
against the clergy,  till 310.  These  were
the last oppressions of the Christians un-
der the Roman government. Constantine
the Great (312 and  313)  restored to the
Christians full liberty, and the  use of their
churches aiid goods ; and his  conversion
to Christianity made it the established reli-
gion in the Roman empire.  This religion
afterwards  experienced oj>pression with-
out the limits of  the Roman empire ; for
instance, in 343  and 414 in Persia, and
from 437, with little interruption, till the
commencement  of the sixth  century, in
the African kingdom of the  Vandals ; but
the efforts of  some Roman  emperors  fa-
vorable to heathenism,  as Julian and Eu-
genius,  for the restoration  of the pagan
worship in the Roman empire, were more
prejudicial to themselves than to the Chris-
tians.  After  the  establishment of islam-
ism, the caliphs in Asia and Africa labor-
ed, with success, for the extirpation of
Christianity,  and spared only particular
schismatic sects,  which still enjoy,  under
the protection of the Mohammedans, the
free exercise of their religion.   Christians
themselves, after  it had become a crime to 
28
PERSECUTION OF  CHRISTIANS—PERSEPOLIS.
be a heretic  (see Heretic, and Inquiritio)i),
persecuted one another most bitterly; and
the outrages which the early  Christians
had suffered from the heathens were tol-
erable, compared to  the  religious wars
wl'.ich they waged against  each other  in
the middle  ages, and to the sufferings in-
flicted ou heretics, so called, by  the inqui-
sition, and   by fanatical princes, even  to
the eighteenth century.  But, as heathen
Rome could not stop the spread of Chris-
tianity, so Protestantism, in later times,
rooted itself the more firmly in  proportion
to the tempests which assailed it;  for the
direct tendency of persecution is to awak-
en a spirit of Leroic resistance,  and a zeal
to make sacrifices for the cause of truth.
  Persephone.  (See Proserpine.)
  Persepolis.   In  a northern direction
from the Persian capital of Shiraz are the
ruins  of ancient  structures of different
ages, among which are the only remains
of ancient Persian architecture, belonging
to the most flourishing period of that
powerful nation.   There are other archi-
tectural remains, with inscriptions, belong-
ing to the time  of  the  modern Persian
empire,  which  originated in   the third
rentury  of the Christian era, out of the
Parthian empire. (See Parthians.) These
latter  remains lie about four or five miles
from the ruins of Persepolis proper, and
consist partly of works of sculpture, partly
of inscriptions in  the ancient  Pehlvi
language,  cut in the rocks.   They are
called, by   the Arabs,  Nakshi Rustam
(the image of Rustam) because they were
regarded  as  intended to commemorate the
deeds of this ancient hero;  but, according
to De Sacy's satisfactory explanation, they
relate to the  kings of the modern Persian
race (the Sassaniiles).  (See Persia.) .Many
inscriptions  in Arabic, the later Persian,
and other languages, were  put here in the
century  after Mohammed.  The ancient
Persian monuments differ essentially from
all the rest  of the ruins.  These  are the
ruins  of the  proper palace of  Persepolis,
called, by the  Arabs, Chilminar, i. e. the
forty  (used   indefinitely to  signify many)
columns,  with two tombs near  it; four
tombs towards the north-east,  near Nak-
shi Rustam,  called the tombs of the kings,
with  the ruins  of  some   other  ancient
buildings; and lastly many remains and
columns  of  unfinished  tombs betweeu
Chilminar and Nakshi Rustam.  All these
remains  are  represented  in   Chardin's
Travels through  Persia,  and in Niebuhr's
Travels to Arabia.  The chief monument
is Chilminar, undoubtedly  the remains of
a great and  magnificent structure, encir-
cled  in  the  rear by  rocky mountains,
which open in the form of a crescent, and
consisting of three  divisions, one above
the other, and built  entirely of the most
beautiful gray marble, the immense blocks
of which are put together with admirable
art, without mortar.  Marble stairs, so wide
and easy of  ascent, that  ten horsemen
can ride up them abreast,  lead from the
lower divisions to the higher.   At the en-
trance of the portico, to which the steps
belonging to the  first division lead, fabu-
lous animals are seen, wrought in the still
remaining  pilasters,  as if  to  guard the
palace.  Similar steps lead to the second
division, to a colonnade, several  columns
of which still exist, fifty feet high, and of
such a circumference that three men can
hardly clasp them.  This colonnade leads
to several detached  buildings, of which
the largest stands in the same division;
the others, farther  back, form the third
division.   These  houses contain a num-
ber of chambers, of different sizes, and
seem  to have been real dwellings.  They
are ornamented with a number of imagen
representing processions,   people  of  all
ranks, combats of fabulous animals with
one another and with men.  In the wall
of the rock against  which the  building
stands, are two large tombs.   At a con-
siderable height from the ground, & facade
is hewn in the rock  itself, behind which is
a chamber that can be entered only by a
passage broken through, as  no regular en-
trance has been found.  Beneath, the rock
is cut perpendicularly, in  order  to make
the monument entirely inaccessible.  The
best representation of the  ruins is to be
found in  Niebuhr.    The  result of the
most recent investigations, compared with
the information  contained in  the  an-
cient  writers, is,  that  the  monuments
of  Persepolis  are  actually  of  Persian
origin, and  the  tombs, those  of Persian
kings, belonging  to  the buildings called
Chilminar, with which they are connected
by  subterranean  passages.   Though the
buildings  belong to Persian  antiquities,
yet it is probable  that the Persians them-
selves did not construct them, but caused
them  to be erected  by others; and their
truly Asiatic character affords foundation
for the supposition that they were built in
imitation of the architecture of the Medes
(to whom the  Persians were  indebted, in
general, for their civilization), under the
direction  of the  priests.   The ruins of
Persepolis proper are  most probably not
all of the same age,  but the work of seve-
ral Persian kings.   Persepolis was not
destined for a temple, for the  Persians, 
PERSEPOLIS—PERSEUS.
29
professing the religion  of the  Magians,
had no  temples;  nor was it a palace  of
the kings, because, though it may  have
originated, as most of the capitals of Asia
did, from the  residence of the  kings  of
the first conquerors,  it soon ceased  to be
their  actual abode.   But  the  ideas  of
country, power and  religion attached to
it, made it  the  receptacle of the  royal
dead, and  the sanctuary  of the people.
The various images  represent the whole
private  life of the king, as it was strictly
prescribed by the  Magians.  Immediately
after  their  accession  to the throne, the
Persian kings  proceeded to Persepolis to
be invested with  the garment of Cyrus,
and,  at certain  times,  visited  this  holy
place to sacrifice on the summits of the
mountains.  After the death of a king,  his
apparel, utensils,  and even his  treasures,
were preserved here, as the tomb of the
king was considered a fit dwelling  to be
provided with all necessaries.  For this
reason, not only numerous  guards protect-
ed the palace, but also the most important
officers of  the deceased  king, perhaps
even his wives,  were obliged to remain
near  the tomb.   Alexander, after  over-
coming Darius, gratified his revenge  by
the destruction of Persepolis.  (See  Alex-
ander.)   The mechanical  execution  of
these monuments is very  perfect, and no
countiy on earth, Egypt only, perhaps,
excepted,  can show  such masonry as
these ruins.  The character of this  archi-
tecture, however, is totally opposite to that
of the Egyptian  monuments.  Surprising
assiduity and minuteness of execution are
shown  in the  ornamental work.  The in-
scriptions on  these ruins  are in a  three-
 fold character—comprised under the  gene-
 ral name of arrow-headed character,^and
also  in three different languages.  The
oldest character,  undoubtedly,  consisting
of letters, is, according  to the unanimous
opinion of critics, in the Zend language,  a
sacred  idiom of the Magians: the charac-
ters of the second kind seem to belong to
the  Pchlvi language; and the  third are,
perhaps, Assyrian or Babylonian.  Grote-
 fend and Lichtenstein have been particu-
 larly successful in the explanation of these
 characters.   Drawings, still more  exact
 than those of captain Keppel, and accounts
of newly  discovered bass-reliefs in Per-
sepolis, have been given  by Jam.  Edw.
Alexander, in his Travels from India to
 England,  through  Persia, Asia Minor,
 &c, 1825—1826 (London, 1827, 4to.)
   Perseus ; son of Danae (q. v.) and  Ju-
piter.  Polydectes, king of Seriphos, an
island in the Archipelago, who had re-
ceived him with his mother, soon wished
to remove from his court the young and
daring hero.  Under pretence, therefore,
of suing for the daughter of Qinomaus,
he requested from his friends  presents of
rarities  to make his wedding feast more
splendid.   Perseus  promised  him  the
head  of the Gorgon (Medusa).   Beyond
the ocean, just on the holders of eternal
night, dwelt the  formitlable Gorgon race,
with  serpent-locks and  serpent-girdles,
of whom  Medusa  alone  was mortal.
Conducted by Mercury  and  Minerva,
he first  went to the three Graiie, on  the
western  coast of  the ocean; who had
but one eye mid one tooth, in  common.
Perseus  got  possession  of  these,  and
promised  to  restore them  on  condition
that they would bring him to the nymphs,
who  kept the  instruments  which  he
needed  in  this enterprise—the talaria, or
winged  shoes, the bag, and the helmet of
Pluto, which made its  wearer  invisible.
They agreed to the condition,  and Per-
seus obtained from the  nymphs what he
desired.  Other accounts say, that he was
furnished by Mercury and Vulcan.  Led
by Mercury and Minerva, he  reached the
slumbering GorgOns. With his face avert-
ed, he  approached the  monsters, whose
look transformed the spectator into stone,
saw the head  of Medusa by reflection in
his brazen shield,  and cut  it off.  From
the  drops  of blood sprang Pegasus  and
Chrysaor.  With the head in his bag, he
escaped from the  pursuing  sisters, by
means  of the helmet of Pluto.  On the
winged sandals of Mercury, he now hov-
ered over various regions, seeking adven-
tures.   He went to king Atlas, who  had
been informed by an oracle, that a son of
Jupiter would strip his garden of  the
golden  apples which it bore; and there-
fore refused to Perseus the rites of hospi-
tality, who, presenting  to  his  eyes  the
Gorgon's head, changed  him into a rock,
which was doomed to support  the heav-
ens.  He then delivered Andromeda, (q. v.)
By her he became the father of Perses,
whom  he  left in  the care of his grand-
father Cepheus, and returned with An-
dromeda to Seriphos. Here he found his
mother at the altar of Minerva, to which
she had fled with his foster-father Dictys,
to escape the violence of Polydectes.  He
transformed the latter, with all his associ-
ates, into stone; and, having placed Dictys
upon the throne of Seriphos, he returned
to Mercury the talaria, the bag and the
helmet, and gave to Minerva the Gorgon's
head, which she fixed in  the centre of her
shield,  or, according to some, on  her 
30                          PERSEUS—PERSIA.
breastplate.  Perseus then went to Argos,
with Danae and Andromeda, to visit  his
graudfadier Acrisius. To avoid the predic-
tions of an oracle, Acrisius had fled to Thes-
saly ;  but he could not escape his destiny ;
for Perseus followed him there, and killed
him accidentally with the discus, of which
he was the inventor. In consequence of
this event, he refused to ascend the throne
of Argos, which had thus fidlen to him,
and exchanged it for Tirynthus, the king-
dom of Megapenthes.  Here  he founded
Mycenae.  Besides Perses, the founder of
the Persian  nation, Andromeda  also be-
came the mother of Alcaeus, Sthenelus,
Eleus, Mestor, Electryon, and a daughter
named  Gorgophone.   After his  death,
Perseus  was worshipped as  a hero, and
placed among  the  stars.  The  fable of
Perseus has been, by some writers, derived
from Persia, and been interpreted as typi-
cal of the introduction of agriculture from
Upper Asia or Persia into Greece.  He is
the Bersin of the Shahnameh.
   Persia (Iran, Chahistan) ; a country of
Asia, between 25° and 40° N. lat., and 44°
and 64° E. Ion.; bounded N. by Russia,
die Caspian sea and Independent Tartary,
W. by Turkey, S. by the Persian gulf,
and E. by Beloochistan and Afghanistan;
comprising about  39Q,-000 square miles,
with a population of about 6,500,000. The
centre of Persia is an elevated plain, con-
taining several deserts of  sand.   The
northern provinces, in which  rises the
chain of the Ararat, and the western parts
of the country, are mountainous.  To the
east of the Tigris, and nearly parallel with
it, is a granitic ridge,  called by the an-
cients Zagros; and also parallel with the
same is the Orootcs (now Elwind), which
< separates into two branches, one of which,
;to the west of the Caspian 6ea, is con-
nected with the Elbour, or the Caspian
.chain, a prolongation of the Taurus. The
,country on the Caspian is lower than the
-coasts  on the ocean, and is surrounded by
a semicircular barrier of mountains, which
.are a continuation of the Taurus and Cau-
casus, and present a much steeper descent
.towards the Caspian than on the land side.
In the southern part of Persia, the eleva-
tion of the country is  more gradual than
in the north and west; and along the Per-
sian gulf, there is a narrow  strip of low
land, which is uninhabitable in summer
on account of the Jieat.  As we recede
from the sea, and approach the mountains,
the climate becomes  cooler.  The  ele-
vated northern and western regions are
temperate, and, in winter, cold.   Earth-
fludteg are not uncommon: in 1824, a
shock, which continued six days and si*
nights, destroyed the city of Shiraz (50,000
inhabitants) and Kazroun ; mountains dis-
appeared without leaving a trace behind.
It is remarkable that so extensive a coun-
try  has no  considerable river, although it
contains  many high mountains.   There
are  a few  small rivers, that lose them-
selves  in the sand, or are consumed by
canals, which serve the purpose of irriga-
tion.   Persia,  howeverT contains several
lakes, among which are that of Erivan and
Bakteghian or Salt lake.  AH the water is
impregnated with salt;  the lakes are all
saline, and wherever water has stood in
winter, the soil is found to have become
salt.  The  extensive plains are, many of
them, covered with water in  winter, and
in summer present  a  bare,  hot surface,
coated with saline matter.   The moun-
tains are naked ; the hills dry and barren.
On  account of the scarcity of water, but a
small portion of the plains is cultivated;
the  remainder is either naked or merely
bears some succulent plants, which soon
wither.  There are, however, some fertile
tracts.   The  country  supplies excellent
horses and asses,   dromedaries,  cattle,
broad-tailed sheep, silk, grain, rice, pulse,
melons, sesame, saffron, madder, hemp,
flax, tobacco,  poppies,  liquorice, sugar-
cane, date-palms, cassia, mastic, rich wines,
cotton, manna, gum tragacantb, senna, gal-
banum, assafcetida, rhubarb, all  the  fruits
of the temperate zone,  and  fine tropical
fruits,  gall-nuts, copper, iron, lead, salt-
petre, sulphur, salt, &c.  The inhabitants
are  partly Tadshiks, consisting of a mixed
race of Parsee, Arabic, &c., origin, Par-
sees, or fire-worshippers and Armenians;
and partly nomads, among  whom  the
Curds are the principal nation.  The Tad-
shiks (modern  Persians) are  superior to
the  Ottomans in civilization, and manifest
a strong passion for the arts and sciences.
They are Mohammedans, of the sect of
Ali, or Shiites.  A peculiar Mohammedan
sect, the Sabians (q.v.), worship the cross,
have a sort of baptism, and call themselves
disciples  of St. John.  The  Iehmaelites
(q. v.) also form a distinct sect.  The Par-
sees are  Guebers (q. v.), of the  philo-
sophical  sect of Sophis.  (See Sophis.)
Jews and Christians are tolerated in Per-
sia.   The Persians  are  distinguished  for
their skill in dyeing, and in silk and wool-
len   manufactures.   They manufacture
shagreen, morocco, work in  gold and  sil-
ver to great perfection, and make excel-
lent sword  blades, and a great number of
articles of  copper ware.  In agriculture
they make  great use of artificial irrigation, 
PERSIA—HISTORY OF PERSIA.                   31
which is, at present, a monopoly of the
government.  The commerce, which is
considerable, is chiefly carried on by cara-
vans  to  India, Turkey and Arabia.  The
navigation of the Persian gulf is mostly in
the hands of foreigners.  The navigation
of the Caspian sea is open to the Russians
and Persians; but the latter, by the terms
of the treaty of 1828, are excluded from
maintaining ships  of war in  its  waters.
Arts  and sciences are held in esteem, but
are by no means in a flourishing condition.
"The  study of the  Koran, divination, as-
trology,  a sort of ethics, medicine and
poetry, are the chief departments of edu-
cation.   The style of architecture is sim-
ple, sculpture almost unknown, the music
detestable.  The government is an abso-
lute despotism; at the  head of it is the
shah, with unlimited power.  Jaubert esti-
mated his income at $10,000,000.  The
twelve provinces into which the kingdom
is divided are governed by  khans.  The
nomadic  tribes enjoy a sort of indepen-
dence under their chiefs, and form the
main body of the  military force.  Abbas
Mil za, the heir apparent, has endeavored
to form  troops with the European disci-
pline. Persia has no naval force, owing
partly to a  want of ship timber.  The
largest town is Ispahan (q. v.), formerly
one of the  principal cities of Asia, now
much reduced.  The capital is Teheran
(50,000 inhabitants in winter;  10,000 in
summer.)
   History.   The  history  of Persia first
 emerges  from the obscurity of antiquity
 with Cyrus.   The dynasty of the Maha-
 bads is mentioned by Oriental writers as
 the first.  It was followed by that of die
 Pishdadians (coeval with our Assyrian em-
 pire). After the  Pishdadians, the Kaja-
 nides ruled for 718 years.  Gustasp (Hys-
 taspes), the Median Cyaxares,  or his con-
 temporary, under whom Zerdusht (Zoro-
aster) lived,  belongs to the uncertain time
 before Cyrus.  With Cyrus (q. v.), 559—
529 B. C.,  began the period of Persian
 power in the West.  By uniting the Per-
sians and Medes under  his sceptre,  he
 made them  the ruling nation in Western
Asia; he conquered  Croesus, took Baby-
lon,  and reduced Asia Minor.  He was
succeeded by his son  Cambyses (529—
522), who conquered Tyre,  Cyprus and
Egypt  After him, a Magian ruled for a
short time, who gave himself out as Smer-
dis, brother  of Cambyses.  He was de-
throned, and Darius Hystaspes (q. v.) ob-
tained the crown by lot or the choice of
his colleagues (521—487 B. C).  He re-
duced the revolted kingdom of Babylon,
and subdued Thrace, Macedonia, (512 B.
C.)> and a small part of India; but his at-
tempt  to conquer die  Scythians beyond
the Danube was unsuccessful. He reduc-
ed the  Greek colonies in  Asia  Minor,
which had attempted to shake off die Per-
sian yoke (501 B. C.); but he was unfor-
tunate in his  war against the European
Greeks, and  Egypt  revolted from  him.
His son Xerxes (487 to 467 B.C.) effected
the submission of Egypt, but was defeat-
ed by the Greeks on the field of Mara-
thon and at Salamis,  and was obliged to
defend himself against  their attacks in a
disastrous war.  Under Artaxerxes Lon-
gimanus, the Ahusuerus of the Scriptures
(until 425 B. C), the first symptoms of de-
cline became visible.  Egypt again revolt-
ed, and  was again  conquered,  after a
bloody struggle.  The Greek war termi-
nated disadvantageously, in449B.C.  (See
Cimon.)  Megabyzus excited a dangerous
insurrection. The weak king was govern-
ed by  his mother and wife.  The  next
changes  of government were rapid  and
violent.  Xerxes II,  his only legitimate
son, was murdered, after a reign  of forty-
five days, by his natural brother Sogdia-
nus,  who suffered  the  same  fate,  six
months afterwards, by  die  hands of an-
other illegitimate  son  of Artaxerxes,—
Ochus, who assumed the name of Darius
II, and reigned until 404 B.C., under the
influence of his wife  Parysatis.  The re-
volts of his satraps hastened the decline
of the  empire, and the Persians were
obliged to acknowledge independent kings
in Egypt.  But the  internal troubles in
Greece, of which the  Persians artfully
took advantage,  saved  them, for a time,
from a united attack by the Greeks.  Ar-
taxerxes II, Memnon, or  Mnemon (until
361 B. C), was entirely under the influ-
ence of his mother, Parysatis.  His broth-
er Cyrus, supported by 10,000 Greeks un-
der Xenophon (q. v.),  attempted  to  de-
throne him (400 B. C), but was  defeated
and killed.  Domestic dissensions obliged
the Lacedaemonians to abandon  their ad-
vantages in Asia  Minor, and to conclude
the disadvantageous peace of Antalcidas
(387 B. C).  Artaxerxes III, Ochus (until
338 B. C), son of Mnemon, secured his
tin-one by putting to  death his numerous
brodiers. He recovered Egypt (350 B. C.);
but his eunuch, Bagoas, poisoned him on
account of his cruelty, successively mur-
dered all his sons, and gave the crown to
Darius Codomannus  (q. v.), a prince of
the blood, who was  conquered  by Alex-
ander  in three decisive actions, on  the
Granicus, at  Issus and  Gaugamela, and 
32
PERSIA, HISTORY OF.
lost his life (330 B. C.); after which Alex-
ander made himself master of the whole
empire (329  B. C).   On the  dissolution
of the Macedonian empire, after the death
of Alexander  (323),  the Seleucides  (see
Seleucus) ruled over Persia until 246B.C.
They were succeeded  by  the Arsacides,
who founded the empire of the Parthians,
which existed until  229 A. D.   Ardshir
Babekan (Artaxerxes) then obtained the
sovereignty of Central Asia, and left it to
his descendants, the Sassanides, who ruled
407 years.  With  them begins,  according
to Hammer (q. v.), the romantic character
of Persian chivalry;  and the six most re-
nowned  rulers of this dynasty,  among
whom are Behramgur,  Chosroes, Parwis,
and  Nushirvan, are  the subjects  of  Per-
sian  romances. Ardshir, son of Sassan,
ruled from 218 to  241.  The wars which
he carried on with the Romans were  con-
tinued under  his  successor, Shapur  (Sa-
por I, until 271), against Gordian and Va-
lerian (the latter  of whom fell into the
hands of Sapor, and was treated in a most
revolting manner), and were not terminat-
ed until the peace of king Narses with Dio-
cletian (303).   When  Sapor the Great
(from 309 to 380) had become of full  age,
the empire again recovered strength,  He
punished the Arabs for their incursions,and
took the king of Yemen prisoner, and de-
manded  from the emperor of Constanti-
nople the cession of all  the country to the
Strymon, as Ardshir had once done. Con-
stantine the  Great,  Constantine  II  and
Julian resisted his demands; but  Jovian
purchased peace  by a cession of the  five
provinces in question and the fortress of
Nisibis.  Sapor also extended his conquests
into Tartary and India.   War and peace
successively followed, without any impor-
tant events, after the death of Sapor.  Un-
der Artaxerxes II (until 383), Sapor III
(until 388), and Vararanes IV (until 399),
the empire flourished.  Arabs, Huns  and
Turks successively appear on the field, as
allies or  enemies  of Persia. Yezdegerd
I (until 420), a friend of the Christians,
conquered Armenia in 412.  In the  year
420, Vararanes V ascended the throne by
the aid of the  Arabs.  He  was victorious
against Theodosius II, defeated the Huns
who invaded  his empire, and conquered
the kingdom of Yemen.   He  was  suc-
ceeded by Vararanes VI (until 457)  and
Hormisdas III. In  the year 457, Firus
(Pheroses) ascended  the  throne  by the
assistance of  the  Huns, but afterwards
made war against  them, and lost his life in
battle in  483.  Valens,  or  Balash (from
488 to 491) was stripped of a part of his
territories by the Huns, and obliged to pay
them a tribute for two years.   The Sas-
sanides,  however,  soon   regained  their
greatness and power.  Cobad (until 531)
subdued die Huns; and,  though he  bad
recovered his throne, in  498, by their as-
sistance, yet, at a later period,  he waged a
successful war against them, against Atha-
nasius, the Indians, and Justinian I.   His
youngest son and  successor,  Chosrou
Anushirvan  (from  531 to 579) was distin-
guished for  his uncommon wisdom  and
valor.   Under him the  Persian empire
extended from the  Mediterranean to the
Indus, from the Iaxartes to  Arabia and
the confines of Egypt.   He waged suc-
cessful wars with the Indians and Turks,
with  Justinian and Tiberius,  and  the
Arabs, whom he delivered from the op-
pression  of petty tyrants,  and  suppressed
the rebellions of his brother and his son.
The Lazians in Colchis, wearied with the
Greek oppression, submitted themselves to
him; but, when  he attempted to transfer
them into the interior of Persia, they again
placed themselves under the dominion of
Justinian, whose arms were now victori-
ous.   Anushirvan died of grief during
the negotiations for peace. War contin-
ued under Hormuz  (Hormisdas IV, from
579 to 591) until the reign of Chosrou II
(until 628), under whom the Persian power
reached its highest  pitch.  By successful
wars he  extended  his conquests, on the
one side  to Chalcedon (616), on the other
over  Egypt  to  Lybia   and  ^Ethiopia,
and finally to Yemen.  But the fortune of
war was suddenly changed by  the victori-
ous arms of the emperor Heraclius. Chos-
rou lost all his conquests, and his own son
Sirhes made him prisoner, and put him to
death (628).  The decline of  Persia was
hastened by continued domestic  feuds.
Sirhes, or Kabad Shirujeh, was murdered
in the same year.  His son Ardshir (Arta-
xerxes) III, but seven years old, succeeded
him, and was murdered, in 629, by his gen-
eral Serbas (Sheheriar).   The chief Per-
sians prevented Serbas from ascending the
throne; and, after numerous revolutions,
succeeding each other so  rapidly that the
historians have confounded  the names,
Yezdegerd III, a nephew of Chosrou, as-
cended the throne in 632, at the age of six-
teen.   He was attacked by caliph Omar,
in 636, and Persia became a prey  to  the
Araljs  and Turks.   Yezdegerd lost  his
life in 651.—With the conquest of Persia
by the caliphs begins the  history  of the
modern Persian empire.  The dominion
of the Arabs  (see  Caliph) lasted 585 years,
from 636 to 1220.  As some of the Arab 
PERSIA, HISTORY OF.
33
governore made themselves independent,
and Persian and Turkish princes possess-
ed themselves of single provinces,  Persia
continued to  be  divided  into numerous
petty suites.  Among the principal dynas-
ties were,  in the north and north-east, 1.
the Turkish house of the Thaheridis  in
Khorasan, from 820 to 872; 2. the Persian
dynasty of the Soffarides, which dethron-
ed the  one last named, and ruled over
Khorasan and Farsistan until 902; 3. the
Samanide dynasty, which  established its
independence on Khorasan in 874, under
AJimed, in the province Mavaralnar,  and
lasted to 999.   Ishmael, Ahmed's son, de-
throned the Sofikrides,  and became pow-
erful ; and under his descendants originat-
ed, 4. the  Gaznavides,  in 977, when Se-
bektcchin,  a Turkish slave and governor
of the Samanides at Gazna and Khorasan,
made  himself independent at  Gazna.
His son Mahmood subdued, in 999, Kho-
rasan, and, in 1012, Farsistan, and thus put
an end to the dominion of the Samanides.
He subsequently conquered Irak  Agemi
(1017) from the Bouides, and even extend-
ed his conquests into India.  But his son
Masud was stripped of Irak Agemi and
Khorasan by the Seljooks  (from 1037  to
1041);  and the Gaznavides, weakened by
domestic divisions, became, under  Malek
Shah (1182), a prey to the Gourides. 5. The
sultans of Gour (Gourides) became pow-
erful, in 1150, by  means of Aladdin Ho-
sain, but lost their ascendency, after seve-
ral great  reigns,  partly by the encroach-
ments of the princes of Khowaresm, and
partly  by  domestic dissensions.  6. The
dynasty of the Khowaresmian shahs (from
1097 to 1230) was founded by Aziz, gover-
nor of the Seljooks in Khowaresm,  or Ka-
rasm, where  he rendered himself inde-
pendent.   Tagash (1192)  destroyed the
empire of the Seljooks, and took Khora-
san from the Gourides.  His son Moham-
med conquered Mavaralnar, subdued the
Gourides and  Gazna,  and occupied the
greater part of Persia.   But, in  1220, the
great khan of the Mouguls (q. v.), Gengis
Khan (q.v.), and his heroic son Gelaleddin
Mankbern, deprived him of his domin-
ions ; and he died in 1230, after a struggle
of ten years, in a lonely hut in the  moun-
tains of Curdistan.  In  western and north-
eastern Persia reigned, 7. Marduwig, a Per-
sian warrior, who founded a kingdom  at
Dilem, in  928, which soon extended over
Ispahan, but was desu-oyed by the Bou-
ides.  8. The Bouides  (sons of Bouia, a
poor fisherman,  who derived  his  origin
from the Sassanides),  by their valor and
prudence,  extended their sway over the
greater part of Persia, and, in 945, even over
Bagdad.  They were chiefly distinguished
for their virtues and love of science, and
maintained themselves  until 1056, when
Malek Rahjm was obliged  to yield to the
Seljooks.   9.  The  Seljooks,  a Turkish
dynasty,  as is supposed,  driven by the
Chinese  from  Turkestan,  first  became
powerful in Khorasan, with the Gazna-
vides.  Togrulbeg Mahmood, a brave and
prudent  warrior, drove out the  son  of
Mahmood, the Gaznavide sultan, in 1037;
extended his dominion over Mavaralnar,
Aderbijan, Armenia, Farsistan, Irak Age-
mi, and Irak Arabi,  where he put an end
to the rule of the Bouides  at Bagdad, in
1055, and was invested with their dignity,
as Emir el Omrah, by the caliphs.  Some
of his descendants were distinguished for
great activity and humanity.  The  most
powerful of them, Malek Shah, conquered
also Georgia, Syria and  Natolia (Roum).
But the  empire  gradually declined, and
was divided into four kingdoms, which
were destroyed by the shahs of Khowa-
resm (1162 and 1195), the atabeks of Alep-
po (1139), and  the Monguls(1194).   Gen-
gis Khan established the power of the Tar-
tars and Monguls in Persia (1220—1405).
Those Persian provinces which had been
acquired by Gengis Khan fell to his young-
est son,  Tauli, in  1229, and then to the
son of the latter, Hulaku, at first as govern-
ors of the Mongolian khans, Kajuk and
Mangu.  Hulaku extended  his dominion
over Syria, Natolia  and Irak Arabi.  He
or his successor became independent of
the  great khan,  and formed  a separate
Mongolian  dynasty  in those countries,
which sat on the throne till the death of
Abusaid,  without heirs, in 1335.  His suc-
cessors, also descendants of Gengis Khan,
had merely  the title of khans of Persia.
The empire was weak and divided. Then
appeared (1387) Timurlenk (Tamerlane)
at the head of a new horde of Monguls,
who conquered  Persia, and  filled the
world, from Hindoostan to  Smyrna, with
terror.  But the death of this famous con-
queror was followed by  the downfall of
the Mongul dominion in Persia, of which
the Turkomans then  remained masters foi
a hundred years.  These nomadic tribes,
who had  plundered Persia for two centu-
ries, wrested, under  the reigns of Kara
Jussuf and  his successors, the greatest
part of Persia from the Timurides, were
subdued by other Turkoman tribes under
Usong Hassan (1468), and incoq>orated
with them.   They  sunk before  Ishmael
Sophi (1505),  who artfully made use of
fanaticism for his political  puq>oses. and 
34                     PERSIA, HISTORY OF.
whose dynasty lasted from 1505 to 1722.
Ishmael  Sophi,  whose  ancestor  Sheikh
Sophi pretonded to  be  descended from
AH,  took from  the  Turkomans  of the
white  ram, Aderbijan  (1505  to  1508)
and  part of Armenia, slew both  their
princes, and founded  upon the ruins of
their empire, after having conquered Shir-
van, Diarbeker, Georgia,  Turkestan and
Mavaralnar, an empire  which comprised
Aderbijan, Diarbeker, Irak, Farsistan and
Kerman.  He assumed  the  name  of a
shah, and introduced the sect of Ali into
the conquered countries.  His successors,
Thamas (1523 to 1575), Ishmael II (from
1576 to 1577), Mohammed (1577 to 1586),
Hamzeh  (1586), Ishmael III  (1587),  car-
ried  on   unsuccessful ware  against the
Turks and the Usbecks.  But  the great
shah Abbas  (1587 to  1629), reestablished
the empire  by his conquests.  He took
from the  Turks Armenia, Irak Arabi, Mes-
opotamia, the cities of Tauris, Bagdad and
Bassora ;  Khorasan from the  Usbecks ;
Ormuz from the  Portuguese, and Kanda-
har from the  Monguls ; and  humbled
Georgia,  which had refused to pay tribute.
He introduced absolute power into Persia,
transferred his residence  to Ispahan, and
instituted the pilgrimage to Meshid, in or-
der to abolish that to Mecca among the
Persians.  The following rulers, Shah Sesi
(1629 to  1642) and  Abbas II (1642 to
1666) had new wars with the Turks and
Indians;  with the former on  account of
Bagdad, which was lost; and with the lat-
ter on account of Kandahar,  which  was
reconquered in 1660.  Under shah Solr-
man, however, (1666 to 1694), the empire
declined,  and entirely sunk under his son
Hussein.   The Afghans in Kandahar re-
volted, in 1709,  under Mirweis; and his
son Mir  Mahmud conquered the whole
empire, in 1722.  A state of anarchy fol-
lowed.  Mahmud, having become insane,
was  dethroned by Asharf, in 1725: the
latter  was subdued  by  Thamas  Kuli
Khan, who,  with  the  assistance of the
Russians  and Turks, placed Thamas, son
of Hussein, on the throne in  1729.  But,
when the latter ceded Georgia and Arme-
nia to the Turks, Kuli Khan dedironed
him, and  placed his minor son, Abbas III,
on the throne.  He  recovered, by con-
quest or treaties,  the  provinces ceded to
the Russians and  Turks, and ascended
the throne under the title of Shah Nadir,
Abbas III having died in 1736.  He re-
stored Persia to her former importance by
successful wars and a strong government;
conquered Bahareim  (1735)  and  Balk
(1736) from the khan of Bucharia, Kanda-
har (1738); invaded (1739) Ilindoostan,
and obliged the great mogul Mohammed
to cede to him some provinces on the In-
dus and  most of his treasures.  But, in
1747, Nadir was murdered by the com-
manders of  his  guards, and  his  death
threw the empire again into new confusion.
Four kingdoms were  now formed :  1.
Khorasan and Segistan; 2. Kandahar, or
the eastern provinces; 3. Farsistan, or the
western provinces; and, 4. Georgia.  The
latter, for the most part, retained  its own
princes, who, at length, submitted to Rus-
sia.  In  Kandahar and the East, Ahmed
Abdallah founded the empire of Afghan-
istan, (q. v.)  He was victorious at Panni-
put,  and ruled with absolute sway in In-
dia.  His residence was Kabul.  He was
succeeded, in 1753, by Timur; the  latter
by Zeman.  In the two other kingdoms,
the Curd Kerim Khan, who had served
under Nadir, and  was of low extraction,
succeeded in establishing tranquillity, after
long and bloody wars, by subduing Mo-
hammed Khan, who fled, and perished at
Mazanderan.   His wisdom, justice and
warlike skill  gained  him the love of his
suhjects and the esteem of his neighbors.
He did not call himself khan, but vekil
(regent).   He fixed his residence  at  Shi-
raz in 1755, and died in 1779.  New dis-
turbances arose  after  his death.   His
brothers  attempted to get possession of
the throne, to the exclusion of his sons.
A prince of the blood, Ali Murat, occupi-
ed it  in 1784; but a eunuch, Aga Moham-
med, a man of ancient family and uncom-
mon qualities, had  made himself inde-
pendent in Mazanderan.  Ali Murat, who
marched against him, died in consequence
of a fall from his horse, and left the sceptre
to his  son  Yafar, who  was defeated by
Aga Mohammed at Jezd Kast, and fled to
Shiraz, where he perished in an insurrec-
tion.    His son Luthf Ali made several
desperate efforts to recover his throne ; but
Aga Mohammed was victorious, and ap-
pointed his nephew Baba Khan his suc-
cessor, who has reigned since 179(5, under
the name of Feth Ali Shah.  He fixed his
residence at Teheran, in order to be nearer
the  Russians, who  threatened him  in
Georgia and  the neighboring provinces.
By the peace of 1812, the Persians  were
obliged to cede to Russia the  whole of
Daghestan, the Khanats of Kuba,  Shir-
van,  Baku, Salian, Talishah, Karaachb,
and Gandsha, resigning all claims to Shu-
laregi, Kharthli, Kachethi, Imeritia, Guria,
Mingrelia and Abchasia, and were obliged
to admit the  Russian flag on the Caspian
sea.   (See Russia.)  Feth Ali (born  in 
PERSIAN HISTORY, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND RELIGION.  35
1768), a  Turkoman of the tribe of Kad-
shar Shah, was induced by the heir-appar-
ent, Abbas Mirza, and his favorite Hussein
Kuli Khan, who believed Russia to be in-
volved in domestic troubles, to attack that
power in 1826.  The Persians invaded the
Russian  territories,  without a declaration
of war, instigated part of the Mohamme-
dan  population to insurrection, and ad-
vanced as far as Elisabethpol; but they
were defeated in several battles,  and the
Russians under Paskewitch conquered the
country to the Araxes, which, by the treaty
of Tourkmantchai (1828)  was  ceded to
Russia.   (See Russia.) The cholera mor-
bus made great ravages in the north-west-
ern part of Persia in 1829 and 1830.   Ac-
cording to the latest accounts, the country
was disturbed by the contests of the royal
princes.  The English always maintain an
embassy  at the capital, to counteract the
influence of Russia.—See Malcolm's His-
tory of Persia (2 vols., 2d ed., 1829),  and
his Sketches of Persia (1828).  Respect-
ing Western Persia, we owe the latest ac-
counts since Chardin, Niebuhr, Olivier, to
Kinneir,  Morier, Ouseley, and particular-
ly to Ker Porter,, and  Price's Journal of
the  British Embassy  to Persia  (London,
1825).  Price was secretary to Ouseley's
embassy. J. B. Fraser, in his Narrative of
a  Journey into Khorassan, 1821—1822
(London, 1825, 1  vol., 4to.), describes the
general state of Persia.  The Adventures
of Haji Baba of Ispahan, by Morier, and
J. B. Fraser's two works—Kuzzilbash, and
the Persian Adventurer, being the Sequel
of  Kuzzilbash—are  interesting  delinea-
tions of Persian  manners.  The great in-
fluence of England in Persia appears from
G. Keppel's Journey from India to Eng-
land, by Bassorah, Babylon, Curdistan,
Persia, &c, in 1824 (London, 1827, 4to.).
Drouville's  Voyage  en  Perse (2d  edit.,
Paris, 1825, 2 vols.)  contains valuable in-
formation: see  also  the  Letters on the
Caucasus and Georgia, by Freygang, Rus-
sian consul-general (in French, Hamburg,
1816).  Bucet's and Balbe's New Map of
Persia (Paris, 1826)  is accompanied by a
historical and  statistical sketch of  the
monarchy.
  Persian Language, Literature and  An-
cient Religion.—In the Persian provinces,
which had previously formed the kingdom
of Media, the Zend and Pehlvi, or Peldevi,
were the  prevailing languages; the former
in the north, the latter in the  south of
Media.   Zend is a Pehlvi  word, signifying
living.  In the Zend, which is nowhere
mentioned as a spoken, but only as a sa-
cred language, Zoroaster (q. v.), or Zer-
dusht,  wrote his  religious  books,  with
which Anquetil du Perron made us better
acquainted, so far as they are extant, under
the name of Zendavesta, or the  living
word.   Sir W.  Jones was informed by  a
learned disciple of Zoroaster, that Zend  is
the name of the character  in which the
books are written,  and Avesta the name
of the language.  It appears to have been
extinct before the beginning of the vulgar
era; and  among the Guebers, who adhere
to the doctrines of  Zoroaster, there  are at
present very few who are  acquainted with
it.  The  Zend,  both in  its grammatical
construction, and its radical words, bears
a great resemblance to the  Sanscrit and
Teutonic languages.  (See  Rask.)  The
Pehlvi, that is, the language of heroes,
which was first spoken nearly conte mpo-
rarily with the Zend, at first in Media or
Parthia (in the  language  of the country,
Pefdo or Pehluwan), and seems to have
been closely allied with the Georgian and
Aramaean, attained to  a  high degree of
perfection, and  became, under the Parthi-
an kings, the common language  of the
nobility and  higher classes, but gave way
to the Parsee when the seat of the empire
was transferred to the southern provinces,
and the Sassanides prohibited its use.  Ac-
cording to some vague  reports, it  is still
spoken by a  wandering tribe  of Shirvan
(the Puddars).  Among the Guebers there
ore only a few who understand it.  The
writings of Zoroaster were early translated
into the Pehlvi: there are also some theo-
logical and historical writings extant in it,
several of which Ouseley has  brought to
Europe.  Under the Sassanides, the soft,
rich and  expressive language  of Fars or
Farsistan (the  Parsee),  became the pre-
vailing language in  Persia: from it sprung
the modern Persian, and from the two
was formed the rude Curd  dialect.  The
Parsee, or the pure language of Farsistan,
bears traces of a common origin with the
Sanscrit; although we do not assume, with
Schlegel, that the Sanscrit is  the mother
of the  Parsee,  nor with  Frank, that the
Parsee is the mother of the Sanscrit; the
latter  of which opinions, however,  ap-
peal's  the more probable, on  account of
the greater simplicity of the  Parsee.  We
find the Parsee  tolerably pure  in Ferdusi,
and other authors of the first century of the
Mohammedan era,  though not entirely free
from mixture with the Arabic.  This mix-
ture took place after die conquest of Per-
sia by the Arabs, when  Mohammedanism
became the prevailing  reHgion of  Persia,
and Arabic the learned language  of the
country.  The addition, not only of single 
36       PERSIAN LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND RELIGION.
words, but  even of whole  phrases, was
owing partly to necessity,—because words
were wanting in  Parsee to express many
new ideas,—and partly to an affectation
of elegance.  In this manner was formed
the modern Persian.  The Arabian words
which it contains have, in some instances,
remained unchanged, and have sometimes
been changed and inflected in the Persian
manner.  The resemblance between the
Persian and Teutonic is not so great, that
a German could, as Leibnitz said, at once
understand whole Persian verses, but it is
certainly striking, and proves, without jus-
tifying us in adopting useless hypotheses,
that the German, which came from Asia,
sprung from the same source  with the
language of the early inhabitants of Per-
sia.  The same is true of the Celts, Scla-
vonians  and Thracians,  of whose lan-
guages traces are also to be found in the
Persian.  According to Hammer, the pres-
ent Persian is, of all the Eastern languages,
the most nearly allied to the German.  In
the counUy which, according to Mirchond,
was anciently called Germania, and, ac-
cording to Eddussi, Erman, the old Persian
is the native dialect; so  that the name
Germani is not of Roman origin.  In the
simplicity of its grammatical construction,
the Persian language resembles the Eng-
lish ;  in its power of compounding words,
the German.  We pass over the dialects of
the Persian  language, merely mentioning
that the most cultivated of them, the re-
fined Parsee, which has become the lan-
guage of the court and  of literature, is
called Deri (court  language, from  dar,
door), and that  the popular language is
called Valaat. The written character of
the Persian  language is the Arabic, with
the  addition of four letters  with three
points, which are not in the Arabic. Their
books are most frequently written in the
character called  Talik.   The Persian
literature, of which the Magi were in pos-
session until the introduction of Moham-
medanism, has nothing to show in its old
dialects,  the Zend and Pehlvi, but the
works above-mentioned,  and the Perse-
politan inscriptions, which are in part un-
intelligible.   What  escaped destruction in
the time of Alexander,  was  destroyed
under the caliphs,  and a few fragments
only were preserved among the fugitive
Parsees or Guebers.  Persian civilization
declined during the first period of the Ara-
bian dominion; even in the tenth century,
no traces of any literature are to be found
among  the Persians.  Learning first re-
vived in Persia in the time of the Abas-
sides, and Arabian literature was already
on the decline, when the  Persian, favored
bv  the  Bouides and  Seljooks,  revived.
Among   the   princes  who  encouraged
learned  men  and poets by personal luyor
and rewards, the Bouide  Azad Eddaulet,
in the middle of the tenth century, the
Gaznavide sultans Mahmood Sebektechin
and Keder Ben Ibrahim,  and  the Seljook
sultan Malek Shah, with his vizier Nazam
el Maluk, and  Keder Chan Chacan, de-
serve  to  be mentioned.  The flourishing
period of literature continued till the time
of  Gengis  Khan, in the thirteenth cen-
tury.   Under Timur,  in the fourteenth
century, and the Turks, in the fifteenth, it
continually declined, and in the sixteenth,
was almost entirely extinct.  The oppres-
sions  and disturbances to  which  Persia
has since been continually subject, have
prevented the revival of learning.  The
old Persian language is now almost super-
seded by the Turkish; the Parsees alone
speak it   But the  Persians possess rich
literary  treasures of the earlier periods,
particularly in poetry, history, geography,
&c.  We must limit ourselves chiefly to
a notice of that portion which has been
touched  by Europeans.  The most bril-
liant part of Persian literature is poetry.
(See Hammer's History of Persian Polite
Literature  (in  German,  Vienna,  1818).
Among the poets are the following: Ru-
digi, the  father of modern Persian poetry,
who  translated  in verse  Pilpay's fables;
the epic  poet Ferdusi (q.  v.), author of the
Shahnameh, or Book of Kings (of  which
Gorres  has given an abridgment), who
lived at the beginning of the eleventh cen-
tury ; and his contemporaries,  the celebrat-
ed  lyric  poets, Ansari (the first king of
poets) and Ahmed Essedi of Thus.  Also
distinguished as lyric poets are Anweri or
Enweri,  of  Bednah, in  Khorasan (died
1200), who  was unsurpassed in the Ca-
fide, and inferior only to  Hafiz in the ode
(two  of his poems are contained  in the
Asiatic Miscellanies); Chakani, his con-
temporary  and  rival; Chodscha   Hafiz
Schemseddin  Mohammed, best  known
under the name of Hafiz  (q. v.);  Shahi,
probably a pupil of Djami; Hatefi, Emir
Chosrou, Senai, Shefali,  and  many other
writers of the divan, who are mentioned
in Hammer's work above referred to. To
the lyric poets of Persia also belong the
Turkish emperor Selim I, the unfortunate
Shah Allum (see Franklinls Life of Shah
Allum),and the Shah Feth Ali. Asa lyric
mystic and moral poet, Sheik Sadi (q. v.
is the most  celebrated,  not  only  in the
East, but also among us.  Ferideddin At
tar, a contemporary of  Sadi'e, was tno 
PERSIAN LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND RELIGION.       37
author  of*a  very  valuable  collection of
proverbs, under the  title of Pendnavvh
(Book of Counsel),—of which Sylvcstre
de Sacy has published a complete edition,
—and of several other poetical works.  Je-
laleddin Roumi of Balk, in Khorasan, is
<. teemed the  most perfect model  of the
mystic school: he formed a sect, and died
126''' a pious Sophi.  His great work,
Kilat el Metnavi (Collection of Djstiehs),
is so difficult to be understood, that a glos-
sary is necessary.  One  of the most  pro-
lific and pleasing poets of Persia is Abdal-
rahman, or Abdurrahman Ebn Achmed,
more known  under his surname of Molla
Djamy.  (See Jamy.)  To the poets of the
first class belongs Nizam, or Nisami, at the
end of  the sixteenth  century, author of
five poems, three of which, Chosrou and
Shirin, Leila and Mejnoun, and the Histo-
ry of Alexander, Iskandernameh, are ep-
ics.  Some tales and fables selected from
his Book of  Fortune, have appeared in
the original and in translations. If we were
willing  to enumerate merely names,  we
might mention Khosru, or Chosrou, of Del-
hi, Abubatha of Kerman, and Nani, each
of  whom wrote five long  poems;  Mir
Ali of Shirvan, Achmed of Kirvan, and
Emir Soliman,  each celebrated as the
writer of a history of  Alexander;  and
many   others.   Tr°t"nd of dvftwir^ "P
6uch a  mere  catalogue, we refer to Ham-
mer's valuable work.  Sources of informa-
tion concerning the Persian poets, are the
Beharistan of Jamy,  the works of Haji
Chalfa,  the lives by the  Persian Daulet-
Bhah, continued by Sam Mirza, under the
title Teskiretelchoara (of which  some ex-
tracts may be found in the Notices et Ex-
traits des Manusrrits, &i\, by Sylvestie de
Sacy), and \\\e AkJdauL (Fire Temple), by
Haji  Lotfali  Beg,  surnamed Azir.  The
most celebrated recent Persian poet, Blab
Phelair,  di< din 1825, at the age of 96.
He left  agronomical, moral,  political  and
literary  works.  He is called the Persian
VoHaire.  Not less numerous are the prose
fables, tales and narratives.  Among these
are the Anwar Soheili, a  Persian transla-
tion of the fables  of  Pilpay ; the Bahar
Danuch of Einajut Doollah (translated by
John Scott, under the title of Garden  of
Knowledge, 1799,3 vols.); the Tootinameh,
or Tales of a Parrot (Persian and English,
by Hadley); the Tales of Bakhtyarand the
Ten Viziers,  &c,  translated by  Ouseley
(q. v.).  Other similar works have been
given us by Scott, in his Tales, Anecdotes
and  Letters,  translated  from the Arabic
and  Persian (1800); by  Langles, in his
Contes, Sentences et Fables, tiries cPAuteurs
  vol. x.         4
 Arabcs d  Persans  (1788), and in other
 collections of this kind.  In the depart-
 ments of history, geography and statistics,
 the Persians have seme large and valuable
 works.  Abu Said,or Abdallah  BenAbul-
 kasin  Beidavi,  wrote a universal history,
 from Adam to  his own  time (1276), under
 the title of Historical Pearl Necklace. An-
 drew Midler has published, in Persian and
 Latin, the eighth part of this work, wl ich
 contains the  history of  China.  Ti ran
 Shah, who died at Onnuz, 1377, wro;.; «
 Shahnameh, of  which an abstract is given
 in Pedro Texeira's  Relaciones del  Origen
 Descendancia y Succesion de los Reyes de
 Persia y de Hormuz (Antwerp, 1610).  Mir-
 chond or Mohammed  Ebn Emir Chowj-
 and Shah, who flourished in 1741, wrote
 the voluminous histon.-al  wort? entitled
 Hortus Puritatis in Historia,  Prophetarvm,
 Regumet Chalifarum (Garden of Purity in
 the History of the Prophets, Kings a»d
 Caliphs),  of which, besides   the  frag-
 ment  in Wilkins's  Persian  Grammar,
 four extracts have been  published—in the
 History  of  the Persian  Kings, by  Je-
 nisch (Vienna,  Persian and Latin) ;  the
 History of the Sassanides, in French only^
 by De Sacy, in  his Memoircs sur divcrses
 AntiquiUs de la Perse;  the History of the
 Samanida?, by Wilken (Persian and Latin,
 G'^t'n^n. 4to ); and 'h°  History  of the
 Dynasty of the Ishmaelites, by  Jourdain,
 in his Notice de I'Histoire vniversellc de
 Mirkoad,  &c.  (Paris, 1814, Persian  and
 French).  Mirchond'sson, Khondemir, or
 Gayyetheddin Ben Uamadeddin, wrote a
 Compendium Hislcr'/B uv''' ".?«';'* Moham-
 medana,  (Abridgment of  *tIohammcdnn
 History), still in manuscript.   Tr - Tank el
 Tabari (a History of Nations ar.d Kings)
 was originally written in Arabic, by Mo-
 hammed Ebn Giaffir Mahomed Ben  Ge-
 rir. but is now  extant only'in a  Turkish
 tr uislotion, and  in the Persian translation
 of Balami.  The  Lebtarik  (Marrow  of
 History) of Al Emir Yahia Ebn Abdolla-
 tif al Kazwini (who died 1351)  has been
 translated into Latin by Gaulmin and Gal-
 land.   Of Mohammed  Kazim  Ferishta,
 we have two valuable w  >rk.. one of which
 has been translated into  English by Dow,
 un».cr the title History of Ilindoostan (Lon-
 don,  1768,3 vols., 4to.),  and  the other by
John Scott, under the title of History  of
 Dekkan (1794, 2 vols., 4to.).   The Tuzuhx
Jehan  Guir, written by the emperor Jehan
Guir,  is  very valuable  in regard to  the
history and geography of Hindoostan ;  of
which Gladwin  has given extracts in  tha
 Asiatic Miscellany: but  the most impor-
tant work is the  Akbarnameh of the  vizier 
38      PERSIAN  LANGUAGE, LITERATURE  AND RELIGION.
Abul Fazl (put to death 1604),  the most
elegant  writer of Hindoostan, written by
command of the emperor  Akbar.  The
two first parts of this work contain a  his-
tory of Akbar  and his predecessors;  the
third,  entitled  Ayeen  Akbari, contains a
geographical, statistical and historical de-
scription of Hindoostan, with  much other
information.   Of this  third  part,  Glad-
win has published extracts, under the  title
Ayeen Akbery, or Institutes of the  Empe-
ror Akbar.   Abul Fazl also translated the
fables attributed to  Vishnu Sarma from
the Sanscrit into the Persian.  Of the  An-
nals of Asem of  Kufa, Ouseley has given
some extracts in  his Oriental  Collections,
which make us desirous of the  whole.  We
are indebted to the same learned Orientalist
for an Epitome of the ancient History of
Persia, extracted  and translated  from Je-
han Ara, a Persian  Manuscript (London,
1799).  The History of the Persian Em-
pire, by  Alomri, from original  sources, has
not yet been edited.  There are numerous
works, comprising short periods of time,
as single dynasties and single reigns.  The
Tarik Ali Mosaffer  contains a history of
the seven kings  of the Mosaffer  family.
Shah  Babur left  valuable  commentaries
concerning  Hindoostan,  translated   into
Persian  by  Abdul  Rahim (English  by
docor Leyden and ".!'  Erskin*).  Abul
Rizak wrote a life of the Shah Rokh  and
his successors, aiid the history of his  em-
bassy  to China and  Hindoostan, the latter
of which has been  translated by Langles
in his Collection portative  des  Voyages.
Mevana Abdallah lbn Faziellah,surnamed
al Wqfi,  wrote, in the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries, a  history  of  Gengis
Khan and his successors till 1336. Sheri-
foddin, or Moila Sherifoddin Ali Yezdi
(died 1446), wrote a biography of Timur,
full of fables,  translated  into French, by
Petit  de  la Croix  (Paris, 172!), whose
son also wrote,  from  Persian sources, a
Histoire du grand Genghiz Chan.  Sir W.
Jones translated  into French  a history of
Nadir Shah, by Mirza Mohammed Maha-
di Chtin of Masandaran.  Gladwin trans-
lated  another history of the same prince,
by Abdul Kurreetn  of Cashmere, entitled
Beyoni  Uaki  (Necessary  Information);
and Langlts has piven  :.n  abstract of this
author's Pilgrima;\. to Mecca, in his Collec-
tion.  Lastly, James  Fraser has also written
a history  of Nadir Shah (London, 17421,
Here  we may mention the Tuzukati Ti-
mur, translated by  Davy, and edited by
White, under  the title, Institutes political
and military, written originally in the  Mo-
gul language,  by the great Tnnur, trans-
lated  into Persian by  Abn Talib Alhus-
seini,  and thence  into English  (Oxford,
1783,4to.).   As to the geographical works
in the Persian language, Ouseley  has pub-
lished a fragment of the Cleimat (the seven
climates), in his Ori  ntal Collections, and
an abstract  of the Persian translation of
the  geography,  written  in  Arabic,  by
lbn Haukal.  Upon  chronology, Gravius
(Greaves)  published  a  valuable Persian
work,  Epochal  Celebriores (Persian  and
Latin,  London, 1650).   No  work  of the
Persian physicians has  been  translated ;
but we may  mention  the valuable work of
Abulmaiisur Mowafin  Ben Ali, which is
in Vienna.   Geometry  and  astronomy
were also cultivated with ardor by the Per-
sians.   Nasereddin of Thus translated, and
Maimon  Raschid commented upon  Eu-
clid.   Omar Chehan  (in 1072), in the
reign of Malek  Shah, calculated  the solar
year at Si 55 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes  and
48 seconds ;  and among the astronomical
tables,  computed by Persians, the  most
valuable a. j those prepared by Nasereddin,
at the command of Hulaku Uekan,and call-
ed by his name, but not completed till five
years after Ilekau's death (1269), and those
drawn up in the first  half of the fifteenth
ci-nt.iry,  under  the  superintendence  of
UlLg Beigh,  by  a large  number of astron-
omers, and   which  were  published  by
Greaves and Hyde. Hulaku Uekan (1259)
established an astronomical academy at Ma-
ragha, and erected an observatory, of which
Nasereddin had the superintendence.   U-
lug  Beigh also erected one at Samarcand
A Persian calendar, under the title Ruzna-
nich nauruz, has  likewise been  printed.
(See Epoch, p. 552.)  We must also men-
tion Beck's Ephemsrides Persarum per to-
tum Annum  (Vienna,  1695,   folio),  and
Welsh's TabulfB JEquinoctiales (Augsburg,
1676,  4to.).   The  works  upon  Moham-
med,  the  Mohammedan religion, the le-
gends  of the saints,  &c, are numerous,
but for us of little interest.  The Persian
abridgment  of  the Vedas, entitled Oup-
nek'hit, although  almost  unintelligible
by us  (translated  into  Latin  by Anquetil
du  Perron, 1804, 2  vols., 4to.),  and the
Desatir (q. v.), are important monuments.
The Pentateuch of Moses in  the Persian
language, translated by a Jew of Thus, is
in Walton's  Polyglot.   Of the  Gospels
there  are two  translations ;  one in the
Polyglot above-named,  and the other pub-
lished  by Wheelock  (London, 1657, folA
Their value has been indicated by Rosen-
muller.  The Persians have paid great at-
tention to their own language: of this, the
number of lexicographical and grammat- 
PERSIAN LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND RELIGION—PERSIUS.  3D
ical works extant affords abundant proof.
The small Persian-Turkish dictionary of
Shahidi is only for  beginners.   That of
Ardeshir is more celebrated, and also the
Naemet Allah (Delight of God), adopted
by Castellus  as  the  basis of his ; but the
two most celeorated are the Ferhangi Je-
han Guir, and the Ferhangi Schuari.  The
latter was published  in 1742, and another
by  Seid Ahmed, in 1804, at Constantino-
ple.  This vi-w  is sufficient to show the
importance of the Persian language, since,
besides being in the East, especially in
India, what the,  French is in Europe, it
possesses  valuable treasures,  not only of
native literature, but also of translations
from  the Arabic, different Indian and other
languages, the originals of some of which
are lost, and  of orfiers, are inaccessible to
us.  We are  also copiously ?upplied with
aids in this  study.   The  grammars of
Joins and Richardson  (not to mention
earlier ones)  are now surpassed by Glad-
win's Persian Moonshee, and especially by
Lutnsden's Persian Grammar (2 vols., fol.).
In Germany, Wilkea has published the
best Persian  grammar.  Of the dictiona-
ries the most complete are Meninsfd Lex-
icon Arabico-Persico-Turcicum (2d edit.,
4 vols., folio).  Richardson's  Dictionary,
 Persian, English and Arabic, &c,  a new
edition, with additions and improvements,
 by Wilkins  (London, 1806, 2 vols., 4to.);
 Barretto's Persian and Arabic  Dictionary
(2 vols.); and Hopkins's Abridgment  oi'
 Richardson (in  1 vol., 1810),  are ihe best.
 Much valuable information is contained in
 Jones's Commentaries ; Ouseley's  Orien-
 tal Collections,  and  Persian Miscellanies ;
 Gladwin's Dissertations on the Rhetoric,
 Prosody  and Rhyme of the Persians ; in
 the Fundgruben des  Orients (Mines of the
 East); in the  valuable works of J. von
 Hammer,  &c.   (See  Oriental  Litera-
 ture.)
    Persian ^Era.  (See Epoch.)
    Persian Gulf ; a sea, or inland  lake,
 bounded  by  Persia and Arabia, except at
 the eastern extremity, where it communi-
 cates with  the  Arabian  sea;  about 500
 miles from east to west,  and from  120 to
250 from north  to south.  The principal
 river which runs into it is the Euphrates.
 The  south coast, in particular, is celebrat-
 ed for its pearl fishery.   Most of the coast
 belongs to colonies of Arabians.
   Persian Wheel.  (See Hydraulics, vol.
 vi, p. 506.)
   Persimon (diospuros  Virginiana). This
 tree is unknown ii: the north-eastern parts
 of our country, but  south of latitude 42°
 is found throughout the U. States, even to
the upper parts of the Arkansas river.  It
is common iu  the  Middle and  Southern
States, and still more  abundant in the
western forests.  It varies exceedingly in
size, being sometimes sixty feet high, with
a trunk twenty inches  in diameter, but
more frequently doi s not attain half these
dimensions.  The leaves are  oblong and
entire, and the flowers small and mono-
petalous.  The fruit is roundish, about an
inch in diameter, fleshy, and contains six
or eight large oval and compressed  seeds.
While green,  it  is  powerfully astringent,
but when fully ripe, and of an orange col-
or, the pulp becomes soft, palatable, and
very sweet.   In the Southern States, per-
simons are sometimes gathered, pounded
with bran,  and formed  into cakes,  which
are kept for making beer, with the addi-
tion  of hops, Sac.; and a method has been
long known of distilling brandy from the
waicr, previously  fermented, in  which
this  fruit has been Lruised;  but neither
object is  likely to become  important.
The  heart  is brown,  hard,  compact,
strong, and elastic, but is said to be liable
to split.  At Baltimore, it is used by turn-
era for large screws, and by workers in tin
for mallets; at Philadelphia,  it has been
found e mal to  the beech for shoe-lasts;
at Charleston, it is  preferred to the ash for
the s' afts of chaises ; and, in the interior
of Carolina,  large wedges arc made of it
foi splitting the  trunks  of trees; but the
usually inconsiderable size of the tree rejji-
deib this wood much less important than
it would be  otherwise.  In  clearing the
forests, the persimon is usually preserved,
and it is probable that the quality  of the
fruit might be improved by cultivation.
This tree is dioecious, and belongs  to the
natural family ebenace<r, and, indeed, to the
same genus with that which furnishes the
ebory of  commerce.   (See the  article
EJ-ony.)
   Permus.   Aulus  Persius  Flaccus, a
Roman satirical poet, was born, A. D. 34,
at Voltcrra,  in Etruria, and died  in  62.
According to some, Luna was his birth-
place.  His family was of the equestrian
order, and he recti/ed  his education  at
Rome.   He  was on friendly terms with
some of the most  eminent  men  of the
time, and  was much beloved on account
of the purity and amenity of his manners.
He died at the age of twenty-eight years.
The Stoic Comutus, one of his first teach-
ers, published six  satires by  him, which
present a picture of the prevailing corrup-
tion, in contrast with the standard of Stoic
wisdom and the  old  Romin severity.
They are distinguished for vigor, concise- 
40
PERSIIS—PERSPECTIVE.
ness, and austerity of tone.  Their obscu-
rity arises in  part  from their allusions to
subjects now unknown, and  in part from
their abrupt and concise style.  They are
usually published with the satires of Juve-
nal. The best editions are those of Casau-
bon (Leyden, 1695) and Konig (Gotting-
en, 1804),  with commentaries.   Drydeu
and GifT'ord, among others, have translat-
ed them into English.  Madan's edition
of Juvuualand Persius, with a prose trans-
lation and English notes (1789),  was re-
printed in 1813.
  Personification, in the fine arts, poe-
try and rhetoric ; the representation of an
inanimate subject as a person.  This may
be done, in poetry and rhetoric, either by
giving epithets to  inanimate  subjects
which properly  belong only to  person:-:, or
by representing them as actually perform-
ing the part of animated beings. In the lat-
ter case, the nameprosopopasia is also used.
Strictly speaking, we may be said to per-
sonify  whenever  we apply an epithet  ex-
pressive of life to an inanimate subject, as
awakening nature, raging storm; but a lit-
tle reflection will show us  that ordinary
language is full  of personifications of this
kind—nay, we  could  not speak without
them.  The word personification is there-
fore generally applied only  to a  formal
representation of  a thing as a  person.
Tlu more the imagination prevails among
a people, the  more common are personifi-
cations.  Take, for instance, the  tales of
the Arabs.  As  reflection acquires the  as-
cendency, personifications are less used.
Many of the mythusesaie personifications
of powers  of nature  or events  of  his-
tory.
  Perspective ; the art of copying  the
appearance of objects, as seen from a cer-
tain point of  view.  It enables the artist
to represent objects on a given surface, as
if the surface were  transparent,  and  the
objects were seen through it.   As we  see
by moans of the rays of light which pro-
ceed in straight lines from the objects to
our eyes, perspective rests on optical prin-
ciples.  As the drawing of the form of an
object is an arrangement of lines and  an-
gles according  to  geometrical principles,
perspective may be considered as a branch
of geometry.   That part of perspective
which relates to  the form of the objects
differs essentially from that which teaches
the gradation of colore according to  the
relative distance of objects.   Hence per-
spective is  divided into  mathematical, or
linear perspective, and die perspective of
color, or aerial  perspective.  Both are of
the greatest importance to painters, archi-
tects, sculptors,  &c.  Without a  correct
observance of the rules of perspective, no
picture can have  truth ami life.   Perspec-
tive  alone enables  us to represent  fore-
shortenings with accuracy, and it is requi-
site in delineating even the simplest  posi-
tions of objects.  As long,  therefore, as
its rules were unknown,  the art of draw-
ing necessarily remained in its infancy.
This art has been most cultivated in mod-
ern times; yet the paintings found  in Her-
culaneum prove that the ancient (..<.-<'k
painters were acquainted with it in some
measure.—The  contour  of  an  object,
drawn upon paper or canvass, represents
nothing more than such an intersection of
the visual rays, sent from the  extremities
of it to the eye, as would arise on  a glass
put in the place of the paper or canvass.
Now the situation of an object at the oth-
er side of a glass being given, the delinea-
tion of it on the glass itself depends en-
tirely on the situation of the  eye on this
side of the glass; iu other words,  on the
rules of perspective.   Suppose a spectator
to be looking at a prospect without doors
from  within  through a glass  window:  he
will perceive the shape, size and situation
of every object visible upon the glass.  If
the objects  are  near the  window,  the
spaces they occupy  on the glass will  be
larger than when they are at a greater dis-
tance ; if they are parallel to the window,
their shapes upon the glass will be parallel
likewise;  if they are oblique, their shapes
will be oblique ; and so ou.   As he alters
the situation of his  eye,  the  situation  of
the objects upon the window will be alter-
ed also ; if he raises his  eye, the  objects
will  seem to rise higher upon the  win-
dow, and the contrary  if he lowers it
The horizon will, in every situation of the
eye,  be  upon a level with it; that  is, the
imaginary line which  parts the earth and
sky will seem to  be raised as far above
the ground  upon  which  the spectator
stands as  his eye is. Now  suppose the
person at the window, keeping  his  head
steady, draws the figure of an object seen
through it upon the  glass with a pencil, as
if the point of the pencil  touched  the
object; he would then have a true repre-
sentation of the object in perspective, as
it appears to his eye.  To  every person
who possesses a general knowledge of the
principles of optics, this must be self-evi-
dent ; for, as vision  is occasioned by  pen-
cils of rays coming in straight lines" to the
eye from every point of the visible object,
it is plain that, by joining the points in the
transparent plane through which all those
pencils respectively pass, an exact repre- 
PERSPECTIVE.
41
sentation must be formed of the object, as
it appears to the eye in that particular po-
sition,  and at. that determined  distance.
And were pictures of things to be always
first drawn on transparent planes, this sim-
ple operation, with the principle on which
it is founded, would comprise the whole
theory and  practice of perspective.  As
this, however, is far from being the  case,
rules must be deduced from optics and ge-
ometry for drawing representations of vis-
ible objects on  opaque  planes; and the
application of these rules constitut s what
is  properly called the art of perspective.
There  are used  in perspective, a certain
number of terms peculiar to the ait, defi-
nitions of which are necessary to an intel-
ligent use of them.   The original object is
that which is made the subject of the pic-
ture.   Original planes, or  lines,  are  the
surfaces or lines  of original objects.   The
point of view is the situation  of the eye.
The point of sight is the point in  the per-
spective plane which is nearest to the eye.
As far as the picture is  concerned,  these
two points coincide, so that some authors
have used them  indiscriminately  one for
the other.   The  point of sight is also call-
ed the  centre of the picture.  A visual ray
is a line from the object to the eye.  If the
object  is a point, there is but one visual
ray ; if it is a line, the visual  rays form a
triangle ; if it is a square, they form a pyra-
mid ; if a circle, a cone, &c.   The  prin-
cipal visual  ray  is  that from the nearest
point  in the picture, or point of  sight.
The perspective plane is the  surface  on
which the picture is delineated ; or it is the
transparent  surface through  which we
suppose  objects to be viewed.   The di-
recting plane is a plane supposed to pass
through the eye of the spectator, parallel
to  the perspective plane.   The ground
plane is the earth, or the plane surface  on
which  the spectator and objects are  situ-
ate!.  The horizon, or horizontal plane, is
one parallel to the  ground plane, and at
the height of the  spectator's eye.   The
horizontal line is the intersection of the
picture, or perspective plane, with the hori-
zontal  plane.  The ground line is the in-
tersection of the perspective plane  with
the  ground plane; or it is  the  line  on
which  the picture  is supposed to stand.
The perpendicular is a line on the perspec-
tive plane, drawn  through  the point  of
sight,  perpendicular to the  ground line
and horizontal  line.  The points of dis-
tance are points on the perspective plane,
set off from the  point of sight, sometimes
on the horizontal line, and sometimes  on
the perpendicular,  at the same  distance
                  4*
from the point of sight that the eye is sup-
posed to be at from the perspective plane.
—Projedions.  The projections of a body
are the difl'erent modes  by which it  may
be delineated on a plane  surface.  Sceno-
graphic  projection represents objects as
they actually  appear to the eye at limited
distances.  Orthographic projection repre-
sents objects  as they would appear to the
eye at an infinite distance, the rays which
proceed from them being parallel, instead
of converging.   The shadow  which  a
body casts  iu the rays of the sun may  be
considered as an orthographic projection.
In this projection, lines which are parallel
in the original are parallel in the picture,
and  do  not  converge to any  vanishing
point.  Their comparative length, also, is
not affected by difference of apparent dis-
tance.  Orthographic projection  is much
used in delineating buildings, machinery,
&c, because those parts of the drawing
which are not foreshortened maintain their
true relative size, so that measures can be
taken from them.   The term ichnographic
projection is  sometimes  used to express
the horizontal delineation, or ground plan,
of an object.  A bird's eye view is a sceno-
graphic or orthographic  projection, taken
from an elevated  point  in the air, from
which the eye is supposed to look down
upon the objects.   Geometrical  and  me-
chanical  methods will enable a person not
previously  conversant with the art to  ob-
tain correct perspective representations of
any object.   But by long practice in draw-
ing from nature a certain tact is  acquired
by painters, which  enables them, by  the
accuracy of the eye and judgment alone,
to make correct views of objects, without
the aid of any computation or mechanical
process.   Thus miniature painters  pro-
duce the nicest resemblance of the human
countenance, in any position, with no oth-
er guide  than the faculty obtained by  ex-
perience  of estimating the exact shape and
proportion  which each part of the original
should bear  upon  the picture.—Equally
important  with the linear perspective is
aerial perspective,  though  not founded on
equally demonstrable rules.   It  teaches
how to  judge of  the  degree  of  light
which objects reflect in proportion to their
distance, and of  the gradation of their
tints in proportion to the intervening air.
The nearest  objects only appear in their
true colors and full light.  In the case of
the more distant, the light and color be-
come blended with the colors of the  va-
pors which  fill the air,  in  proportion to
their distance, until, at last, the objects be
come lout in an indistinct mass, of a  blu 
42
PERSPECTIVE—PERSPIRATION.
ish tinge,  in th- horizon, whilst their col-
or and that of the air become one.  The
proportion of this degradation, as it is call-
ed, is regulated by the purity of the air,
being greater according as there is  more
vapor iu the air.  Hence distant objects in
a clear  southern air appear  much nearer
than they  really are, to an eye accustomed
to a thick  northern  atmosphere.  As the
air changes,  the aerial  perspective  must
change. Morning, noon, evening, moon-
shine,  winter, summer,  the  sea, &c, all
have their different aerial perspective.  In
aerial perspective, the weakening of the
tints corresponds to  the foreshortening of
the receding lines in linear  perspective.
In the  illuminated  parts of objects, the
tints are  represented more   broken  and
fluctuating.  The shaded  parts are often
aided by reflection.   If the. degree of the
deusiiy  of the air is given, the degrees of
these gradations may also be determined;
not by mathematical rules, indeed, but by
close  observation of  nature.  By aerial
perspective two results are obtained :—1.
each object in a picture receives that de-
gree of color and light which lie longs to
its distance from the eye; 2. the various
local tones are made to unite in  one chief
tone, which is nothing else than the  com-
mon color of the air, and the light which
penetrates it.   The  charm and harmony
»f a picture, particularly of a landscape,
depend  greatly  upon a correct application
of aerial perspective.  Aerial perspective
is hardly found at all  in the  productions
of the ancient German and Italian schools
to the time of Perugino.  i j. v.)—Valen-
cienne's Practical Introduction  to Linear
and Aerial Perspective (in French) is very
good.   Beginners in linear perspective
will  find  Easy Lessons in  Perspective
(Boston, 1830) a convenient manual.
  Perspiration.  By perspiration  from
the bodies of beasts and  men, we under-
stand, 1. that operation  by which certain
fluid matters, separated from  the blood in
the thick network of capillary vessels and
cells constituting the skin,  are changed
into  vapor (or  into  fine effluvia), and in
this form escape at  the pores of the skin;
2. sometimes, also, the secretion and  re-
moval from the  body of these matters
themselves,  by  the  action of  the  skin.
This effluvium is usually so fine, that  we
cannot see it with the naked eye, whence
we call it the " insensible perspiration"; but
it becomes visible, if we hold the hand on
cold glass or polished metal; also, if the
perspiration is strong, in a cold tempera-
ture, or if, from a still stronger perspira-
tion, this  vapor is  not  dissolved in the
air, but collects on the skin in drops form-
ing sweat.   This perspiration through the
skin has  much resemblance  to the vapor
that escapes from the  lungs, to the secre-
tions of the membranes lining the cavities
of the body, as the stomach, chest, and
abdomen, with which secretions  it also
appears to stand in connexion.  The im-
portance of this function will be evident
when we reflect, that  the surface of a full
grown man  contains  fifteen  or  sixteen
square feet, and therefore the quantity  of
matter incessantly perspired  must   bo
very great,  which is  also confirmed  by
the accurate  observations of Sanctorius
(Venice,  1611), who spent a great  part  of
his life at the  balance.   He weighed and
kept an account not only of all the food
that he consumed, but also of every thing
that passed from him, and thereby  proved
that a great part not only of the fluid, but
also of the solid substances that  a man
consumes,  leaves his  body by  perspi-
ration.   Perspiration  promotes  two ob-
jects very important for the preservation
of the bodUy structure.  One is the puri-
fication of the blood  from injurious and
superfluous matters.   Besides  the  adven-
titious compound matters that pass into the
blood from  particular kinds of food (for
instance, onions, &c), the carbon, the hy-
drogen, and particularly the excess of nitro-
gen, are carried off from the blood  by per-
spiration, and changed by caloric into gas
and vapor, and thus removed from thebody.
The substance of the body is, in many
diseases,  particularly in fevers,  converted
into aeriform fluids by an evaporation so
extraordinarily increased and accelerated,
that the strongest man is entirely worn away
in a few days, without having lost any thing
except through his skin.  The  other ad-
vantage  of perspiration  is the preserva-
tion of a  suitable degree of warmth in the
body, and the reduction of an immoderate
beat.   Every living body has its peculiar
degree of warmth, which remains  for the
most  part the same,  whether the sur-
rounding bodies  are more  or less  warm.
The temperature of man is about 92° to
99° Fahrenheit.  As much caloric is em-
ployed in the process  of perspiration (see
Evaporation), it is an important means  of
cooling the body and of conducting off the
heat which is incessantly generated  within.
Ihe greater the  heat which the body is
exposed  to,  or the more it is produced
widnn from other causes, as hot drinks
and excitement, the greater is the  perspi-
ration, and the more  actively is the heat
conducted off.  If the body is exposed to
great cold, the  operations of the skin are 
PERSPIRATION—PERU.                        43
weakened, perspiration  proceeds  more
slowly, caloric is more sparingly consumed,
and thus accumulates in the body.  Men
usually lose flesh in summer, and recover it
in winter, because the increased perspira-
tion dissolves and removes more substance
from  the body  in  the   former  season.
Therefore a man is cooled by sweat, and
in the dry heat of a fever is refreshed as
soon as a crisis produces perspiration.  An
interruption or even a disturbance of per-
spiration, for a  long time, must then pro-
duce  results iu die highest degree preju-
dicial to the health, and even dangerous to
life.   These results in a great measure de-
pend on the close connexion of the opera-
tions  of the skin with those of the internal
organs, and are the more stubborn and inju-
rious thelongerthe perspiration is impeded.
The increase of the internal warmth often
produces a  fever;  also  noxious  matters
are collected in the blood, from which it
should  be  freed ;  therefore  it changes
from  its  natural condition,  and an  un-
natrral excitement  is produced.   Finally,
the operation of the other organs of secre-
tion is immoderately increased,  because
they have to perform in part the office of
die, skin: thence result, after a c«. «i, rheum,
sore  throat, cough, also  serious  l--ternal
inflammations, diarrhaea, diabetes, biopsy,
protracted rheumatism, and various other
diseases.  In a physiological view, Wil-
 liam  Cruikshank's  Experiments  on  the
 Insensible  Perspiration  of the  Human
 Body (London, 1795) deserves mention.
   Perth ; a city of Scotland, capital of
 Perthshire, on the Tay, 39 miles north of
 Edinburgh ; lon. 3° 27' W. ;  lat. 56° 22'
 N.; population, 20,000.   It is situated on
 a low plain, under the Grampian hills: the
 sceuery around it is very picturesque, and
 die approach to it is uncommonly beauti-
 ful.  It has two beautiful meadows called
 Inches, each of which is about one and a
 half mile iu circuit.  It is a town of great
 antiquity, and  has been the scene of many
 important transactions recorded in Scot-
 tish  history.   It contains various houses
 of public worship, a theatre, a celebrated
 grammar school, an academy, and a lite-
 rary and antiquarian society, with a libra-
 ry.   The staple manufacture is linen; but
 of late the cotton manufacture has almost
 superseded it.   Besides  these, there are
 extensive manufactures of leather, boots,
 shoes and  gloves.   The  salmon fishery
 on the  Tay, near Perth, is very  exten-
 sive.
   Perturbations of the course of plan-
 ets are their deviations from  their regular
 elliptic course, produced by their mutual
gravitation.   The Newtonian discovery
of the  law of universal  gravity  threw
much  light on  this  important subject.
Newton has shown that all bodies are at-
tracted towards each other: hence every
planet gravitates  not  only  towards the
■,__t,  but also  towards. the other planets,
the moon not only towards the earth, but
particularly towards the sun; nay, even
towards Venus and Jupiter.   The regular
course of the planets in elliptic  orbits,
according to Kepler's laws, is effected by
the attraction of the sun, the course of the
moon by the attraction of the earth ;  de-
viations must, therefore, naturally  occur,
in the motion of the moon and planets, if
they  are acted on also by  other bodies.
Newton explained and determined part of
these deviations;  for  instance, the  pre-
cession of the equinoxes and the nutation
of the earth's  axis.  (See Viese articles.)
But  many  problems  which require  the
infinitesimal calculus for their solution, lira
left undetermined.  Claiiaut, D'Alembert
and  Euler subsequently occupied them-
selves with this subject;  but even their
solutions are  only approximations.  La-
place  finally found a formula universally
applicable,  which gives  the most exact
results, aid published the same  in  his
Mecanique Ctteste.  This great work is so
much condensed, that it requires a perfect
knowledge of analysis, and is, therefore,
unintelligible to many mathematical read-
ers.    Doctor Bowditch's translation and
commentary, unfolding the processes by
which  the results are obtained,  render
the study of this work comparatively easy.
Bohnenberger, in  his  Astronomy  (Tu-
bingen, 1811), treats this subject in a less
difficult manner than Laplace.
   Peru; a republic  of South America,
formerly a Spanish vicerovalty, lying be-
tween 3°20/  and 21° 307 S. lat., and be-
tween 67° and 86° W.  lon.; bounded N.
by Colombia (Quito) and  Brazil, to the E.
by Brazil and Bolivia, or Upper Peru; to the
S. by Buenos Ayres, and VV. by the Pacific
ocean; square miles, 426,000; population,
1,700,000.   In respect of physical geogra
phy, Peru may be divided into the  low
country on the coast (with  a hot  climate,
characterized by the total absence of rain,
the  want of which is imperfectly supplied
by dew and mists from  the ocean),  and
the  highlands, which are formed by  ele-
vated ridges (sierras), beginning about 65
 miles from the coast, and rising gradually
 to the Andes, of which,  in  fact, they are
 the lower steps.  This latter region contains
 lofty plains, from 8000 to 10,000 feet above
 the  level of the sea, and  numerous deep 
44
PERU.
 ralleys.  (See Andes, and South America.)
 The low districts on the coasts, which are
 supplied with water, or which lie on  the
 streams und rivers, are fruitful.  Besides
 the  streams  which  flow  down   the
 western declivities of the  Andes into  the
 Pacific  ocean, the  Marafion  or Amazon
 (q. v.),  and  the  Ucayale, a  tributary of
 the Amazon, are the principal  rivers. The
 great plain, called the Pampas del Sacra-
 mento (see Pampas),  on the  Ucayale, is
 remarkable for its fertility.  Earthquakes
 aud  sand-spouts sometimes commit terri-
 ble ravages.  In  the  high lands  the  cli-
 mate is severe, but healthy.  A». nong the
 animal and vegetable productions of Peru
 are lamas, vicunas, guanacos, pearl mus-
 cles,  purple-fish, cochineal,  siik-vvorms,
 corn, wine, tobacco,  sugar, coffee, cocoa,
 vanilla,  cotton, Peruviau  bark, Peruvian
 balsam, indigo, ginger, cinnamon, &c.  Pe-
 ru is particularly rich in  gold and silver.
 Humboldt reckoned the value of the quan-
 tity of  these metals,  obtained  yearly, at
 more than $6,000,000.  (See Mines, and
 South America.)   Platina, copper, tin, lead,
 quicksilver, preciout stones, salt, alum,
 saltpetre, coal, sulphur, &c, are also found.
 The capital of Peru is Lima.   The  re-
 public is divided into seven intendeiicies—
 Arequipa, Cusco, Guamanga, Guanca Ve-
 lica, Lima, Tarma and Truxillo,—which
 are subdivided into provinces.  An exten-
 sive tract of country in  the north-eastern
 part, and not included in these divisions, is
 inhabited by independent Indians.  The
population  is composed   of European
 Spaniards, Creoles (q. v.), metis or mesti-
 zoes (q. v.), Indians, negroes  and mulat-
 toes.  The Creoles are, since  the  revolu-
 tion, the most influential class.   The  In-
 dians and mestizos form the most nume-
 rous body.  By  the constitution of 1828,
 slavery  is totally abolished,  and  a slave
 brought  into the country  becomes free.
 The wealth of  Peru has  been entirely
 owing to its mines, the richness of which,
 with the sterility of the soil, has prevented
 much attention being paid to  agriculture.
 The whale fishery on the coasts, and  the
 commerce of the country, are almost  en-
 tirely in the hands of the  Anglo-Ameri-
 cans of the U. States, and  of the English.
 Its long extent of coast, with numerous
 bays, harbors and  road-steads,  affords
 great facilities for commerce.  The  ex-
 ports of Peru are copper, cocoa, Peruvian
 bark, wool (of sheep and the vicuna), and
 chinchilla furs; imports, silk goods, linen,
 woollen goods, wine, cottons, &c.  Min-
 ing operations are impeded by the defi-
 ciency of quicksilver and wood  ;  there
 are 4 copper, 4  quicksilver, 12 lead, and
 680 silver mines, and 70  gold  mines and
 washings.   The  richest silver  mines are
 those of Pasco and Lauricocha; they lie
 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, and
 yield  ^2,000,000 annually.   The  mines
 of Chota, or Gualgayoc,  in Truxillo, are
 richer than  those  of Potosi;  they arc
 13,385 feet above the level of the sea, and
 yield  about 44,000 pounds of silver annu-
 ally.  Those of Huantajaya, in  Arica, in a
 dry desert,  yield  yearly  52,000 pounds.
 Two  masses of  native silver  have been
 found here, weighing,  ono 225, the other
 890 pounds.  Gold is obtained  in Tarma,
 from  the mines of Pataz and Huilies, and
 in the washings on the banks of the  Up-
 per Muraiion.  According to the traditions
 of the Peruvians, the early civilization of
 their country was the work of Manco Ca-
 pac (q. v.), who reclaimed their ancestors
 from  barbarism, and introduced art,  law
 and religion among them.  According to
 Garcilaso de la  Vega  (q. v.),  this  event
 occurred towards the  beginning of the
 twelfth century.   The successors of Man-
 co Capac continued to  reign   until  the
 arrival of the Spaniards  in the country.
 Atahuallpa,  the fifteenth  iuca (q, v.), was
 defeated and put to death by Pizarro (q. v.),
 who,  with Almagro (q. v.), had entered
 Peru  at the head of a small Spanish force,
 in 1532, and rapidly reduced it  to submis-
 sion.  Of the ancient Peruvians, we have
 yet some remarkable monuments remain-
 ing, such as their  roads  (called by  the
 Spaniards Camini del Inca), which trav-
 ersed  the empire in every direction, for-
 tresses, temples and palaces, which  prove
 their  mechanical skill.  They  were  ac-
 quainted  with the arts of mining, of work-
 ing in gold  and  silver, of polishing pre-
 cious  stones, and of sculpture. Their agri-
 cultural labors, and their manufactures of
 wool,  &c, prove  their intelligence and
 industry.  (See  Garcilaso de  la Vega's
 Historia  de  las Antiguedades y  Conquista
del Peru.)  Pizarro, having  put the inca
 to death,  took possesion of Cusco and its
 immense treasures.  The  cruelties which
 were  practised by the  Spaniards,  finally
came  to the ears of Charles V, who caused
a code of laws to be drawn up for  the
government  of the American conquests,
and established an audiencia at  Lima, the
president of which was appointed govern-
or of Peru, in  1543.   Still  the natives
were  subject to  enormities  of  the  most
atrocious character,  as  long as the first
murdering and robbing conquerors  sur-
vived ; and, for a long series of generations
afterwards, to the most  arbitrary and op- 
PERU.                                  45
pressive acts of a cruel government.  The
timid and unwarlike Peruvians were  re-
peatedly driven to rebel against their hard
masters; one  of the most celebrated of
these revolts was that headed by Tupac
Amaru, in 1780.  (See Tupac Amaru.)  In
1718, the province of Quito, which  had
previously formed a part of the vice-royalty
of Peru, was  annexed to  New  Grenada;
•*nd, in 1778, the provinces of Upper Peru
 see Bolivia) were attached to the govern-
ment of Buenos Ay res.   On  the invasion
of the Spanish peninsula  by the French,
iu 1808, the first symptoms of revolt  be-
gan to show themselves in Peru, as in  the
other Spanish-American colonies ; but the
Spaniards were  powerful enough to  re-
press this spirit  until 1821, when general
San Martin,  at the head of a Chilean force
(see Chile),  obtained  possession of Lima,
and  the independence of Peru was  de-
clared (July 15).   August 3d, general San
Martin was declared protector of the new
republic, with the supreme  power, civil
aud military.  Callao capitulated Septem-
ber 19.   The  Spanish generals La Serna
tmd Cauterac  retreated to the mountains,-
and kept possession of Cusco.  In March,
182*2, the protector assembled a Peruvian
coi.£.rt-s at Lima, composed principally
of his partisans, which drew up the plan
of a  constitution :  it provided  that  the
Catholic religion should  be  the  religion
of the state; that the legislative authority
should be vested in the representatives of
the people ; that the freedom of the press,
and  the liberty  of person and property,
should  be  secured ;  the  abolition of the
slave-trade,  of the tribute exacted from
the Indians, and of the compulsory labor
to which they had been subject, was  pro-
vided for; a senate was to nominate to the
executive t.uthorities the  civil and eccle-
siastical  olficers,  and,  in extraordinary
cases, convoke a congress.  Much dissat-
isfaction was  produced by this plan, as
being too  monarchical in its principles.
In 1823, San  Martin retired, and Lamar
(q. v,) was placed at the head of the gov-
ernment, the marquis of Torrctagle being
governor of the capital.   Meanwhile La
Serna had  maintained himself, and col-
lected new forces in  Upper Peru,  ami
defeated the  republican  troops  at  Mo-
quegna, Jan. 20, 1823.  But the divisions
of the  Spanish  commanders, La Serna,
Valdez, Cauterac and Olaneta, saved  Pe-
ru.   Riva-Aguero, who had assumed die
presidency,  called on the  Colombians for
assistance.   General Sucre was despatched
to the aid of the  Peruvians; he compelled
Cauterac  to evacuate Lima, which had
fallen into his hands, and advanced to Up-
per Peru, while Bolivar entered Lima, and
received the title oflibcrtador, with supreme
military power.  Bolivar obliged Riva-
Aguero (who had still  continued to exer-
cise his authority in Truxillo) to surrender
and leave the country, and, in November,
the Peruvian congress adopted a constitu-
tion on the model of that of the U. States
of North America, which was not to have
effect until the expiration of Bolivar's dic-
tatorship.   La Serna  had,  meanwhile,
collected a large army in Upper Peru, but
was prevented from attempting any thing
against the patriots, by the opposition ot
Olaneta, who was at the head of the abso-
lutists, while La Serna had declared him-
self a  constitutionalist.  Torretagle, who
had been declared president of the repub-
lic, was at the  head  of a party, which was
working in secret against the influence of
the liberator.   Whilst things were in this
state, the garrison of Callao (Feb. 5, 1824)
hoisted Spanish colors, and opened the
fortress to the Spanish ships of war which
were blockading  the  harbor.   In  this
emergency, congress conferred unlimited
civil and military power on the dictator,
who evacuated Lima on the 27th.   Cau-
terac entered the capital on die 29th, and
Torretagle  now joined the royalists.  The
war between  the  royalists was again re-
newed, and was again the means of saving
Peru.  Bolivar, having artfully drawn Cau-
terac into the plains of Junin, gained some
advantages over him on the 6th of Au-
gust, and compelled the royalists to evacu-
ate Lima ;  general Rodil, however, threw
himself into  Callao.   After die patriots
had suffered  several disasters, Sucre fell
back  into  an  advantageous  position, at
Ayacucho, and determined to await the
enemy.  Dec. 9, 1824, the patriots,  5780
strong, were attacked  by a royalist  force
of 9310,  and gained a complete victory.
La Serna and Valdez were made prisoners,
and Cauterac signed a capitulation on the
field, by which it was stipulated that the
royalist forces should lay down their arms,
and evacuate the whole of the country, to
the Dcsaguadero.   The battle of Ayacu-
cho (q. v.) was decisive of the  fate of
South  America.  General  Rodil refused
to surrender Callao, and that fortress held
out till Jan. 22,1826, when it was reduced
by famine.  Olaneta still maintained him-
self, for a  time, in Upper Peru, but, in
1825, was totally routed by general Sucre.
Of the events which followed in Peru, the
suspicious  conduct of  Bolivar,  and the
constitution which  he attempted to force
upon the country,  we have given an ac- 
46
PERU—PESTALOZZI.
 count in the articles Bolivar and Bolivia.
 The general  disaffection and suspicion
 which had been excited among the paU'i-
 ots of Peri, resulted in the revolution of
 January,  1827, which wa» effected  by the
 cooperation of the Colombian troops left
 in Peru, who were unwilling to  serve as
 the  instruments of  imposing  a yoke on
 their Peruvian allies, and  were fearful of
 the  designs of Buuvar on the  liberties of
 their own countiy. The Bolivian constitu-
 tion was abolished,and the congress, which
 convened in May, declared the Peruvian
 constitution of 1823 to be in  force, and
 chose general Lamar president of the re-
 public.  April 19, 1828, a new constitu-
 tion was adopted, to be in force until 1833,
 when a general convention is  to be sum-
 moned to revise and amend it.  In  June,
 the Bolivians (who were equally disgusted
 with the  code which had been imposed
 on them  by Bolivar) requested aid from
 the  Peruvians,  to enable  them to  throw
 off the yoke ; and colonel Gamarra was
 despatched, at  the  head  of a Peruvian
 army, to  their assistance.  He  deposed
 Sucre,  who  had   been  chosen  presi-
 dent for life. (See Bolivia.)  These meas-
 ures  were followed  by a  declaration of
 war against Peru by Bolivar.   Lamar ac-
 cordingly entered the Colombian territory
 at the head of a large force, but was de-
 feated, February 29, 1829, by general Su-
 cre at Tarqui.   The imbecility  which La-
 mar had manifested on this occasion, gave
 rise to a conspiracy against him,  and he
 was  deposed by general La Fuentc,  June
 29.   August 31,  the congress met, and
 chose general  Gamarra president.   The
 hostilities  with Colombia were terminated
 by the treaty of September 22,  1829.—
 See Hall's Journal written on the Coasts of
 Chile,  Peru,  and  Mexico ;  Stevenson's
 Twenty Years' Residence in South America
 (London, 1825, 3 vols.); the Amei-ican An-
 nual Register (vols. 1, 2, and 3).
   Perugia ; a delegation or province of
 Italy, in the States of the Church, includ-
 ing the ci-devant Perugino, watered by
 the Tiber  and the lake of Perugia ;  pop-
 ulation, 183,000.
   Perugia (anciently Perusia,  and Peru-
sium); a city of Italy, capital of a delega-
tion in die States of the Church, twenty-
seven miles north-north-west of Spoleto,
sixty south-east of Florence, seventy-two
north of Rome; lon. 12° 17' E.; lat. 43°
&  N.; population, 30,000; a bishop's see.
It  stands on the summit of a hill, near the
Tib-r, having one of the most delightful
situations in all Italy.  It is tolerably well
built, and contains forty-five churches and
 forty-eight  convents, which  are  by  no
 means elegant,  several hospitals, and a
 university on a small scale.  It has manu-
 factures of velvet and silk stuffs, and con-
 siderable traffic in corn, cattle, wool, silk,
 oil and brandy.   The surrounding coun-
 try is very rich.  The citadel was built by
 pope Paul III.  Perugia was, in the times
 of the Romans, one of the twelve  princi-
 pal Etruscan cities.  It  suffered much  by
 the irruptions of the barbarians, and again
 by the contests  between the Guelfs and
 Gibelines.  (See Guelfs.)
   Perugia, Lake ;  the ancient Thrssy-
 mene.  (q. v.)
   Perugino.  Pietro Vanucci, t;urnamed
 II Perugino, the founder  of the Roman
 school  of painting,  born   at  Citta della
 Pieve, in 1446, received the rights of citi-
 zenship in Perugia (whence his surname),
 and, at an early  age, distinguished him-
 self by his  works.   Bonfigli and  Pietro
 della Francesca were probably his mas-
 ters.  His pictures have much grace, and
 are particularly successful in female and
 youthful figures.  The turns of his heads
 are noble, and his coloring is lovely.   A
 certain hardness and dryness in the forms,
 and poverty in  the  drapery, were the
 faults of his age, from  which he did not
 wholly escape.   Tranquillity and  child-
 ish  simplicity   characterize  Ins  works,
 which are  defective in invention.  His
 frescoes are softer and in better keeping
 than  his  other  productions, as the fine
 specimens in Perugia, Rome, Bologna and
 Florence  prove,  Raphael is his most
 celebrated disciple.
   Peruke.   (See Wig.)
   Peruvian Bark.  (See Bark.)
   Pervigilia;  those feasts of  the an-
 cients which were celebrated during the
 night in honor of certain deities, particu-
 larly  Ceres, Venus, and  Apollo.   The
 same name was  given to nocturnal ban-
 quets in general.
   Pestalozzi, John Henry, one of the
 most distinguished men  of  modern times
 for his efforts in  the  cause  of education,
 was born January 12, 1746, at Zurich,  in
Switzerland, and was educated by pious
relations,  after  the death  of his  father,
who had been a physician.   Even  when
very young, he  manifested strong relig-
ious feelings, a quick sense of right, com-
passion towards the poor, and a fondness
for young children.  He had a great in-
clination for the  study of languages and
theology ; but, after an vnsuccessful at-
tempt to preach, he  studied law.   Some
treatises of his on  preparation for a pro-
fession,  and on Spartan  legislation, and 
PESTALOZZI.
47
the translation of some  speeches  of De-
mosthenes,  which  he  published, were
proofs of his diligence and talents.  But
Rousseau's Emile filled him with a dislike
for the habits of a learned life, and for
the general  system of education  in Eu-
rope ; and a dangerous  illness,  occasion-
ed uy excessive study, induced him, im-
mediately after his recovery, to bum die
greater part of the extracts and  collec-
tions which he had made during his study
of the history of his countiy and of law,
and to become a farmer.  He studied ag-
riculture with a  farmer  near Berne, and
then bought a piece of land in the neigh-
borhood, built a  house,  which  he called
Neuhof,  and began  the life of a  farmer
when he was twenty-two years old.  He
soon  married, and became  concerned,
dirough his wife's relations, in a calico
manufactory.  In these  situations, he be-
came  acquainted with the  moral wretch-
edness of the lowest classes, and, in 1775,
began his career of instruction by  the ad-
mission of the children of paupers into
his house.   He  soon saw himself sur-
rounded by more than fifty children, to
whom he was a  teacher and father.  He
had no aid  from others, and, though he
worked with the  children when he was
not employed in teaching them, or in his
private affairs, he had not the practical tal-
ent necessary to  turn the labor of his little
workmen to account.  His philanthropic
and noble  self-denial was derided ; his
confidence was abused ; his own affairs
declined; and he was generally consider-
ed as a well-meaning enthusiast.  But he
had formed his purpose,  and was not to
be diverted from it; and, amidst straiten-
ed circumstances, he collected that  knowl-
edge  of the state of the lower  classes
Which is set forth  so admirably in his
novel  Lienhardt und Gertrud  (1781,  4
vols.),—a wc/k which has exerted a re-
markable influence.  The description in
this work  of the school  at Bannal con-
tains many characteristic traits  of Pesta-
lozzi's life, at that time, at Neuhof.  To
illustrate this novel, he  wrote, in 1782,
Christoph  und Else,  besides Abendstun-
den eines Einsiedlers, in Iselin's Ephem-
eriden, in which he gi ves the first account
of his method;  a Schwtizerblatt fur das
Volk  (1782 and  1783) ; a  Treatise on
Legislation and Infanticide, and Inquiries
into the Course of Nature in  the  Devel-
opement of Man (1797),—which are full
of thought  (all in German).   The latter
work  was written at a time when  Pesta-
lozzi had suffered  many  vexations and
misfortunes.  The want of all support at
last obliged him to give up an undertak-
ing whith was too  great for the means
of an individual.   In 1798, the directory
of Switzerland invited him to establish a
house  of  education at Stanz for poor
children.  He became here the  teacher,
father, and,  we  must add,  servant to
eighty children,  of  the  lowest classes.
But war,  and the sflorts  of a party  un-
friendly to his schi^ne,  destroyed   this
establishment after a year. Pestalozzi now
took charge  of a school  at  Burgdorf,
where he also received  pupils, who paid
for  their instruction, so that he was ena-
bled to employ able assistants. A publica-
tion on the application of his  method by
mothers,  which appeared  in 1801, under
the   title   How  Gertrude teaches  her
Children (in German), and  the elementary
books, Book of Mothers (in German),  and
iheAnschauungslehre dir Zahknverhaltnisse
(the Doctrine  of Numerical Relations con-
veyed by  Perceptions of Form*), found
well-disposed readers.   But  Pestalozzi
brought  new vexations on  himself by
mingling in politics.  He was a  decided
democrat and man of the people, who, in
1802, sent him as their delegate to the  first
consul; and,  in 1802,  he  published  his
Views on  Subjects to which the  Legisla-
ture of Helvetia should chiefly direct its
Attention, which made the  higher classes
unfriendly to  him.  His institution, in the
mean while,  flourished.  In 1804, he re-
moved,  with  his  school,  to  Munchen-
Buchsee,  where he entered into  a nearer
connexion with Fellenberg, and, in  the
same  year, to  Yverdun   (q. v.), where
he occupied the castle given to  him by
government   Pestalozzi's method  has
become the subject of animated discus-
sion since the beginning of the nineteenth
centuiy,  partly owing to  the opposition
which new schemes  always meet with,
and partly to  the extravagance of his ad-
mirers.   Pestalozzi was a  man of great
genius and depth of feeling, full of the
spirit of self-sacrifice, devoted to the  no-
ble  purpose  of aiding mankind h  the
most effectual way, by the instruction of
the  poor and  abandoned, in which h. was
warmly engaged until his  death.   He
loved  liberty,  and believed that its cause
would be most  promoted by  die educa-
tion of the most neglected.  His genius,
moreover, enabled him to  devise  the
most  effectual  plans  for  obtaining  this
end.  But he was not sufficiendy practi-
cal properly to direct the  economy of a
large  establishment for instruction, and
  * Not an exact translation, but as near as we
can give it, without a long paraphrase. 
48
PESTALOZZI—PETECCHLE.
to employ  to the most advantage the tal-
ents of many teachers.  He was void  of
worldly prudence, and this want was  an
abundant source of vexations to him and
others throughout his life.  The idea  of
communicating all instruction by imme-
diate atjlres« to the sensations or concep-
tions, and effecting the formation of the
child by constantly calling all his powers
into exercu-e,  instead  of making him a
mere passive recipient, selecting the sub-
jects of study in such  a  way that  each
step shall best aid the further progress of
the pupil, is original with him.  It is not
the acquisition of skill in reckoning, read-
ing, writing, drawing, s'vgii -z, £.e., but
the exercise of the powers of the child  by
means of these subjects, which Pestalozzi
makes the object  of elementary  educa-
tion.  The principles of his method are
clearly developed in his Wochenschriftfur
Menschenbildung (3d and 4th vols.,  1810
and 1812).  This  publication,  with the
reply of his assailant, Niederer, to the Re-
port on Pestalozzi's Institution  at Yver-
dun (addressed to the diet in 1810), Gru-
ner's Letters from Burgdorf (in German,
in 1806),  and Johannsen's  Criticism  of
Pestalozzi's Method (in German, 1804),
afford  a  satisfactory view of his system.
He himself did not consider  his system
entirely complete.  From Spain, France,
Prussia, and many other countries, testi-
monies of honor and regard were sent to
him from the governments ; and his pu-
fiils have spread as far as European civi-
ization extends    His exterior was ex-
tremely  simple.   His  negligent  black
dress, his broad Swiss dialect, and blunt
manners, without any kind of ceremony,
showed the honest Swiss.  In 1818,  he
undertook a new edition of his complete
works, the proceeds of which he destined
for a new school for poor children.   Ho
died February 17, 1827, at Brugg, in Aar-
gau.—See his  autobiography, The Scenes
of my Life while at the Head of my Institu-
tions of Education at Burgdorf and Yfer-
dun (Leipsic, 1826); also Ed. Biber's Me-
moirs on Pestalozzi and his Plan of Educa-
tion (London, 1831).
   Pesth, or Pest (anciently Transacin-
cum); a city of Hungary, on the Danube,
opposiie to Buda,  with  which it is  con-
nected by a bridge of boats three quarters
of a mile long ;  90  miles  south-east  of
Presburg, 113 south-east of Vienna; lon.
19° 14' E.; lat. 47° 32' N.;  population,
61,502, of which  45,000  are Catholics.
Buda is the residence of the viceroy, and
accounted  the capital of  Hungary, yet
Pesth is the seat  of the high courts of jus-
tice, and the place of meeting for the diet
It is situated on  a plain ; the streets are
tolerably  spacious and  regular, and  the
houses  substantial, but  not elegant.   It
contains eleven  Catholic, one  Lutheran,
one Reformed, and two Greek churches,
two synagogues, four convents, three hos-
pitals, a university, a gymnasium, a public
library, and a royal museum.  The uni-
versity was transferred hither  from Buda
in 1784, and is the  only one in Hungary.
It has four faculties, and  is richly endow-
ed, having a library of 60,000 volumes, a
botanic garden, an observatory, &c.  The
number of regular professors is 43, and
the number of students is about 1000;
and in the gymnasium, 701.  The lectures
in the university are generally  given  in
Latin.   Pesth is  the most populous and
most commercial town in Hungary.   The
Danube affords means of intercourse with
a considerable  tract of country.  There
are four annusi  fairs, which  are nume-
rously   attended.    The  manufactures
comprise  silk, cotton, leather,  jtwellery,
musical instruments, and tobacco.
   Pestilence.  (See Plagw, and Spas-
modic Chole-a.)
   Pestum, or Pesto.  (See Pmstum.)
   Petal ;  among botanists,  an appella-
tion given to the flower  leaves, in opposi-
tion to the folia, or common leaves.
  Petalite;  a  mineral hist  discovered
in the  mine of Uto, in Sweden, and  in-
teresting as having led  to  the discoveiy
of a new alkali.   (See Lithia.)  It is pos-
sessed  of the following  properties: mas-
sive;  fracture splintery and  imperfectly
conchoidr ; lustre resinous ; color white,
occasionally  tinged  with  red or blue ;
translucent; tough;h;:tlnessthesame with
that of feldspar; speciuc gravity, 2.439.  It
consists of silex 79.21, alumine 17.22, and
lithia 5.76.  If exposed to  a high degree
of heat  before the  blow-pipe, it  becomes
glassy, semi-transparent and  white; but
melts with difficulty, and only on the
edges.   When  gently heated, it emits a
blue  phosphorescent light.   This rare
substance is found in Massachusetts, at
Bolton,  in a lime  quarry, associated with
pyroxene, sphene r.nd scapolite.
  Petaro, in  the art of war; a metal-
lic engine, somewhat resembling a high-
crowned hat, which is loaded with powdr.
Its use is, in a clandestine attack, to break
down gates, bridges, banners, &c, to which
it  is  hung, by means of a wooden plank
attached to it.   It is also used in counter-
mines, to break througu the enemy's gal-
leries, and give their mines vent
  Petecchije.  (See Plague) 
PETER I.                               49
   Peter I, Alexiewitsch, the Great, czar
and emperor of Russia, born at Moscow,
May 30  (June  11, new style), 1672, was
the eldest child of the czar Alexis Michai-
lowitsch, by his second wife, Natalia Kiri-
lowna,  daughter  of  a Russian  boiar.
Blessed with a healthy constitution and a
vigorous mind, Peter attracted general at-
tention while he was but a child; and Alexis
wished to pass  by his two elder sons, the
sickly Feodor  and the feeble Ivan,  and
appoint  Peter  bis successor.   But the
ambitious Sophia, daughter  of Alexis by
his first marriage, prevented  the elevation
of her half-brother.  Feodor III, howev-
er, the successor of Alexis  (1676—1682),
passed over Ivan, and named Peter,  yet a
minor, his  successor.   On  the  death of
Feodor, Peter was accordingly  proclaim-
ed czar.  But Sophia excited a rebellion
of the  Strelitzes, by the  report  that Ivan
had been put to death  by Peter, and that
her own destruction was resolved upon.
When  Ivan  afterwards appeared,  the
Strelitzes exclaimed," Thou art our czar!"
"I will  be so," answered the trembling
Ivan, "only on condition that  my dear
brother  shall share  my  throne."  Peter
was, therefore, crowned with Ivan, June
23, 16c?2.  The Strelitzes again  rebelled;
but Peter  escaped with his  mother to a
monastery,  which protected him from the
fury of  the  insurgents.  In the  mean
time, the cavalry of the  czar hastened to
his rescue,  and overpowered the rebels,
thirty of  whom were beheaded to prevent
future seditions.  But Sophia, taking ad-
vantage of the weakness of Ivan and the
youth of Peter, became constantly more
assuming: her name was finally subscribed
to the imperial  ukases  with  those of the
two czars, and her image was stamped on
the reverse of  the coins.  Peter, mean-
while, was  silently developing his manly
and warlike spirit  He formed two compa-
nies of soldiers from the young men of his
own age, in whose ranks he himself serv-
ed.  Their commander  was the young
Lefort  (q. v.)   Sophia  considered this
amusement as well calculated to remove
her brother from state  affairs, and heard
with pleasure of the excesses in which
Peter and his  favorites indulged.   But the
accomplished and enthusiastic Lefort was
instilling  a large amount   of  valuable
knowledge  into the mind of the inquisi-
tive czar, in whom the early instructions
of Sotovv  (an  experienced  diplomatist),
and  Francis Timmermann  (a  German
mathematician), and the lessons  of his
mother, had already laid a solid foundation
for the improvement  of his mind aud the
   vol. x.           5
 formation of his character.  Sophia  her-
 self soon perceived his superior talents,
 when, in the beginning of 1688, he ap-
 peared, for  the  first  time, in the privy
 council.   In 1689,  Peter's  marriage with
 Eudoxia Federowna  Lapuchin, effected
 through  the  influence  of his prudent
 mother,  withdrew him from bis former
 orgies, and gave him  a new hold on the
 affections of the people.  Sophia, having
 desired to be present, as regent, at a re-
 ligious celebration, at  which the czars
 themselves were commonly present, Peter
 opposed  it  in vain;  and, a few faithful
 Strelitzes having betrayed to him her in-
 tention to assassinate  him with his  wife,
 mother, and sister,  he took refuge  with
 them in the  monastery of Trcizkoi.  Hero
 he summoned to his aid  general Gordon,
 a Scotchman, who, w'th all the foreign
 officers, immediately  hastened  to  Peter.
 The czar soon found himself surrounded
 by  numerous friends, and  Sophia  was
 obliged to take the veil.  Peter then mad*
 a solemn entry into  Moscow, and, in sight
 of all the people, embraced  his brother
 Ivan, who left all the power in the more
 able hands of his brother.  The first aim
 of Peter was the formation of a standing
 army, according to  the European tactics.
 Lefort and Gordon trained the new troops,
 among whom were a great  number of
 Huguenots, who had fled to Russia, after
 the repeal of the edict of Nantes.  Peter
 soon saw himself surrounded  by 20,000
 well disciplined  troops, and, at the same
 time, engaged iu forming a naval  force
 His father, Alexis, desirous  to trade with
 Persia by means of  the Caspian  sea, had
 procured a ship to be built by some Dutch
 shipwrights, which arrived  at Astrachan,
 but was there burned by the Cossacks,
 and of the crew only two, one of whom
 was  the gunner, Karsten Brand, return-
 ed to Moscow.  Brand now became  Pe-
 ter's  principal ship-builder,  and,  in 1693,
 the emperor sailed  to Archangel in  his
 own  ship, the St.  Peter,  to  purchase
 clothes for his army.   In 1794,  lie enter-
ed Archangel  with  several  Russian  ves-
sels,  and  appointed  prince Romanadow-
ski admiral of the fleet.  Regarding com-
merce as of  the utmost importance for
the civilization of his subjects, he cast his
eyes upon the Black and  Baltic seas, into
which the great rivers of his empire emp-
tied themselves.  Being at war with  the
 Porte, he first turned his attention to tlie
outlet of the  Don ; at this point, he wish-
ed to conquer Azoph,  to procure an em-
porium on the Black sea.   In July, 1695,
he commenced the attack  by land,  but 
50
PETER I.
soon found  it necessary to change  the
storming to a blockade.  In the  mean
time, he hastened back to Moscow, em-
braced his dying brother Ivan, and furnish-
ed his subjects, who were suffering from
the bad crops, with corn from Riga and
Dantzic, in Russian ships.  At  the same
time,  he collected skilful  engineers and
artillerists from Austria, Brandenburg and
Holland, and introduced greater uniformi-
ty into the army, of which the boiar Alexis
Semenowitsch was the  nominal  com-
mander, while Gordon, Lefort and  Golo-
win were in fact its soul.  The new ship-
yard, at Woronesch, on the Don, furnished
him, as  early as 1696, with a fleet of 23
galleys, two galleasses, and four fire-ships,
withWhich he defeated the Turkish fleet,
in sight of Azoph.  All relief by sea be-
ing now cut off, he pushed the siege with
renewed vigor, and in  two months (July
29) the Russians entered Azoph. To se-
cure the possession of this key to  the
Black sea, Peter  ordered fifty-five  ships
of war to be built, and a canal to be con-
structed connecting the  Volga  and  the
Don, and  sent  a number of the  young
nobles to Italy and Holland, to  learn the
art of ship-building, and to Germauy to
become acquainted with  military  disci-
pline.   After  having suppressed (Feb. 2.
1697)  a conspiracy of the Strelitzes and
several noblemen against his life, in which
he displayed much personal courage, he
travelled in foreign countries.  The affairs
of the  government, during his absence,
were committed to prince Romanadowski
ami three boiars;  and the Strelitzes were
dispersed throughout the  country,  to se-
cure the internal tranquillity of the empire.
He set out on bis celebrated journey in
April, 1697, travelling, not in the charac-
ter of czar,  but as a member of an em-
bassy, which was to visit  foreign courts,
according to the old  Russian custom.
Having passed through  Esthonia, Livonia
(countries then  belonging to  Sweden),
Brandenburg, Hanover and Westphalia, he
arrived at Amsterdam, where  he worked,
incognito, in a Dutch ship-yard. From Am-
sterdam, he went to the village of Saardam,
where he appeared in the dress of his own
country, and caused himself to be enrolled
among the workmen, under  the name of
Peter Michaeloff.  Here he lived in a little
hut for seven weeks, made his  own bed,
and prepared his  own food, corresponded
with his ministers at home, and  labored at
the same time in  ship-building.  He then
returned to Amsterdam, and superintend-
ed the building of a  ship of war of sixty
guns, which he sent to Archangel.  Noth-
ing passed him  unobserved: he caused
every thing to be explained to  him, and
even" performed several surgical operations.
The petition of the Jews of Holland to be
received into his country he refused.  He
was induced,  by his love for the sea, to
accept  the invitation of king William III
to visit London.  Here Pete»- resided in
the royal  ship-yard, and  often  declared
that, if he were not czar of Russia, he
would be  an  English admiral.  He took
into his service upwards of 500 persons—
officers, engineers, cannoneers,  surgeons,
&c. He  received a doctorate  from  the
university  of Oxford, and, after a stay of
three months, went  through Holland and
Dresden to Vienna.   But an insurrection
of the  Strelitzes  induced him  to hasten
home, and he arrived at  Moscow Sept.
4, 1698.   The insurrection  had  already
been suppressed  by Gordon; but Peter
erected a  bloody tribunal; every  day o"
the succeeding month saw the  blood of
the rebels flow;  and as  there  were  the
strongest reasons  to suspect his  sister So-
phia of being the author of this disturb-
ance, he caused  twenty-eight gibbets tr
be erected, and 130  of the conspirators to
be executed before  her monastery ;  and
three of them, who  had drawn  up ii pe-
tition to  Sophia, were bung before  the
windows ot her cell, with  the petitions ir.
their hands.   Five hundred were  banish-
ed ; the corps of the  Strelitzes was abolish-
ed, and the last  remains  finally  becamf
extinct in  Astiuchan in  1705.  It  we
probably  merely from  personal  dislik'.
that he  accused his wife Eudoxia, wh
was impatient of his amours, of being en
gaged in  the  conspiracy.   She was ban
isbed to Suzdal, where she was  obligeu
to take the veil, under the name of Helen.
To reward his faithful adherents, he estab-
lished the order  of St. Andrew,  August
30, 1698, which  Golowin was the fii>r to
receive.  The death of his favorite Lefort
and of Gordon plunged him into the deep-
est grief.  Menzikoff (q. v.), who rose from
obscurity by his talents and activity, now
became the favorite of Peter.  He sup-
plied the place of the Strelitzes by twen-
ty-seven new  regiments of infantry,  and
two of dragoons I in ali 32,029 men), who,
within three months, were disciplined and
brought into inarching order. Nothing but
merit and  length of services was regarded
in the appointment of officers.  Peter de-
voted himself with incessant activity to the
internal regulation of his empire, which
assumed, by degrees, the  appearance  of a
new creation.   The manner of  collecting
the public taxes was simplified ; the Ger- 
PETER I.
51
man costume was introduced ;  beards be-
gan  to disappear;  the numerous retinue
of the  boiars was diminished;  foreign
travel was  in a  manner  necessary to se-
cure the prince's favor;  printing presses
were set up, and useful works introduced;
schools were established  in all the large
towns;  and new ecclesiastical institutions
organi/ d.   When  the patriarch Adrian
died, i.i. Moscow,  in  1700, the  cznr left
this office,  but little inferior in authority
to the papal, unfilled.  The armistice of
two  years  between Russia and Turkey,
stipulated in the peace of Carlovitza, be-
tween the  Porte and  Austria,  was pro-
longed (1700) to thirty years ;  but, at the
same  time, war  was declared  against
Sweden.   Patkul (q. v.) had now matured
the  alliance of the czar with Augustus,
king of Poland, and  no indications of
good will 'it the part of the young Charles
XII, of;' veden, could divert  Peter from
his desig: %  (See  Northern War.)  Peter
occupied lngiia, and attacked Narva. The
young king of Sweden (see Charles XII)
flew  to  its relief;  and  defeated  38,000
Russians with dOOO Swedes,  November,
30, 1700.   This defeat did not shake the
resolution  of Peter.  " I know,"  said  he,
"that the Swedes will often defeat us, but
we are lr.iuing.  Our turn  to  conquer
will come ut last."  Fresh troops were
immediately assembled,  arms  were  pro-
vided, and  the victory of the Russians over
the  Swedes on the Embach (Jan. 1,1702),
laid the first foundation  for their future
triumphs.   Noteburg (which  received
from Peter the name of Schlusselburg) and
Marienburg were  taken ; among the in-
habitants of the latter, who were carried
into Russia, was  the  orphan  Catharine.
(q. v.)  After a triumphal entry into Mos-
cow, and a short  delay at Woronez, Pe-
ter  returned to the theatre  of  the war
on the  Baltic, where Menzikoff had been
throwing  up  fortifications  for the  pro-
tection of  the new docks, at the influx  of
the  Olonza into lake Ladoga.  For the
same  purpose, on  the first of May, Peter
took Nyenschantz, a fortress at the mouth
of the Neva.  Four days after, with thirty
small vessels, on board of which he served
ns captain  of bombardiers,  he  took two
Swedish ships of war at the mouth of the
same river.  To reward him  for his ser-
vices  on this occasion, admiral  Golowin
created him knight of St. Andrew.   As
Nyenschantz was too far from the sea,
and  not sufficiently  secure, Peter deter-
mined to construct a  new fort, to protect
the  mouth of the Neva.   lie  here built a
small  wooden  hut,  in  tin; Dutch style,
from which he  superintended  his  new
work.  May 27,  1703, the foundation of
the fortress was laid, which the czar called
St.  Petersburg.   The  work was com-
menced under the direction  of an Italian
architect, and 20,CC0 men, from every part
of the empire, were soon employed upon
it  While engaged in this work, he deter-
mined to build a  city, which  should serve
as a commercial emporium, to  connect
Russia with the  rest of Europe.   In four
months, the fortress of St. Petersburg was
co;i dieted, and the city  was also gradually
rising.   Many of the workmen, unwilling
to undertake  the  long journey  to  their
homes, settled here, where they were be-
sides welcomed by the czar,  as they  were
serviceable in erecting houses  for  the
rich.   Many Swedes, Finns and  Livoni-
ans, driven from  home  by  war, eager-
ly ban ned to the new citj, where they
received the land in their own right; so
that, iu  two years (1705), besides Vasili-
Ostrov, where the  first  private houses
were  built, the  island  of St. Petersburg
and the  admiralty  quarter  were settled.
(See  Petersburg.)  Under the  direction
of Menzikoff", the fortress of Cronsch'ot
arose from the sea, at a short distance, for
the protection of Petersburg.  More than
8000 horses, and as  many men,  perished
in the labor of transporting  the  materials
for building; but in March of the follow-
ing year, the cannons thundered  from the
wal's of Cronschlot  In the mean  time,
Austria, Holland and England made every
exertion to destroy the alliance  of Peter
with  Augustus  of Poland.   Charles left
ln6 great enemy in the heart of Livonia,
and inarched to  Saxony to compel Peter's
ally to abdicate his  throne.  Peter, on the
other hand, commenced his new opera-
tions by the destruction of a Swedish flo-
tilla of  thirteen ships  on  lake Peipus.
Dorpat,  Narva and  Ivangorod were cap-
tured, and the Swedish army was finally
destroyed under the walls of Pukawa (July
8,1709).   The czar, now promoted  to the
rank of lieutenant-general  in the  army,
and rear-admiral in the fleet, wrote from
the field of battle to admiral Apraxin in Pe-
tersburg—" Our enemy  has experienced
 the fate of Phaeton, and the foundation
of our city on the Neva is, at length, firm."
 Peter immediately hastened back to his
 favorite city on the Neva, where he made
 preparations to connect lake Ladoga with
 the Wolga,  and concluded commercial
 treaties with Fiance, Italy and the Hanse-
 atic towns.  Having celebrated his victory
 by a triumphal entry into Moscow, and re-
 organized the army, consisting of 33 ren- 
52
PETER I.
 ineuts of infantry, 24 of cavalry, and 58,000
 garrison troops, he commenced  his cam-
 paign in Livonia and Carelia, which were
 conquered in 1710.  The Turks, instigat-
 ed by Charles XII, had, meanwhile,declar-
 ed war against  him.   Peter immediately
 established  a senate to administer the af-
 fairs of the  empire, and, having restored
 to t lie bishoprics and monasteries the prop-
 erty b.s'bre  taken  from them,  in order to
 gain the favor of  the clergy and the na-
 tion, he  advanced to the Pruth, opposite
 the  camp of M.diemed, the grand-vizier.
 The soldiers  were hero reduced  to the
 greatest extremes from want of provision,
 and dieir condition was the more despe-
 rate on  account of the  defection of the
 princa of Walachia, and  his refusal  to
 furnish the  promised  supplies.   Peter,
 nevertheless, crossed the river,  but  was
 forced to retreat, and his exhausted army
 was surrounded by a .numerous enemy.
 Peter saw nothing before him but captivi-
 ty or death.   He was delivered from this
 difficulty  by  his  new  wife,  Catharine
 (whom he had privately married in 1707,
 and declared his  lawful  wife  March 6,
 1711).  Assisted  by  the   field-marshal
 Schercmeteff', she sent to the grand-vizier
 proposals of peace.   A lartre  sum  of
 money, and valuable jewels, with  promises
 of further remittance.-,  all  without the
 knowledge of Peter, are said to have ac-
 companied the letter of Scheremeteff  to
 the grand-vizier.   During this time, Peter,
 despairing of any  favorable  results from
 this mission, and reduced to despondency,
 wrote to  the senate iu .Moscow—"If I fall
 into the hands of the enemy, consider me
 no longer as your sovereign, and obey no
 commands which  shall proceed  from the
 place of my confinement, though  it should
 be signed by my own hand.  If I perish,
 choose the worthiest among you to suc-
 ceed me."  July 2'5, 1711,  the peace of
 Hus was concluded, in spite of all the op-
 position of count Poniatowski, the agent
 of Charles XII.  Peter purchased his own
 safety, and that of  his army and empire,
 by the sacrifice of Azoph.  (See Russia,
 and  the  Ottoman  Empire.)   Cantemir,
 prince of Moldavia, whom  Peter refused
 to give up on any  condition, followed the
 czar, and continued to receive from him a
 pension until his death,  twelve years af-
terwards.  He now applied himself with
 great activity  to the prosecution of the
 war in Ponierania against Sweden.  To
 restore his health, he went to Carlsbad, in
 the summer of 1711, and, on his return to
 Moscow, publicly solemnized his marriage
 with Catharine (Feb. 19,1712).  The trans-
 lation of the senate of regency to  Peters-
 burg took place two months later. In June,
 1712, he  again visited Carlsbad, with his
 wife.  After having taken the waters three
 weeks, he proceeded to his army  in Hol-
 stein, where Steenbock, the Swedish gen-
 eral, had obtained some successes over the
 Danes.   He shut up this general in Tdn-
 ningen, and returned to Petersburg, to ef-
 fect the conquest of Swedish Finland, and,
 in 1713, penetrated beyond Abo to  Tavas-
 thus, while the Swedes  in  Tonningeii
 were compelled  to  surrender.  But  the
 neutrality of  Ponierania,  proposed  by
 Prussia, and consented to by Menzikoff,
 thwarted his plans:  for this act, even the
 intercession of the czarina was hardly able
 to save the favorite from ruin.   Peter con-
 tinued his efforts  to  improve the Russian
 marine ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  submit
 when the college  of admiralty refused to
 promote him to the dignity of vice-admi-
 ral, "because  he  had not  sufficiently dis-
 tinguished himself at sea, to be preferred
 over other officers."  His chief object was
 now to merit that distinction. Having ob-
 tained the naval  victory at Twermunde,
 and completed the subjugation of Finland
 by the subsequent capture of the fortress
 of Nyslot, he was received, on his  trium-
 phal  entry into Petersburg, by the vice-
 czar Romanadowski, with the  salutation,
 " HaiJ, vice-admiral!"  Perceiving the op-
 pressions exercised by the  nobility upon
 the lower classes, he established a   board
 to inquire into abuses.  The investigation
 ended in the exile to  Siberia  of a great
 number of civil officers from the first to
 the  third  rank,   and  strict  provisions
 against future abuses.  He did not con-
sider it prudent to attempt to abolish slave-
 ry for the  present.  He repaired the dev-
astations which the  war  had caused in
 Ingria, by settling in  that country a num-
ber of rich peasants from the  interior of
 Russia.  He exercised the greatest pru-
dence in regard to the religious contests be-
tween the Roskolnicks (those of the ancient
faith) and the Orthodox, but was obliged
to put to death a Roskoinick, who  sought
to obtain a martyr's crown by assassinating
the czar.   Events of this nalture increased
Peter's aversion to Moscow, and confirmed
his determination to make Petersburg the
capital of the empire.  All his commercial
ordinances, and  his measures for the
growth  and embellishment of the city,
were  directed to this object,  in the midst
of  these  plans,  he  was  informed  that
Chail >s XII had  returned, and was now
 in Stralsund.   But  as this headstrong
 prince refused to consent to the neutrality 
PETER I.                                53
of Pomerania, and thus offended England
as well as Holland, he prepared for the
czar the way to new and  easy conquests.
Stralsund was taken December 23, 1715,
by the Prussians and Danes, without the
aid of Peter;  and in the first impulse of
anger, the czar was on the point of siding
with Charles,  because  his troops were re-
fused  admittance into the  works, and
were even driven back by  force.   Before
bis visit  to Pyrmont for the recovery of
his health, he agreed  with the king of
Denmark upon a landing at Schonen ; in
pursuance of  which, he went to Copen-
hagen.   Four  fleets,  Russian,  Danish,
English and Dutch, were united, forming
a squadron of 80 sail,  partly to cover the
disembarkation at Schonen, and partly to
make  head against the  Swedish fleet,
which was  cruising in the Baltic.   The
commandof the combined fleet was unan-
imously  committed  to the czar; and he
convoyed 100  merchant vessels, lying in
the sound, by the fleet of Sweden.   The
landing  at Schonen was  abandoned by
the advice of the Russian generals; this
excited suspicions  in  the  mind of  the
Danish king, and Peter left Denmark and
took possession of Mecklenburg.  For the
accomplishment of certain  political plans,
he undertook  a journey to Holland and
France,  towards the end  of 1716.   In
Amsterdam, It sides the naval and  com-
mercial objects of his visit, he also attend-
ed to all the subjects of art and science.
tHs wife, who visited him after herd liv-
rry  in  February, 1717, remain. ,1  ;   die
Hague, while  Peter, in  the beginning of
April,  went  through Brabant  to  Paris,
where he visited all the literary, military,
mechanical and other institutions and col-
lections of art,  &c, and  concluded a treaty
of amity and commerce with France, in
behalf of himself and  Prussia.  His main
object,  the  separation  of  France from
England, and   his designs  on Mecklen-
burg, were not accomplished.  In  Octo-
ber, 1717, he  returned to Petersburg,  and
instituted investigations JJto charges of
abuses and  acts c" oppression.  Prince
Wolkonski,  the governor  of Archangel,
was shot, and  military  courts were com-
missioned to  inquire   into  accusations
against others.   He then went to Moscow,
to judge his only son, Alexis (q. v.), wlifj
was condemned to death by the  high of-
ficer* of f*>e empire.  Though  pardoned
shortly after, he is said to have died of the
agitation iuto which the trial and sentence
had thrown him.  At his funeral, which
was solemnized  with great pomp, the czar
melted  into  tears.  Many persons, in-
                 5*
 volved  in  the  guilt of Alexis, were exe-
 cuted  with great cruelty.  Peter treated
 with equal severity the  nobles  who op-
 pressed  the people, and  did  not  even
 spare his favorites Menzikoff and Apraxin.
 He endi\ vored to introduce n more regu-
 lar administration  of justice by the insti-
 tution of the colleges of the governments,
 and a  legislative committee, taking the
 code of  bis father, Alexis, for the basis of
 his new system.  A commercial college
 was also erected,  and  the  commercial
 class treated with distinction.  His amuse-
 ments consisted in  ornamenting his capi-
 tal,  collecting  a cabinet of natural  cu-
 riosities, encouraging art, and raising the
 tone of society; he, likewise,  provided
 amusements for the court and people, by
 public shows,  masquerades, &c. (among
 which the  papal election, intended to ex-
 pose the head  of the Roman churcii to
 ridicule, was  particularly  remarkable).
 Peter now landed troops  on almost every
 point of the Swedish coast, and  com-
 menced a war  of devastation, never to be
 forgotten in the  annals  of that country.
 Jealousy of the growing  power of Russia
 united Poland, Prussia and Denmark  with
 Sweden.   But  Peter resisted  all,  and
 maintained  his  dignity in a dispute  with
 Austria.  He banished the Jesuits from the
 empire, because they meddled with affairs
 in which they had  no concern, and  pre-
 pared for a conflict with  England.  In
 1719, all the English merchants in Russia
 were arrested,  and  threatened  with  the
 seizure of their property.   Peter was now
 called to endure the severest trials, in the
 death of Scheremeteff, his companion in
 arms, and (on the 25th of April, old style)
 of the heir to the throne, Peter Petrowitsch,
 his son  by  Catharine, born November 8,
 1717.  The czar remained alone for three
days and three  nights after the death of
his son, without food or drink ; fears were
at length entertained for bis life.  But he
resumed  his firmness, and one of his first
measures was the institution of the " holy
directing synod," designed to put an end
to the hierarchy.  {See Greek Church.) In
 1720, Sweden was  again  devastated ; the
Swedish  king having resolved on the inva-
sion of Finland, with the  aid of an Eng-
lish fleet Peter, howevei^continued his ne-
gotiations, while he prepared for action,
and directed the construction of die port
of Royerwick.  At  length a third expedi-
tion against  the Swedish  coasts,  success-
fully conducted  by Peter  in 1721, in  spite
of the English fleet, led to  the  peace of
Nystiidt (August 30, 1721, old style), by
which  Livonia, Esthonia,  Ingria,  with 
54
PETER I,
 Wiburg and  Kcxholm, were  ceded  to
 Russia.  But the duke of Holstein, u horn
 he had promised to aid iu the recovery of
 Sleswick, was made the victim of political
 expediency. Thus, aft<_r twenty-one years,
 the northern war was  concluded without
 exhausting the resources of Peter, and the
 power of Russia was  fixed upon  an im-
 movable basis.   Tin: czar celebrated the
 peace by thanksgivings  and  festivals, and
 u general  pardon  (murderers  and  irre-
 claimable highwaymen only excepted), and
 by u remission of all the claims vt' the crown
 previous to 1717.  The senate and the
 holy  synod requested him,  in  the name
 of the nation, to accept the titles cf " father
 of bis country,  and emperor of all the
 Russias, with the surname of the Great."
 Ho was proclaimed emperor on  the grand
 celebration of the peace, Oct.  22, 1721.
 This title was immediately acknowledged
 by Prussia, Holland and Sweden, and, at a
 later period, by all the other  powers.  To
 prevent his great creation from falling to
 pieces in weak  or incompetent  hands, he
 decreed (Feb. 5,1722),  that the  sovereign
 of Russia should have  full power to elect
 his successor, and to change  this appoint-
 ment, if he should see  fit.   By the new
judicial organization, it  was provided that
 no actual senator should sit in a court of
justice, and no president of a court of jus-
 tice in the senate.  The emperor now un-
 dertook his long meditated expedition to
 Persia, to secure the Russian trade on the
 Caspian sea.  In 1715, 1716  and 1719, he
 had sent experienced naval officers  to ex-
amine this sea and its coasts, and to hold ves-
sels necessary for an expedition in readiness.
 Iu the first year of the war, he took Der-
 bent,  and  built  several fortified towns,
 which he peopled with Cossacks  of the
 Don.  The domestic confusions iu  Persia
compelled the shah  to  yield, and by the
treaty of Sept 12,1723 (to which the Porte
 likewise assented July 8, 1724), to cede
to Russia the cities of Derbent and  Baku,
 with  their  territory, and the  provinces
Ghilan, Mazanderan and Astarabad. After
 his return,  Dec. 26, 1722, he  instituted
new examinations for maladministration.
The vice-chancellor  Schaffiroff, one of
his favorites, was condemned to death, but,
on the scaffold,  his punishment was com-
muted to banishment.    Menzikoff was
sentenced to pay 200,000 roubles into the
exchequer; he was deprived of a large part
of his income, and flogged by the empe-
ror's own hand :  for the infliction of  this
 punishment, Peter used his dubina (a cane
of thick Spanish reed).  Several others
were disgraced or flogged, or heavily fined.
 July 12,1724, Peter again conducted a fleet
 against Sweden, to enforce his claims oil
 Sweden und Denmark, iu  behalf of the
 duke of Holstcin: hav ing effected this pur-
 pose, Peter returned to Cronstacit, when' he
 celebrated by a splendid parade the creation
 of his uavy,which now consisted of 41 ships
 ofw!u-,with 2106cannojisand 11,960 sailors.
 This great monarch employed  the last
 years of his  life iu providing against the
 inundations, to which Petersburg was ex-
 posed iu the autumn; iu continuing the
 Ladoga  canal, and in the erection of an
 academy of sciences  (Feb. 1,  1725).  He
 turned his attention next to  the examina-
 tion and punishment of state criminals; to
 the promotion of the labors of the legisla-
 tive body ; the establishment of the order
 of Alexander-Newsky ; the improvement
 of the condition of the  monks; the  ban-
 ishment  of the  Capuchins from Russia ;
 and  a new commercial  treaty with Swe-
 den.  He also betrothed his favorite daugh-
 ter Anna to  the duke of Holstein, Nov.
 24, 1724, having already placed the crown
 upon the head of his wife,-Catharine, on
 the 18th of the  preceding May, in token
 of  his love and gratitude.  He likewise
 provided that an education  should bo
 given to the surviving son of the unhappy
 Alexis, such  as would become a future
 emperor of Russia.   But Peter had  long
 felt his strength  declining, from the pains
 he had suffered through the strangury, ever
 since 1723: hence the gloom, alternating
 with violent  bursts  of passion, to  wiiich
 he became subject; and to this, perhaps,is
 to be ascribed the execution of Mons, first
 chamberlain,  and favorite of the empress
 Catharine ; the reason assigned for which
 was neglect of duty, bribery, &c.  Late in
 the autumn of 1724, going to visit the forge
 and  manufactory of arms at Systerbeck,
 he saw  a boat  filled  with  soldiers  and
 sailors stranded, and sent  a shallop, which
 did not succeed  in getting it off; deter-
 mined to gain his end, he set out  for the
 spot himself,  and, as his vessel could not
 quite reach the  spot,  he  leaped into the
 water and waded to the boat, which he
 aided m getting off.  But the cold which
 he caught rendered his condition extreme-
 ly dangerous.   He  celebrated the  new
 year, 1/25, according to his usual custom,
chose a new antipope, and  ordered the
demolition  of the  superfluous  chapels,
and  the removal of the images.  A  sur-
gical operation gave  him no  relief; his
pain often  deprived  him of reason.  Iu
 his intervals  of sanity,  he was soothed
with the consolations of religion, by The-
ophanes, archbishop of Pleskow.  In one 
PETER I—PETER THE APOSTLE.
55
t)f these intervals, he granted full pardon
to Menzikoff', at the  earnest desire  of
Catharine.  He expressed a wish to speak
with  Ids  favorite  daughter, Anna ;  but
when she came, the emperor was speech-
less.  He expired Februarys, 1725,in the
arms of his wife, who had not left him for
three nights.   Peter was  53  years of age,
and, according to his physicians,  might
have lived 40 more, if he  had not so long
concealed his disorder.  Peter was a man
of powerful and original genius, who did
every thing himself, and was never the
instrument  of others.   His ardor was
joined with prudence, resolution,  and a
generous humanity.  His violent passions
and sensual excesses  were  the fruits of
the barbarism of his nation,  his imperfect
education and uncontrolled  power.  On
the centennial celebration of his accession
to the throne, an equestrian monument by
Falconet,  representing him  at full speed
springing up a rock, with his hand extend-
ed, and the inscription Petro Primo, Catha-
rina Secunda, MDCCLXXXII,  was ex-
posed  to  view  in Petersburg.   Voltaire
wrote the life of Peter.
  Peter  II, emperor of Russia, grand-
son of Peter the Great, and son of Alexis,
ascended  the  throne  in  consequence  of
the will  of Catharine I  (q.  v.),  in 1727,
when but thirteen years old.   lie died in
1730,  of the small pox, and was succeeded
by Anna Ivanowna. (q. v.)
  Peter III (Fedrowitch);  emperor  of
Russia.  As the male  line of the Roma-
noffs ceased with Peter II,  the  empress
Elizabeth, daughter of Peter  I and Catha-
rine I, agreeably to the order  of succession
enjoined by her father, appointed Charles
Peter Ulrich,  duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
son of her sister Anna Petrovvna and the
duke  of Holstcin, her successor, in  1742;
and, in 1745, she married  him to the prin-
cess Sophia Augusta, of Anhalt-Zerbst (at
a later period the  famous Catharine II).
Peter  III  ascended the  throne in 1762.
His first  step was a  reconciliation with
Frederic II, to whom he restored the con-
quered kingdom  of Prussia  Proper, and
sent 15,000 men to assist him.  He estab-
lished some salutary laws; but a conspira-
cy broke out, which put an end to his life,
after a reign of six months.   His predilec-
tion for  the  people of Holstein  ; his at-
tempts to establish Prussian tactics, and
to overthrow  the privileges  of the great,
had made him numerous enemies.   This
conspiracy broke out in the night of July
8, hi 1762.  (See Catharine II.)  He abdi-
cated  the throne July 10, but  could not
save his life by this means.   He was, it is
 said,  killed  at Ropscha, a -seat of count
 Rasumoffisky, July 14  (3 old style), 1762.
 (See  Orloff.)
   Peter, St., Church of.  (See Rome.)
   Peter, the  apostle  (whose  original
 nan:- was Simon), was a Galilean fisher-
 man  from  Betbsaida.   His brother  An-
 drew, having been received  by Jesus
 among his disciples, introduced Simon to
 the divine inslructer.  He promptly  re-
 solved to leave all  and follow Jesus, at
 whose command  he had made a most re-
 markable draught of fishes.   After this
 event, we find him always among the fol-
 lowers of Christ,  and one of his most con-
 fidential disciples. From the firmness «f
 his faith,  Jesus  named  him  Cephas (in
 Greek, Pelros), a rock, and bestowed upon
 him peculiar marks  of affection; yet he
 never gave him any  superiority over  the
 other apostles, as the  Roman Catholics
 maintain, nor did Peter himself ever assume
 it.  On the contrary, Jesus reminded him,
 in their presence,of his faults,and his impet-
 uosity; and, in the  last dreadful nightliefore
 the "crucifixion, Peter encountered the  re-
 proving look of his master, whom -lie had
•followed at a distance to the house of the
 high priest, and there basely denied, from
 fear of punishment.  Repentance for this
 crime purified and strengthened his noble
 heart, which glowed with a warm love of
 Jesus.  His zeal and eloquence made him
 often the speaker in  behalf of his fellow
 apostles on -important occasions ; as, for in-
 stance, at the feast of pentecost, after  the
 ascension of Christ, where Peter had  the
 boldness to preach the gospel publicly, for
 the first  time,  and  converted   several
 thousands by his  powerful eloquence  ;
 and before the Jewish council, where he
 defended  the new  faith.  His opinions
 had   great  influence  in  the  Christian
 churches; and, on his proposal, the apos-
 tles and elders of the first synod  at Jeru-
 salem resolved that a  conformity to   the
 laws of Moses should not be required of
 the Gentile  converts to Christianity.   Pe-
 ter probably  travelled  through  several
 countries of Middle and Western Asia, as
 a teacher of Christianity; but the tradition
 that he went to Rome, and  was crucified
 there, in the year 67, rests only on  the
 legends of the Roman  church, on which,
 also, the pope rests his  claims  to be con-
 sidered the successor of this apostle. The
 two Epistles of Peter,  in the New Testa-
 ment, were  written in Greek, and directed
 to the churches in Asia Minor.  In their
 style, and in the  exposition  of doctrines,
 they bear strong marks of his ardent mind,
 hurrying from thought to thought, care- 
56
PETER THE  APOSTLE—PETERS.
less in expression, but animated and forci-
ble.
  Peter  the  Hermit ; an enthusiastic
monk of Amiens, who, about the close of
the eleventh century, roused  Europe to
the first crusade, (q. v.)   Peter, wlrj had
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, instigated
by the difficulties he had undergone, flew,
at his return, to pope Martin the Second,
and, under the auspices  of that pontiff;
preached  to an assembly of more than
4000 of the  clergy, with  30,000 laymen,
diat met at Piacenza, the wild project of
driving the Mohammedans  from  Jerusa-
lem.  The success of his  enthusiastic
harangues was proportionate to the bold-
ness of his scheme and  the ignorance
of his auditors.  Peter himself  led the
way through Hungary,  at the head of an
undisciplined  multitude  of  more than
300,000  men, a comparatively small num-
ber of whom survived  to reach the city.
Peter distinguished himself by his person-
al courage at the  storming of the holy
city;  and, having witnessed the  accom-
plishment of his  undertaking, returned
to his native country, where he founded
the abbey of Noirmoutier, and died its first
superior.
  Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl
of, son of lord Mordaunt, whom  he suc-
ceeded in his title and estate, in 1675, was
engaged in the expedition to Tangier, in
1680,  in  which he served with distinction
against  the  Mohammedans.   He went
over to Holland in the reign of James II,
and, entering into the scheme of his de-
thronement, returned to England with his
successor, by whom he was created earl
of Monmouth,  and appointed first com-
missioner of the treasury.   He succeeded
to the earldom  of Peterborough on the
death of his uncle, in 1697, and was sub-
sequently employed as commander of the
English  army in Spain,  in the war of the
Spanish  succession.   He  distinguished
himself  greatly  by his courage,  activity
and conduct in taking Barcelona, and ob-
taining many other advantages over the
French, in consequence of which he was
appointed generalissimo of the imperial
forces, and received  the  thanks  of the
British parliament  In the reign of George
I, he was made a knight of the garter, and
received  the  appointment of general of
marines.   His death took  place during a
voyage to Lisbon,  in 1735.  Lord  Peter-
borough was intimate  with his  literary
contemporaries, and was himself a writer
of poetry, some of which has been pub-
lished.  In  the Correspondence  of the
Countess of Suffolk, edited by Mr. Cro-
ker, are several of his letters.—Sir Walter
Scott has been said to be preparing a Life
of the Earl of Peterborough.
  Peterborough,  Bishop  of.   (Sec
Marsh, Herbert.)
  Peterero, or  Patterero ;  a small
piece of ordnance used  on board ships
for the discharging of nails, broken  iron,
or partridge-shot, on an enemy attempting
to board.  They are generally open at the
breech, and  their  chamber made to take
out to be loaded that way,  instead of at
the muzzle.
  Peters, Hugh, minister of Salem, Mas-
sachusetts, was born at Fovvey,  in Corn-
wall, England, in 1599, and, in 1622, took
his degree of master of arts at  Trinity
college, Cambridge.    After obtaining a
license, and  presetting in London,  with
great success, he removed to Holland, and,
several years  afterwards, to America, on
account of his non-conformity.  In 1636,
he was intrusted with  the charge of the
church at Salem, and remained there five
years.  lie did not, however, confine his
attention exclusively to spiritual concerns,
but took an  active interest in mercantile
and civil affairs ; he assisted in reforming
the police of the town; suggested the
plan of the fishery, and  of the coasting
and foreign voyages; procured carpenters,
and engaged  in trade with great success.
In 1641, he went to England on a mission
to procure an alteration in the laws of ex-
cise and trade, but never returned. Dur-
ing the civil war, he  advocated the cause
of parliament by his  preaching, and was
appointed by Cromwell one of the licen-
sers of ministers, and also a commissioner
for amending the laws, though totally dis-
qualified for such employment  After the
restoration, he was  tried for conspiring
with Cromwell, and compassing the king's
death, and was executed October 16,1660,
aged sixty-one years.  He is accused by
Burnet of having pressed the  condemna-
tion  of the  unfortunate Charles,  h-.t he
himself declared,  in his will,  that he op-
posed it.   He was  a  man of no learning,
but of  impetuous zeal, and peculiar native
vigor of mind. His sermons, several of
which  were  published, produced a great
effect upon the populace by their striking,
though vulgar eloquence.  His coarse and
familiar images never failed  to  answer
their purpose ; and  he possessed the facul-
ty of associating his  thoughts in  such  a
manner as to prevent them from being
easily forgotten.
  Peters, Richard, an eminent American
judge  and agriculturist,  was bom  near
Philadelphia, Aug. 22,1744. He received 
PETERS—ST. PETERSBURG.                     57
Ids education in Philadelphia, at the col-
lege  of which city he was graduated.  In
entering into active  life, he was a good
Latin and Greek  scholar, and acquainted
with the French  and German languages.
He adopted die profession of the law, in
which he obtained early and considerable
success,  particularly  "by  means of  his
intimate knowledge of the land laws of the
Commonwealth,  and  tho  fluency with
which he  spoke German.  Even in  his
youth, he  was distinguished for wit and
humor.  His jiowers of pleasantry were
felt even by the Indians, when he accom-
panied a delegation from Pennsylvania to
the Six Nations.  The  Indian chiefs,  de-
lighted with his vivacity, formally adopted
him  into their tribes.  At the opening of
the American  revolution, Mr. Peters  be-
came captain of a company of volunteers,
but was soon  transferred by congress to
the board of war, in which he continued
until the year 1781, when he resigned  his
post, and received  from congress  a vote
of thanks for his services.  He was closely
connected  with Robert Morris  in all the
exertions and sacrifices which were made
for supplying the necessities of the Amer-
ican army.  No one possessed more curi-
ous and instructive  anecdotes of the dis-
tresses and trials of the American govern-
ment.  Some of these are well related in
the  sketch  of  his life  by Samuel  Breck,
esquire. After Mr. Peters quitted the war
office, he was  elected a member of con-
gress.  When  the new government was
organized, under the present constitution,
president Washington  offered   him  the
place of comptroller of the treasury of the
U. States.  This he declined, but accepted
that of judge of the district court of Penn-
sylvania.  He  occupied this station  for
thirty-six years, until his death, always as-
siduous, and highly useful, particularly in
admiralty cases.  Agriculture and public
works formed  the chief objects  of judge
Peters, besides his duties on the bench.  He
was the first president of the company at
whose expense the great bridge  at Phila-
delphia, over  the Schuylkill, was built.
To him its  preservation may be ascribed.
The country is indebted to  him, also, for
the  use of gypsum iu  agriculture.  In
1797, he published a relation of his experi-
ments with it on his own farm, which was
widely circulated, and  produced  impor-
tant improvements in American  husband-
ry.  He was president of the Philadelphia
agricultural society, and enriched its me-
moirs with many valuable communica-
tions.   In  private life, lie was preeminent
for convivial humor, and equalled, proba-
bly, any one of his contemporaries in the
number and felicity of his bon mots.  He
was an exemplary husband, parent, neigh-
bor, citizen and Christian.
  Peter's, St. ; one of the largest tribu-
tary rivers  of the Upper Mississippi.   Its
course is in the Missouri Territory, and it
joins the Mississippi at the falls of St. An-
thony.  The length  of the St. Peter's is
250 miles.  It affords good navigation for
boats, is 150 yards wide at its  mouth,  and
has 15 feet water.
  Petersburg; a borough and port of
entry in Dinwiddie couuty, Virginia, on
the south bank  of the Appomattox.  It is
just  below the  falls on  that river, twelve
miles above its junction with James river,
at City Point;  twenty-five miles south-by-
east from Richmond, and 146  from Wash-
ington ; lat  37° 14' N.; lon.  77°  2C W.
The river  is navigable to  this place for
vessels of 100  tons.   In 1815, this town
lost,  by fire, about 400 buildings.  It has
since been  rebuilt of brick, and the  new
houses lire principally three stories high.
The general appearance of the town in-
dicates  business,  wealth and enterprise,
and it is of the first, class of towns in  Vir-
ginia.  The town contained in 1830,3440
whites, 2850 slaves, and 2032 free blacks
—total, 8322.
  Petersburg, St., capital of the Russian
empire, occupying more space than  any
city in Europe, except London  and  Mos-
cow,  is situated at the mouth of the Neva,
at the eastern  extremity of  the  gulf of
Finland ; lat. 59° 56' N.; lon. 29° 48' E.;
485   miles  north-west  of  Moscow, and
about 1400 miles north-east of  Paris and
London.  Petersburg  is the  seat of the
court, of the senate, the holy synod, of
a university, &c, &c, and, for beauty and
splendor, surpasses every  other  city of
Europe.  The  population, which,  in 1818,
was 313,000, amounted, in 1828, including
the garrison, to 422,166, of  vvnich  only
124,721  were  females.   The stranger
wanders with  admiration through   the
broad, regular streets,  surrounded  with
the most magnificent palaces, churches
with gilded towers, and other massive and
colossal edifices; his eye every where rests
on masterpieces of architecture.  On en-
tering the imperial gardens on  the Nevn,
the majestic stream presents  a  fine pros-
pect, with  its  ships, boats and  bridges.
On both banks are rich  palaces, churches,
and towers glittering with gold, charming
islands, and beautiful gardens.  Each side
of the river is lined with a broad quay for
the distance of nearly three  miles.   The
excellsnt water of the Neva supplies the 
58
ST. PETERSBURG.
want  of springs.   The  czar Peter the
Great laid the foundations of  the  city
during the northern war (1703), when he
constructed a fort on an island in the Ne-
va, for  its defence against the  Swedes.
To superintend the work in person, Peter
built a small wooden hut opposite it, which
is  still standing, and is now  surrounded
with a stone building to preserve it  Pub-
lic and private buildings were soon erect-
ed, and the nobles and rich merchants of
Moscow, Novgorod, &c, were induced to
settle there, so that, in a short time, the
place assumed the appearance of a con-
siderable city, which, during the succeed-
ing reigns, particularly in those of Catha-
rine II and Alexander, reached an almost
unexampled degree of magnificence. The
environs are  level and  low,  in  many
places consisting of morasses: they there-
fore suffer from inundations, which some-
times occasion great  ravages : in 1824,
15,000 persons perished by an inundation,
which destroyed many  villages, and caus-
ed great damage to the shipping.   Peters-
burg  is  an open  city, without walls, and
only in  some places surrounded with a
ditch.  Among the inhabitants there are a
great number of foreigners,  particularly
Germans, who  have intermixed  much
with the Russians, and fill many civil and
military  posts.    The  Neva  divides the
city into two parts, of which the southern
or continental part is the largest and most
populous: the northern part  is again di-
vided by a branch of the Neva.  The city
is  divided into nine quarters—the three
admiralty quarters, the foundery, the Mos-
cow,  the Jeemskoy, the Vasili-Ostrov, the
Petersburg,  and  the  Wiburg quarters.
Each quarter is subdivided into  districts,
and these  into inferior  sections, at the
head of each of which is a police-officer,
usually a  retired  major.  The whole or-
ganization of the police  is military; and
the military judges are  too often entirely
ignorant of the laws.  When they  find
themselves embarrassed by the contradic-
tory provisions of different ukases, they
cut the knot, and, if the parties show any
dissatisfaction with the decision, it is sealed
by  a blow  or a  kick.   These  inferior
officers  of police are subordinate to the
police court in the centre of the city, the
presiding officer of which is a general. In
tne admiralty quarter, which is the finest
part of  the  city,  is the  imperial winter
palace,  on the banks  of the Neva, the
interior of which is adorned  with statues
and mythological figures.  Catharine add-
ed to it a smaller palace, called the Her-
mitage.  This building contains a rich col-
lection of works of art, among which are a
large number of original paintings of the
great masters; and attached to it is a gar-
den, in which, as in the garden of Calypso,
reigns a perpetual spring.  Some hundred
paces distant, in the splendid street called
the Great Million, is the Marble Palace, of
colossal dimensions, which is  built on a
granite basement, and was given by Cath-
arine to her favorite count Orloff.  On the
other side of the admiralty, which, towards
the land side, is enclosed  by a  ditch and
wall, is a  walk  planted  with beautiful
lime trees,  and some  of the finest build-
ings of the city, particularly Isaac's church,
built entirely of marble (1766—1812), at
an  expense of 26,500,000 roubles,  and
which has,  since its completion, been con-
tinually receiving additional  embellish-
ments.   Not far off is seen the paiace of
the prince Labanoff, a gigantic work, even
for Petersburg, and built atan enormous ex-
pense.  Farther down, near the Neva, is the
equestrian statue of Peter the Great, cast by-
Falconet.   It stands in a spacious square,
on an immense block of granite, about the
size of a small house, and weighing above
800 tons.   In Romanzoff place is a mar-
ble obelisk, erected by Catharine, in honor
of Romanzoff's victories, and,  in  Suwar-
roff place,  a bronze  statue of Suvvarroft*
Among the numerous remarkable  edifices
and institutions,  we shall  mention  the
academy of sciences, to  which  belongs
a very valuable library, a cabinet of natu-
ral science, and an observatory ; the new
exchange,  finished in  1816, a splendid
building, surrounded by a colonnade of
44 pillars;  the house of the first corps of
cadets, occupied by nearly 4000 men, and
embracing  a circuit of above a mile;  the
spacious building of the academy of fine
arts, which, besides  accommodations for
300—400 pupils, who are  maintained und
educated at the  expense  of the  crown,
contains every thing suitable for such an
establishment;  the second, or naval, min-
ing, artillery and  engineer  cadet corps;
the university (instituted in 1819),  with its
collections, and above 50  public institu-
tions for education, supported at  the  ex-
pense of the state.  These institutions  lie
in the  Vasili-Ostrov (Basil's  island), to
which  there is access from the continent
by a bridge of boats.   There are also sim-
ilar institutions in other quarters of the
city, particularly  the great imperial gym-
nasium, and numerous  benevolent estab-
lishments, such as military and other hos-
pitals, the insane  hospital, the institutions
for the blind, and for the deaf and dumb,
various medical  and surgical  establish- 
ST. PETERSBURG—PETHION.
59
ments, the  great foundling  hospital, in
which about 5000 children are nursed and
educated, and in which the mother is per-
mitted to lie-in without charges, and then
to leave  or  take away her child, whether
legitimate or not, without being questioned
as to lier name and station.  With this is
connected the great pawn-house, in which
loans are made, even on real  property.
In all the institutions for instruction (as
is also the  case with  the high  schools
throughout the empire), Russian, German
and  French, and, in  many, Ei:j lish, are
taught: Latin and Greek are also publicly
taught; and the  young  Russian shows a
decided  taste  for  dancing,  music  and
painting.  There are eleven  public libra-
ries: the most important  is  the imperial,
containing  300,000  volumes  and 12,000
manuscripts. Among the palaces should
be mentioned the splendid Micbailoff pal-
ace, built by Paul, near  the summer-gar-
den, at an expense of 10,000,000 roubles;
the Taurian palace, with its admirable
gardens, built and occupied by Potemkin,
and  much  enlarged  and  embellished by
Catharine during his absence.  The roofs
of all the palaces, and most of the houses,
are covered  wit I. thin iron plates, varnish-
ed  black  or f. r en.   The summer  resi-
dences also  desi rve to be seen on account
of  tluir natural and  artificial beauties.
Petersburg contains 115 churches for the
established worship, and 33 for other rites.
The most splendid are Isaac's church, and
that of Our  Lady of  Kazan:  the latter is
of great dimensions:  the nave and cupola
are supported by 56 granite columns, with
bronze capitals:  the ppvement is of differ-
ent kinds of marble, the steps to the choir
of  porphyry,  with  a   silver balustrade.
Among the towers, the most remarkable
are that of the admiralty, and that of the
fortress, of  a pyramidal form, and more
than half covered with plates of pure gold.
Public worship is performed in fifteen lan-
guages, and according to eleven different
rites.  Organs and other instrumental mu-
sic are not heard in the Russiau churches,
but  singing is  much  cultivated.  There
are no seats in  them.   The  worshippers
come and go at pleasure, and are crowded
together without distinction of rank, each,
as his feelings  dictate,  crossing himself,
falling upon his knees, touching his  fore-
head to the ground, and murmuring, for
the  hundredth time, Hospodin pomillny
(Lord, have mercy upon me).  The  Lu-
therans,  Calvinists, Armenians, &c, have
churches, and there is one Mohammedan
house of prayer.  The  most remarkable
monasteries are  that of Alexander New-
skoi (q. v.), the residence of the metropol-
itan, and which contains, in a silver tomb,
the bones of the saint, and  the Smolnui
nunnery.  The commerce and navigation
are very extensive: more than 1100 ves-
sels, from all parts of Europe and from
America,  arrive yearly.   Vessels which
draw much water cannot come up to  Pe-
tersburg, but unload by means of lighters
at Cronstadt.  (q. v.)  Provisions are in
general very high.  As sources of amuse-
ment, we may  mention  the grand  opera
and other theatres; in winter, sleigh-rid-
ing, and, in summer, sailing on the Neva;
sliding down artificial elevations, &c., &c.
The  climate is very severe:  the sleighing
continues nearly five months. (See Rus-
sia.)   In  the  neighborhood are several
imperial palaces, such  as Peterhof,  Kam-
menoi Ostrov, Pawlovsk and Zarskoi Zelo.
  Peter's Pence ; a tax which  I England
paid, from the eighth century down  to the
time of Henry  VIII,  to the pope.   The
Anglo-Saxon kin'j^  Ira  is said  to have
first granted it to the  pope, in 72t. in or-
der to  maintain a seminary of i.ijrlish
ecclesiastics in Rome,  and to keep  in or-
der the tombs of St. Peter and St. Puul in
that city.  It was collected every year on
St Peter's day, one penny on every house,
and considerably exceeded the income of
the kings of England in the diirteenth
century.
  Peterwaroein,  or   Peterwaradin
(anciently Acunum) ; a town of Sclavonia,
capital of" a military district  (see Mililaiy
Districts), on the Danube, strongly forti-
fied, 38 miles nonh-wrst of Belgrade, 216
south-south-east of \ienna; lon. 19° 37'
E.; lat. 45° 16'  N.; population, 3847.  It
consists of the upper fortress, overlooking
the Danube, the lower fortress,  the horn
work, and the  suburbs.  It is remarkable
for tne defeat of the Turks by prince Eu-
gene in 1716.  (See Eugene.)
  Pethion, or  Petion de Villeneuve,
Jerome,  a French  revolutionary states-
man, originally an advocate at  Chartres,
was chosen deputy, by the tiers Hat of that
city, to the states-general.   The character,
conduct and talents of Pethion have been
variously represented ; but his great influ-
ence over public affairs is a proof that he
was not destitute of ability.  In the early
part of his career, he acted  with Miraheau,
but did not join in such of his measures
as were calculated to  impede the exten-
sion of liberty and equality of rights.  In
October, 1789, he was appointed a mem-
ber of the first committee of general safe-
ty, and, December 4, 1790, was elected
president  of the national assembly.  In 
60
PETHION—PETITION.
 June following, he became president of
 the  criminal tribunal of Paris,  and, to-
 gether  with Barnave  and  Latour-Mau-
 bourg,  was appointed  commissioner  to
 attend  the  return of the monarch.  He
 was fleeted mayor of  Paris,  November
 14, 1791, and, in consequence of his impli-
 cation in the attack on die Tuileries, June
 20, li 92, was suspended from his functions,
 July 6, but  restored by the  assembly on
 the  13th.  His behavior on  the 10th of
 August has, by some,  been  interpreted as
 the result of weakness, and by others as
 the effect of design, to avoid  betraying bis
 character as an abettor of  the violence.
 Being  nominated a deputy from tbfj de-
 partment of Etire and Loire to the con-
 vention which  met  in  September,  he
 became the  first president of that assem-
 bly.   Soon after the  death  of the  king,
 Pethion was accused of having contrib-
 uted to the massacres  of September; but
 against this charge  ho successfully de-
 fended himself  He imw,  however, be-
 came die object of jealousy to Robespierre,
 and  was included  in the proscription of
 the Girondists, May 31, 1793.  (See Gi-
 rondists.)  l\" made his escape, with some
 other deputies  of the same party, to the
 dejiartment  of Cal\ i !os, where they in
 vain endeavored  to avail themselves of
 the insurrections against  the  terrorists.
 Some time after, the body (f Petition, with
 that  of Buzot, one of  his  confederates,
 was found in a field, in the department of
 the Gironde,  half devoured by wolves,
and it was supposed that he  had perished
 from hunger.  His works were printed in
 171 o, in 4 vols., 8vo.
   Petion,  Alexandre, president of the
southern parts of tin; island of Hayti, was
a mulatto, and  received his  education in
the military school of  Paris.  Being  a
 mat. cf cultivated understanding and at-
 tractive manners, and moreover well in-
structed in the art of war,  he served in
the French, and afterwards in the Haytian
armies, with success and reputation.  He
was in high credit as a skilful  engineer,
in which capacity be  rendered  the  most
essential services to Toussaint and Dessa-
lines, from  whom he  received  many
marks  of attention,  and  rapid  advance-
ment in  his profession.   He  succeeded
 Clervaux in the government of Port au
 Prince,  and  the command of the mulat-
toes, and held  this post at  the time of
 Dessalines'  death.   Petion  was  highly
 respected by the people for his  talents
 and virtues; and upon the dissolution of
 the government by the death of Dessa-
 lines, the people  of color rallied around
 him as tl>. ir chief, in preference to Chris-
 tophe, who became the  leader of the
 blacks.  Christophe, deeming himself en-
 titled to the undivided succession of Tous-
 saint and Dessalines, the two chiefs took
 up arms, and  had many rencounters, in
 one of which particularly,* pitched battle,
 fought January 1,  1807, Petion was de-
 feated and pursued by Christophe to the
 very gate of Port au Prince.  This cam-
 paign  secured  to  Christophe a decided
 and  unquestioned  ascendency  in  the
 northern  part  of  the  island, where his
 chief strength lay.   Still Petion's personal
 popularity, and the hostility of the mulat-
 to* s to the negroes, entthled him to main-
 tain his ground at the south ; and a bloody
 war ensued between the  rival chieftains,
 of several years' duration, favorable, in its
 issue, to  Christophe on the whole, but not
 sufficiently so to dispossess Petion of his
 power.  Wearied, at length, of their  una-
 vailing struggle, both parties  tacitly  sus-
 pended  the contest, and  devoted  them-'
 selves to the  improvement of their re-
 spective dominions.  Petion's government
 took the form of republican  institutions,
 consisting of himself; as president for life,
 and a legislative body so constituted as to
 be completely under his influence.  Pe-
 tion was a  man  of fine  talents and of
 honorable feelings and intentions, but not
 well adapted for the station which he was
 called upon to fill.  The  Haytians, just
 liberated  from  absolute slavery, without
 the education,  habits of thought,  moral
 energy and  rectitude of character,  which
 tire necessary iu a  government  perfectly
 republican, stood in  need  of  a ruler less
 kind, gentle and  humane than  Petion.
 In consequence of this, his people relax-
 ed  in their attention to  agriculture,  his
 finances   become  disorganized,  and  his
 country impoverished ; arid, disheartened
at a state of things which  he  saw no
 means of remedying, he sank into a state
of despondency, which ended in volunta-
ry death.  His final illness  lasted  only
eight  days,  during  which  he resolutely
refused all remedies, and every species of
aliment,  even to water, dying, at length,
of mere inanition and despondency.  His
physicians, upon examining his body after
death,  found all  its functions perfectly
sound, and without any trace of malady
 He died  March 29,  1818, and was  sue
ceeded by president Boyer.—Malo, Hait
(published 1825);  Franklin's Hayti, ch. 8
   Petition, in  politics.   The "right of
petitioning is indispensable to complex
the constitutional or representative system
 In  absolute governments,  and in*thos< 
PETITION—PETRARCA.
61
founded  upon the  ancient three estates,
this right is  often, or, we may say, almost
always,  denied  to the citizen.  As  the
present constitutional governments in Eu-
rope originated from one or  the other of
diese forms, it has been considered neces-
sary to provide  for this right by express
articles  in  their charters;  otherwise it
would be strange to mention  this right
any more than thousands of others which
are not mentioned ; for how can citizens be
reasonably refused the  liberty to make re-
quests to  governments  established  for
their benefit ?  In England, there are cer-
tain  laws enacted to prevent disorder, in
case many citizens assemble  to deliberate
on  the propriety of petitioning  govern-
ment for particular enactments.  Since
Charles II (1662), it has been necessary for
at least three justices of the  peace of the
county to give their consent if more than
twenty persons  wish to  sign a petition.
It cannot be presented  by more than  ten
persons,  and must be written  in a respect-
ful tone.   Large assemblies must abstain
from any breach of the peace, else the  riot
act may  be read.   In respect to meetings
in the  open air, some laws were  enacted
in 1819,  to remain in force for five years;
for instance, that no one should  appear
armed ;  tliat the inhabitants  of but one
parish should  meet;  that   the  meeting
should be advertised six days  beforehand ;
that the  petition should be signed by seven
householders at least,  &c.   The justices
of the peace may also divide large parishes
of more  than 20,000 souls into districts of
10,000, that the assemblies may not be too
numerous.   Lately, however,   meetings
have been  held  attended  by  many more.
In  France, before  the revolution, when
the  three  estates assembled  to  choose
deputies to the general estates  of the realm,
it was customary to provide them with
cahier de griefs  et de doliance,  which, at
the breaking out of the revolution, became
important.  The right of petitioning was
then pronounced, and  was greatly abused
during the  revolution, as may  be easily
imagined, on account of the disordered
state of society.   The  right of petitioning
by large numbers  was  then  abolished.
The charter reestablished it.
   Petition of  Right.  The conflict be-
tween the crown and the parliament  had
already  begun,  in the reign  of James I,
when (1621)  the  house of  commons
framed  the famous protestation  that the
liberties, franchises, privileges  and juris-
dictions of parliament  are the ancient and
undoubted  birthright and inheritance of
the subjects of  England.  This protesta-
   vol. x.           6
tion James, with his own hand, tore out
of the journal.  The arbitrary measures
of the first Stuart reign, the forced loans,
benevolences,  taxes imposed  without
consent of parliament,  arbitrary  impris-
onments,  the billeting  of soldiers, &c,
finally determined  the commons  to pre-
pare  a law  which  should protect  the
rights of the subject  against further inva-
sion ; this they called a petition of right,
os implying  that it  contained merely a
corroboration or explanation  of the  an-
cient  constitution,  not any infringement
of the royal prerogative, or acquisition of
new liberties.  It  passed the commons
and  the upper  house (1628), and, after
some attempts, on  the  part  of Charles
I, to evade it, received  the royal assent.
After reciting the grievances  above enu-
merated, it provides against their repeti-
tion as contrary to the laws and statutes
of the realm,  and the rights and liberties
of the subject, and prays the  king to de-
clare that his officers and ministers should
serve him according to  the laws  and
statutes of the realm.  The  petition  is
given in full by Hume (note xx to ch. 51.)
  Petit Jury.  (See Jury.)
  Petitio Principii, in logic; the taking
a thing for true,  and drawing conclusions
from  it as such, when  it requires to be
proved before any inferences can be de-
duced from it
  Petit Treason.   (See Treason.)
  Petrarca, Francesco, or, as he is gen-
erally called by English writers, Petrarch,
an Italian poet and scholar, the ornament
of the fourteenth century, was  born  of
Florentine parents at Arezzo, in Tuscany,
July 4  (or, according to  some, July  20),
1304, and spent his youth at Ancisa in
the Val d'Arno, Pisa,  Carpentras  and
Avignon, which was then the residence
of the pope.  The beauty of the environs
of Avignon kindled  his imagination.   In
1318, he studied law at Montpellier, and,
in 1322, at Bologna; but he was far more
inclined to the study of the ancient clas-
sics, though his father burned many of the
works  which the young  Petrarch had
procured.  Soon after his father's death,
he  left Bologna and the  study of law,
and,  in 1326, returned to  Avignon,  and
entered the ecclesiastical state.  His dili-
gence,  talents,  learning and eloquence
soon  procured him  distinction, while  his
pleasing person and manners made him
the favorite of the  ladies and the great
Not being much confined by the duties
of his several benefices, he followed  the
impulse of his genius, which led  him to
literary pursuits.  He  resided alternately 
62
PETRARCA.
nt Avignon,  Carpi,  Parma, Selvapiana,
Mantua,  Milan, Padua, Verona,  Venice,
Rome, Vaucluse, and Linterno, an estate
near Milan.   He also made several jour-
neys, visiting, in 1333, the countries on the
Rhine, aud various cities of France, Ger-
many and Flanders.  We find interesting
accounts of some  of his  travels in  bis
Epistolcs Familiares.  He  also made the
tour of Spain, and  visited  England ;  but
of these excursions we have no account.
He  afterwards visited, in a public charac-
ter, Naples, Venice, Avignon (in compa-
ny with  the  celebrated Cola di  Rienzi),
Paris and Prague.  Prelates and nobles
loaded him with proofs of their esteem,
and the German emperor, Charles IV, in
particular, conferred on him the title of
count  palatine, and corresponded with
him.  Petrarch communicated to him his
patriotic  wishes, often with the most  un-
restrained boldness ; for he was an ardent
lover of his country.. He exerted him-
self, especially,  in concert with Clement
VI, to induce him  to unite the  Guelfs
and Gibelines.  He  made his learning of
general utility by his writings,  and by
opening  to  others  the  access to  the
sources  of his own  information,  the
works of the ancient classic writers. (See
Philology.)   He brought to light  Cicero's
Epistolre Familiares, formed a collection
of manuscripts with great labor, and, with
Boccaccio, promoted the study  of the
Greek language in Italy,  which  he  had
himself learned but  imperfectly,  and  at a
late period  of his life.  One of the first
places, therefore,  is  due  to him among
the  restorers of ancient  literature.   He
studied the ancient philosophers, histori-
ans and poets, as far as they were then
known, under the most discouraging diffi-
culties, arising from  the imperfection of
the means; and he  had  more accurate
philosophical notions, a  more extensive
knowledge of history, and a more correct
taste, than any of  his contemporaries.
He paid  particular attention to practical
philosophy.  In his lively dialogues, he
endeavored to inculcate just notions of
life and  conduct   One  of these is  his
book De  Remediis  utriusque  Fortunes.
With equal  zeal  he  investigated  an-
cient history, and attended, especially, to
the ancient Roman monuments, for the
preservation of which he  earnestly exert-
ed himself, and began  to  form a collec-
tion of imperial coins.  The unexampled
homage  which was paid to Petrarch dur-
ing his life, was founded chiefly on his pro-
found acquaintance with  ancient writers,
displayed in his  Latin works.   His  his-
torical treatises prove his extensive read-
ing ; and  he also  wrote an  Itinerarium
Syriacum—a  Guide  to the Holy  Land.
His  Latin, indeed, bears traces  of the
time in which he lived ;  but all will read-
ily  pardon this  defect.   He cultivated
poetry not less dian  philosophy and  his-
tory ; and genius and study conspired to
make him a  poet  As models, he  had
the ancients and Provencal bards.  The
merits of Dante he seems not to have
appreciated.   His  Latin poems are  not,
indeed, models, like those of the ancients,
but they  are excellent for  the  age in
which he  lived, and excited  general ad-
miration.   They  are eclogues,  poetic
epistles, and  an  epic entitled Africa, in
which he celebrates Scipio, his favo-
rite hero.   It was  never finished; but it
gained him the poetic laurel,  with which
he was crowned in the capitol on Easter
day,  1341, with the greatest parade. This
poem he considered his best His fame
soon spread  throughout  Italy and  the
neighboring countries. His reputation as
a poet now rests on his beautiful Italian
poems, published in 1327—1354, in which
he  far  excelled   his predecessors  the
Troubadours. He was  led to write  po-
etry in his mother  tongue, by his passion
for the beautiful Laura,  (q. v.)  The ar-
dent youth had just  returned from  the
university of Bologna to Avignon, when,
one  morning in Passion-week (April 6,
1327), he  went to the chapel of St. Clara,
according to his custom, where he  saw
Laura, full of youthful beauty and grace,
and  his whole soul  was  absorbed with
the most ardent passion, which  was in-
creased  by the charms  of  her  mind.
Laura was touched by his addresses; for
she knew how to  appreciate his  merits,
his constancy and his  admiration ;  yet
she never forgot her character and  her
honor. She always kept him within the lim-
its of propriety, and  only vouchsafed to
him a smile or a kind word, when moved
to compassion by  bis fruitless love.  He
often resolved to tear himself away from
her,  because  he felt how much his pas-
sion  checked the activity of his mind.
But  he felt,  likewise, that this  passion
had inspired  him to high efforts,  that he
might deserve the regard of Laura.  (See
the canzone Gentil mia Donna.)  lie be-
took  himself to  travelling, and  mingled
in the bustle  of the world ; but in  vain.
The image  of the object of his  passion
never left him.  (See his beautiful can-
zone Di Pensier in Pensier.)   He endeav-
ored to calm bis passion by solitude ; but
it became more   violent  amid the bills 
PETRARCA-PETREL.                        63
and woods of Vaucluse, where he spent
the principal  part of his time in  deep
study.   (See Epistle 116, and his sonnets
and canzoni.)  This love, however, did not
extinguish  all others;  he had a natural
son, who died of the plague in 1361, and
a daughter, who was  married to a noble-
man.   The news of Laura's death, which
reached  him  in Verona, April 8, 1348,
was  a severe blow to  him; yet  he did
not cease to celebrate her.  In his old
age,  however, he declared that  he was
ashamed of his youthful  infatuation, and
that he regretted having written his ama-
tory poems.  Yet he did  not censure his
love so much as its excess, and as he ad-
vanced in years, he became a contemner
of the  female sex.  The account of his
early passion is to be found chiefly in his
Latin epistles,  his treatise  entitled  My
Secret, or On the Contempt of the World,
and  the  poem  the Triumph of  Death.
After a lapse of 500 years, we still enjoy
the fruits of his love in those admirable
sonnets and canzoni which paint the joys
and sorrows, the admiration and  d6sire,
and all the tender thoughts and emotions,
of a poetic  and  glowing love.  Petrarch
is truly the prince of love poets; some
of bis  poems  may be censured for  their
monotony and the traces of the  age in
which  they were written, for cold thoughts
and allusions, false wit,  a tasteless  play
upon words, and far-fetched epithets.  But
the greater part of them will ever be  look-
ed upon as among the most perfect  mas-
terpieces of lyric poetry.  His poems con-
tain  many difficult passages, but  nume-
rous annotators  have undertaken to ex-
plain   them ;  as Gesualdo, Castelvetro,
Velutello, Tassoni, and  others.   They
have been published more than 200 times.
11 in Latin woi'ks were printed at Basle,
1496   and   1581, and  often  separately.
Petrarch was likewise  constant  in his
friendship.    This we  know  from   col-
lections of  his letters, which are likewise
useful  for   their historical  information.
He was religious after die fashion of his
age, venerated what was esteemed sacred
by his contemporaries,  observed  fasts,
bequeathed a portion of his property to
the churches, revered saints, especially
the Virgin  Mary (to whom  he  wrote a
canzonet full of humility and devotion),
and relics.   If we add to these character-
istic  traits,  his gratitude to his instructors,
faithfulness to his patrons, and universal
benevolence, we can easily account for
the esteem which he enjoyed ; especially
when we remember that he had a pleasing
exterior  to  recommend  his  merits.  In
his yonth, he was well-formed, lively,
fond of  the most beautiful  dresses (sec
Var. Epist., ix), and vain,  and he played
on  the lute.  His diligence was very
great,  and  his  talents brilliant.  The
events df the latter part of his life are his
journey to Rome  to attend  the  jubilee;
the restoration of his  property  by  the
city  of Florence ; his invitation to  the
chair of professor  in the new university
in that city, which he  refused; his visit
to Italy,  after  the  death of Element VI;
the distinguished reception which he met
from  Galeazzo Visconti,  at Milan, and
Charles IV, at Mantua; the  long desired
removal of the papal chair to Rome, under
Urban, in 1367, which was brought  about
by his influence;  and  his mediation of
the peace between the  Carrarese and the
Venetians, in 1373.  He died in 1374, as
is supposed on the night  of July 18, in
the village of Arqua, near Padua, where
he had retired to end his days.   He was
found dead early  in the morning, in  his
library, with his head resting on a book.
He was interred, with great pomp, at Ar-
qua, although  he  had forbidden -all cere-
mony.  His valuable library he bequeath-
ed  to  the  republic of Venice; but no
portion of it is now to be found.  The
account of his life is derived chiefly from
his own writings—his Letters, his Secret,
and bis Address to Posterity on his  life
and  character. The best of his biogra-
phers are the abbe de Sade(a descendant
of his Laura), Tiraboschi, Baldelli, Fer-
now, Wismayr, Ugo Foscolo, Woodhous-
lee, Ginguen6, &c.
  Petrel  (thalassidroma);  a genus of
oceanic birds, well known to seamen by
the  name of Mother   Carey's   chickens.
They are found in every part  of the world,
on the ocean, at great distances from land,
generally at twilight, or in stormy weath-
er.   They  feed on small marine  animals,
and seeds of sea-weeds, and appear ex-
ceedingly fond of fat or grease, for which,
and for the animals put in  motion, they
will follow in the wake of ships for great
distances.  They breed in rocks adjoin-
ing the sea, forming their nests in cavi-
ties;  the female lays  two  eggs.  They
fly rapidly, and generally close to  the
water; and, when in pursuit of food, they
suspend themselves by extending their
wings, and appear to run  on the surface
of the water.  Buffon says it is from  this
circumstance  that they are called petrels,
after the apostle  Peter, who walked  *n
the  water.   The appearance  of these
birds is considered by  seamen to presage
a storm, and it is thought peculiarlv un- 
64
PETREL—PEYRONNET.
lucky to kill one  of them.  There are
four species, which are so closely allied
to each  other  as  to  be generally con-
founded.  C. Bonaparte, who paid much
attention to  this genus,  designates them
as follows:—T. Wilsonii (stormy petrel);
deep sooty black; tail even; wings reach-
ing a little beyond its tip;  tube of the
nostrils  recurved;  tarsus one and a half
inch long.  T. Leachii (fork-tailed petrel);
brownish black; tail  forked; wings not
reaching beyond  the tip;  tube  of the
nostrils  straight;  tarsus one inch long.
T. pelagica; sooty black; tail even; wings
reaching a little beyond it; tube of die
uostrils   almost  straight; tarsus  seven
eighths  of an inch long.  T. oceanica;
brownish black; tail slightly emarginate ;
wings reaching more than  an inch be-
yond it;  tube of  the  nostrils recurved;
tarsus nearly one and three fourths of an
inch long.  (See Puffin.)
  Petrifactions. (See Organic Remains.)
  Pf.trobrusians.  (See Sects.)
  Petroleum.  (See Bitumen.)
  Pktronius,  Tims, surnamed Arbiter, a
Roman  author, notorious  for his licen-
tiousness and obscenity, was born at Mar-
seilles, and lived in the court of Nero.  He
was, for  a  time, the favorite of the em-
ptor, who  made him master (arbiter) of
his voluptuous banquets  and revelries.
But he finally fell a victim to the suspi-
cions of the tyrant, by whose command he
was obliged to put himself to death. The
corruption and dissoluteness of Roman
manners, at that period,  are portrayed in
the fragments of the  Satyricon Libri, in
which Petronius describes, in prose and
in verse,  the profligacy of the times, and
which are, therefore, valuable, at  least as
a picture of manners.  Some attribute it,
on account of several allusions, to another
author, who lived  for some time, in the
reign of Commodus, in Naples.  The best
critical edition is that of Burmann (Ley-
den, 1743, 2 vols.,  4to.); there is  a later
edition, by  Anton, on the basis of Bur-
mann's (Leipsic, 1781). The supposed sup-
plements, lately discovered, are spurious.
  Petty. (See Lansdowne.)
  Petty Bag; an  office in chancery, in
Eugland, the three clerks of which record
the return of all inquisitions out of every
couaty, and make all patents of comptrol-
lers, gangers, customers, &c.
  Peutinger  Table;  a  map  showing
the military roads of  the greater part of
the kingdom of the Visigoths, drawn, it
WjS formerly believed, for Theodosius the
Great   It is called after Conrad Peutin-
ger,  a  German scholar, torn  1465, and
who died in 1547.  Among his  papers
was this famous map.  Conrad Celtes had
found it in the Benedictine monastery of
Tegernsee, borrowed and not returned it.
Such a mappa mundi in rotulo was extant
in that convent, in 1502; and the Tabula
Peutingeriana at Vienna, is  probably the
same which VVerinher,a poet, made or cop-
ied in 1190.  Celtes gave this map to Peu-
tinger, who intended to publish it  After
his death, it disappeared for many  years,
until  Marx  Welser published fragments
of it, under the title of Fragmenta Tabula
antiquai  ex  Peutingerorum  Bibliotheca
(Venice, 1591).  It was not  found entire,
among Peutinger's manuscripts, until the
eighteenth  century, when  Scheyb  pub-
lished a beautiful  impression,  with re-
marks, folio (Vienna, 1753).  The manu-
script of the map is at present in the impe-
rial  library  at Vienna.  The characters
and figures show that the map is not the
original.   Docen thinks that it belongs to
the  twelfth century.  A new impression
of this  ancient  map was published  in
Leipsic  (1824), not  entirely free   from
faults, with a treatise  by Mannert.   A
new edition, with commentaries, has been
announced  by Dr. Tross,  of  Minister.
Peutinger  was the firsf;  who  collected
Roman  inscriptions on stone, in a small
work,—Romana   Vetustatis  Fragmenta
(Augsburg,  1505).   He  wrote,  besides,
other valuable works on the decline of the
Roman empire.  Peutinger long held im-
portant public offices.
  Pewter consists of tin alloyed with a
quantity of copper,  or other  metallic
bodies, as the experience of the workmen
has shown to be  the  most conducive to
the improvement of its hardness and color,
such as lead, zinc, bismuth and antimony.
The best  sort of pewter is formed from
antimony  17 parts, tin  100 parts.  The
French  add a little copper to this kind of
pewter.   A very fine silver-looking metal
is composed of 100 pounds of tin, 8 of an-
timony,!  of bismuth, and 4 of copper.
  Peyronnet,  Pierre Denis, count de,
was born in 1778, at Bordeaux, where he
studied law.  When a young man, he was
distinguished as a petit maitre and a beau.
He  became very zealous in the cause of
the  Bourbons, when  the English  and
Spanish troops .entered France, in conse-
quence of which he was appointed presi-
dent of the tribunal of the first instance, at
Bordeaux, in 1816, and, after two years,
procureur-giniral  at the cour royale  of
Bourges.   When M. Decazes (q. v.) was
at the head of the government, Peyronnet
was a  warm constitutionalist,  and pro- 
PEYRONNET.
63
nounced a discourse at  Bourges, which
might have come from a member of the
left side.  But he soon saw that a devo-
tion to  the  royalist doctrines  would ad-
vance him more  rapidly than adherence
to constitutional principles, and he chang-
ed  sides accordingly.  He was called  to
Paris to support, before the peers, the act
of accusation of the conspirators of Aug.
19,  1819, jointly  with Marchangy  and
Vatismenil, and was distinguished for his
zeal. Perier said of him, at a later period,
in the chamber, in reference to his zeal on
this occasion, that he had demanded the
heads of twenty persons.   Soon after, he
was elected deputy of the department of
the  Cher,  and, a little  later, appointed
procureur-giniral at Rouen, whither, how-
ever, he  never went.  He became the
favorite  of  a  lady then  very powerful
with Louis XVIII,  and, when Villele's
administration was formed, Peyronnet,  to
the utter astonishment of the public, was
made,  in December, 1821, keeper of the
seals, having, as  it  was  universally as-
serted, no claim whatever to this impor-
tant office;  and the only explanation of
this surprising  phenomenon was believed
to be the favor  of Mad. de Cayla.   (See
France, and  Villele.)   His first measures
were the suppression of the liberty of the
press, depriving those accused of political
libels of trial  by jury, and empowering
the royal courts to suppress journals which
had a tendency to disturb the public peace,
religion, &c, and authorizing the crown
to establish the censorship by a mere ordi-
nance.   His language was often the  sub-
ject of  ridicule in the chamber, whilst his
measures were but too much calculated
to  excite  anxiety, and his overbearing
manner gave  offence.   Aug. 17,  1822,
Peyronnet,  Corbitre  and  Villele  were
made counts.  In order to  remove those
judges  who were not thoroughly royalist,
ye( by  the constitution were  immovable,
he conceived the plan of diminishing the
number of courts.  In November, 1822,
 he procured an ordinance by which the
 bar was subjected to many of the old re-
strictions, and to the influence of the keep-
 er of the seals, and arbitrarily interfered
 in  several  legal processes.   After the
congress of Verona, he declared himself
 in favor of the  war against Spain, in oppo-
 sition  to Villele, and, shortly before the
 death of Louis  XVIII,  he effected the
 establishment  of the  censorship, which
 Charles X abolished  when he ascended
 the throne.   In 1824, he  issued a cir-
 cular,  in  which  he ordered his agents
 to denounce to him all persons, employ -
                   6*
ed in  his  department,  who  would  not
vote  for  the ministerial candidates:  the
question  of septennial  elections  of the
chamber of deputies was then to  be de-
cided.  In  1825, Peyronnet brought  for-
ward, in the chamber of peers, the cruel
law against sacrilege, which was adopted
with some modifications.  He is supposed
to have first suggested the disbanding of
the national guards.  In Villele's ministry
he was noted as the most efficient member
of the cabinet, in carrying into execution
the measures of the president of the coun-
cil, and was one of the three obnoxious
ministers,  popularly  known  under the
name of the triumvirate, composed of Cor-
biere (q. v.), Villele and the keeper of the
seals.  The elections in the  autumn of
1827 resulted  in the  entire discomfiture
of the ministry, and, on their resignation
(Jan. 4,  1828), the three above  named
went to  swell the number of peers, al-
ready increased, through their ordinance of
Nov. 5, 1827, by the elevation of seventy-
six  new  members.  (See  Villele,  and
France, History of.)  The Polignac minis-
try,  which had succeeded to the short-
lived cabinet of Martignac (Aug. 9, 1829),
was  already at open war with the nation,
when  the public astonishment and indig-
nation were increased by the nomination
of M.  de Peyronnet to the place of minis-
ter of the  interior  (May 20, 1830).   The
measures of this administration are related
elsewhere.   (See  Polignac,  and  France,
History of.)  The  position of Peyronnet
in the ministry placing him in correspond-
ence with  the prefects and agents of the
internal administration, his zetd,  energy,
activity, capacity, and unshrinking readi-
ness to go all lengths, made it obvious
that he was called in to manage the elec-
tions, and secure a ministerial majority by
the unsparing employment of fraud, ter-
ror and violence.   All these arts, however,
backed by the royal proclamation to the
electors, failed before the resolute purpose
of the nation; the liberal party was com-
pletely successful  in  the elections (June
and July),  and the ministry determined on
violent measures.   Peyronnet  is  under-
stood  to have been opposed to this  plan
previous to the elections; but it was final-
ly adopted between the 10th  and  15th of
July; and  to him was intrusted the draw-
ing  up  of the ordinance  changing the
electoral laws, which, with the other three,
was signed July 25, and published in die
next Moniteur.  On Thursday, the 29th,
the ministry resigned, and, in the middle
of August, Peyronnet, with several of his
colleagues, was arrested at Tours, and im- 
66
PEYRONNET—PH^EDRUS.
prisoned at  Vincennes; on  the 30th of
September they  were impeached, before
the peers,  of high treason.   The  trial
eame on December 15.  M. de Peyronnet
was defended by M. Hennequin ; the ac-
cused  himself read  a memorial  in his
defence.  On the 21st, he was sentenced
to imprisonment  for life, and, on the 23d,
was again transferred to  the prison  of
Vincennes, and  thence to  the castle  at
Ham, a village near Peronne, in the north
©f France.   In 1831, the ex-minister pub-
lished a work on the  jurisdiction of par-
liaments.
  Peyrouse, La.  (See Lapcrouse.)
  Pfeffel, Christian Frederic, a juriscon-
sult and diplomatist,  born  at Colmar, in
1726, became secretary to the ambassador
from  Saxony to France, and was  em-
ployed in several negotiations.  In 1758,
he was sent to Ratisbon, during the  diet,
as charge" d'affaires,  and thence  to the
court of Bavaria, where he remained un-
til 1768, when he was  recalled to Ver-
sailles,  and became   jurisconsult to the
king.    In  1790,  he  was  sent, by  the
French ministry, to Deux Ponts, to treat
of the indemnities of the German princes,
and was still there when he received his
dismission from his public functions ; his
property was confiscated,  and he  was
placed on the list of emigrants.  He re-
mained in the service of the duke of Deux
Ponts until 1795, when he retired to  Nu-
remberg, and died in 1807.   His principal
works are, Abrigk. Chronologique de I'His-
toire, et du Droit publique d'Allemagne;
Recherches Historiques concernant les Droits
iu Pape sur la VUle et I' Etat d'Avignon ;
Etat de la Pologne;  Dissertations Histo-
riques.
  Pfefyel,  Gottlieb  Conrad, a  distin-
guished German author, was  born in Col-
mar, Alsatia, in  1736, of Protestant  par-
ents.  He went to Halle in his fifteenth
year, to study law.  In 1757, he became
blind.  This misfortune he bore, for more
than fifty years,  with wise  cheerfulness,
and became  a most  useful citizen.   In
1773,  he established a Protestant  school
at Colmar, with the  approbation of the
king of France,  in which  he educated
many excellent scholars.  The revolution
put at end to the  institution.   In 1803, he
was made  president of the  newly-estab-
lished  Protestant consistory at Colmar,
and died May 1, 1809.  He is one of the
best poets of Germany, in the department
of the fable, and tales in verse.  His poet-
ical works are collected in  his Poetische
Vcrsuche, 10 vols., 2d  edit.  (Tubingen,
1817), and his prose writings in Prosaische
 Vcrsuche  (Tubingen, 1810, 8 vols.).  His
 biography forms the last volume.
   Pfyfer,  Louis,  born  at Lucerne,  in
 1715, entered the French military service
 at an early age, distinguished himself in
 the campaigns from 1734  to '47, in 1748
 was made  major-general,  and,  in  1763,
 lieutenant-general.   At Lucerne is still
 shown a plan, in relief; of a part of the in-
 terior of  Switzerland,  executed  by him.
 It is remarkable for its minute accuracy
 and truth of representation.
   Ph.«don, of Elis; a scholar of Socrates,
 and founder of a school of philosophy  in
 Elis.  The dialogue of Plato, on the im-
 mortality  of the  soul, which contains the
 last  conversation of  Socrates with his
 scholars,  while he was  in prison, also
 bears this name.   Mendelssohn has given
 the same title to his conversations on the
 same subject; but the dialogues written
 by Phaedon  himself are lost
   Phaedra ;  daughter of Minos, king  of
 Crete, and of Pasiphae, sister of Ariadne
 and wife of Theseus.  Happening to meet
 Hippolytus,  her step-son,  whom  she had
 never before seen, and whom she did not
 know to be the son  of Theseus,  she was
 inflamed with an ardent passion for the
 beautiful youth.   He would not recipro-
 cate her passion, and,  to  satisfy her re-
 venge, she accused him to  her husband of
 a criminal attempt upon her honor.  The
 father cursed his son, and  Neptune  soon
 carried his execrations into effect by bring-
 ing upon  Hippolytus  a  violent death.
 When  this  event was known  in Athens,
 Phaedra repented of her crime  and  hang-
 ed herself.  According to  some,  she was
 killed by Theseus.  Sophocles and Eurip-
 ides, two of the most celebrated poets of
 antiquity,  have taken Phsodra as the sub-
ject of their  tragedies, which are now lost.
 Racine has followed their example.
  Ph.edros ; a Latin fabulist,  born in
 Thrace.   He was  probably brought to
 Rome, as a slave, at a tender age, and en-
 tered the service  of Augustus,  who  libe-
 rated him.  Nothing is known  of his life,
 except that  he suffered much from the
 tyranny of Sejanus under the reien of Ti-
 berius ;  spent his days probably in mode-
 rate circumstances,  and died  at an ad-
 vanced age.   He wrote five books of fa-
 bles in iambic verse,  which are distinguish-
 ed  for their  purity  and elegance of ex-
 pression, and for their simplicity  and in-
 structive thought   He borrowed  his ma-
 terials,  in  part, from iEsop, and  mixed
 with them his own inventions.  The work
 of  Phsedrus is  no where   mentioned
 among the ancients, and Seneca goes so 
PH/EDRUS—PHALAROPE.
67
 far as to say the Romans had no fables in
 the  manner  of ^Esop.  The  moderns
 knew nothing of his  writings till  1595,
 when a copy was found by Francis Pithou
 in the library of St. Remi at Rheims.  He
 sent it to his brother Peter, who gave it to
 the world.  The best editions are by Bur-
 mann (2 vols., Leyden, 1727, 4to.), and the
 most complete by Schwabe  (Brunswick,
 1806).  Christ first doubted the  genuine-
 ness  of  the fables of Pheedrus.   Several
 modern  philologists  regard them as spu-
 rious, and the work  of a later age.  This
 is certain in regard  to thirty-two new fa-
 bles,  first published by Cassitti, at Naples,
 under the  name of  Phatdrus, but  made
 known previously to the learned Burmann
 by Dorville  from  Perotti's  manuscript.
 These fables  have been several times re-
 printed since 1812.
   Phaeton ; the offspring of the sun and
 Clymene,  and brother of the Heliades.
 To please his unfortunate mother, and  to
 satisfy those who doubted  whether the
 sun were his father, he desired  the  latter
 to grant him a favor. Phoebus imprudent-
 ly promised it, unconditionally, and swore
 by the Styx that he would, at all events,
 keep  his word.  Phaeton now asked per-
 mission to  take  his father's place in the
 chariot of the sun, and would not be de-
 nied.  But he had scarcely mounted the
 flaming car, and taken the reins, when the
 celestial  horses,  despising   their  weak
 driver, turned out of the path, and set ev-
 ery thing on fire.  The Ethiopians, on the
 left, were blackened by the near approach
 of the sun ; and, when the  chariot was
 drawn over the earth to the right, Jupiter,
 with  his bolts, plunged  the  thoughtless
 charioteer into the river Po.   His sisters
 found him there lifeless, and  lamented
 him.—The god of the sun was also called
 Phaeton  (the enlightener).    In  modern
 times t is name is given to a sort of high,
 light, open carriage.
  Phalanx ;  a body of troops among the
 Greeks, armed with long spears,  and ar-
 ranged  in  the  form of a square.  The
 momentum of their onset usually decided
 the battle.  The phalanx at first consisted
 of 4000 men, but was afterwards doubled,
 and even quadrupled.  It was first doub-
 led by Philip of Macedon, and the double
 phalanx is hence often called the Macedo-
nian phalanx.  The  phalanx  was com-
 monly sixteen deep, and the  men were
drawn up shield  to  shield ;  the  rear
ranks, which could not  reach  the  enemy
with  their spears,  held them upon the
shoulders of those before them, and  thus
formed a sort of wall to stop die progress
 of the missiles of the enemy.   The pha-
 lanx is much  celebrated in the history of
 ancient wars,  on account of its inviucible-
 ness.
   Phalaris.   This prince, notorious for
 his  cruelty, was a native of Astypalea, in
 Crete.   On  his banishment   from  that
 place, he went to Sicily, where he made
 himself  master  of Agrigentum, about B.
 C. 571, and sought to maintain his power
 by cruelty and severity.  The most  fa-
 mous instance of his cruelty was the bar-
 barous punishment of the brazen bull pre-
 pared  by Perillus of Athens.   The victim
 was shut up in the body of the bull, and
 roasted slowly by a fire underneath.  The
 screams  of pain uttered by the unhappy
 man were made, by some machinery, to
 resemble the  lowing of a bull.  Phalaris
 caused the first experiment to be tried on
 the  inventor.   After a reign of about six-
 teen years, he was killed during a rebel-
 lion.  The  letters which bear the name
 of Phalaris have been  fully proved to be
 spurious by Bentley, in his celebrated con-
 troversy  with  Boyle.  The latest edition is
 that by Lennep  (Grdningen, 1777,2 vols.,
 4to.).
   Phalarope (phalaropus).  A genus of
 shore birds, belonging to the family longi-
 rostres, Cuvier.  They live in small flocks
 on the sea-coasts, sometimes, but rarely, in
 fresh water lakes ; feed on aquatic insects
 and molluscous animals.  The  female
 builds on the shore among the  grass, lay-
 ing from four  to six eggs.  Both sexes in-
 cubate, and attend  on  the young, which
 leave the nest, run about and swim, soon
 after they are  hatched.  These birds fly
 well, and  swim expertly,  resisting  the
 heaviest  waves, but never dive.   Their
 flesh is oily and unpalatable.   They in-
 habit far  north, migrating in the autumn
 and  winter  to the temperate  regions of
 both continents.  There are but three spe-
 cies as yet known, which have been placed
 by authors in different families,  and even
 orders.  C. Bonaparte has thus arranged
 them :—Sub-genus, phalaropus. P.fulica-
 rius (red  phalarope). This is the P.hyper-
 boreus  of Wilson ; blackish, varied with
 ferruginous; beneath rufous; winter dress
 cinereous, beneath white; inhabits both
 continents, but rare and during the winter
 only in the  U. States.    Sub-genus, lobi-
pes.  P. hyperboreus (northern phalorope).
 inhabits both continents; very rare in the
 U. States, but  common  in the Hebrides.
 It is black,  varied with rufous, beneath
 white,  sides of the  neck bright rufous;
 winter plumage cinereous, beneath white.
 Sub-genus holopodius, P. Wilsonii (gray 
68
PHALAROPE-J»HARMACY.
 phalardpe).   This is the  P. lobatus of
 Wilson ; bluish gray, beneath white, with
 a chestnut patch and a black band on each
 side of the neck; summer plumage un-
 known ;  inhabits the north  of America,
 migrating in  winter as far south as the
 coast of Mexico.
   Paamenophis.  (See Memnon.)
   Phanar.  (See Fanariots.)
   Phantasm.  (See Spectre.)
   Phantasmagoria.   (See Lantern.)
   Phantasos.  (See Morpheus.)
   Phaon.  (See Sappho.)
   Pharaoh.  (See Egypt.)
   Pharisees ;  the members of a sect
 among die Jews, which seems to have aris-
 en in the time of the Maccabees.  Besides
 the books of Moses, they held a multitude
 of doctrines  and traditions, supposed  to
 have been received orally from that law-
 giver, with the annotations of later teach-
 ers,  after the captivity.  These traditions
 they thought  themselves ohliged  to ob-
 serve as  strictly as  the laws of Moses.
 They were distinguished from die Saddu-
 cees by their zeal for their  traditions, and
 their helief in the resurrection of the dead.
 Their ambition, and  the narrowness of
 their religious views, made them  hypo-
 crites. With a lax morality, they thought to
 obtain the favor of the Supreme Being by
 external holiness and ascetic expiations;
 and  they sought to gain the good opinion
 of men by a high tone of justice and piety.
 The  Pharisees numbered  in  their ranks
 the most distinguished lawyers and states-
 men in Judea; and, as persons of all con-
 ditions,  not excluding females, were ad-
 mitted into their society, they gained a po-
 litical influence which often decided the
 fete of the Jewish  nation under the Mac-
 cabees and Asmonaeans, and brought into
 their hands  the  power  which had been
 left to the great council by the Romans in
 the time of Christ  The doctrines of the
 Pharisees have prevailed in the religion of
 the  modern Jews, and in the Talmud.
 The  term Pharisee is also applied to a per-
 son whose character resembles that of the
 Pharisees of the  New Testament
   Pharmacolite.  (See Lime, vol. vii, p.
 558.)
   Pharmacopeia  (from (papiiwcov,  medi-
 cine, and nouw, to make); the same as dis-
pensatory, (q.v.)
   Pharmacy,  Pharmaceutics  (fappaicov,
 drug); the art of preserving, preparing,
 compounding and  combining substances
 for medical purposes; the art of the apoth-
 ecary.  As these substances may be min-
 eral,  vegetable or animal, theoretical phar-
 macy requires a knowledge of botany, zo-
 ology and mineralogy, and, as it is neces-
 sary to determine their properties, and the
 laws of their composition and decomposi-
 tion, of chemistry also.  In a narrower
 sense, pharmacy is merely the art of com-
 pounding and mixing drugs according to
 the prescription of the physician.  These
 processes and  substances have been  de-
 scribed under   their  appropriate  heads.
 (See the separate articles.)  The prepara-
 tion of medicines was at first  performed
 by  the physicians themselves, who also
 administered them  to their  patients; and
 it first became a distinct branch of medi-
 cal science at Alexandria, towards the  be-
 ginning of the  fourth century B. C, (see
 Medicine), when some physicians devoted
 themselves solely to it.  Afterwards it  be-
 came the employment of particular indi-
 viduals (rhizotomists,  simplers), and  the
 medical science and the apothecary's  art
 thus became separated  from each other.
 Mantias, a pupil of Herophilus, in Alex-
 andria, seems to have  been the  author of
 the first pharmacopoeia, having  published
 a work on the  preparation of medicines.
 Zeno of Laodicea  distinguished himself
 by the  invention of a large number  of
 compound medicines.  Princes  also stud-
 ied  the medical sciences, particularly in
 reference to the preparation of poisons
 and antidotes.   Thus Attalus, last king of
 Pergamus (B. C. 134), was noted for  his
 medical skill, and his knowledge of plants,
 and several preparations which he invent-
 ed, are known to us; as,  for instance,  an
 ointment of white lead  or ceruse, &c.
 Mithridates (q. v.), king of Pontus (123—62
 B. C.J, invented  an antidote, composed  of
 fifty-four ingredients.  Heras, of Cappa-
 docia, wrote a  work  on  pharmacy  at
 Rome (B.C. 49).   Musa, the celebrated
 physician to Augustus, prescribed several
 medicinal preparations, which afterwards
 continued in use  under his name.   A
 large collection  of  compound medicines
 is enumerated in the works of Scribonius
 Largus (A. D. 43).  Menecrates,  physician
 to Tiberius, was the inventor of die dia-
 chylon,  or  litharge  plaster.  Damocrates
 (A.  D.  47)  invented,  and  described  in
 verse, the preparation of several medicines,
 tooth-powder, ointments, &c.   Philo  of
 Tarsus (A. D. 23) discovered a  sedative,
 composed of opium,  saffron and  other
 ingredients, and called, from him, philoni-
um.   iEsclepiades  Pharmacion (in the
time of Trajan, A. D. 97) prepared several
celebrated medicines.  Dioscorides,  who
probably flourished  in the reign of Nero
 A. D. 34),  is yet distinguished for his
knowledge of the properties of plants, and 
PHARMACY-PHARO.
first exposed  the  fraudulent  practices
made use of in the composition of several
medicines,  and  prescribed the prepara-
tion of some new ones; as, for instance,
of ceruse, calamine, flowers of zinc (niliil
album), &c.  Pliny the Elder  (79) also
rendered important services to pharmacy
by his researches into natural history.  In
Galen's time (160—200)  several physi-
cians in  Rome employed themselves  in
the   preparation  of cosmetics.   When,
with the decline of the Roman empire,
science and learning  became extinct  in
Western  Europe, superstition and blind
empiricism  prevailed in the medical de-
partment, and pharmacy  made  no prog-
ress.  But, in the East, particularly in Al-
exandria, where  art and  science contin-
ued  to flourish, chemistiy and pharmacy
were cultivated with ardor  by the Arabi-
ans.  They studied the works of the
Greek writers, and from them we derive
many  important  improvements in the
pharmaceutic art  The caliph Almansor
(754) founded in Bagdad the first public
apotheca,  or druggist's shop.   The names
of several medicinee, such as alcohol, julep,
&c, are of Arabian origin, and it is most
probable  that we owe to  them the first
official dispensatories, or pharmacopoeias.
Sabor Ebn Sahel, about the middle of the
ninth century, published a pharmacopoeia;
and, in the twelfth centuiy, Abul Hassan,
physician to the culiph of Bagdad,  pub-
lished a similar work, which subsequently
served as the standard work of the Arabi-
an apothecaries.   The Arabian apothecas
were under the particular direction of the
government,and  were subjected to a strict
supervision, particularly in  regard to the
quality and price of drugs.  It is related
of Affhin, an Arabian general, that he ex-
amined in person the  medicine chest  of
his  army, to see if every thing mentioned
in the dispensatories was provided.  With
the   revival  of medical  science in the
West arose the celebrated school of Saler-
no.   The apothecary's trade was now (in
the  thirteenth century) regulated by law,
and apothecaries and grocers were obliged
to sell their articles at fixed prices. Apoth-
ecas, or apothecaries' halls, could be es-
tablished only in certain places, and two
men of standing were appointed in the
large towns to superintend them.  The
most important  medicines were  com-
pounded  under  their  inspection,  and
frauds were severely punished.  There is
a work by Saladin of Ascoli, physician  to
the  grand constable of Naples, in the fif-
teenth centuiy, which, besides other curi-
ous materials relating  to the state of the
apothecaries' trade at that period, contains
a list of the books which an apothecary
ought  to have, with  moral precepts and
directions for each month.  The principal
pharmaceutical work of the  middle ages
was the Antidotarium of Nicholas Prapo-
situs of Salernum, which was celebrated
as early as the twelfth centuiy. In France,
the apothecaries' halls were first subjected
to the supervision of the  medical faculty
in the fifteenth centuiy.  In Germany,
the apothecaries were  merely dealers in
drugs,  which they imported  from Italy.
The physicians also prepared their own
prescriptions.  In most cities, the apothe-
caries  were  likewise -confectioners, and
the magistrates, in  their contracts  with
them, stipulated for a certain quantity of
confectionary, to be delivered in the city
hall.  The reforms of Paracelsus in med-
icine (sixteenth centuiy) introduced some
changes into  pharmacy.  Many chemical
preparations were adopted, and the use of
mineral specifics, as, for example, antimo-
ny and mercury, became more common.
Still, the operations were conducted with-
out reference to scientific  principles; but,
since the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury, the natural sciences have continued
to make great progress, and  pharmacy, as
well as medicine, has experienced  the
effects of the improvement.  In pharma-
ceutical  operations,  the  apothecaries'
weight is used, in which twenty grains
make a scruple, three scruples a  drachm,
eight drachms an ounce, and twelve ounces
a pound.   The  following  abbreviations
and signs are used by physicians in writ-
ing their prescriptions:

ft>.         pound.
§.         ounce.
3.         drachm.
[).         scruple.
Gr.        grain.
C.         (congium) gallon.
O.         (octans) pint.
f. §.       fluid ounce.
f. 3.       fluid drachm.
r\.        minim.
Gut.       (gutta) drop.
Cochl.     (cochleare) spoonful.
Cochl. maj. (cochleare majus) table-spoon.
Cochl. min. (cochleare minus) tea-spoon.
Manip.     Imanipulus) handful.
j. i.        one.
ss.         half.
aaorana.  of each.           [necessary.
q. s.       (quantum sufficit) as much as
p. e.       equal parts.

  Pharo ; a game.  (See Faro.) 
70
PHARO—PHERECYDES.
  Pharo of Messina.  (See Faro of Mes-
sina.)
  Pharos ;  sometimes used, in English,
for  lighthouse: in some other languages,
it is the ordinary term for these edifices.
The name is derived  from the island of
Pharos before Alexandria, which protected
the  port of that  city.  On  the  eastern
promontory of the island stood the  light-
house  of  Alexandria,  so  famous  in
antiquity,  and  considered  one  of  the
wonders of  the  world,  built 300  years
B. C.  It is  said  to have been 500 feet
high.  (See Lighthouse.)
  Pharsalia ; the plains in the neighbor-
hood of Pharsalus, a  town of Thessaly,
where Caesar defeated Pompey B. C. 48.
(See Ccesar,  and Lucan.)
  Phases, in astronomy, denote the vari-
ous appearances of the moon, and the su-
perior planets, at different ages; also the
appearance  of the moon  or sun  when
eclipsed. Metaphorically, the word is used
by historians, to  designate various stages
and  appearances  of one great historical
event, for example, a revolution.
  Pheasant (phasianus).   The  genus
phasianus includes not only the pheasants
proper,  but  also  the  common  domestic
fowl.  (See  Cock.) The true pheasant is
distinguished by  having a long tail, the
feathers of which are of different lengths,
and  overlay each other like tiles.   The
most common species is the P. colchicus,
originally a  native of the East, but now
naturalized in many parts of Europe, es-
pecially in the southern parts.  In their
wild state, these birds feed, like the rest of
the gallinaceous tribe, upon vegetable food:
when young, however, they principally
subsist on insects, and  are  exceedingly
fond of ants'  eggs.  The  female constructs
her nest in some  retired spot, forming  it
of leaves, and without grass.  The  num-
ber of eggs she lays is various; for, if they
are  carried away, she  continues, like the
common hen, to lay an additional quantity.
The males and females only  associate to-
gether in the first spring months.  When
disturbed, they make a whirring  noise,
like the partridge, and, from being a large
mark, and flying slowly, they are readily
brought down, even by an inexperienced
sportsman.  There are  several  varieties,
produced by climate  and  domestication,
among which is the white.   The golden
pheasant (P. pictus), a native of China, is
remarkable for the beauty of its plumage:
the prevailing colors are red, yellow and
blue, and it  is distinguished by a crest
upon the  head,  which  can  be  raised at
pleasure.  The iris, bill and legs are yel-
low.  The tail  is long, and richly tinted,
and from above it arise a number of long,
straight feathers, of a scarlet  hue, mixed
with yellow.  Cuvier is  of opinion that
the description given by Pliny of the  phoe-
nix (lib. x, cap. 2) is meant for  this bird.
Another fine species found in China is the
silver pheasant (P. nycthemerus).  This is
of a silvery white color, with very delicate
black lines  on  each  feather, and  black
belly.  The most splendid bird of this ge-
nus, and perhaps of the feathered race, is
the argus pheasant (P. argus).  This spe-
cies, which is of a large size, is an inhab-
itant of the mountains in  the island of
Sumatra, and perhaps of others of the In-
dian islands.  The  male  has  a very long
tail, and the feathers of  the wings are
large, and much  produced,  the whole
thickly covered  with ocellate spots, giving
to the  bird a most  extraordinary aspect.
There  are several other species of this
genus,  which inhabit different parts of
Asia: none, however,  have yet been dis-
covered in America.   The bird known
under the name of pheasant in Pennsylva-
nia,  &c,  is a  tetrao or grouse,  (q. v.)
Judging, however, from the success which
has attended the  naturalization  of the
peacock, Guinea fowl, and other birds of
warm climates,  it is probable that many,
if not all the species of pheasant, might be
raised  in  the U. States, especially in the
Southern  States.  At the same time,  it
should be stated that the attempts hitherto
made to introduce the common pheasant
into  Pennsylvania have failed, not,  how-
ever, from the severity of the winter, but
from various accidental causes.
   Phelloplastics (from ^tAAoj, cork);
the art of representing works of architect-
ure on  a  reduced scale in cork, invented
by an artist in Rome, between  1780 and
1790, and improved by a German named
Mey. The phelloplastic works afford very
fine models, and are cheaper than models
in wood, gypsum, stone, or papier macM.
  Pherecyoes ; a celebrated sage of an-
cient Greece.   He is regarded as the firet
who wrote in prose,  on  philosophy and
religion,  although his expression,  as  is
natural, inclines much to poetry.   He was
a native of the island of Syros, flourished
in the sixth century, B. C, and was a con-
temporary of Thales.   The fragments of
his work on nature  and  the  gods, are
merely  allegorical thoughts.   Sturz col-
lected  them (2d edit, Gera, 1798).  Phe-
recydes considered Jupiter or atOvp,  Time
or xpoi/0j,and the earth, which he esteemed
a chaos, as the elements  of all things.
According to Cicero, he was the first that 
PHERECYDES—PHIDIAS.
71
taught the immortality of the soul; he
was also the instructer of Pythagoras.
  PHiniAS of Athens;  the great master
of statuary, who,  in  the age of Pericles
(about the 84th Olympiad, or B. C. 444),
embodied the lofty ideal of a Pallas-Mi-
nerva and an Olympian Jove.  According
to Bottiger, Phidias executed three statues
of Pallas,  which were all in the Acropolis
in  the time of Pausanias.   One colossal
statue of Pallas, he cast in bronze (taken
from the tenth of the  spoils won on the
plains of Marathon), for the temple of Mi-
nerva Polias, in which she was represented
as a guardian deity.  Mys wrought upon
her shield, in relievo, the  battle of the
Centaurs, from  designs  by Parrhasius.
Near the statue  stood the primitive  pos-
sessor of the mount, an owl.  It is related
of this statue, that mariners, doubling the
promontory of  Sunium,  still  saw  her
crested helmet and the point of her spear.
The second of  his most famous statues
was made of ivory and gold.  It was de-
nominated the statue of the Parthenon,  or
Parthenos (the virgin), and measured, with
the pedestal, about 41 <£ English feet.  In-
stead  of marble, he made use of ivory,
which admitted  of a much  softer and
more  brilliant polish.  It was, in reality,
formed of wood, overlaid  with ivory.  He
threw  over it a garment of gold, either
beaten or cast with such exquisite skill,
that it might be put off or on at pleasure,
and could be weighed, at any time,  by
the treasurer of the temple.  It weighed
44  talents.  During the government  of
Demetrius Poliorcetes, it was carried off.
The.,  eyes were  of marble, let in, and
probably  painted, according to the  pre-
vailing  custom.   The goddess  stood up-
right, with the aegis on her breast ami a
spear in h< r left hand.  There was like-
wise an immense serpent, or dragon, near
her, supposed to be that of Ericthonius.
In her right *iand was the goddess Victoria,
formed in like  manner of ivory, with a
vestment of gold, four cubits high.   By
lier side stoc d the great shield, represent-
ing, on  the convex side, the battle of the
Amazons, and on the concave, the battle
of the Titans.  The different parts of the
statue,  as well  as  the  pedestal, were
wrought  in relievo.   Thus, for example,
Phidias introduced himself and Pericles
on  the shield.  A complete description of
this statue is  given in Bottiger's Andeu-
tungen iiber die Arclidologie (Observations
on  Archaeology).   The  third  statue,  in
bronze,  of a  smaller size, which  was
called, emphatically, the beautiful,  on ac-
count of its  exquisite proportions, was
purchased by the people of Lemnos, and
sent  by them to the Acropolis of Athens.
The  Olympian Jupiter of Phidias  repre-
sented the serene majesty of the king  of
heaven, and  was ranked, for its beauty,
among the wonders of the world. Jupiter
was here seen sitting upon a throne, with
an olive wreath of gold about his temples;
the upper part of his  body was naked ; a
wide mantle, covering the rest of it, hung
down, in the richest folds, to his feet,
which rested on a footstool.  The  naked
parts  of the  statue were of ivory; the
dress was of beaten gold, with an  imita-
tion of embroidery  painted by Panaenus,
brother of Phidias.   In the right hand
stood the goddess  Victoria, turning  to-
wards the statue, and  carved, like  it, out
of ivory and gold; she was holding out a
band, with which she appeared desirous
to encircle his olive crown.  In his  left
hand,  the  divinity  held a  parti-colored
sceptre, made of various metals  skilfully
joined, and on the sceptre rested an eagle.
Power, wisdom and goodness were admi-
rably expressed  in  his features.   He  sat
with theairof a divinity, presiding among
the judges of the games, and  dispensing
the laurel wreaths to  the victors, calm in
conscious dignity, the beau ideal of Greek
anthropomorphism.   Cicero (De Oratore,
ii) relates  that  the artist was led, by a
passage in the Iliad,  to  imagine  such a
figure.  The statue  was surrounded with
magnificent drapery,  which was  drawn
aside only on particular  occasions, when
the deity  was to be  exhibited.  A sense
of greatness  and splendor overwhelmed
the spectator.  There was also a splmdid
statue of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, falsely as-
cribed to Argoracritus,the favorite of Phid-
ias.   He  made  it  of a  block of  Parian
marble, which the Persians had designed
as the monument of their victory.   From
Phidias that elevated style, which is so
much admired, is commonly supposed to
have been derived;  and modern antiqua-
rians maintain  that after his death Gre-
cian  art began to decline.   Phidias was,
moreover, an architect.  By the exertions
of Pericles, Athens was made the most
magnificent city in Greece.  During  his
government, which lasted twenty  years,
the city was adorned with more  costly
temples, colonnades, and other works of
art, than  Rome, though mistress  of  the
world,  could boast  in seven centuries.
Every  one  was anxious to do something
for the ornament of the city of  Pallas.
The best materials and most skilful artists
were there in abundance.  Phidias super-
intended  these  improvements;  and  tho 
72
PHIDIAS—PHILADELPHIA.
sculptures  with  which the  Parthenon,
for instance, among other buildings, was
adorned, were partly his own work, and
partly in  the spirit and after  the ideas
of this  great master.  Phidias  received
great honors  from  the Athenians,  for
whose fame he was laboring, while Per-
icles had the sovereign power; but he
was subjected  to a change of fortune
when the popularity of his patron declin-
ed.  He died in prison.  The cause of his
death is unknown.—See Eineric David,
Examen des Inculpations dirigies  contre
Phidias  (Examination of  the  Charges
brought against  Phidias; Paris), and C. O.
Mfiller,  De Phidioe  Vita et Operibus, etc.
(the Life and Works of Phidias; Gotting-
en, 1827, 4to.).
  Philadelphia, the  second city in size
in the U. Slates, is situated in a county of
the same name,  in the state of Pennsylvar
nia, between the Delaware and Schuylkill
rivers, five miles above their junction, in
lat. 39° 57' N, and lon. 75° 10' 59" W. from
Greenwich, and is about 120 miles distant
from the Atlantic  ocean, by the course of
the river, and about 55 miles from it in  a
direct line to the south-east  The name is
composed of two Greek words,—<pi\os,  a
friend, and aiek<j>os, a brother.  Proud,  the
historian (upon   what authority  is  not
known), states that the Indian name of the
place was Coaquenaku, which Heckewel-
der translates into " the grove of tall pines."
The city was founded  by William  Penn,
in the year 1682.  The original  city was
a parallelogram, extending west about two
miles from  the Delaware,  beyond  the
Schuylkill,and north and south a little more
than a  mile.  As commerce and  other
business increased, the buildings  were
naturally extended  along the Delaware,
and  now reach from the  lower part of
Southwark to the upper part of  Kensing-
ton, near four miles, and from one river to
the  other.   The  main  streets,  running
north and south, are twenty-five  in  num-
ber, and those from east  to west fourteen,
in the city proper, all of which cross  at
right angles, except Dock  street.  These
streets are handsomely paved with round
stones, and kept remarkalJy clean.  The
foot-ways are paved with brick, and de-
fended from the approach of carriages by
ranges of curb-stone.  Numerous smaller
streets  and  alleys  divide  the  different
squares, and are  paved  in  like  manner.
The whole number, in the  city  and dis-
tricts, is about  600.  The streets vary
much in width.   Broad street is  113 feet;
High street, or  Market street, 100; Arch
street, 60 feet; and the others of various
width.  Common sewers have been form-
ed under most of the main streets, which
carry the filth into the Delaware, and pre-
serve the health and  contribute to the
comfort of the inhabitants.  The houses
exhibit an  appearance  of neatness, uni-
formity  and  commodiousmss,  and  most
of them are ornamented with white marble
steps and window sills.  Sept. 5,1774, the
members of the first congress convened at
Philadelphia, where they adopted that cel-
ebrated  declaration  of rights  which may
be considered the preface to the declara-
tion  of independence.  Within two years
after, the eternal separation of the U. States
from England was decreed by that august
body, and  proclaimed to the people from
the  state-house.  Congress continued to
sit at Philadelphia  until the approach of
the enemy, at the close of the autumn of
1776, compelled them  to retire to Balti-
more.  The city fell into the possession
of the British forces Sept  26, 1777, and
they occupied it until  the  18th of  June
following.  During  the remainder of the
war, it happily escaped the ravages of hos-
tile operations.  It was also the seat of the
state government until the year 1800.  For
municipal  purposes the  legislature has,
from time to time,  established  corporate
governments in different parts of the sub-
urbsj so that Philadelphia is divided into
the following  districts:  the corporations
of the city of Philadelphia, of the North-
ern Liberties, Kensington, Spring Garden,
Southwark and Moyamensing.  The mu-
nicipal government  of  the city  proper is
vested in a mayor, a recorder, fifteen al-
dermen, and a select and  common coun-
cil, besides  subordinate executive officers.
The  recorder and aldermen are appointed
by the governor of the  state,  and  hold
their offices during good behavior.   The
mayor was annually chosen by the coun-
cils from among the aldermen until April
10, 1826, when the  legislature passed an
act authorizing the councils to elect him
from the  body of the  citizens.   The
members of the select and common coun-
cils are annually chosen by the people, on
the day of the  general election.  They
receive no  compensation,  sit  in separate
chambers, and each body has a negative
on the legislative acts of the other.  The
mayor, recorder, and  aldermen, or any
four  of them,  whereof the  mayor or re-
corder must be one, constitute the mayor's
court, which has the same jurisdiction of
offences committed in the city,  as the
quarter-sessions in their respective coun-
ties.   The  aldermen  have respectively
the powers, and perform the dudes, of 
PHILADELPHIA.                           73
justices of the peace, as to all  matters
arising within the city.  This form of gov-
ernment was  established in 1796.  The
city  proper sends  seven representatives
and  two senators to the state legislature.
The population of Philadelphia,  accord-
ing to the census of 1810, was 96,664; in
1820 it was 119,325; and in 1830 it was
167,811. Philadelphia now contains about
one  hundred  places of public  worship,
few  of which  are  distinguished   for
architecture or  extent.    Institutions  for
the  relief of  the  unfortunate, sick  and
helpless abound, at the  head of which is
the  Pennsylvania  hospital,  which  was
founded in the year 1750. The buildings
occupy an entire square, and in the front
of them stands a leaden  statue  of William
Penn.   The public  alms-house is built
upon the square adjoining, the annual  ex-
penses of which are about $50,000.  The
asylums for widows and orphans, and  the
institution for the deaf and dumb, deserve
a passing notice.  The latter building was
erected in 1824 ; it is constructed of gran-
ite.  The whole front is 96 feet 6 inches,
and 63 feet in depth.  The annual expen-
ditures are about $11,000.  The institution
was established in April,  1820.  In the  fol-
lowing year it  was incorporated,  received
a donation of $8000 from die state, and an
additional appropriation, for the support
and education of fifty indigent pupils of
the state, for the term of three years.   By
subsequent acts, this grant for charity stu-
dents  has  been made  to continue until
April,  1833.   In 1828,  the legislature of
Maryland appropriated  $3500 annually,
for five years, for the education of indi-
gent deaf and dumb persons, of that state,
in this institution.  The legislature of New
Jersey  also has, for several years past,
provided for an indefinite number of  her
own deaf and dumb poor,  not exceed-
ing twelve at any  one  time, to be edu-
cated  at  the  option  of their  parents,
either  in this  institution or  in the one at
New York.   These, together with occa-
sional private donations and funds, derived
from  paying-pupils,  received from  any
part of the country, at the rate of $160  per
annum, and the life and annual subscrip-
tions of the society which established  the
institution, are the means by which it  has
been  hitherto sustained and  enabled to
accomplish much good.   The  number of
its pupils, in May, 1830, was seventy-six.
The object of this school is to give a good
common education to deaf-mutes, and to
train  them  to industrious habits.  The
course of instruction varies  from four to
six yeurs.  The system  pursued is that of
   vol. x.'          7
the abb6s De l'Epee and Sicard.  A grand
lodge of modern  masons appears to have
existed  in Philadelphia as early  as 1732.
The masonic lodge (a building  more re-
markable for  its size than architectural
beauty) was erected in 1809.  The house
of refuge, so highly important to public
morals,  was projected  in 1826.   Private
donations being inadequate to the under-
taking,  legislative assistance and a liberal
donation from the county of Philadelphia
enabled the managerstocomplete the build-
ings.  A plot of «round, 400 feet in length
from east to west, and 231 feet in breadth
from north to  south, bounded by streets
on all sides, has been enclosed by a stone
wall 20 feet in  height   The main edifice
is 92 feet in length by 30 in depth.  The
law authorizes the reception of all males
under the age of twenty-one, and females
not exceeding  that of eighteen.  Two
hundred and seventy-nine persons can be
lodged.   The present amount of the  an-
nual expenses  is  about $12,000.  There
are, at present, thirteen banking institu-
tions within the city and the incorporated
districts.  The  banking-houses  of  the
United  States   bank,  and  the bank  of
Pennsylvania, are fine specimens of clas-
sical architecture.   The walls are com-
posed entirely  of white  marble.  The
state-house, on the south side of Chestnut
street, between  Fifth  and  Sixth streets,
will remain a feature of interest as long as
it lasts,  as the spot where the declaration
of independence  was  first promulgated.
There are three theatres, which do credit
to  the city and the architects.  The  city
library owes its origin to the public spirit
of Franklin.  It was commenced as early
as  1731, and incorporated in 1742.   In
1790,  the present neat and  ornamental
edifice was erected on the east side  of
Fifth  street, opposite to the  state-house
square, and over the front door is placed a
marble statue of its  founder, executed in
Italy, and presented by William Bingham,
Esq.  The number of books, at present, is
about 24,000, exclusive of the Loganian
collection, which is about 11,000 volumes.
Opposite this library is the Athenaeum, a
valuable institution, established in 1814.
The library consists of about 5300 vol-
umes, mostly  books  of practical utility
and the current  and  popular literature.
In the reading-room are regularly received
more than seventy newspapers of the U.
States, besides  English and French, and,
occasionally, papers from  other parts of
the world.   There are various other pub-
lic libraries, the most valuable of which is
that belonging to the academy of natural 
74
PHILADELPHIA.
sciences, containing about 5000 vols., and
the philosophical society,  whose collec-
tion is about 6000 vols.  Peale's museum,
the most extensive collection of objects of
natural history in America, occupies hand-
some apartments,  built expressly for its
accommodation, in  the Arcade.   The
academy of fine arts was founded  in the
year 1805.  It was originally intended for
works of statuary,  but  the walls are now
hung with fine pictures, some of them by
masters of the highest celebrity.   The
university of Pennsylvania is distinguished
by the celebrity of the  medical school at-
tached to it.  The new halls were built in
1830: they are spacious, and in a hand-
some style of architecture.  The medical
class varies from  400  to 500  annually.
The  hall of the Jefferson medical college
is  also a spacious building.  There are
three prisons, one in Walnut street, a sec-
ond in  Arch street, and the Eastern peni-
tentiary, which  occupies about ten acres
of ground.   This  is the only edifice in
this county calculated  to convey an idea
of the  external appearance of the castles
of the  middle ages, which  contribute so
eminently  to embellish the  scenery  of
Europe.  The U. States' mint was  estab-
lished in 1791, and, by several successive
acts  of congress, has  been continued at
Philadelphia.  Iu  1829, a new  building
for the mint was commenced  in Chestnut
street, near Broad street: it is a  splendid
building, faced with marble, and presents
a front of  122 feet, divided into a portico
(>"2 feet long, and two wings each of 30
feet.   The  building is of the Ionic  order,
t-ik. n from the celebrated Grecian temple
on die river Ilissus, near Athens.  The
marine asylum (not yet finished)  stands
on the eastern  bank of the Schuylkill, a
sioit distance south of the city l.ne.   It is
3rf(> fet-t lon;:, consisting of a portico of 90
feet, supported by eight Ionic  columns,
and two wings each 148 feet.  The great-
est pride of Philadelphia is  the  magnifi-
cent works by which the city is  supplied
with pure  and wholesome water.  Noth-
ing of the kind has been done, on  this
side  of the Atlantic, that will bear com-
parison with the arduous and expensive
operation  of* introducing  the Schuylkill
water.  In 1797,  a  plan  was  adopted,
whif h was to form a reservoir on the east
bank of the Schuylkill, from which water
was to be  thrown,  by a steam engine, into
a  tunnel,  and thence  carried to another
engine-house, at the  centre  of  the  city,
where it was to be again raised, by a sec-
ond steam  engine,  into a reservoir, from
which it was to be distributed, in pipes,
through the city.   By this means, in Jan*
uary, 1801, water from the Schuylkill was
first thrown into the city.  An experience
of ten  years proved that a sufficient sup-
ply could not be obtained by this method.
The  steam  engines were liable to frequent
failures from accident, and the derange-
ment of one stopped the whole supply of
the city.  Accordingly,  in 1811, a new
reservoir was created, and two large en-
gines constructed, which worked alter-
nately, so that  one was always ready, in
case  of accident  to the  other.   It  was
soon found,  however,  that  a supply of
water,  adequate to the demand, could not
be obtained,  although  the  annual  ex-
penses were enormous, and it was evident
that some other power besides steam must
be used for the purpose.   In 1819, the
project of damming  the Schuylkill,  and
erecting the  works  at  Fairmount,  was
commenced, the whole cost of which was,.
in 1824, $432,512, and the entire amount
expended  on the  successive operations,
$1,443,585. The consumption, in the sum-
mer  months, is about 3,000,000 gallons for
twenty-four hours, and the reservoirs will
contain a supply for ten  days, at that rate.
The  iron pipes, through which the water
is conveyed to the city und districts, make,
together, an extent of about  sixty miles,
and the sum annually paid for the use of
the water is  upwards of $60,000.  The
experience of years  has shown  that the
power is sufficient to raise many  times as
much  water as the city can  possibly re-
quire for  its consumption,   and, conse-
quently, that there  is a  surplus power
applicable  to other purposes. The pro-
vision against destruction by  fire, in Phila-
delphia, is excellent.  There are twenty-
eight engine companies  and  sixteen hose
companies, and the sum of $5000, appro-
priated by the city councils, is usually dis-
tributed among these companies annually.
There  are two bridges across the Schuyl-
kill,  one  within  the city bounds,  and
another a few hundred yards north of the
north line.  They are beautiful and sub-
stantial structures.  The whole length of
that on Market street, including abutments
and  wing walls, is 1300  feet, of which the
wooden platform, between the abutments,
is in  length 550 feet.  The total  cost of
this bridge was $235,000, besides which
the company paid $40,000  for  the pur-
chase of the site.   The  Fairmount bridge
consists of a single  arch, of 340 feet, 4
inches  span,  resting  on abutments of
stone.   This bridge was erected  in 1813,
and  the total  cost was $150,000.  The
public  markets  constitute  a prominent 
PHILADELPHIA—PHILIDOR.
75
feature.  That along High street is -nearly
two thirds of a mile in extent.  There are
two shot-towers within the  city, one  of
which was the first erected  in  the  U.
States.  The harbor of Philadelphia, from
the peculiar features of the Delaware river,
is more liable to be impeded  by ice than
that of New York or Baltimore; but, in-
dependent  of that circumstance, it pos-
sesses, perhaps, as many natural advan-
tages as either of the others.  The  Dela-
ware is not navigable to this city for ships
of the line of the first class.   The arrivals
ntjhe port of Philadelphia, in 1829, were
374  vessels from foreign  ports, and 2210
coastwise;  in 1830, 415 foreign, and 3287
coastwise ;  in 1831, 396 foreign, and 3206
coastwise.  The aggregate tonnage  of the
shipping of Philadelphia, on the 31st of
December,  1828, was  (permanent and
temporary) 104,080  tons.   The vessels
built iu 1829 amounted to 3524 tons;  in
1830, to 2590, and, iu 1831, to 3525 tons.
The inspection of wheat flour, in 1830,
was 473,876 barrels.  By the will of the
late Stephen Girard, Philadelphia has re-
ceived a munificent donation, amounting
to several million dollars, devoted to im-
portant public objects.
  Philadelphists.  (See the end of the
article Boehme.)
  Phil*, or Jeziret  el Birba (i. e.
Temple  island) ;   a small  island  of
the Nile, on  the  borders of Nubia and
Egypt; lat. 24° 1' ;  five  miles south of
Essouan  or Syene.   It contains  the  re-
mains of some remarkable  monuments
of the ancient  Egyptians, among which
are four  tempos, an avenue of majestic
columns, several  obelisks, a monolithic
temple, &c.  The whole island is, in fact,
covered  with  temples,  in  the largest
groups, and  in  the highest  state  of
preservation  of any in  Egypt.   (See
the great French  work,  Description de
I' Egypte,  Antiquitis,  i; or  Burkhardt's
Nubia.)
  Philanthropinism.   (See Schools.)
  Philemon  and Baucis ; a pair  cele-
brated in ancient Greece for their faithful
affection even in  advanced age.   Fable
(Ovid's Metam. viii) relates the following
story concerning  them.   Jupiter  and
Mercury, travelling through Phrygia,  in
a human form, found no one  willing  to
entertain them  except  this aged couple,
who  received them hospitably,  washed
their feet, set liefore them a rustic meal,
and  prepared a couch for their repose.
The deities then  took their hosts to a
neighboring mountain, and when they
looked behind  diem, they saw dieir vil-
lage sunk beneath  the waves; but  tho
cottage in which they had welcomed tho
pilgrims,hadbecomeaniagnificenttemplc.
Jupiter promised also to fulfil  all their
wishes;  but they  only asked that they
might  die together as servants in  that
temple.  At length, at a very advanced
age, as they sat at  the temple door, they
were at once transformed, Philemon into
an oak, and  Baucis into a linden.  They
were conscious of their  change,  whk'.i
came gradually upon them,  and while
they were  able to  see and speak, they
took the most affectionate leave of each
other.    The  trees  were  considered
sacred,  and long  remained  before  the
temple.
  Philemon of Athens, a Greek poet,
contemporary with Menander, to  whom
only he was considered  as  second in
dramatic composition.  A few fragments
of his writings have  come down to  us,
which were  originally collected  by Hugo
Grotius.   Cumberland  has printed  an
English  translation.   The  time of  hia
birth has been assigned to B. C. 373;  and
he is said to  have died through excessive
laughter at seeing an ass eat figs from a
countryman's basket, B. C. 274.
  PHiLinoR,Andrew,a musician of Drcux,
of some reputation  in his profession, but
far  more celebrated  as the best  chess-
player of his age, was born  in France, in
1726, and became a page in the band of
the king, where he  made  so great a pro-
ficiency,  that he composed a successful
mottet,  with full  choruses,  before  bis
twelfth year.  As he grew  up, bis fond-
ness for the game of chess increased into
a passion, in order to indulge which, he
travelled over great part of Europe, en-
gaging every where with the best players.
He  continued in  England some time,
during which he printed his Analysis of
Chess—a book which has since gone
through numerous  editions, and is con-
sidered a standard  work.  On his  return
to France, he devoted his attention to the
comic opera, of which, with Monsigny
and Duni, he may be  considered the  re-
viver.   There are  twenty-one  operatic
pieces of his composition, of which  Le.
Marechal, produced in 1761, ran more
than a hundred nights.   Philidor after-
wards returned to England, and, in 1779,
set  the  Carmen  Seculare, esteemed  tho
best of his works.  His death took place
in 1795, in London, where  he was very
generally esteemed for his  integrity and
suavity of manners.   A short time pre-
viously  to his  decease, he played  two
games  of chess at  the same time, blind- 
76
PHILIDOR
—PHILIP IT.
fold, against two of the most distinguish-
ed amateurs, one of which he won ; the
other was a drawn game.
  Philip,  king  of Macedon,  father  of
Alexander  the  Great, flourished in the
middle of the fourth century before the
Christian era.   He went to Thebes as a
hostage, when  he was  very young, and
received an excellent education in the
house  of tlto  celebrated Epaminondas.
At the  age  of twenty-two, B. C. 361, he
ascended the throne of Macedonia, which
he found  tottering and  surrounded  by
numerous enemies.   His genius soon suc-
ceeded in establishing it, and raising it to
a pitch of  greatness which it  had never
before  attained.   He freed himself from
his enemies, partly by  concessions, and
partly by force of arms.   In a short time,
lie  made war  also  upon  his peaceful
neighbors;  and, encouraged by his suc-
cesses in Thessaly and Thrace, he sought
gradually to extend his dominion over all
Greece.  The dissensions of the differ-
ent  states  favored  his designs.   The
subtle  Philip well knew  what use to
make of this division.  When, therefore,
he  was summoned to aid  the Thebans
against the  Phociaus who had plundered
the treasury of  the temple at 'Delphi, he
flid not neglect  this opportunity to  carry
into effect his ambitious purposes.  The
subjugation of the Phociaiis  was  very
soon accomplished ; but the treacherous
conduct  of Philip  towards  his  allies
opened  the eyes of  the Greeks; several
states formed a league  with the Atheni-
ans to  oppose him, while others conde-
scended to  use the most disgraceful flat-
tery towards the  artful conqueror.  A
wound which he received or.  his return
from a campaign against the Scythians,
delayed the blow which  was to prostrate
the liberty of  Greece,  till,  at  last, the
great victory at  Cheronaea (B. C. 338)
decided its fate.  Philip assembled at
Corinth the deputies of all the Grecian
states, and  dictated the terms of peace,
which deprived them of freedom.  When
he was on  the point of causing himself
to be chosen commander-in-chief of the
army which was to march against the
Persians, he was  assassinated, in the for-
ty-seventh year of his age, by Pausanias,
a young Macedonian, who was hired to
commit this act by the  Persians.  This
prince, the  inventor of  the Macedonian
phalanx (q.  v.),  united, with the highest
talents  of a commander, the intrepidity
of the bravest soldier. But ambition and
love of power were the  most prominent
features in  his  character,  which  often
led him  to the  most unwarrantable ac-
tions.
   Philip II, king of Spain, son of the
emperor Charles V and  of Eleonora of
Portugal, called, by the Spanish writers,
the Prudent,  and by the  Protestants, the
Demon of the Soidh, was born at Vallado-
lid, in 1527.  Naturally cold, grave, and
reserved, but sagacious and active, he was
educated with care by Spanish  ecclesias-
tics, by whom he was early imbued with
bigoted  sentiments.  At  the age  of six-
teen  years, he married  the  Portuguese
princess  Mary, and was  intrusted by his
father with the administration  of Spain,
under the direction, however, of the  duke
•of Alva.  In 1547, Charles sent for him
to come  to Brussels, and Philip was re-
ceived with every demonstration of joy
by the   Netherlandish estates; but his
austerity and his preference of  his Span-
ish courtiers soon rendered him an object
of dislike.  His father was desirous of
having him declared his successor on the
imperial  throne, by the diet assembled at
Ratisbon, in 1550, but his cold and proud
manners were so unfavorable to  his cause,
that he was sent back to  Spain.  Having
lost his  first wife,  Philip soon after  mar-
ried Mary I of England (1554), who was
much older than himself (see Mary); but
his unpopularity among the English ren-
dered his residence there so disagreeable,
that he soon left the country and retired
to Flanders.   In 1555, Charles V (q. v.)
abdicated his crown in favor of his son,
who  thus became the  first sovereign  of
Europe.  Veteran troops, able generals and
statesmen, a yearly revenue of 30,000,000
ducats,   rich  colonies  and  industrious
provinces had  raised Spain to an unex-
ampled degree of power.  Philip receiv-
ed from  his father, in the presence of the
states-general,  and  with the  most im-
pressive  solemnities, the sovereignty  of
the Low Countries, and,  a few  weeks af-
terwards, assumed that of Spain. Charles
retired to a monastery,  on a  moderate
allowance, which, through the neglect of
his son,  was  irregularly transmitted to
him.  In 1556, Philip  concluded a  truce
with  France, which  was broken  by the
French,  at the instigation  of pope  Paul
IV, the same year.  Paul having declared
that Philip had forfeited  the kingdom of
Naples, a fief of the holy see,  the  latter
found himself obliged  to send  the  duke
of Alva against  the  head of the church,
who  was forced to accede to  an ai-mis-
tice.  Philip then went to  England, and
prevailed on Mary, by the  threat  that he
would otherwise never again set foot in 
PHILIP II.                              77
her dominions,  to  declare  war  against
France.   A considerable English force,
accordingly, joined the army under Phili-
bert,  duke of Savoy,  and the  count of
Egmont, wliich  was besieging St Quen-
tin.   The  French, under Montmorency,
were entirely defeated, August 10, 1557.
Philip, who, during the battle, was'occu-
pied  in prayer,  joined the army after it
was over. (See Escurial.)   Instead of
taking advantage of this victory to march
to Paris, Philip  was  satisfied with occu-
pying St.  Quentin, Ham and  Chatelet,
and, soon after, under the impulse of su-
perstitious fears, concluded a disadvan-
tageous  peace with the  pope.  On the
death of Mary (1558), which was hasten-
ed by the neglect of her husband and the
loss of Calais, Philip sued for  the hand
of Elizabeth, who was  too well acquaint-
ed with his temper and  the aversion of
her subjects against  him, to listen to his
addresses.  The  peaceof Camhray (1559),
^finally terminated the  long struggle  of
the  French  and Spanish  monarchies,
under conditions favorable to  the  lat-
ter.   The marriage  of Philip  with  the
daughter  of Henry II, king of France,
who  had  been  previously designed for
don Charles, son of Philip, was stipulated
by one of  the articles of this peace.   In
the course of the year,  Philip returned to
Spain, leaving  the  government  of the
Low Countries in the hands of his natural
sister, Margaret, duchess of Parma.   His
arrival was celebrated  by the inquisition,
with  an  auto  da fe, and his reverential
conduct during  the  burning of his sub-
jects  is  highly  praised  by  the  Spanish
writers.   Soon after this, the troubles in
'the Low Countries broke  out  (See Neth-
erlands, and Granvella.)   Philip establish-
ed the inquisition there  for the suppres-
sion of heresy, and refused to mitigate its
rigors, declaring that it was better to be
witlrout subjects than  to be the  ruler of
heretics.   The blood thirsty Alva (q. v.)
was sent (1567)  to execute the cruel poli-
cy of the Spanish court   The counts of
Egmont (q. v.) and Hoorn, with a great
number  of less distinguished  sufferers,
perished on the  scaffold.   Philip remain-
ed a cold and unmoved  spectator of the
horrors caused by his own rigorous poli-
cy.   At  the same period, a tragic event
in his family  tended  to  strengthen the
gloom of his character.  His  son,  don
Carlos (q. v.) died in prison (1568), where
he had been thrown  on a charge of trea-
son, and  two months  after, died Eliza-
beth, the  beautiful and virtuous wife of
Philip.   The beautiful Anna de Mendoza,
                  7*
the wife of his favorite  and minister Ruy
Gomez de Silva, was at this time his mis-
tress.   An  insurrection of the Moors in
Granada was quelled in 1570, and Philip
married the archduchess Anne of Austria,
his fourth wife.  In the  following year,
his fleet assisted at the battle of Lepanto
(q. v.), gained by  don John of Austria
over the Turks.  The duke of Alva was
recalled from the  Netherlands in  1573.
His successor, Requesens, died in  1576,
and was followed by don John of Austria,
who was empowered to make some con-
cessions ; but, soon after his death (1578),
the union of Utrecht was  formed (Janua-
ry 23, 1579).  The Belgic Netherlands,
however,  were reduced  by the prince
Alexander Famese, who next command-
ed the Spanish forces in that quarter.
The throne  of Portugal, having become
vacant by the death of  Sebastian,  was
claimed by Philip, who sent the duke of
Alva  to take possession   of that  king-
dom.   Philip  himself  soon   followed
him thither  (1581), and received  the
homage of the Portuguese estates.  The
assassination of William (q. v.), prince of
Orange, in 1584, was received with  the
most  indecent expressions of joy at  the
Spanish court, but William's son,  Mau-
rice (q. v.), was a  still more formidable
enemy.  A rupture with England  (see
Elizabeth) soon followed,  and  the Arma-
da was fitted out for the conquest of that
kingdom.   (See Armada.)  When  the
duke  of Medina Sidonia, who had  the
command of the expedition, appeared  lie-
fore Philip with the information of its c e-
struction, the king  thanked him, because
he had not despaired of his country. "The
will of God  be done,"  he added, coh i> ;
"I  sent my ships to fight with the Fi <?-
lish, not with  the elements."  This  e\> tit
was a death-blow  to  the  Spanish  n;< n-
archy.  Philip sent  assistance  to  ■ e
leaguers in  France  (see  League),  <•■■ d
commanded   the duke of Parma to   ;i-
vade  the kingdom.   Even after Heiry
IV's conversion to  the Catholic faith, he
continued bis hostility to that prince, v.! o,
in  consequence,  declared  war  against
him.  The war with England was mean-
while   continued,   and Spain  not only
suffered much by losses in her  Amerh an
colonies, but  was  compelled to  witnt ss
the capture of Cadiz and  the destruction
of the shipping in  that port by Howard
(q. v.) and the earl of Essex.   (See D<v-
ereux.)  Prince Maurice  of Nassau had
also gained the ascendency in the L< w
Countries, and seven of the provinces had
declared themselves independent   Re- 
78
PHILIP II OF SPAIN—KING  PHILIP.
verses and disease, at lc.igth, broke Philip's
spirit; he became desirous of restoring
tranquillity  to  his  dominions, and con
eluded the treaty of Vcrvins with France.
3Ie died the next year, Sept. 13,  1598.
The gout, dropsy, and a violent fever, had
afflicted him the two last years of his life;
but be retained his senses and his activity
to the last.   Sores on his breast and knees,
the consequence of his early debaucheries,
disturbed  bis  last days, and from their
corrupt matter  issued  swarms  of lice,
which the physicians were unable to de-
stroy.  He bore  his sufferings with great
firmness, and  punctiliously  observed  all
the rites of the Catholic church.   Philip
was  a prince of considerable  capacity,
and he entered with facility into the details
of affairs.   His pomp, generosity, activity,
and just administration, when it  did not
interfere with his own private plans, made
a strong impression on the minds of men ;
but his boundless ambition, his severity
and  his  gloomy superstition  made his
reign  a period of war and of bad passions,
and exhausted the immense resources of
his empire.  Among his instruments w&s
poison, which he familiarly called  his re-
quiescat in pace (rest in peace).  With his
reign  began the decline of the  Spanish
monarchy.   His Life  by Campana is  a
panegyric  on  his character.   Different
views will be found in the History of the
Reign of Philip  II, by Watson, and in
Dumesnil's Histoire de Philippe 11(1 vol.,
8vo., Paris, 1822).
  Philip III of Spain.   (See Spain.)
  Philip IV of Spain.  (See Spain.)
  Philip V of Spain.   (See Spain.)
  Philip II, Augustus, king of France,
born  1165, ascended  the throne  on the
death of  his  father,  Louis VII, 1180.
One of his first measures was the banish-
ment of the Jews from the kingdom, and
the confiscation of their property.  This
was  done under pretence of their being
guilty of various crimes; but the real pur-
pose of the measure was to get possession
of their wealth.  Philip next endeavored
to repress the tyranny and rapacity of the
nobles, which he  effected  partly by art,
and partly by force.   In 1190, he embark-
ed at Genoa on a crusade to the Holy Land,
where he  met   Richard Coeur-de-Lion
(see Richard I), who was engaged in the
same  cause in  Sicily.   (See  Crusades.)
The jealousies and disputes which divided
the two kings  induced Philip to  return
home the next year; and he took advan-
tage of-Richard's imprisonment  in Aus-
tria to seize some of the  English  fiefs in
Normandy.  (See John.) This enterprise
was in direct violation of  the  oath by
which the two  princes  had   mutually
bound  themselves  to  attempt  nothing
against each other's dominions during the
continuance of the crusade; and, on Rich-
ard's  delivery, be  commenced a  war
against Philip, which  continued till the
death of the former in 1199.  Philip, on
his return from the Holy  Land, had  mar-
ried Ingelburga, sister of the king of Den-
mark ; but, having taken some disgust at
her, he finally procured from bis bishops
a divorce, under pretence of consanguiiu-
ty,  and married  Agnes, daughter of the
duke  of Meran.   On the complaint of the
king of Denmark, the pope declared this
marriage null; and,  on Philip's refusing to
receive Ingelburga, pronounced the  inter-
dict against   France.*   The  king was
therefore obliged to  yield, and restore her
the honors of a  wife  and queen.   (See
Innocent  III.)  In  his subsequent  wars
with John (of which an account is given
in the article  John),  Philip conquered all
Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine,
so that, of all the  English possessions  in
France, Guienne alone remained.  Philip
also took part in  the  crusade against the
Albigenses (q. v.), and died in 1223, after
a reign of forty-three years.   This prince
was an able general and sovereign ; he ex-
tended the boundaries of the  kingdom,
and first raised the royal authority from its
dependence  on the great vassals.   He
improved the military organization of his
realm, founded  useful  institutions,  coh-
structed roads, and favored learning.  (See
France.)
  Philip IV of France.   (See France.)
  Philip VI of France.  (See France.)
  Philip  the Bold.   (See Burgundi-
ans.)
  Philip the Good.  (See Burgundi-
ans.)
  Philip, King,  sachem of Pokanoket,
was the youngest son of Massasoit,  and
succeeded his brother Alexander in  1657.
In 1662, he renewed the friendship which
had subsisted with the English, and en-
gaged not to dispose of any lands without
their knowledge or appointment. In 1675,
however, he commenced a desolating war,
in  order to  arrest  the progress of the
whites, foreseeing, as he did,  the loss of
his territory,  and the extinction of his
tribe,  in the increase of their settlements.
After prosecuting  hostilities with great en-

  * Agnes de Meran  died of grief, at Poissy, in
1201, the  year in which  she was repudiated.
The pope legitimated her two children by Philip,
as she was authorized to consider the king free
when she married him. 
KING PHILIP—PHILIPS.                      79
ergy and heroism, and inflicting consider-
able mischief,  ho was killed in a swamp,
August 12,  1676,  when endeavoring to
escape from captoin Church.
  Philippi ; a town on tHe borders of
Thrace and  Macedonia,  where two battles
were fought (B. C. 42) between the repub-
licans under Brutus and Cassius, and the
friends of Antony and Octavius, in which
the former were defeated.  (See Antonius,
and Brutus.)   The Epistle of Paul to the
Philippians  was  written  to  the  church
which  that apostle founded at Philippi.
  Philippics ; the orations  of Demos-
thenes  against Philip  king of Macedon.
(See Demosthenes.)  Cicero applied  this
name to  his invectives  against  Antony,
and it has hence come  to signify an in-
vective in general.
  Philippines ;  a group of islands in the
Pacific ocean,  1200 in  number (lat. .4° 22'
N., lon. 116°—128° E.), extending about
450 leagues from north to south, and about
280 in its greatest breadth.   The principal
islands are Lucon (q. v.), Mindanao (q.v.),
Palaouan, Mindoro, &c.   The capital of
the Spanish  possessions  is  Manilla, (q. v.)
The population of the group is estimated
at about two and a half millions, of whom
7000 are Chinese, 4000 whites (Spaniards),
118,000 mestizos,  and  the  rest natives.
Of the latter there are two  distinct races,
the Papuas, or negroes,  who  live princi-
pally in the interior, and  seem  to  have
been the  primitive inhabitants,  and the
Malays, who dwell nearer the coasts. (See
Malays.)  The Philippines were discover-
ed, in 1521, by Magellan (q.v.), and received
their present name in  honor of Philip II
king of Spain. The first settlements were
made by the Spaniards in 1570.  In  1823,
the Creoles  and  mestizos made an  at-
tempt to obtain a liberal government, but
the  insurrection  was put  down  by the
Spaniards, who employed in this service a
force formed of the converted  natives.
The face  of the country is mountainous,
and there are  numerous volcanoes iu the
different, islands, whose eruptions have re-
peatedly caused great ravages.  The cli-
mate is various, but the heat is never ex-
cessive.   Violent  rains, hurricanes  and
earthquakes often do much mischief. The
soil is not less various, but, in general, is
fertile.  Rice,  coffee, sugar, cocoas, tobac-
co, indigo, and a great  variety of pulse,
with many  sorts of tropical fruits, ebony,
sandal wood, dye woods, &c, are among
the  vegetable productions.   Gold, silver
and sulphur are among the minerals. The
domestic animals of Europe  thrive  here.
The trade of these islands is principally
with the Chinese and English.—See Ara-
gon's Descripcion de la Isla de Luzon (Ma-
nilla, 1820).
  Philippones ;>a Russian-sect, a branch
of the Roskolnicians, so called from their
founder, Philip.Piistoswiat  The sect took
its rise in the northern part of Russia to-
wards the end of the seventeenth centu-
ry, and  neither  acknowledges the  pope,
nor esteems consecration by \he  Russian
church as valid. They differed from the
other Roskolnicians chiefly in  having no
ordained clergy. Communion, confirma-
tion, absolution,  and marriage by ecclesi-
astics, were not, therefore, practised among
them.  (See Greek Church, and Roskolni-
cians.)   In each of their societies is an el-
der (starik),  chosen  by themselves  or by
his predecessor, who can  read  Sclavonic,
and is obliged,  after his  baptism, to ab-
stain from strong  drinks.  He performs
the different clerical offices.   Absolution,
they consider, must  be received immedi-
ately from God.  They scruple to take
an oath,  or to perform military service.
Many Philippones  fled,  in the beginning
of the  eighteenth  centuiy, into Polish
Lithuania, whence  some of them passed
into the Prussian territories.
  Philips, Ambrose, a poet and dramatic
writer, was a native of Leicestershire, and
studied at  Cambridge.   On  quitting the
university he went to London, and became
one  of the literary wits who frequented
Button's  coffee-house,  and a  friend of
Steele and Addison.  The publication of
his Pastorals involved him in a war with
Pope, who ridiculed them in the Guardian ;
in consequence of which Philips threaten-
ed to inflict personal correction on the
satirist.   He was one of the writers of a
periodical paper, called  the Freethinker;
and  doctor  Boulton, the conductor, ob-
taining preferment in Ireland, Philips was
made registrar of the prerogative  court at
Dublin.    He  returned  to  England  in
1748, and died the next year.  He was
the author of the Distrest Mother, a  trage-
dy (1712), taken from Racine ; the Briton
(1722), and Humphey,Duke of Gloucester
(1723);  and he wrote the Life of Arch-
bishop Williams.  (See  Johnson's  Lives
of the Poets.)
  Philips, John, an English poet, born in
Oxfordshire, 1676, was educated at Christ-
church,  Oxford, where  he produced the
Splendid  Shilling, in which the sonorous
cadence of the  blank verse of Milton is
adapted to familiar and ludicrous topics.
He also wrote Blenheim, a poem, in  cele-
bration of the duke of Marlborough's vic-
tory ; but his principal work is Cyder,  a 
80
PHILIPS—PHILOCTETES.
Georgical work, in imitation of Virgil.  He
died in 1708.  (See Johnson's JLives of the
Poets.)
  Philistines; apparently am Egyptian
tribe, from whom Palestine, before called
Canaan,  received  its name.  They dwelt
in the southern plains of that country,along
the  coasts of the Mediterranean.  They
were constantly at war with the Israelites,
whom they reduced to subjection  at one
period, after  the death of Joshua.  In  the
German universities, the students give the
name of Philistines to persons not mem-
bers of the universities.
  Philo  ; a  learned Jewish author, who
flourished in  the  first  century  of  the
Christian era, in the reign  of the emperor
Caligula.   He was  born some years  be-
fore Christ, in Alexandria,  where he was
educated, and distinguished himself by his
proficiency in eloquence, philosophy, and
a  knowledge of the  sacred  writings.
With the writings of Plato, whose  philos-
ophy was at that time in the highest re-
pute in Alexandria, he made himself inti-
mately acquainted,  and he adopted  his
doctrines so  completely, that it  was said
of him, Philo platonizes.  From the time
of the Ptolemies the Jews had borrowed
the use of allegories from  their Egyptian
neighbors, and thus  imbibed Platonic and
Pythagorean doctrines, which they treated
as the hidden and symbolical sense of their
own law. Thus,without having the appear-
ance of being indebted to the heathen phi-
losophers, they could make an arbitrary
use of their systems.  These systems were
likewise mixed with various Oriental the-
ories, in  particular respecting the nature
of  God.   Philo  zealously studied this
philosophy, then so popular in Alexandria ;
and either because he did  not sufficiently
understand  the Jewish doctrines,  or  be-
cause he  was not satisfied  with the literal
sense of the  Mosaic  law, he mingled Pla-
tonic dogmas with   the holy scriptures,
and ascribed them  to Moses.   Probably
he followed  the example  of the Essenes
and Therapeutse, of whom  he  always
spoke with  great  esteem,  though he  did
not adopt their mode  of life.  He con-
sidered  God  and  matter as coeternal
principles;  God as the  primitive light,
from whose rays all finite intelligences
proceed.   The understanding or wisdom
of God (Aoyos), he called also the  Son of
God, his  image, according  to which God,
by  his creative power, produced the ma-
terial world.  He founds our knowledge of
God upon intuition.  On account of these
doctrines, Bouterwek considers him as one
of the first  Alexandrian New Platonists.
Philo perfected himself also in eloquence,
and Required a knowledge of public af-
fairs, in which his fame was so great that
he was  sent by his  countrymen, in the
year 42,  at  the head of an embassy to
Rome, to defend the Jews against the
calumnious  accusations  of Apion  and
others.   Caligula  would  not  admit the
embassy into his presence, and Philo was
even in  danger of losing his life.   Ho
composed, in consequence, a written jus-
tification  of the Jews, evincing great learn-
ing and skill.  The accounts are unworthy
of belief, which state that Philo went after-
wards to Rome under Claudius, that he
became  there  the friend  of the  apostle
Peter, and embraced the Christhn faith,
but renounced it  again  on account of
some mortifications which  he  met with. •
Those writings of Philo, which have come
down to  us,  are published in the  last and
most complete edition by  Manzey (Lon-
don, 1742, 2 vols., folio); after  him, by
Pfeiffer (Erlangen, 1785 and the  follow-
ing years, 5 vols.).   They show that Philo
was a man of great learning and industry,
who was well acquainted with Greek phi-
losophy and  literature, and are very useful
for  those who would learn the state of
philosophy at that time in Alexandria.
  Philo of Biblos;  a grammarian, who
lived under Nero and the  following em-
perors till the time of Adrian.  He trans-
lated Sanchoniathon's Phoenician History
into Greek, of which we still possess some
fragments.
  Philo of  Byzantium, who lived in the
second and  third centuries, is mentioned
as the author  of a work on military en-
gines, on the Seven  Wonders  of the
World, &c.   Besides these, there are an
academic and  a stoic philosopher of this
name.
  PHtLOCTETES; a Grecian hero, son of
Poean and Demonassa, celebrated for his
skill in archery.  He  led the warriors of
Methone, Thaumacia, Melibcea, and Oli-
zon in the expedition against Troy ; but,
having been bitten in his foot, while he
was  offering sacrifice  in  the  island of
Chrysa, by  a serpent which guarded the
temple,  he  became,  by  the mortification
of his wound, so offensive that he  was sent
back to  Lemnos, and there dragged out
nine miserable years in lamentations.  But,
according to the prophecy of Helen us,Troy
could not be taken  without  the arrows
of Hercules, and these were in possession
of  Philoctetes, to  whom  the hero had
given them, when he ascended his funeral
pile.  It therefore  became necessary for
the Grecians before Troy to recall Philoc- 
PHILOCTETES—PHILOLOGY.                    81
tetes.  Ulysses, who had advised his  ex-
ile, with Pyrrhus (according to some, Dio-
medes) undertook the embassy; the latter,
by promising to heal his wound, prevailed
upon him to return  to  Troy.  He was
cured  by  Muehaon (or ^Esculapius), and
after many  Trojans, among whom was
Paris, had fallen by his  arrows, the city
was  taken.   The  .history  of  Philoctetes
forms the subject of one of the tragedies
of Sophocles.
  Philology*  This word,  among  the
ancients, had a signification which includ-
ed what we now  call philosophy, litera-
ture, the sciences, and the theory of arts,
though it  excluded then- practice.   Thus
poetry and  rhetoric, considered  as sci-
ences,  came within the description  of'phi-
lology ; but philologists were not expected
to be orators- or poets.   Cicero calls  his
philosophical works <pt\o\oyu>Tcpa, as  oppos-
ed to his orations ; the former  being writ-
ten iu a didactic  or argumentative,  the
latter in a more elegant or artificial style.
(Ad.Att, xiii, 12.)  We  are informed by
Suetonius (De illustr. Gram.,  c. 10) that
Eratosthenes  of Cyrene was the  first
among the Greeks who assumed the name
of <pt\6\oyos.   He v/as a man of unbound-
ed  erudition, a physician, philosopher,
geographer,  grammarian,  historian  and
poet, though we are told that he excelled
in none of these branches.  (Moreri.)  Be-
fore his time, a philologer or philologist—
for both words are used in the English lan-
guage—was called ypa/i/iancd,*,  which  did
not mean a grammarian in  the present ac-
ceptation of the word, but a man of letters ;
in which sense literary men  were first
called  at  Rome literati, and  afterwards,
when Greek terminology became fashion-
able, grammatici and philologi.  Philolo-
gy, then, included in ancient times, with
tew exceptions, every thing that could be
learned (omne scibile). In those days, how-
ever, science was  circumscribed  within
much narrower hounds than it is at present.
The numerous branches which compose
what is now  called natural science, were
very imperfectly known.  The same may
be said of geography, astronomy and nat-
ural philosophy.  All that was known of
those  sciences,  with grammar, rhetoric,
scholastic   logic,  metaphysics and ele-
mentary mathematics, formed an  aggre-
gate  which obtained the name  of phi-
lology, until long after the destruction of

  * This article comes from  the same learned
seurce with that on Language, and forms a whole
with it.  Tho  interest of the subject, and  the orig-
inality of the author's views, are the reason of the
space allowed it.—Ed
 the Roman empire; and that is the sense
 in  which this word is understood in many,
 if not most of the  colleges and universi-
 ties of Europe, always with reference to
 ancient, and not to modern learning ; hence
 criticism,, as applied to  the Greek and Ro-
 man  writers, and the  knowledge of an-
 cient coins and medals, and other recon-
 dite antiquities, are  considered as impor-
 tant  branches  of  philology,  and those
 which chiefly entitle theirfoliowers to the
 name of philologists.  This opinion was
 general as late as the seventeenth century.
 At that time the  Bentleys, the Scaligers,
 the Saurnaises, were the  philologists par
 excellence.  The dictionary of the  French
 academy defines  philology Erudition qui
 embrasse diverses paHies des belles-lettres, et
 principalement la critique.  A century after-
 wards Johnson defined it criticism, gram-
 matical learniiig.  But of late, the word
,philology has received  a more definite and
 tuore appropriate meaning; and it seems
 now, by a tacit, but  almost universal con-
 sent, to be chiefly, if not exclusively, appro-
 priated  to  that science which embraces
 human language in  its widest extent, an-
 alyzes and compares its component  parts
 and- its various structures  in thousands of
 idioms and dialects,thatare and have been
 spoken on the face of the  habitable globe,
 and from the whole seeks to  draw infer-
 ences that may lead to a clearer and more
 extensive knowledge than we have hither-
 to  possessed of the history of our species,
 and particularly of the migrations of dif-
 ferent nations, their connexion and inter-
 course  with each other;  for language,
 though  perishable, like  all other earthly
 things, is still the most lasting monument
 of events long since past, and  the surest
 means  of transmitting facts through suc-
 cessive  generations.   When  the sounds
 of a language have ceased to reverberate,
 and no  longer convey ideas through the
 human  ear, that language still  lives in
 written  characters,  which speak to the
 mind through the eyes,  and even when
 the sense or meaning  of those characters
 is lost or  forgotten, genius, aided  by phi-
 lology,  will, after  many ages, revive, at
 least some fragments, and Champollions
 will arise, whose labors will perhaps suc-
 ceed in recovering an ancient language,
 long considered as not only dead, but pro-
 foundly buried  in  the night of time.  A
 science like this, so wide  in its extent, and
 yet so  homogeneous in  all its parts, re-
 quires an appropriate name, a name fa-
 miliar to men of science, and such as the
 learned world  will easily be led to adopt
 Various denominations have been attempt- 
82                              PHILOLOGY.
ed to be given to it, such as ghssography,
glossology,  and others of the like  kind ;
out those names have been uniformly re-
jected.  The Germans, with more suc-
cess, have called it, and still call it linguis-
tic ; but no other European nation that we
know  of  has  followed   their  example,
while  the name philology, for some years
past, appears to have been generally adopt-
ed, even in Germany.  It  is believed that
it was  first used in this sense in the United
States.  Our Webster, in his  excellent
dictionary, is the first who  has defined the
word in this, its most appropriate meaning.
" Philology," he says, " is  that branch of
literature  which comprehends a knowl-
edge of the etymology or origin and com-
bination of words, and whatever relates to
the  history and  present  state  of  lan-
guages.  It sometimes includes rhetoric,
poetry, history and  antiquities."  Indeed,
the word philology has been gradually
falling off from its original acceptation, as
no longer requisite for the heterogeneous
mass of sciences to which  it was formerly
applied.  Literature, criticism, archaeolo-
gy, philosophy,  history, grammar, rhetoric,
logic, metaphysics, and all else which once
came under this sweeping denomination,
have all received specific and appropriate
names, and each of them  is now too vast
and too extensive, and many of them too
distant from each other, to allow of their
being classed under one general appella-
tion.   The word philology, therefore, had
become as  it were in abeyance, and the
science of human language, comprehend-
ing all its various divisions and subdivisions,
has very properly taken hold of it, and ap-
propriated  it to itself with universal con-
sent   Under this  impression,  we have
headed this article Philology, and under it,
we shall endeavor to give a general  idea
of the science which it denominates. The
science of languages, in its present extent,
is  of very late date.  The  ancients (we
mean the Greeks and Romans) had, in-
deed, analyzed, with great judgment, their
respective idioms,  and  reduced them to
grammatical systems truly worthy  of ad-
miration ; but beyond that  they did not
go.  They called  every  language  but
their own  barbarous, and did not think
any other worthy of attention.  We have
learned nothing from them of the  Puuic,
nor of the  ancient Persian, though they
were so long at war with  the nations that
spoke  those idioms.   Their excessive
pride has suffered those idioms to perish,
though there is reason to believe that they
were both rich  in literature of their own.
Even of the language of Egypt, where they
bo long governed, the Romans have told
us nothing, and  the  Greeks  very  little.
How interesting would be, at  this day, a
Coptic grammar, written by a Roman or
Greek grammarian, with  some  explana-
tion, at least, of their hieroglyphic charac-
ters,  more satisfactory  than what  we have
received from Herodotus and Clement of
Alexandria!  An incomplete  translation
of the works of Horus Apollo is all that
we have, and it has rather increased than
dispelled our ignorance of the system of
that  ancient mode of  writing.  It led us
into  a false track, in which we continued
until Champollion showed us another and
a better way.   This prejudice continued
until a veiy late period.  Even in the days
of Dante, Petrarch and Macchiavelli, and
later still, in those of Ariosto and Tasso,
the beautiful Italian language was styled,
in opposition to the Latin, la lingua vol-
gare; that is to say, the lingua, rustica, the
patois, the jargon, the dialect of the vulgar.
The same contempt  followed the other
modern idioms.  It was taught in the col-
leges that  there  were but four mother
tongues, the Latin, the Greek, the Hebrew
and  the Syriac (the two last were added
by the  theologians on account  of their
supposed sacred origin).   All other  lan-
guages were mere dialects.  The  German,
of course,  was included, though derived
from neither  of the  pretended  mother
tongues.  Such was  the ignorance  that
prevailed on  the  subject  of languages.
In the seventeenth century, the cloud  be-
gan  to be dispelled, but gradually indeed,
A. great step was made  by Messieurs de
Port Royal, who, in 1660, published their
Grammaire glnerale et raisonnie,  the work
of Arnaud and  Lancelot, two  of their
members.  Here the first attempt was made
to generalize the  grammatical  science,
and  to deduce from it  principles and rules
applicable  to all  languages.  That work
was  much and justly admired when it ap-
peared, and has been the model of almost
all that have been published since on die
same subject   But the foundation  was
wanting for  such a work at  that  time.
The knowledge of languages was yet con-
fined to a few.  The Greek, the Latin, the
Hebrew, with  the  French and Italian,
and, perhaps, the Spanish, were  the mont
that  a philologist aspired  to know.  One
cannot refrain from smiling, when he sees
Messieurs de Port Royal, after  stating a
principle or rule common to the languages
that  they knew, gravely asserting that that
principle governs in every language (dans
toutes les langues).  This assertion is  fre-
quently met with in the General Grammar, 
PHILOLOGY.                              83
 and may at this day be as often easily dis-
 proved.  The variety of forms existing in
 languages was not even  suspected.  The
 missionaries had not yet  made known the
 extraordinary structure of the Chinese on
"the one hand, and of the American idioms
 on the other; what little was known of
 them might produce a momentary won-
 der, but did not excite the curiosity of
 grammarians and philologists.  It was not
 until about the  middle of the eighteenth
 century that a broad and comprehensive
 view of the various languages of men be-
 gan  to be taken by the learned.  M. Mau-
 pertuis, who did not deserve all the ridi-
 cule  which the jealousy of Voltaire  en-
 deavored to throw  upon him, published
 an essay on the Origin  of  Language, in
 which he recommended studying the id-
 ioms even of savage and barbarous nations,
 " because,"  said he, " there may be found
 among them some that are formed on new
 plans of ideas."  So little was the world
 prepared for this view of the subject, that
 M. Turgot, a  man,  certainly,  of great
 sense and judgment, who was afterwards
 minister to the unfortunate Louis XVI, in
 a similar essay that he published, thought
 proper to sneer at this expression, saying
 that he could not understand what was
 meant by plans of ideas.   The science was
 then in its infancy.   Languages were con-
 sidered only in respect to the etymology
 of their words and  their affinity with each
 other.  For more than three centuries, at-
 tempts  had been  made  from  time to
 time to collect materials for  the compari-
 son of languages   These consisted of vo-
 cabularies, and of the Lord's prayer printtd
 in various idioms, but all on a very limited
 scale.  Adelung has  given  us a list  of
 those works at the  end of the first volume
 of the .Mithrilates,  l>eginiiiug with Johauti
 Schihiherger, who,, about the  year 1427,
 at the end of a book of travels, published
 the Pater Noster  in the Armenian  and
 Tartar languages.  In all these the science
 was  considered as confined 10  the knowl-
 edge and comparison of words; the im-
 portance of the grammatical forms and in-
 ternal structure of the various idioms might
 have stnek some privileged minds, asit did
 that of M. Man pertuis, but it  was far from
 being understood by the grammarians and
 philologists of that day.   The science did
 not begin to extend its bounds until about
 the period of our revolution.  Hervas, in
 1784, published at  Cesena, in the Roman
states his catalogue of known languages
(Catalogo delle lAngue conosciute,  e No-
tizia delle loro AJfinila e Diversita), and af-
terwards his polyglot vocabulary of 150
 languages, and a collection of the Lord's
 prayer in more  than 300.  But, while he
 was engaged in the composition of these
 works, an illustrious sovereign, at the other
 end of the eastern hemisphere, Catharine
 the Second, empress of Russia, was med-
 itating another, on a plan much more ex-
 tensive, which was no less than a compar-
 ative  vocabulary of all  the  languages in
 the world.  This noble  idea she not only
 conceived, but actually carried into exe-
 cution, with  the  aid  of professor Pallas,
 for the languages of Asia and  Europe, and
 of Mr. Theodore Jankiewitsch, for those
 of Africa and America.  Then, and not
 till then, philology began to be a science.
 Still etymology alone was the only object
 which that great work had in view. The
 various structure of languages had not yet
 attracted the  attention of the learned.  In
 the celebrated French  Encyclopedic, un-
 der the word Langue,  languages, in this
 respect, are divided only into  two classes,
 those which admit of inversions, like the
 Latin and Greek, and  in some  measure
 the German,  and those which do not, like
 the French and some other modern Eu-
 ropean idioms.  The monosyllabic Chi-
 nese, with its absence  of forms, the poly-
 syllabic and polysynthetic structure of the
 American languages, were not at all taken
 into consideration in the classification of
 the various modes of human speech ; in-
 deed, that classification had not even been
 attempted, either in respect to  etymo-
 logical affinities,  or to  the  grammatical
 construction and arrangement of words;
 or, if some efforts  were  made, they were
 so limited in their range, and on the whole
 so unsatisfactory, that they are undeserv-
 ing of any attention at this day.  To two
 illustrious  Germans,  John   Christopher
 Adelung,  and his able  successor, John
 Severiu Vater, is due the honor of having
 first presented the world with a scientific
 classification of all the known languages,
 and a  correct description of  each  idiom,
 particularly with regard to its grammatical
 structure.   This was  done  in  their ad-
 mirable work, the Mithridates, a work so
 well known to the learned, lhat it is  un-
 necessary to mention more than its title.
 We may venture to  call this  book, with-
 out fear of being contradicted, the foun-
 tain of all philological  knowledge; and
 we do  not hesitate to say that it deserves
 to be placed among the  greatest and hap-
 piest efforts  of  the human  mind.   A
translation of it into the English or French
 language has been long  desired, and it is
astonishing that no one has been yet found
to attempt it. M. Balbi  has  lately pub- 
84"
PHILOLOGY.
fished, at Paris, a valuable work,'entitled
Atlas  Ethnographique du Globe, in which
he gives a succinct  view of the different
languages, with the addition of the knowl-
edge acquired since the publication of the
Mithridates.  But the form which he has
adopted—that of a  large folio atlas, with
synoptic  tables—has prevented him  from
executing as perfect a work us he might
otherwise have done with the knowledge
and talent which he possesses ; and we are
compelled to say that a  translation of the
Mithridates is still a desideratum in the
philological science.    The  fashionable
mode, imitated from Lesage, of publish-
ing every thing in the shape of an  atlas,
appears to us  the most  inconvenient that
could have been chosen for a work of
science. Besides the unwieldysize of those
gigantic books, they have the incurable de-
fect of being like the bed of Procrustes,
where every thing must be condensed or di-
lated, so as to fill the given space allotted to
each part of the subject  It is one of the
childish whims of the present day, which,
like all other similar fancies, will last only
for a  time, and be  forgotten.  Neverthe-
less, we  do not mean   to depreciate the
work  of M. Balbi.   Next to  the Mithri-
dates, we think it the most useful book of
its  kind  that  has  appeared  within  this
century.   It will afford  considerable aid to
those  who apply themselves to the study
of that science.  We only  regret that he
did not follow the  method of his prede-
cessors, which we  think infinitely better
adapted to  the subject   The  progress of
philology since the publication  of the
empress  Catharine's vocabulary and of
the Mithridates, and particularly since the
general pacification of 1814, is hardly
to be conceived.   We wish we  could
mention  here all the  valuable and im-
portant works  that have appeared in the
thirty years that have elapsed of the pres-
ent century, in Russia, Germany, France,
and elsewhere in Europe  and in the U.
States, either on the general  subject of
languages, or on particular idioms till then
little  known,  and  some of which  were
even  entirely  unknown to the  learned.
The shortest notices that we could take of
all those  publications would fill more than
the remainder of the space allotted to this
article.   It would  give us infinite pleas-
ure to expatiate on the  labors of Adelung,
Klaproth,  the  two Humboldts, De  Sacy,
Remusat,  Jomard, St  Martin, Pougens,
Burnouf, Akerblad, Young, Colebrooke,
Champollion, Heeren, Eichhorn, Stewart,
Murray,  Barton,   Hodgson,  Pickering,
Webster,  and so  many  others,  whose
names crowd  so fast  upon our pen, that
we find ourselves obliged to stop, and  pro-
ceed to another part of our subject From
the aggregate of the labors of these men
and their illustrious predecessors,  has re-
sulted the science which we call philology
—a science as vast  in its extent as interest-
ing in its details.  Like all other sciences,
it requires to be subjected to some method-
ical order, in order that  a  comprehensive
view  may  be  taken of its  whole extent,
and  a  regular  system pursued  in the
study of its component parts.   We do
not find that any attempt has been  made in
Europe to give to philology a  definite
form, by delineating its constituent mem-
bers.   We are, therefore, obliged to adopt,
as the only one that  we  are  acquainted
with, the division which Mr.  Duponceau
has made of it, into three  principal parts,
which he calls phonology, etymology, and
ideology,  and which he defines as follows:
   Piwnology  is the  knowledge  of the
sounds produced by the human voice.  It
teaches us to distinguish  those  sounds,
with  their various  tones, accents  and
inflections; to analyze, class and compare
them with  each other, and represent them
as much  as  possible by  visible signs.
Etymology is the knowledge of those  con-
stituent parts of speech that we call words.
By means of it we are enabled  to trece
the affinities of the different idioms of the
earth,  and the filiation  of the numerous
races and families of  men who inhabit it;
and,  lastly, ideology  is the  comparative
study of the grammatical  forms and  idio-
matic  structure of languages, by which
we are taught to distinguish the different
shapes in which ideas combine themselves,
in order to fix  perceptions  in  our minds,
and  transmit  them  to  those of others.
(See the  Preface to the translation of Zeis-
berger's  Grammar of the  Lenni-Lenape,
or Delaware Language, in the Transac-
tions of the American Philosophical Soci-
ety,  vol. iii, new series, p. 75.)  Having
adopted  this division of our general  sub-
ject, we  shall, as  briefly as possible, con-
sider separately each of the three parts of
which it is composed.
   I. Phonology.   This we have defined
to be " the knowledge of the sounds pro-
duced by the  human voice."  According
to this definition, it seems to include music,
and it does, in  fact,  comprehend it; for
music is a language, and the only one that
may be called universal.   It  is true, that
its sphere is limited; still it conveys the
impression of passions and feelings  from
mind to mind by means of audible sounds.
and,  coupled   with  the language  of 
PHILOLOGY.
85
»gns, which  we eall pantomime, there is
hardly any thing that it cannot communi-
cate.   When we speak of the language
of  signs,  we  exclude  those that  are
merely conventional, such as are  taught
to the deaf  and dumb, or  which they
agree upon among themselves: we mean
those alone proceeding from natural  im-
pulse, and  which every one will  under-
stand without previous teaching.  Music
and  pantomime, therefore, considered as
means of communication between men,
by awakening ideas, perceptions and feel-
ings by means of audible sounds and visi-
ble signs, are parts of the  general science
of philology ; and music, which speaks to
the ear, conies  properly within that divis-
ion of it  which we call phonology. The
sounds of which music is composed have
au  immense advantage  over  all  other
sounds produced  by  the human  voice.
They are susceptible of being divided  into
parts, as  minute and as nearly accurate as
the  ear  can discriminate;  so that their
almost infinite combinations may, by a
few  conventional  signs,  be  presented
through  the  eye  to the mental ear, in a
uniform  manner from one  end  of  the
world to the  other.  And this is not  all:
the  duration of each  sound, and of the
intervals of  silence,   are  as accurately
marked  by  those  signs as  the  sounds
themselves;  so that the most complicated
piece of music is sung or  executed at St.
Petersburg in the same manner as it  is at
Canton  or at  Philadelphia:  as far as it
extends, therefore, music  may be called a
universal language.—It has been frequent-
ly asked whether the oratorical sounds or
tones could  not be described by signs, in
the same manner as those of music.  Va-
rious  attempts have  been made  to  that
effect, and doctor James  Rush, of Phila-
delphia, has written  a very learned  and
ingenious treatise on the subject.   But all
such attempts  have failed, and, from the
nature of the thing, must always fail.  We
shall  endeavor to  explain the reason of
this  opinion.   The  musical sounds or
 tones proceeding from the  grave  to the
 acute, and vice versa, form, as it were, an
 ascending and descending line, easily di-
 visible into  parts, which  the ear can ap-
 preciate.  This effect is produced  by  cer-
 tain  organs, which operate  by pressure,
 letting out of the  mouth of the singer a
 greater  or  lesser  quantity  of air,  and
 striking the external air variously, accord-
 ing to  the  manner  in  which  they  act,
 which it would  be difficult and  it is not
 necessary here to describe. Those organs,
 in speaking, are  not  called in the same
   vol.  x.           8
manner into action ; the tones of  the
speaker differ more  from each other in
strength than in acuteness or gravity—in
short, speech  is monotonous, when not
modified by strong passion or feeling; and,
in that  case, it modulates within  a very
narrow compass, which is not susceptible
of division,  like the musical scale; and,
indeed,  the word  modidaiion would  be
here improperly applied, for the rising and
falling of the orator's voice, in speaking, is
no  more than  what, in  music, is  called
expression, and it is not  more susceptible
of notation  in the one than in the other.
The musician has his F. and FF., and P.
and PP., for forte, fortissimo, and  piano,
pianissimo,  aud his  marks >■ and  <,
to swell or diminish gradually the sound
of a particular note:  beyond that,  he has
no guide but his feeling and  taste, and the
instruction  of a good master, aided by ex-
ercise and practice.  This musicians call
method.  A man may read and write music
in perfection, but, without method, he will
not  be  a good singer;  so one may  read
and write his language with perfect  cor-
rectness ; without  method, he will  not be
an  orator ;  and that method cannot be
learned from notes or written signs, but
must be acquired by instruction, exercise
and practice, coupled with  that natural
disposition, without  which  there can be
neither a musician nor an orator.  But if
the sounds which are  the elements of
speech  are not divisible in the same man-
ner as those from which  music proceeds,
they are, nevertheless, susceptible of dis-
crimination from each other, and  may be
divided into classes, though not into inter-
vals.  A much greater number of organs
concurs in  their  production  than in
that of the  musical tones.  The head, the
breast, the  lungs, the  throat, the lips, the
tongue, the palate, the teeth, and even the
nose—all lend their  aid to the formation
of the wonderful mechanism of language,
M. Court de Gebelin has described  ana-
tomically the manner in which the differ-
ent sounds are  produced, in his Histoire
naturelle de la Parole, to which we  refer*
our readers.   In the  analysis  of these
sounds, and in the means of representing
them by visible signs, consists the  princi-
pal part of the branch  of science which
we call phonology.   This seems easy at
first view,  particularly when we consider
 the small  number  of  elementary signs
 contained  in our alphabets, which  are, in
 general, sufficient  for practical use in the
 languages  to which  they are applied, and
 to which they belong; but,  if we  extend
 our prospect, and attempt to describe all 
I
86                             PHILC

the elementary sounds which the human
organs may, and, in fact, do, utter, for the
purpose of oral communication in the dif-
ferent countries of the world, we find our-
selves  at once surrounded with  difficul-
ties.   There is no common standard for
the pronunciation of any given vowel or
consonant  Their mode of utterance va-
ries in different  countries, so that it  can
hardly be recognised  from one to the oth-
er.  Take, for instance, the vowel a, not
its acute sound in the English word grace,
but what is commonly called the French
and Italian a.  The  first thing  that will
strike an experienced phonologist is, that
this sound does not at  all exist in  the
English language.  It is not the  a in  call
that is too  broad;  not the a in father that
is too acute,  and it rather approximates
to the French broad c in  Ute, as articulat-
ed in solemn discourse, and on the stage.
If this should be still doubted,  we will
ask an Englishman  to  pronounce  the
French word barbier. He  will  at once
give to the a the long and acute sound of
a in  the  English  word barber.  It  has
been observed that the pronunciation of
this letter a is the Shibboleth by which an
Englishman or a North American is soon-
est detected in speaking  the French lan-
guage, and teachers will acknowledge that
they find it most  difficult to make their
scholars pronounce  it properly.  As to
consonants, similar difficulties exist   The
English th (the  delta and  theta of the
modern Greeks) is seldom correctly pro-
nounced by  those who have  not  these
sounds  in  their  native  language.   The
English sh and the French ch have by no
means the same sound.   There  are  na-
tions who confound  the b  and the v, the
b and the p, the d and die t, and cannot
discriminate the one from the other.  The
Mohawks  pronounce the k so  nearly like
the sound  of g  hard, that it requires a
very  nice ear to distinguish which of the
two it is.  The  reverend Mr. Williams, a
native  Mohawk  of  mixed blood, after
much  hesitation,  at  last determined  in
favor of k.  Before that time, both letters
had been indifferently used in their alpha-
bet to represent it   It has long been a
subject of controversy whether the ancient
Greeks pronounced  the /? like our b or v.
It seems most probable that it represented
a sound partaking of both. The Spaniards
use these two letters indifferently. The fact
is, that the sounds uttered by the human
voice, particularly the vowel sounds, slide
into  each  other by imperceptible shades,
which may be divided ad infinitum, and
the number of their divisions is only limit-
ed by the power of die ear to discriminate
them.  Thus from a to o there are a great
number of  intermediate  sounds.   The
monosyllable ja, pronounced by an elegant
woman of Berlin or Dresden,  has the
small short sound of the French a in papa:
a Suabian peasant,  on  the contrary, will
say jo, with the prolonged sound of our
broadest o.  It is probably from this anal-
ogy that the double aa in the Danish lan-
guage has the sound of o; and the  same
sound  is expressed  in  Swedish  by §.
Proceeding from  the grave to the  acute,
the sound a falls into the  French i open,
then to the acute a, as in grace, face, and,
becoming still  more acute, it is heard as
the English ee, or the French and Italian i.
We have shown how the  consonants are
often  confounded with  each  other.  All
this proceeds from the various motion, the
greater or lesser aperture or pressure of the
organs employed in  speech, and, for want
of a common standard, or, if we may so
express ourselves, diapason, it is impossible
to convey an idea of those  differences in
sounds, and their nice shades  and grada-
tions, otherwise than by  a direct appeal to
the ear.  Nothing more can be obtained
by a reference to sounds that  are known
than an imperfect approximation; whence
it happens that the pronunciation of a for-
eign language, though ever so nearly con-
nected with our own, can never be learned
from  books, and when, at a certain age,
the organs of speech have lost that  flexi-
bility which  they possess  only in  early
youth, even the practical aid of a master
is  often found insufficient  When we
pass from sounds that are known, that is,
those to  which our ears  have become
more or less accustomed, from their exist-
ing in languages which  we have at least
heard spoken,  or from their bearing a
great analogy to those of our idiom, and
proceed to  those which  our ears  have
never heard, and which bear  no analogy
to those that we  know, the difficulty of
conveying those sounds  to the mental ear
by means of written signs,  becomes insu-
perable.  Such are the  whistled w  of the
Delawares, the c of the  Peruvians  and
Othomis,  which  the Hispano-American
grammarians call castahuelas, which we
cannot describe otherwise  than by saying
that it is something like our A, pronounced
from  the throat only, and imitating the
noise of a  monkey cracking nuts; the
yerwe of the Russians (bi), something like
our sound we, pronounced very short, and
struck by the preceding consonant in a
manner which cannot  be described ; the
Polish crossed t, the guttural  sound, said 
•
to be peculiar to the Hottentots. These and
many others that could lie mentioned, we
have no means of  making known, except
through the medium of the physical ear.
To those who  never  heard them,  no
written signs can convey a correct idea of
their utterance.  The degrees of the mu-
sical scale are conveyed from one country
to another by means of instruments, vio-
lins, flutes, &c, from which an accurate
idea of them may be every where  obtain-
ed. If it were possible to invent a mechan-
ism that should, in  the same manner, con-
vey to the ear the various sounds produced
by the organs of speech, it would  be an
immense advantage  to  phonology.  We
believe that it would be possible to effect
it, if phonology possessed the same attrac-
tion as music; but  the Vaucansons of the
age will hardly undertake  it for this dry
science.  It appears impossible to us, at
least at present, to  make a complete and
accurate general  alphabet of all the sounds
existing in the different  languages of the
earth: all  we can  expect to arrive  at is
some kind of approximation, by means of
which  philologists may  more easily com-
municate and  convey to each other the
idea of each particular sound as nearly as
possible ;  for it  must be  acknowledged
that, particularly as relates to barbarous
(as they are  called) and newly discovered
languages, the mode  now adopted of ex-
pressing or representing the sounds by the
alphabetical signs of the nation to which
the writer belongs,is veryinconvenient,and
leads  to strange mistakes; for instance,
the name of prince Lee-Boo of the Pelew
islands will appear to a Frenchman  to be
composed of two dissyllables, because, ac-
cordingto his own orthography, it should be
written Li-Bou; and, then, an Italian will
commit the same  mistake, and read Li-
Bu-u.  Our learned philologist Mr. Pick-
ering has published au Essay on a uniform
Orthography for the Indian Languages
of North America, which we  consider as
the best work of the kind that has yet ap-
peared.   Thi!  alphabet that  he proposes
has been  almost universally  adopted  by
American missionaries,  not only on this
continent, but in the South  sea islands.
It consists of twenty-seven letters, all bor-
rowed from  our Roman alphabet.  These
letters consist of five pure and five  nasal
vowels, the  latter distinguished from the
former by a cedilla underneath, as in the
Polish  orthography,  sixteen  consonants,
and the aspirate h.  The  guttural sound of
the Greek x is represented by kh, the author
having been afraid  of the Greek character
being mistaken for our double letter x, as
LOGY.                              87

 his principal objects  were simplicity in
 theory and facility in practice,  in both of
 which he  has, in our opinion, succeeded
 as far as it  is possible to do.  (See the Me-
 moirs of the American Academy of Arts
 and Sciences, vol. iv, p. 319.)   While  we
 think that such a general alphabet maybe
 of use for unwritten languages, we are of
 opinion that it is entirely useless for those
 that have an alphabet of their own, and
 properly suited to their idiom.   Sir  Wil-
 liam Jones, and, after him, M. de Volney,
 have expressed the wish that our Roman
 alphabet might be employed in writing the
 Arabic, Persian, and  other Oriental lan-
 guages ; and the latter has left a consid-
 erable legacy to  be employed in premi-
 ums to those  who should discover the
 best mode of attaining that end. We can-
 not perceive what benefits will  arise  from
 it.  He who knows those languages will,
 of course, be able to read their  writing;
 and he must know how to read it, other-
 wise their books will be to him a dead let-
 ter ; and to those who do not, our Roman
 letters will  convey no better idea of the
 sounds of those idioms than the characters
 which the nations which speak them have
 adopted for themselves—nay,  we rather
 think that  they will  be apt to mislead
 them.   It has become fashionable in Eu-
 rope to represent the unknown sounds in
 Oriental proper names by letters different
 from those  formerly used, as if they could
 convey  to  the  mind the idea of a sound
 which the  ear has never heard.  Thus
 some will write the Qpran or the Khordn,
 Kairo instead of Cairo, sultaun instead of
 sultan ; and various similar attempts are
 made to assimilate our pronunciation  of
 proper names to that of the country to
 which they belong. These only serve to
 confuse the reader, and  do not contribute
 in the least to the advancement of science.
 It is impossible to say into how many
 shapes the  name of poor Gengis-Khan has
 been tortured, in order to come nearer to
 the true pronunciation of his name.  We
 have gained nothing by  these vain" "at-
 tempts,  except that  in  these fantastic
 dresses  we no longer know our old ac-
 quaintance. We  have  taken  notice, in
 our sixth volume, under the head Indian
 Languages, of the curious  alphabet  in-
 vented by  the  Indian philosopher Guest
 to represent the sounds of the Cherokee
 idiom, which may now  be considered as
 a written tongue.  We refer our readers to
 what is said on that subject in page 599 of
 that volume.  We invite them to meditate
 upon it; it is  pregnant  with  reflections
 which, if followed through all the chain 
PHILOLOGY.
of ideas to which they give rise, will great-
ly contribute to extend and to improve the
phonological science, which has  not yet
made any considerable progress, and may
6till be considered  as in its infancy.—II.
Etymology.   This  branch of philology
considers words only in relation to their
origin, and to their connexion with or re-
lation to  each other.  We have*little to
add to what has already been said on this
subject in our fourth volume, in the arti-
cle  Etymology, to  which we  refer  our
reader.   We would refer him also to the
excellent work of  president de Brosses,
entitled Traili. de la Formation mechanique
des Langues, et des Principes physiques de
I'Etymologie (Paris, an IX, 2 vols., 12mo.),
in which this topic ie fully and most learn-
edly discussed.  The object of etymology
is, by means of the similarity, affinity"and
probable  derivation of words in different
languages, to trace, as far as possible, the
successive migrations of men from  one
country to another, and thus to extend and
improve our knowledge of the history of the
human race.  Many  learned men  have
thought  that the  science of etymology
would lead  us to  the  discovery of the
primitive language which was spoken by
man at the creation.  We have given our
opinion  on  this subject under the head
Language, in the seventh volume of this
work, and we  will  not repeat  what we
have said there.  We have shown, also,
that the verbal affinities which late investi-
gations have discovered between the lan-
guages of Europe and those of Western
Asia vanish from  the moment when we
have crossed  the river Ganges, and are not
to be found in the  idioms  of the Ameri-
can Indians.  All  attempts to  show the
contrary  have hitherto failed.   It  is no
reason, however, for further inquiry to be
abandoned.   There is no knowing what
facts  investigation  may bring  to  light.
The affinities which have been  shown to
exist between the  Sanscrit, for  instance,
and the Teutonic and Slavonic languages,
are well calculated to excite surprise, and
to put us  on our guard against too strong-
ly asserting  the impossibility  of further
discoveries.   It must be  owned that the
etymological  science  is very uncertain,
and is full of false lights, ever ready to de-
ceive and mislead  us.  What greater re-
semblance  can there  be between two
words dian between  the Indian name of
our river Potomac and the Greek  word
norapbs (a river) ? And yet it is very certain
that the former is  not derived  from  the
latter, for its Indian etymology  is  well
known.  On the other hand,  who would
 believe, if it were not an undoubted  fact,
 that our word tragedy is derived from  a
 Greek word signifying a goaf}  and who
 would now suppose that the English word
 wig is derived from the Latin pilus (a hair)?
 This, however, may  be  easily shown:—■
 Latin, pilus; Spanish, pelo, thence peluca;
 French, perruque ;  Dutch, peruik;  Eng-
 lish, perwick, perwig, periwig, and, by con-
 traction, wig.   The  Russian  and  Latin
 languages appear to be entirely different
 from each other, yet many  verbal  af-
 finities may be  found between them.  We
 will mention here a few, extracted from
 an excellent dissertation by Mr. Frederic
 Adelung, of St Petersburg, on the merits
 of the empress Catharine  in promoting
 philological knowledge:

                         Latin.
                       Pastor.
                       Charus.
                       Pascit.
                       Ovis.
                       Vidit.
                       Agnus.
                       Crumena.
                       Circum (Kirkum)
                       Spina.
                       Pert.
                       Jugum.
                       Securis.
                       Struit.
                       Domus.
                       Habitat.
                       Pax.
                       Sedet.

 To these may be added levi, leevus;  brat,
frater;  steklo, speculum; and many others.
The same writer has shown similaraffinities
between the Russian and ancient German.
He has put together  a few sentences in
the two languages containing in the whole
fifty words, literally translated from the
one language into the other, and striking
out all the  vowels, and  leaving  only the
consonants as the bones or skeleton of the
words, he has shown  them to be exactly
the same, without the least difference. (See
Catherinens der Grossen Verdienste urn die
 Vergleichende Sprachenkunde, p. 19.)  The
numerous affinities  between the Sanscrit
and the languages of Western Europe are
still more remarkable.  The following will
serve as an example out of a very great
number  collected by various  German
philologists :

Ada, I eat; Lat edo; Russ. yeda.
Aghni, fire; Lat. ignis; Russ. ogn.
Aschuga, dry;  ItaL asciugare.
Bratha, brother; Russ. brat.
Russian.	English.
Pastir,	Shepherd,
Charosch,	Dear,
Paschet,	He feeds,
Ovets,	Sheep,
Vidit,	He sees,
Agnets,	A lamb,
Karmana,	A purse,
Krugom,	Around,
Spinu,	A thorn,
Beret,	He carries,
Igum,	Yoke,
Ssekeroiu,	An axe,
Stroit,	He builds,
Dom,	A house,
Obitaiet,	He dwells,
Pakoi,	Peace,
Ssedit,	He sits,
 
PHILOLOGY.
89
 Bhrouvo, bhrowan, the eye-brows;  Russ.
   brovi.
 Cabala, head ; Gr. Kc<pa\!).
 Da, give (imper.); Lat da.
 Dun, two;  Lat. duo; Gr. it*, Fr. deux.
 Dwar, opening; Eng. door; Rt:«s. dver.
 Gada, going ; Eng. to gad (about)
 Ghena, woman ; Gr. ywh; Russ. zhena.
 Herda, heart
 Hima, cold; Lat. hyems (winter).
 Ila, yes; Lat ila (thus).
 Yuga, yoke;  Lat. jugum; Yr.joug.
 Yuva, young; Lat juvenis.
 Krsclvra, a scream ;  Eng. to screech.
I Kuka, a cock; Fr. coq.
 Mrita, mortal; Lat. mors, mortis; Fr. mort.
 Marcca, frontier;  Eng. mark (land mark);
   old Germ, mark (frontier); Ital. margine;
   Eng. margin.
 Misra, to mix ; Lat. misceo.
 Nasa, the nose.
 Nicht, nothing; Germ, nichts.
 Padi, road, way;  Eng. path.
 Shoostri, sister; Germ, schwester.
 Sonnu, son.
 Sourgo, height; Lat. surgo.
 Tri, three; Lat tres; Ital. tre.
 Vaihon, wind; Dutch, Waaijen  (to blow,
   bluster).
 Wartana,  warti, guardian,  door-keeper ;
   Germ, warten.

 Amidst all th<\s<: affinities existing among
 so many languages, how is  the  mother
 tongue to be discovered ? The task is un-
 doubtedly very difficul , but, to a certain
 derree, perhaps, not impossible.  We. are
 inclined to think that the filiation of lan-
 guages may be pursued to a great extent.
 Before that is done, however, it will  be
 necessary to establish certain  rules, to  di-
 rect our researches in the thorny paths of
 etymology.  By way of example, we shall
 suggest one rule or canon, which, we are
 of opinion, will go  a great way towards
 serving  us  as  a clew in this complicated
 labyrinth.  If, in a given language, a radi-
 cal  or  primitive word should be found,
 accompanied  with what may be called its
 family,  that is to  say, its  various com-
 pounds and derivatives, and if, in another,
 we should find only the root, or but a few
 of the derivatives  or compounds, we may
 safidy say,  that, as  far as that  goes, the
 latter is derived from the former.  Thus
 we find in  the French the radical word
 roi, with its  derivatives  reine  (formerly
 royne\  royal,  royaute, &c.;  while,  in
 English,  we  find the derivatives  royal,
 royalty, royally, under the primitive king.
 We may then be well assured that the
 English language has borrowed these de-
 rivatives from  the  French, and  for  the
 origin of the primitive king, we must look
 somewhere else, until we find the whole
 family of that word existing together in
 one idiom.  Another example may be  ad-
 duced.   In  the  Basque  language, un-
 doubtedly  one  of the most ancient that
 exists, the  primitive word bi signifies  the
 numeral two.  All the family of that word
 is derived from it or compounded  with it;
 bigarrena,  second ;  birretan,   biarretan,
 twice ;  bitan ambat, double; biderbiro,
 doubly; biderbitu. to double; bvha, biha-
 ca,  two and  two;  amabi, twelve (ten
 and  two); bicoa,  of two; bitan, burn,
 in  two  (speaking  of  things) ;   bigan,
 in  two  (speaking of  persons), &c.  In
 the Latin  tongue,  we  do not find  the
 simple  or  primitive word  bi; for two is
 expressed by duo, a  word derived from
 the Greek, which has  compounds and  de-
 rivatives of its  own;  but  we find  a part
 of its family, bis, twice; binus, biceps,  bi-
 color,  bidens,  &c.  What are we to infer
 from this fact, which  deserves, at least, to
 be remarked ? We think it not improba-
 ble, that the Basque language,  many cen-
 turies ago,  was spoken in Italy, or, at least,
 some  dialect derived  from it, in  which
 was found  the primitive word bi, with  its
 family; that, in consequence of successive
 invasions  and  conquests,  that language
 was pushed  farther westward, and  other
 idioms took its place, and, either mediately
 or immediately, the Greek word duo was
 introduced, while its and some of its com-
 pounds  remained.   Some  other language
 introduced the verb sequor, whence  se-
 cundum  was  derived,  and expelled the
 Basque  word bigarrena ; but the word  bis
 could not  be driven off; there remained
 with it many  words derived or compound-
 ed  from bi, such as  binus, biceps, &c,
 which gradually  adapted  themselves  to
 the  analogies of the  new language.  It
 will be said, perhaps, that the Latin word
 bis is the Eolic form of die Greek its, be-
 cause  it is known that in that dialect, the
 <5 was often changed  into fi ,  but why
 should not the  Eolic  pit be also derived
 from  the  Basque?  The baron W. von
 Humboldt has discovered  many affinities
 between that language  and the  Greek.
(See the Mithridates, vol. iv, p. 282.)  The
word other  (alter), which, in several lan-
guages,  as, for instance,  in German, is
made  use of for second (der andere),  is, in
Basque, bestea,  bercea; formerly (in Fr.
autrefois) berris; other thing, besteric.  In
all these words we find the letter 6, and the
analogy of all these words with bi is not
to be doubted.  We do not think we have 
90
PHILOLOGY.
gone too far, in asserting the  probability
that the Basque  language, in various dia-
lects, was once spoken in  a  great part of
Europe,  and, amongst other places, in
Italy.   It is impossible not to come to this
conclusion, when we consider  how much
that idiom differs from all others, not only
in the  derivation of its words, but in its
grammatical forms, which have no parallel
any where  in the old world,  and although
they resemble, in some degree, those of
the American Indian languages, yet differ
sufficiently  from them to show that there
is no  real  affinity  between them.  (See
Historical and Literan/ Transactions of
the American Philosophical Society,  vol. i,
p. 39.)   Now, we know that mankind are
every where imitators, and that,  in the
gradual formation of their languages, they
borrow a great deal from each other; we
cannot, therefore, form an idea of a lan-
guage so widely different from all others,
and particularly  from those by which it is
surrounded, without  coupling with this
fact the idea of the most remote antiquity,
and of times when the people who now
speak that language  extended  themselves
in various tribes, through a very large ex-
tent of country.  The learned baron W.
von Humboldt has shown, in an elaborate
treatise, that many proper names of places
in what is now Italy, are  evidently of
Basque origin;  and we  have no doubt,
that  further investigation will show nu-
merous derivations, like those from  the
word bi, in the  ancient and modern lan-
guages of the  Italian peninsula, which
may be traced to the  idiom now spoken
in Biscay.—See  the interesting disserta-
tion entitled Priifung der  Untersuchungen
fiber die Urbewohner  Hispaniens, vermit-
telst der  Vaskischen Sprache, by Wilhelm
von  Humboldt  (Berlin, 1821). We can-
not take leave of this branch  of our sub-
ject without mentioning a  curious proof
of the antiquity of the Basque language,
which is given us  by the same writer,
baron  W. von Humboldt, in his addenda
to the  second volume of the  Mithridates,
published in the fourth part of that work,
which appeared in 1817.  It is an original
song, or poem, in  that idiom, recording
the five years' war  in which  the Biscay-
ans  were  engaged  against the Romans,
who invaded their country  under Octavi-
anus Augustus, at the end of  which, after
excessive sufferings, they were not treat-
 ed as  a  conquered  nation,  but were re-
 ceived into  the alliance of  the  Roman
 people.  The baron  has  given us a part
 of that poem in the original,  with a Ger-
 man translation, which we think our read-
ers will not dislike  to  see in an  English
dress:
  1. Lelo is dead, Lelo is dead : Zara was the
murderer of Lelo.
  2. The  strangers  from  Rome declared  war
against us ; and Biscay set up her song of vic-
tory.
  i. On one side was Octavianus;  on  the other,
Lecobidi, the Bisoayan.
  4. Master of  the sea and of the  strong-holds,
he surrounded and besieged us.
  5. The  dry plains were his, and so wore the
shady forests of the mountains.
  6. When we were posted  in favorable spots,
every one felt himself strong and courageous.
  7. We are all brothers in arms, and have  little
fear : but, oh! bread-basket, thou art sick.
  8. They cased themselves  in heavy armor;
but the  unarmed body is  light and quick in its
motions.
  9. During five long years we were besieged ;
we had no rest by day or by night.
  10. If they murdered one of our men, they lost
fifty of theirs.
  11. But though they were so numerous, and we
only a small band, we made, in the end,  with
them  a treaty of alliance.
It may  be asked, perhaps, Who was  this
Lelo, whose death is bewailed in the  first
stanza of this poem, and whose  name  is
not afterwards mentioned ?  Tradition re-
lates, that, at  a very distant  period, a  Bis-
cayan warrior, named Lelo, was obliged
to march against the enemy.  During hia
absence, his wife, Tota, was unfaithful  to
him, and had a child by her paramour,
named Zara.  When Lelo returned from
the war, the  guilty  lovers caused him  to
be murdered ; but the crime was discov-
ered ;  the indignant people expelled the
criminals from  their territory,  and it was
resolved, in a general assembly of the na-
tion, that, thenceforth, every song should
begin with a stanza to the memory of the
unfortunate Lelo.   There are yet in  Bis-
cay, says Mr. von  Humboldt,  some  aged
people,  who recollect an  old song, the
burthen of which is
           Leluan, Lelo,
           Leluan dot gogo.
           I think of Lelo, Lelo ;
           I think of Lelo.

(See Mithrid., vol. iv, p. 353.)   III. Ideol-
ogy- We have hitherto considered the ele-
ments of language in their simplest forms;
we  are  now to take  a view  of them  as
modified by  various combinations, which
men have agreed upon  to  facilitate  their
mutual intercourse.  These modifications
have been called grammatical forms, and
are by no means the same in all languages,
but differ according to the  points of  view
in which men have considered  the ideas
which  they  meant to express, or, rather,
to awaken  in the minds  of others,  by 
PHILOLOGY.                             91
words and sentences.  There are very few
ideas that we may call absolutely simple;
when we speak of a tree, we have in the
eye of our mind, " a plant fastened to the
ground by means of roots, having a trunk,
leaves and branches,  and bearing flowers
and fruits in a certain season."  All these
things are included in the idea of what we
call a tree.  By a  church or temple, we un-
derstand " a place or a house where peo-
ple assemble  to pray to an Almighty Be-
ing." To express all this, we may either
divide the general idea into its compo-
nent parts, or combine these together.  In
the latter case, we shall express the whole
by one  word, in  the former, by  several.
Thus, in our own language, we say some-
times an inn,  sometimes a  public house,
and  sometimes a house  of entertainment,
making use,  indifferently, of one, two, or
three words to express the same thing, or
represent it  to  the  mind of the  hearer.
This divisibility of ideas is the origin of
grammatical forms in  language.  It is only
since the beginning of the present century,
that  this variety of forms in human  lan-
guage has attracted  the attention of the
learned, and  that the idioms of even the
most savage nations have  been  studied
with a view to ascertain their grammati-
cal structure.   The results have been not
less  curious than  interesting, inasmuch as
they display the various operations of the
mind of man in the formation of languages.
Great pains were formerly taken  to trace
them up to a  single  original type, which
was to have been the primitive language;
but, as the comparison of words, in respect
to  their etymology  and derivation from
each other,  has failed in leading us thus
far,  so  has the comparison  of grammati-
cal  forms, which, as we have observed
before,  in our article  Language, rather
tends to show that the existing languages
have not had a  common origin.   Let us
take a cursory view  of their various struc-
 tures.  There is, in  the south-eastern di-
 vision of Asia, a group of nations whose
 languages are distinguished by a singular
 formation, the like to which is not found
 in any other part of the globe.  The pop-
 ulation  of  those nations,  according  to
 Adelung, amounts to about one eighth of
 the whole  number  of  the inhabitants of
 that part of the  world.   (See the Mithri-
 dates, vol.  i, p.  27.)  The languages  of
 those nations are   composed  of a  very
 small  number  of  monosyllables.    M.
 Remusat, in his  Essai sur la Langue et la
 JuitUrature Chinoise (p. 55), has calculated
 that those of the Chinese, the best known
 of these idioms, do  not exceed the num-
ber of 400, but that, varied as they are by
four  different  tones  or accents (some
writers say five), they may go as high as
1600, or, at most, 2000.  By the side of
that spoken idiom  there is a written lan-
guage (as it is called), consisting, accord-
ing to the same author (p. 56), of 80,000
characters.  Each of those characters an-
swers to a word or monosyllable of the
spoken language, and vice versa.  (Gram-
maire Chinoise, par Remusat, p. 1.)   This
would be difficult to comprehend, if we did
not know that the Chinese abounds in ho-
mophonous  words,  which are represent-
ed by different  characters,  as  in French
the words cens, cent, sang, sans, sens, sent,
are to the eye different from each other,
though to the ear they are  the  same, and
still  mean  different things.  These ho-
mophonies, however, produce no confu-
sion in speech, partly owing to the  tones
or accents, to the place which they hold
in  the sentence,  as is  the case  in the
French words sage-femme and femme sage,
and, above all, to the subject and context
of the discourse.   Mr. Adelung  (1 Mith-
rid., 87) gives a curious example  of  those
homophonies in the language of Tonquin
(one of those we are speaking of), which
deserves to be noticed.   In that monosyl-
labic idiom, the word ba has six  different
significations; it means a lord, abandoned,
something contemptible, three, present, and
the concubine of a prince ;  and this word,
repeated six times, and varied by different
tones or accents, makes the following sen-
tence :—" Three lords made a present  to
the concubine of a prince.  How  con-
temptible that is!"  Mr. Adelung quotes
no authority for this fact, which is, at least,
curious, if  not exaggerated.  Sinologists
agree that the  Chinese  language, on the
model of which the Tonquinese appeal's
to be formed, is entirely destitute of gram-
matical forms.  It has no affixes nor suf-
fixes, no inflections of words, declensions
of nouns, nor conjugations  of verbs, and
 but very few auxiliary words,  designating
 the various relations of  speech.   (See
 Remusat, Essai sur la Langue, &c, p. 27.)
 It is, says Mr. Adelung, a language entire-
 ly  composed of roots, poor in  words, and
 rich in tropes (1 Mithrid., 43—93);  its
 grammar consists in the choice of words,
 its syntax in their juxtaposition ; it  is sat-
 isfied with  awakening  leading ideas ;  all
 that is merely accessory or auxiliary is un-
 derstood or guessed at.   Of course, the
 Chinese  idiom  is essentially  elliptical.
 This extraordinary structure of language
 extends to the south to the peninsula  of
 Malacca, where begins another class  of 
92
PHILOLOGY.
languages, and to the west to Hindoostan.
Our  knowledge  of these  monosyllabic
idioms is yet very limited, but it is daily
increasing by the labors of the learned.
The Asiatic society of Calcutta, until the
late conquest of part of the  Birinan  em-
pire,  occupied itself more  with the lan-
guages  of the peninsula  of India than
with  those  of the countries situated be-
tween the gulf of Siam and the Yellow
sea.  It is, nevertheless, to that illustrious
association that we owe the most detailed
facts that  we possess respecting those idi-
oms.  In the first place, captain Towers has
made us acquainted with the languages of
Ava and Arracau,  and their alphabetical
system of writing  (5  Asiat. Researches,
143); next, Mr. Buchanan initiated us fur-
ther into the knowledge of the languages,
religion and literature of the Birinan em-
  Eire (ibid., page 209);  and,  lastly, doctor
  .eydeii has  given us a most interesting
view of the languages which he denomi-
nates Indo-Chinese,  part  of  which fill
the space between the Chinese  empire
and Hindoostan. Those languages, among
which that of Thibet is  not included, are
fourteen in number, seven  of which, in-
cluding the sacred language called  Bali,
or Pali, are  polysyllabic, and the seven
others monosyllabic.  These last are the
Bukheng, or language  of Arracan; the
Banna, or Avanese ; the Mon, or Peguan ;
the T'hay, or Siamese ;  the Khohtnen, or
idiom  of Camboje;  the Law, or  lan-
guage  of Laos, and the Anam, or  lan-
guage of Tonquin and Cochin-China. The
6even others are the Malay, and the differ-
ent languages of the islands of Suudaand
the Philippines (10 Asiat. Res., 158, 163).
Mr. Klaproth, in his Asia Polyglotta, has
not adopted this classification of the Indo-
Chinese languages.  He has divided those
called monosyllabic,  considered in an ety-
mological point  of view,   into  seven
branches,  which are  the   Corean,  the
Thibetan, the Chinese, the Auamitic, the
Siamese, the Avanese,  and  the Peguan.
Dr. Leyden's description comprehends all
these, except the Thibetan and the Corean,
which, however, belong to  the class of
monosyllabic idioms.   This description,
nevertheless,  is of the highest interest.  It
shows us  the monosyllabic  languages
gradually  mixing with  the  polysyllabic,
and these  with them, so that the one or
the other form predominates as they  ap-
proach or  recede from the territories of
China and Hindoostan  respectively, until
one of them assumes the entire mastership.
Thus the languages of Ava and Arracan
borrow polysyllabic words from those of
 their neighbors; those changes, however,
 are not numerous, the  general character
 of the language always remaining mono-
 syllabic. On the other hand, doctor Leyden
 shows us  the Malay idiom, participating,
 iu a very  high degree, in the simplicity of
 the  monosyllabic tongues,—a character
 which  this class of languages preserves
 quite across the Pacific ocean  to a very
 short distance from the American«conti-
 nent, where suduenly appears the most
 complicated system of human language
 that exists,  perhaps, on  the face of the
 earth, extending over  the  whole of this
 vast continent.  This picture is admira-
 ble, and gives rise to  a crowd of reflec-
 tions.   Here would be die  place to  de-
 scribe the grammatical forms and charac-
 ter of that remarkable class of languages
 which pervades the whole  continent of
 America,  thence passes over into Green-
 land on the one side, on the other into that
 neck of land  in  Asia inhabited  by  the
 Tschutschki, and which, it is well ascer-
 tained,  once prevailed in the West India
 islands.   But  this has been so fully done
 in the article Indian Languages, contain-
 ed in the  Appendix to the sixth  volume
 of this work, that further  expatiating
 upon that subject would be but a useless
 repetition; and we therefore will content
 ourselves  with referring our  readers to
 that  article.  It will amply satisfy their
 curiosity.   The monosyllabic  languages
 of south-eastern  Asia and the polysyllu-
 bic idioms of America may be considered
 as the two extremes in the great chain of
 human  modes of speech.   On the  one
 side, we find the greatest simplicity and a
 total absence of forms, a scanty number
 of words, and those  all   monosyllabic,
 while on the other we observe all the op-
 posite characteristics, languages essential-
 ly polysyllabic, and in which monosylla-
 bles are rarely to be found, artificial  and
 complicated grammatical  forms, words
 that  can  be compounded to any extent;
 and,  what is more remarkable, the former
 class of languages belongs to nations in
 a great degree  civilized,  and who,  for
 many ages, have cultivated arts and sci-
 ences,  and  lived under regular govern-
 ments,  while  the  latter are spoken  by
 savage nations ignorant of arts, associat-
ing without laws or forms of government,
 and living together in a state of nature.
 No reasoning  a priori could  ever have
 led to the supposition of similar results;
 but the facts exist, and cannot be denied,
and philosophy is at a loss to point out the
cause from which they have been produc-
ed. Passing on from Greenland, the north- 
PIHLOLOGY.                              93
easternmost part  of America, to Iceland,
and from  thence to the  north-western
coast of Europe, we find an immense and
an abrupt change in the character of lan-
guages.   The  Scandinavian dialects  are
not, indeed, monosyllabic, but they abound
in prepositions,conjunctions,and a variety
of panicles, with  which their discourse is
chiefly connected.  Few inflections exist
in  those languages.  Their  grammatical
fonns are simple, their syntax natural, and
their system, on the whole, the least com-
plex of any that exists in that part  of
the  world.  On the Asiatic side  are  the
idioms  of the Samoiede  and  Siberian
tribes, the structure of which is but little
known; but it is sufficiently ascertained
that it bears no resemblance to that of the
American  languages.  In Japan, we  are
struck with a remarkable fact—two lan-
guages existing at the same time, the one
monosyllabic and atactic, like the Chinese,
and the other polysyllabic, with numerous
inflections and  grammatical forms.  The
former  is  called  the Koye, the latter  the
 Yomi.   Both are in use at the same time,
and occasionally intermix with each other,
still preserving their general character and
peculiar structure.  (See  EUmens de la
 Grammaire Japonaise, par le P. Rodriguez,
traduits  du Portugais,  par M.  C. Lan-
dusse (Paris, 1825).—It would be exceed-
ing the limits of  this  article, were we to
take notice of all  the varieties that exist in
the structure and grammatical fonns  of
the  numerous  languages  of the  ancient
continent   It is sufficient to have pointed
out the  most striking diversities, and to
have marked out the way  for those who
are  disposed to inquire further into this
interesting  subject.  It is a wide field,
which has as  yet  been but superficially
examined, and from a more particular in-
vestigation of which most important re-
sults may be  expected.   Hitherto,  the
classification of languages  by philologists
has only had regard to their  etymological
affinities.  They  have been  divided into
families, supposed  to have been  derived
from a common stock, or from each other.
No objection can  be made to this distribu-
tion, which has  been followed by Ade-
lung, Vater, Klaproth, Balbi, and  all the
other eminent linguists.   But  languages
are  also susceptible of  being classed ac-
cording to their  grammatical structure,
which  is not the least prominent feature
in their external appearance; and such a
classification  will  considerably  aid  in
tracing idioms to their respective sources.
 Mr. Duponceau has given us an outline of
 his ideas upon the subject.  He has only
noticed the  great divisions, and sketched
out a few genera, leaving the species and
varieties to  be  described hereafter.   He
divides the  languages  of the  old hemi-
sphere into four classes, the first consisting
of the  Chinese and its  cognate idioms,
which he calls asyntactic.  The Scandi-
navian  and  Teutonic  languages form a
second class, which he  calls analytic, " be-
cause," says he, " their forms are so or-
ganized that almost every idea has a sin-
gle word to convey or express it."  The
third class consists of those languages in
which several ideas are combined into one
word, by means of inflections, affixes, suf-
fixes, and other grammatical forms.   Such
are  the  Oriental  languages, the  Latin,
Greek, Slavonic, ami others of the  same
description.  These he  calls synthetic. Of
the  French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
with their various dialects, in which con-
quest has,  in a great degree,  intermixed
the  modes of speech of the second and
third class,  he forms a fourth, which he
calls mixed.  Of the American languages,
the  most complicated  of all, he makes a
fifth class or genus, under  the name of
polysynthetic.   (See  the correspondence
between Mr. Duponceau and Mr. Hecke-
welder in the first volume of the Histori-
cal  and Literary Transactions  of the
American Philosophical  Society, pp. 400,
401.)  It is  easy to perceive that this is
not a complete classification of languages
in respect to dieir forms.  The Basque
does not appear to be included in any one
of the five  classes; nor is the Coptic no-
ticed,  nor the Finnic,  anil others of the
family called Tschudish, though all  those
idioms, and  others, such  as, for instance,
the Malay and  its numerous family, have
peculiar characters, which philology will
hereafter more  accurately define.   The
languages of the  interior of Africa will
also be a subject of particular investiga-
tion in this point of view.  The ideology
of languages, as we have already observed,
is yet in its infancy, and waits the  hand
of genius to methodize and elucidate it.
If,  however, it  shall continue to advance,
as it has done within the last thirty years,
there is no doubt but that it will, in time,
throw considerable light on the history of
man.
   Philology,  in a narrower  sense.  At
the  beginning  of the  preceding article,
the various  meanings of the word philolo-
gy have been given, and the subject has
been treated in  its widest acceptation.
We shall now give a few words on phi-
lology in a  more limited sense, meaning
the  knowledge and criticism  of the an- 
94
PHILOLOGY.
cient  languages and the works written
therein, in which sense the word is com-
tnonly used by the Germans, who give to
the science in  its wider sense the desig-
nation of Linguistik or Sprachenkunde (sci-
ence  of languages).—History of Philoh-
 fy.  Eratosthenes  (270—290 B. C.) was
 rst called philologus.   He was famous as
an astronomer and geographer, and was,
at the same time,  superintendent of the
Alexandrian  library.  The philology of
the early Alexandrians embraced antiqui-
ties, in its wider sense, especially mythol-
ogy,  grammar, hermeneutics, grammat-
ical and philosophical  criticism, rhetoric
and prosody.  (See Alexandrian School.)
Through their means chiefly the most
important  monuments  of Greek litera-
ture  have  descended  to us  ;  and  our
power of understanding  and relishing
them  is, in a great measure, owing to die
investigations  of the  Alexandrians into
the use of words, the construction of lan-
guage, the  genuineness of whole works
and single passages, and to their learned
commentaries and compilations. Creuzer,
in his learned and ingenious work On the
Academical  Study of Antiquity (in Ger-
man, Heidelberg, 1807), thinks that traces
of this philology are perceptible as early
as the age of the Pisistratides, whose mer-
its, in respect to the collection of the Ho-
meric poems, are  known;  also  in  the
establishment of libraries after the  time
of Pisistratus, in the  spirit  of inquiry
which marked the Sophists, and the man-
ifold  learning and  literary  accomplish-
ments of Aristotle ; but Alexandria he
justly calls  the first centre of a learned
fife and activity.  In Asia  Minor,  also,
where Pergamus was distinguished,whose
kings, particularly Attalus II (died 153 B.
C), were patrons and cultivators of liter-
ature ; in Greece Proper, particularly in
Athens and Rhodes; in Magna Grascia,
and, more especially, in Syracuse, literati
and  philologists in the narrower sense
arose.  Scholiasts and lexicographers are
found among the Greeks as  late as the
fifteenth century, since the influence of
Greek literature in the Eastern Roman
empire never ceased entirely.  The Ro-
mans were  first led to a scientific study
of  the Greek  language by the Greek
Crates of Mallus (169  B. C).  Philolog-
ical or grammatical science embraced, ac-
cording to Cicero, also the critical study
of the Greek poets, the knowledge  of
history, the  explanation of words,  and
correct pronunciation. Besides the Greek,
the Roman language and Roman antiqui-
ties were also cultivated by M. Terentius
Varro, a celebrated historian and multifa-
rious writer (116—27 B. C), M. Verrius
Flaccus (under Augustus), Asinius Pollio
and  others;  and the  principles of the
Greek language were applied to the Lat-
in.   Lucius Plotius  taught  Latin gram-
mar  in Cicero's time. M. Fab. Quintilian
and Aul. Gcllius were  philologists  in  a
wider sense.   The most  considerable li-
braries weije carried to Rome.  Roman
literature  strove to  imitate the  Greek.
Then appeared commentators on Roman
authors (as Asconius Pedianus on Cicero's
speeches,  vElius Donatus  on  Terence
and  others) after 50 A. D., of whom
many delivered lectures  on die Roman
classics.  Donatus (354 A. D.) and Prisci-
anus (524 A. D.) are  among the chief wri-
ters on Latin grammar.  In proportion as
Christianity  extinguished paganism, the
study of the Greek  and Roman antiqui-
ties and literature was discouraged, espe-
cially by  the earliest teachers  of Chris-
tianity, who considered every thing con-
nected with paganism injurious  and cor-
rupting, and thus contributed considera-
bly to the decline of learning and science.
It was not,  indeed, to be  expected that
the early Christian should have  contem-
plated the excellences and  defects of
pagan antiquity with that spirit of  calm
reflection which regards paganism  as  a
necessary link in the  chain of  human
developement  The zeal which drove the
first  propagators of  the new faith to act
and to suffer for their religion  naturally
excited  them  against  a literature which
sprung from a pagan period, and breathed
a pagan spirit.  Another cause  of the de-
cline of learning is found in the irruption
of the rude Teutonic tribes into die Ro-
man empire, by which many literary in-
stitutions, particularly  those established
by the emperors for the education of the
higher classes, were ruined.   But the
clergy needed  a learned education, espe-
cially the knowledge of ancient languages,
to prepare them for the discharge of their
religious duties.  This brought the culti-
vation of profane science into the hands
of the clergy, who connected schools
with the abbeys and convents,  in which
the  (so called) seven liberal arts  (q. v.)
were taught.   The institutions of the
Christian priesthood, therefore, now be-
came the ark in which  the ancient sci-
ences, such as they  tiien  were, were pre-
served amidst  the ruin  of civilization. In
these seminaries of instruction  generally
the text-books of Martianus Capella (461
A. D.) and Cassiodorus  (who  died 563)
were used, as they had  been in the 
PHILOLOGY
95
schools  of the  empire.   Such  clerical
schools are first found, in the sixth centu-
ry, in  France, later  in  Ireland, Scotland
and England.  The studies pursued were,
indeed, at first limited to the  purposes of
theology.  The  Latin language therefore
took a new color, particularly as hardly
any other language was written ; and the
want of classical knowledge, the influence
of clerical and religious conceptions, and
the rise of modern  European languages,
modified its character.   Thus originated
monkish Latin.   The  progress of learn-
ing was much promoted by the foundation
of the  Benedictine order by Benedict of
Norcia (died 544), in the rules of which it
was ordered that, in eveiy convent of the
order,  instruction should be given, books
copied,  and  libraries  collected.   The
schools  which  Charlemagne  and his
learned friends  established conduced to
the study of the  ancient  languages.  But
it was not till the tenth century that goc 1
taste, and learned education, and  a com-
paratively pure  Latinity, may be said to
have existed.  These had their origin in
the frequent reading  and copying  of the
classics.   In this consists the chief merit
of the  congregation  of Cluny,  and, at a
later time, of the order of Cistercians and
Carthusians (since the  twelfth century).
The Arabian   literature and  language
spread considerably after the seventh cen-
tury, and gained much influence. Philology
was preserved and fostered by theArabians,
and, particularly, Greek  literature revived.
Their  own  language received a  learned
character asearly as the seventh century. In
the eleventh and twelfth centuries, many
great men distinguished themselves by a
more profound  study of classical litera-
ture, especially in Italy  (where, after the
twelfth century,  several  universities were
established), in France and England.  To
these belong  Lanfranc  of  Pavia  and his
 Eupils  Anselm of Aosta, the learned Ger-
 ert (pope Sylvester II, who died 1003),
bishop Abbo  of Fleury (died 1004), and
Bruno of Cologne (died 1101).   Learned
theology led to  the study of philosophy,
and this to Plato and Aristotle.  Men like
Abelard (died 1142), Bernard  of Clair-
vaux, John of Salisbury, Roger Bacon, and
others, understood Greek, and wrote bet-
ter Latin than their predecessors ; but they
had to struggle hard with the  ignorant and
intolerant clergy, after which  (in the thir-
teenth century)  the study  of the Roman
classics  and the cultivation  of a  purer
Latinity ceased again almost entirely.  In
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, we
find some institutions in which the knowl-
edge of the Oriental languages, as far as
was necessary for missionary  purposes,
particularly Hebrew  and  Arabic,  were
taught; and the knowledge of them was
increased  by  the intercourse  between
Christians and Mohammedans in the cru-
sades ; but the languages could hardly be
said to be scientifically cultivated.   In the
middle of the fourteenth  century, the ge-
nius of classical antiquity revived again in
Italy, whence a more profound study and
a more elegant criticism of the classic lan-
guages and  literature  diffused itself over
all  parts of Europe.   Italy  became the
first theatre of true philologists.   Two of
her greatest national writers, Petrarca and
Boccaccio,  enthusiastic for the productions
of  antiquity, labored  effectually for the
diffusion of Roman and Greek literature.
Cicero and Virgil  attracted, particularly,
the attention of the former,  yet he induc-
ed Boccaccio to learn the language of Ho-
mer and  Plato  from fugitive Greeks—a
study in which his own advanced age pre-
vented him from succeeding. Boccaccio
obtained the appointment of John of Ra-
venna, a pupil of Petrarca, as teacher of
Roman  literature in  Florence, his native
city, and of Leontius Pilatus, and, after
him, Manuel Chrysoloras  (1397), as teach-
ers of Greek literature.  Through the ef-
forts of the latter, as well as those of Ar-
gyropulus, and  others, who  fled to Italy
when the eastern empire was destroyed, a
more thorough knowledge  of the Greek
language and literature  was diffused by
writings and oral instruction. Lectures on
ancient literature were delivered in all the
larger cities of Italy, even in those which
had no universities.  The enthusiasm of
the teachers communicated itself to their
hearers, and it became  customary with
republics and princely houses (from 1400
to 1450) to patronise classical literature,
and to restore a purer taste  by  its study.
This study, in fact, was elevated to a na-
tional concern.  A zeal for classical litera-
ture animated all  classes in Italy  in the
fifteenth centuiy, and  every where philo-
logical societies were founded.   Many
private and  public  libraries were also
established, and the treasures stored  up
in  the convents made more accessible,
since the times of Petrarca  and  Boccac-
cio, who themselves collected the  works
of  Roman and Greek writers, and circu-
lated copies of them.   Cosmo of Medici
founded at Florence the  Platonic acade-
my (1429); his nephew Lorenzo collected
the richest treasures of literature and art,
and attracted the most distinguished schol-
ars to that city  of  the muses.  In Rome, 
m
PHILOLOGY.
 Nicolas V was active; in Milan, Visconti;
 in  Verona,  Della  Scala;  in Sicily, king
 Robert; in Venice, Aldus Manutius form-
 ed  a circle enthusiastically devoted to clas-
 sical literature, and the new art of printing
 was particularly serviceable  to the study.
 The works of ancient  authors were now
 rapidly multiplied: collections and com-
 meutators appeared,  and philology  was
 enabled  to  assume  a scientific  form,  as
 different scholars could avail themselves
 with comparative ease of the fruits of each
 other's labors, and  the standard works of
 taste and criticism  became  comparatively
 secure from  loss and injury.  The study
 of the classics and of ancient languages
 was no longer confined to  the  purposes
 of theology, but was directed to the gen-
 eral improvement of the  human mind.
 Successful imitations of the ancients were
 now produced, and  a purer Latin style
 arose,  on which,  perhaps,  too great a
 value was laid.  To  this- period belong
 Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo (1370 to 1444),
 Poggio Bracciolini (1380 to 1459), Loren-
 zo  Valla (1407  to  1457), Nic. Perottus,
 Franc. Philelphus, Pompon. Laetus, Mar-
 silio Ficino (14a3—1499) and Angelo Po-
 liziano (1454—1492).   From Italy,  this
 renewed zeal for the cultivation of philol-
 ogy first communicated itself to France.
 We find, in the fifteenth centuiy, Greek
 and Italian teachers of philology in Paris,
 and many translations of Roman classics
 into French.  This  period,  with  its mo-
 mentous consequences, is of the highest
 importance to the  student of history.   A
 new era begins in  the history of civiliza-
 tion with the revival of the study of the
 classics, which,  by degrees, exercises a
 decisive influence on religion and politics,
 the sciences and arts,  and the whole tone
 of society.   It is a most interesting task
 to the philosophic  student, to  trace the
 causes of this triumph of pagan civiliza-
 tion over Christian Europe, by  means of
the languages and  literature of ages long
 gone by ; to witness the gradual  awaken-
 ing of the  nations in  proportion to the
 enthusiasm  with  which  they  devoted
 themselves to the new study ; to contem-
plate the gradual decline of this enthusi-
 asm after it had produced its proper effects
(as  the blossom  fades  when the fruit  is
 formed); and to analyze the injurious con-
 sequences of the exclusive hold  which
 these studies so long possessed  over the
 minds of men;—we say injurious conse-
 quences, for  it is,  perhaps,  a law of our
 nature that the causes which  strongly stir
 maukind, and urge them forward  in civili-
 zation, mu»* lead to excess and corruption,
eventually removed  by the  action  of
some new mighty agent; and the undue
devotion to classical antiquity did produce,
in some respects, deleterious effects, from
which our age  is now laboring to free it-
self.  In  England, a scientific philology
was introduced  about the  end of the fif-
teenth century, by means of some scholars
educated  in Italy.  In Germany, it came
in  principally  through  the Netherlands, t
and the way for it was  prepared by a re-
form in the mode of teaching in schools
in Lower Germany. The first  philologists
of Germany were educated in Italy ; for
example,  Rud. Agricola (1442—1485), C.
Celtes (1459—1508), and John Reuchlin
(1454—1521).  The first was a scholar of
Thomas a Kempis, the  second was prin-
cipally  distinguished  as the founder of
learned societies in Germany, the last by
the revival of die Hebrew  philology.  In
this century, wefind one of thefirst human-
ists (humaniora was the name given, since
the middle ages, to the sciences which in-
troduced  the student  to an acquaintance
with classical antiquities, and the teachers
of these sciences were exclusively called
humanists), who exerted a great influence
in Germany, and particularly promoted
the study of Greek  literature—we mean
Desiderius Erasmus (q. v.) (1467—1536).
But from  the end of the sixteenth century,
when the study of ancient literature had
again declined in Italy (in later times, it
has been cultivated there almost with an
exclusive reference to the history of art and
to antiquities), Holland was the school of
the greatest philologists, who did much ser-
vice, particularly in regard  to the etymol-
ogy of the ancient languages, in grammar,
verbal criticism and grammatical  explana-
tions, and, more lately, have applied philol-
ogy principally  to the study of jurispru-
dence.  Among the scholars of Holland is
the celebrated Hugo  de Groot (Grotius)
(1583—1645), who was a master in exege-
sis, and united philology more closely with
theology; Justus Lipsius, Adr. Jonghe (Ju
nius), Gruter, Dan. and Nic. Heinsius, the
Gronovii,Burmann,Perizonius, Lamb. Bos,
Siegbert Havercamp, Drakenborch, Ou-
dendorp, Hemsterhuis,Wesseling, Lennep,
Hoogeven, Valkenaer, Ruhnken,  Wytten-
bach, and others.  Oriental philology wat
also here advanced ; for example, by the
celebrated  Orientalist Erpenius   (1584—
1624), Leusden, H. Reland, Albert Schul-
tens (1686—1750), who  makes an epoch
in this science, &c. Th. Creech, Barnes.
John Hudson, Baxter, Clarke,  John Tay
lor, Rich. Davis, Wakefield, Robert Wood
Zach. Pearce, Middleton,  Potter, Heath 
PHILOLOGY.                             97
Warton, Musgrave, Tyrwhitt, John Toup,
Rich. Bentley and  Rich. Porson  are the
most  distinguished among  the English
classical  philologists.   But Oriental phi-
lology was also much cultivated in Eng-
land, by Selden, Lightfoot, Walton, Sam.
Clarke, Pearson, Castell, Lowth,  Kenni-
cot, &c, and the study of the modern lan-
guages has been carried, by the diffusion
of the English over so many countries, to
an unexampled height, while the study of
classical philology has somewhat declined
in that  country.   In France,  philology,
especially since the  commencement  of
the sixteenth  century, has  found many
patrons  and friends.  In that  country, it
has been applied particularly to theology
and jurisprudence,  but less  cultivated as
an independent branch of science.  Among
the French philologists of the  former sort
are William Bude or Budaeus (1467—1540),
and after him, James Cujacius, Brissonius
Dionysius Gothofredus (who died in 1622),
and others.  Among the classical  philolo-
gists of France are distinguished Lambin,
Muretus,  the  learned printers Rob. and
Hen. Stephanus (Etienne), the multifari-
ous scholar Jul. Caes. Scaliger (Della Scala,
originally of Verona), his son Jos. Just.
Scaliger,  also Hadr.  Turnebus (Tourne-
boeuf),  Claudius Salmasius (Saumaise),
Isaac Casaubon, Vigerius  (Vigier),  Du
Fresne, Faber (Le  Fevre), the archaeolo-
gist Montfaucon and others.  The study
of classical literature had a great effect
upon the French  national  literature,  in
which (for instance, in tragedy) they strove
to imitate the ancients.  In  later times,
philological studies have been very much
neglected in that country, and it affords
only a few distinguished names, as Villoi-
son,  La Rochette, Boissonade, Larcher,
Gail.  In the seventeenth century, Orien-
tal philology found  friends  among  the
French—Bochart,  D'Herbelot,  Le Jay,
La Croze, Houbigant, and others; and owes
much to  the celebrated  scholars of our
time, Sil vestre de Sacy and Louis Matthieu
Langles.   The knowledge of modern lan-
guages has  been  less  necessary to  the
French on account of the great extension
of their  own.  The Spanish  and Portu-
guese have only a  few distinguished phi-
lologists ;  but the number of Germans
who have  investigated  profoundly and
extensively the classical  languages and
antiquities is very great.  To the sixteenth
century  belong Joach.  Camerarius,  the
promoter of Grecian literature;  the lexi-
cographer Bas. Faber, and the learned
antiquarian Joh. George Graevius (Grave);
to  the  seventeenth  century, in which
   vol.  x.           9
philology  was less  favored, the learned
Caspar Barth, John Freinsheim, Weller,
Chris. Cellarius;  to the eighteenth, Lu-
dolf Kiister,  Francis Budseus, J. A. Fa-
bricius, Lange, Frisch, Hedericus; since
the middle of that centuiy, John Matth.
Gesner established a profound and taste-
ful philological  school, with which the
flourishing period of independent philolo-
gy begins among the Germans, which was
carried to a great height by Winckelmann,
Lessing and Herder.  In later times, Ger-
many can boast of Ernesti, Reiske, Heus-
inger, Duker, Wesseling,  Fischer, Reiz,
Brunck.   To the nineteenth  century be-
long the following, the greater part  of
whom are  still   living :—Heyne,  Wolf,
Beck, Schneider, Harles,  Matthia,  Butt-
mann, Schutz,Oberlin, Spalding, Schweig-
hauser,   Hermann,  Heindorf,   Schafer,
Bockh, Creuzer, Schleiermacher, Bekker,
Voss,  Eichstadt, Jacobs,  Passow,  and
others.   Oriental philology,  particularly
the Hebrew literature and language, was
cultivated  in  the sixteenth  century, by
Buxtorf; in  the seventeenth,  by Glass,
Pfeifer;  in the eighteenth and nineteenth,
by Michaelis, Dantz, Dathe, Hezel, Cocce-
ii, Schnurrer, Tychsen, Eichhorn, Paulus,
Von Hammer, Vater, Gesenius; of late the
Sanscrit by A. W.  Schlegel,  Kosegarten,
Bopp, the  Chinese  by  Montucci and
Klaproth, and several others.  The influ-
ence of this philological industry appears
principally in theology, for  we find due
greatest  exegetical  writers  among  the
Germans since the time of the reforma-
tion.  Melanchthon and Beza  were dis-
tinguished before.   In  the  seventeenth
century, there follow Jablonski, Herman
von der Hardt, Reine ccius, Simon; in thfcr
eighteenth, Semler, Elrnesti, Morus,Koppe,
Ilgen, Griesbach, Matthai, Storr, Nosselt,
Knapp,  Paulus,  the  Rosenmullers,  De
Wette,  &c.  Jurisprudence was investi-
gated from  its  sources by means of phi-
lology, and cultivated as one of the learn-
ed sciences, which  character it  still  bears
in Germany.  The study of history and
geography has been, by its means,, culti-
vated and extended in various ways, and i
no department of the sciences  and arts'^
has  been without its support, and, coat- -
versely,  the  study  of classical  literature
has  been promoted by antiquarian, and!
archaeological knowledge, as  in  the cases
of Heyne, Bottiger, Voss.   In the history
of philology, since the revival of learning.
Creuzer  distinguishes  several period?
The first was characterized by the  spir
of imitation, when  men were enraptur
with the beauty of the works of geniu? 
96                              PHILOLOGY.
 which they were  for the 6rst time intro-
 duced, and a spirit of imitation almost un-
 consciously took possession of them,  and
 «»>peared in all their labors.  At this time,
 they had not learned to distinguish what
 wat' accidental from what was essential to
 the  excellence  they so  much  admired.
 Rcjireseutatives of this period are Poggio,
 Angefo  Poliziano, and  Marsilio Ficino,
 the latter a reviver of ancient philosophy.
 Then follows* the period which Creuzer
 calls  that of realism, when men became
 possessed with  a love for wide  and deep
 learning.  It h.id its origin in  the well
 founded opinion of the  necessity of great
 and thorough knowledge for the restoring
 and illustrating of  the works of antiquity,
 but it led to the ace umulation of unwieldy
<stores of learning, which  impeded  the
proper activity of the  mind.  Scaliger,
Claude Saumaise, G^rh.  and John Vos-
sius,  Casp. Barth, and others,  represent
this period, and  partake more or less in
its errors.  What these great accumulators
had brought  together was first  rendered
truly useful  by  the critical labors  of the
following  period, which we  may call the
period of understanding, when a  discrimi-
nating critieism  was  applied  to  these
 stores. The  merits and the  genuineness
 of ancient works were now more carefully
 examined.   A  more accurate study of
 language and a more continual reference
 to the context,  gave greater weight to
 criticism.  A methodical arrangement of
 knowledge, judicious selection,acutethink-
 ing,  and  correct taste,  were  now  more
 prized than vast erudition.  In this peri-
led, the bold and ingenious Richard  Bent-
 ley,  the   thorough and  judicious Tib.
 Hemsterhuis, are doAinguished. Ruhnken,
 Valkenaer, and several of the living phi-
 lologists  of Germany, including the cele-
 brated Greek scholar Hermann, belong
 to the same class.  The meaning of phi-
 lology, even  in the limited character in
 which it has just been considered,  is  not
 accurately settled.  The famous  Fr. Aug.
 Wolf calls it, without any qualification,
 the science of antiquities in general.—See
 Museum der Alterthnmswissenschqft, edit.
 by Wolf & Buttmann(vol. i, No. 1, 1807).
 Others go equally far  in restricting its
 meaning. Wherever the limits of the two
 sciences may be fixed, it  is certain that
 philology and archaeology are so  intimate-
 ly connected that one is indispensable to
 the  odier.   Philology,  as  the  science
 ,%vhich embraces the languages and litera-
 Vike of antiquity, comprises an acquaint-
 ance with grammar, with hermeneutics,
 W me science of interpretation (implying,
 of course, the  power  of criticism and
 emendation), with the theory of prose and
 metrical composition and with the history
 of Greek  and Roman  literature.  Wolf
 says there exist 1600  Greek  and Roman
 authors, preserved entire or in fragments,
 exclusive  Of the  fathers of  the  church,
 and of this number, the  Latin  authors
 amount to  little   more  than a  quarter.
 The auxiliary sciences to philology are, a.
 ancient geography (which is divided, by
 Wolf, into mythical geography, or uranog-
 raphy, historical geography, With  chorog-
 raphy and topography);  b.  the  general
 history of the nations of antiquity, togeth-
 er with chronology and historical criticism
 as subsidiary to it; c. Greek  and  Roman
 antiquities  (q. v.),  or the history  of par-
 ticular circumstances, of the  constitution
 and customs of the chief tribes of Greece
 and of  the Romans;  d.  mythology,- or a
 knowledge of the religious tales of the
 Greeks  and Romans; e. the history of
 their philosophy and their other sciences \
 f. the history of ancient art, poetry in-
 cluded ; g.  archaeology,  to  which belong
 epigraphies, or the knowledge of the in-
 scriptions of both nations, and numismat-
 ics ; h.  the history of philology; i. aes-
 thetics (particularly in relation  to poetry)
 and philosophical criticism on  the  value
 of ancient authors.  In the  history of phi-
 lology we have touched upon the remark-
 able hold which the literature of Greece
 and Rome, above that of all other  nations,
 has acquired  upon the  minds of  men,
 and it is not1 strange that  so beautiful a
 literature,  falling finished into an age in
 many respects benighted, should always
 retain great influence, having been, in fact,
 the source of our civilization, and present-
 ing models of excellence attained under
the most favorable circumstances, in ad-
dition to the  beauty  of the idioms in
which they are clothed.  The  Greek, in
particular, is the  most  finely organized
and most fully developed language with
which we are yet  acquainted.  In conse-
quence  of  these circumstances, this sci-
ence has been, and still is, overrated, and
often pursued with an exclusive and inju-
rious preference, which  is  nourished by
the present system of school instruction
in Europe.  The  Germans,  we  believe,
are at present the  most devoted to philol-
ogy—a  consequence of the studiousness
that distinguishes the country, and which
arises itself from the restraints  upon ac-
 tion, at least  to  a considerable  degree,
 To conclude, with a few words of Wolf,
 "The exercise of the thoughts on  lan-
 guages (which involve much of what  is,
 highest and most  profound  in the opera-
 tions of the mind), particularly on foreign 
PHILOLOGY—PHILOPCEMEN.
99
languages, throws open tho field of ab-
stract inquiry, and excites to the study of
the intellect  The thorough study of the
written  works  of antiquity  serves  as a
means for the vigorous developernent of
the powers.   All the powers of the mind
are  occupied   by the  explanation  and
emendation of these works.  And what a
fund of knowledge is afforded by the view
which they present of the developernent
of man and of society  in ancient times!
Iu  ancient  Greece, we find,  what  we
search for in  vain almost every where
else, nations and states which possessed
in their  nature most  of  those  qualities
wjiich conduce to perfect the  character
of man, a people of so lively  and suscepti-
ble a spirit as to leave no field of action
which presented  itself untried, and who
pursued, in this way, the path of improve-
ment more independently of the nations
around them, and for a longer period, than
was possible in  after times and  under
altered  circumstauces;  who  forgot  the
man so little in  the  citizen, that  the civil
institutions themselves aimed at the de-
velopernent of the human powers by gen-
eral sacrifices;  who, in  fine, with an ex-
treme sensibility  for  every  thing noble
and graceful  in  the   arts,  united  such
depth in scientific  researches, that they
have produced  the first admirable masters
iu ideal  speculation as well  as the  most
beautiful works of art."  This is the field
presented to the student of philology.
   Philomela ; a daughter of Pandion,
king of Athens, who was transformed into
a  nightingale.  According  to the fable,
Progne,  sister of Philomela, married  the
Thraciau prince Tereus, by whom she had
a son, Itys.   When Itys had grown  up,
Tereus  went to Athens, and, at  the per-
suasion of his  wife, took her sister with
him on  his return.  On the  way, Tereus
violated  her  person, and, to conceal  his
crime, cut out her tongue.  But Philomela
made it  known to Progne by moans of
some tapestry, on which she embroidered
her story.  To  gratify their revenge, they
murdered Itys,  and served him up  to  his
father.   When  he saw the remains of his
son, he  pursued them; but  they invoked
the gods for help, and  they were all imme-
diately transformed.  Progne fled to  the
woods in the form of  a nightingale,  la-
menting for Itys.  Philomela mournfully
uttered Tereu, under the form of a swal-
low, iu  broken  chirpings,  on account of
the mutilation of her tongue; and Tereus,
in the form of a lapwing, uttered a pierc-
ing poo, or woo.   A nother story makes Phi-
lomela the wife and the nightingale, and
Progne tho sister and the swallow.
   Philop(emen, the last  great  military
commander of the  Greeks, was bom at
Megalopolis, in Arcadin, B. C. 253, and,
after the early death of his  father, was ed-
ucated by Cassander, a noble Matitineean.
Two  academical  philosophers  were his
teachers, and instilled into  him high  prin-
ciples  of honor and  patriotism.  Disin-
clined  to a life of study, and thirstiug for
enterprise, military  glory  was  his  ambi-
tion, and to that all his youthful  exercises
were directed.  No sooner had  he begun
to bear arms, than he joined his country-
men iu their incursions  into the Spartan
territories.  When  he was thirty  years
old, Cleomenes, king of Sparta, surprised
Megalopolis by night, and Philopcemcn,
who had  unsuccessfully  endeavored to
repel him, covered  the retreat of his fel-
low-citizens to Messene,  at the extreme
hazard of his own life.  When Antigonus,
king of Macedonia,  came to the assistance
of the  Achseans against Cleomenes,  Philo-
pcemcn joined him with the cavalry of bis
native  place, and distinguished himself in
the battle of Sellasia, in which the  Spar-
tans were totally  defeated.  Antigonus
proposed to take him into his service ; but
■Philopcemen would only consent to serve
some years as a volunteer  iu so excellent
a school  of warfare, ami, in that capacity,
was engaged in the war  in Crete.  Re-
turning with a high reputation, he received
from the Achseans the  command of their
cavalry, which, under him, became  formi-
dable throughout all Greece,   lu a battle
with the iEtolians and Eleans,  he  killed,
with his  own hand, the commander of the
Elean  cavalry, and thus decided the vic-
tory in his favor.   In 210 B. C, he was
appointed  commander-in-chief of the
forces  of the Achaean league.  After hav-
ing reorganized the Achaean army,  he led
it into  the field against Machanidas, tyrant
of Sparta, who was advancing at the head
of a powerful force, against Achaia. They
encountered each other at Mantinea.  After
a hard struggle, Philopcemen killed Ma-
chanidas  in single  combat, and gained a
complete victory.  The Achseans perpet-
uated the memory of this achievement by
the erection of a bronze statue in the tem-
ple of Delphi.  When the Achseans had
declared war against  Nabis, a later Spar-
tan tyrant, and Nabis had besieged  Gythi-
um, Philopcemen attacked him by sea, but
was defeated.   He then surprised the en-
emy's  camp,  advanced  against Sparta,
overthrew the  forces of  Nabis, and de-
stroyed  a great  part  of  them.   Nabis
was soon after murdered, and Sparta was
taken  and pillaged  by  the   ^Etolians,
against whom the  inhabitants  had risen, 
100
PHILOP03MEN—NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
when Philopcemen arrived before the city
with a small force.  He  took advantage
of this emergency to prevail upon them to
join the Achaean confederacy, 191.  They
were desirous of showing their gratitude to
the restorer of peace by a present of 120 tal-
ents, but he refused to accept it.  But the
Spartans soon became dissatisfied, separat-
ed from the confederacy, and called in the
Romans to their assistance. Philopcemen,
as commander  of the Achaeans, declared
war against Sparta.  The Roman consul
Fulvius endeavored to mediate between the
parties; but  their ambassadors returned
from  Rome  with  an indecisive answer.
Philopcemen, however, proceeded against
Sparta, and demanded the  surrender of the
authors of the disturbances. Accompanied
by the principal Spartans, they presented
themselves in the Achaean camp; but, while
the complaints were under examination, an
affray took  place  between them and  the
Spartan exiles, in which the Achaeans also
engaged.   Seventy-three  Spartans  were
seized, and executed by Philopcemen, after
a short trial.  The city was consequently
surrendered and treated by Philopcemen
with the same rigors as if it had been taken
by storm.  He commanded the Spartans to
destroy their walls, to dismiss their merce-
naries, to admit the  exiles,  to  expel  the
slaves who had been set free by the tyrants,
and substitute the Achaean code for  the
laws of Lycurgus. The Romans, to whom
they had recourse for protection, declared
these  conditions too severe, but  added
that they  had  no right to violate them.
Soon after,  however, the  Roman senate,
eager to humble the powerful Achaean
confederacy, sent an embassy to induce it
to soften their  rigor.  Philopoemen  pro-
cured the rejection of this demand;  but
the Romans finally prevailed on the fed-
eral congress to admit Sparta again into
the confederacy as an independent  state.
Hardly was this affair settled, when  Mes-
sene  revolted.   Philopcemen,  though
broken by infirmity and disease, marched
against the insurgents, and at first  beat
them  back, but was afterwards attacked
with  such  fury, that  he  was obliged to
give way.   Separated from his followers,
tmd thrown from his horse, he  fell, dan-
gerously wounded on his head, into the
hands of the enemy.  He was carried in
chains to Messene, where his appearance
moved to tears many of the inhabitants
who had fought under him, and on whom
he had conferred benefits.  To destroy
this impression, the  government caused
him  to be thrown iuto  a subterraneous
dungeon, and, the  next morning, he was
obliged  to  drink poison.   When he re-
ceived the cup, having been informed that
his troops had saved themselves, be said,
"That is enough for me; I die content;"
and emptied  it with a cheerful  counte-
nance.  Thus died (B. C. 183) one of the
greatest generals of Greece, whom the an-
cients compared to Hannibal and Scipio.
His ashes were  transported to his native
city with great pomp; statues were raised
to his memory in most  of the Grecian
cities, and a yearly offering was made at
his tomb by the city of Megalopolis.
  Philosopher's Sto.ne. (See Alchemy.)
  Philosophy,  Intellectual.   (See
Appendix, end of this volume.)
  Philosophy, Natural,  or  Physics
(physica, physice, from 0»«f, nature), is that
branch or science which treats of the laws
and properties of matter.  Natural history
(q. v.) describes the external characters
and appearances of natural objects, while
chemistry (q. v.)  separates them into their
elements, and explains the modes of the
composition and mutual  action of these
elements upon each other: natural philos-
ophy, on the other  hand, deals with matter
in its integrant forms, and points out those
properties which belong universally to mat-
ter, and those laws whose operation is im-
plied in the very definition of the term mat-
ter.  It therefore comprises astronomy (q. v.),
which explains the causes that keep in mo-
tion, and bind in fixed orbits, the great train
of worlds and systems of worlds composing
the universe; mechanics (q.v.), in its differ-
ent divisions (see Acoustics, Hydraulics, Hy-
drostatics, Pneumatics); optics (q. v.), or
the  science which explains the  motions
and laws of light; the laws of heat, elec-
tricity and magnetism, except in regard to
their chemical  properties, also fall within
the jurisdiction of natural philosophy.  In
respect to the method of investigation, it is
sometimes  by mathematical  calculation,
and  sometimes by  observation  (experi-
mental philosophy); but these two instru-
ments of truth are more commonly united
in illustrating and confirming each other's
results than employed  in distinct depart-
ments of research.   In regard to the theo-
ry of matter (q. v.), natural philosophers
are  at present divided,  the  one school
maintaining that all bodies are composed
of continuous matter, the different states
of which are owing to the contending ac-
tion of two  opposite powers, expansion
and  attraction; the other, that  matter is
composed of minute particles, or atoms of
unchangeable  fonns,  which  primitive
forms produce particular modifications of
the natural powers.   (See Dynamic Theo-
ry.)   The  Egyptians,   Chaldeans  and
Phoenicians were, in the earliest periods, 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY—PHILTRE.
101
Celebrated for their knowledge of mechan-
ical, chemical, astronomical and physical
science.  Among the  Greeks, Thales, the
founder of the Ionic school, was the first
who separated natural  philosophy from
allegory  and fable; but  the later* Greek
philosophers again carried natural science
backward,  by indulging  hi metaphysical
speculations  in  their studies  of nature.
Plato and Aristotle are the most distin-
guished  of this  class,  although  the
writings  of  the  latter are  less faulty  in
this respect  than  those  of the  former.
Pythagoras  taught that  certain  monads
were the final causes of the  phenomena
of matter. His school, however, had some
indistinct conceptions of the Copernican
system.  The atomic theories of  Leucip-
pusand Democritus made near approaches
to the atomic theory Of  the present day.
The works of Theophrastus, Hippocrates,
with the writings of Aristotle, on physical
subjects, show that the Greeks, notwith-
standing their speculative turn of mind,
did  not  entirely  neglect  observation.
Among the Romans  Lucretius is distin-
guished  by  his poem De Rerum Natura;
Seneca, by his Quaistiones Nalurales, and
Pliny, by his Historia Naturalis.   In the
middle ages, natural science was involved
in  a  deep darkness,  rendered  still more
impenetrable  by the  clouds of scholastic
philosophy.  Among the Arabs, however,
it  was not entirely neglected.   Francis
Bacon (q. v.) first dissipated  this night
by the  light of  a  sounder method  of
investigation, founded on observation  (in
his Novum Organum).  At about the same
time,  Galilei (q. v.) discovered the  laws
of the fall of heavy bodies, and of the pen-
dulum, and Torrieelli invented the barom-
eter.   Kepler explained  the laws of the
motions of the  heavenly bodies,  and,  by
happy applications of geometry,  laid the
foundation of optics.  Otto von Guericke
invented the air-pump, and Descartes now
found it easy to pull down the tottering
fabric of the physics of the schools. >  (See
Scholastic  Philosophy.)   While  he was
attempting  to substitute  a better  meta-
physical foundation  for natural science,
Boyle and Hooke in England, Borelli and
Grimaldi in  Italy, and  Pascal,  Mariotte
and Picard  in France, successfully culti-
vated experimental physics; the royal  so-
ciety was instituted in London, the acad-
emy of science in  Paris,  and the Accade-
 niia del Cimento  in Florence; and  these
 institutions had a powerful and happy  in-
 fluence on  the  progress  of physical stud-
 ies.  Finally appeared Newton (q. v.), who,
 by his Philosophic  Naturalis Principia
                   9 *
Malhematica (1CJ87), became the founder
of modern natural  philosophy  in  all its
brilliancy.   We  cannot follow  it in its
splendid course,  and  can only  allude iu
general to the  improvements of the ther-
mometer, the  discovery of thj gases, the
discoveries in electricity, particularly of
the lightning-rod  and of galvanism  (q. v.),
the substitution of oxygen, by Lavoisier,
to the phlogiston of Staid, the reduction
of the alkalies and earths, the discovery of
iodine and chlorine, of the polarization of
light, of the  connexions between elec-
tricity  and  magnetism,  &c, which are
more particularly treated of under sepa-
rate articles.  The  uses of the study of
natural philosophy are too obvious  to re-
quire mention, since our comfort and safe-
ty depend upon a knowledge of the pow-
ers and properties of bodies; and a right
study of nature not only dispels a thou-
sand  superstitions,  but  affords  a  most
striking proof of the existence of an intel-
ligent  government of the universe.   (See
Herschel's admirable Discourse on the Ob-
jects,  Advantages  and  Pleasures  of the
Study of Natural  Philosophy, in Lardner's
Cabinet Cyclopaedia.)   Among  the best
works on the histoiy of natural philosophy,
are Fischer's Histoiy of Physics since the
Revival of Letters (in  German, Gottingen,
1801,6 vols.), and  Playfair's Dissertation on
the Progress of Mathematical and  Physi-
cal Science since the Revival of Letters,
prefixed to the Encyclop. Britannica, and
continued by  Leslie.  On the method of
observation  in experimental physics, Sen-
ebier's  Essai  sur VArt d'observer et faire
des  Expiriences  (3 vols., Geneva,  18C2)
deserves to be consulted; and,in connex-
ion  with it,  Sigaud de la Food's Descrip-
tion et Usage (Pun Cabinet de Physique Ex-
pirimentale  (Tours, 1796, 2 vols.);  Biot's
 Traiti de Physique Experimentale et  Mathi-
matique (4 vols., 8vo.), is the most complete
manual. There is an excellent abridgment
of this work by the author, Precis ilemen-
taire de Phys. Expe'rimentalc (3d ed., 1824,
2voIs.,8vo.). Amott's Elements of Physics
(Am. ed., with additions by Dr. Hays, Phil-
adelphia, 1829) is a good popular treatise.
   Philosophy, Peripatetic  (See Per-
ipatetic Philosophy.)
   Philtre  ;  a  love  potion.  From the
 earliest times it  has  been supposed that
 there  were  means by which love could
 not only be excited, but be directed to  a
 particular object.   Various  substances,
 from the animal  and vegetable kingdoms,
 have  been  used  for  this purpose, some
 disgusting,  some injurious, some without
 any distinguishing character.  The  truth 
102
PHILTRE—PHLEBOTOMY.
 is, that physical  desire may be produced
 by physical stimuli, which are called aph-
 rodisiacs, but it  is absurd to suppose  that
 such means  can produce a passion for a
 particular object.
  Phipps.  (See Midgrave.)
  Phips, sir  William, governor of Massa-
 chusetts, was born  at Pemaquid, Feb. 2,
 1650.  He was one of twenty-six children,
 twenty-one of  whom were sons.   His
 father died  when he was a child.   He
 then bound himself to a  ship carpenter,
 and, in due time, engaged in the business
 on his own account.  He was so illiterate
 as not to be able to read or write ; but he
 soon acquired knowledge sufficient for the
 purposes of common life,  and was fortu-
 nate enough to connect himself, by mar-
 riage, with a young  widow of a respect-
 able family.   In 1683, he sailed from
 England, in  search of a  Spanish vessel
 which had been wrecked  near the Baha-
 mas, having gone to  the mother country
 on  hearing of the circumstance, and so-
 licited means for the expedition.  He was
 supplied  with two frigates  by the admi-
 ralty, but failed of success.   Nothing dis-
 couraged, however,  he made fresh impor-
 tunities  for means  of making a second
 attempt,  which were given to him by the
 duke of Albemarle.   He discovered the
 wreck,  and  brought from  it £300,000,
 £16,000 of which were appropriated to his
 share.  He was also knighted by the king,
 and  appointed high-sheriff of New Eng-
 land. After  residiug for a  time, in that
 capacity, at Boston, be returned to Eng-
 land in  consequence of some disagree-
 ment with two   other functionaries,  by
 which his situation was rendered uncom-
 fortable.   In 1690, he captured Port Royal,
 but was not so fortunate in the expedition
 against Quebec.  In  the same year,  he
 was chosen by the freemen a magistrate
 of the colony.  He did not remain long in
 Boston, but repaired to England to solicit
 an expedition to  Canada.    At that time,
 the agents of Massachusetts  were solicit-
 ing a restoration  of their old charter from
 king William; but this being refused, and
 a new one given, sir William was  ap-
 pointed captain-general and  governor-in-
 chief of the province.  He discharged the
 duties of his office with fidelity.  His im-
 petuous temper,  however,  sometimes in-
 volved him in quarrels, and complaints
 were made against him, which he was
sent  for to answer.  He justified himself,
 and  was  about to return to his govern-
 ment, when he was taken sick, and  died
 in London, about the middle of February,
 1694. He was a blunt, honest man, ardent
 in every thing which  he undertook, open
 hearted and generous, but vulgar in speech
 and manners.  His talents were consider-
 able.
   Phlebotomy ; the  act of letting blood
 by opening a vein.  Among the ancients,
 great regard  was had to the place where
 the opening was to  be made.   At present,
 the custom is to open  one of the principal
 veins of the arm, the hand, the foot, the
 neck, or the tongue.  The operation itself
 was anciently  performed with a spring-
 lancet;  now, for the most  part, with a
 simple lancet  Of the arteries, that of the
 temples is the only one which is  opened,
 and that is done in cases of local com-
 plaints of the  head.  Another mode of
 letting blood is by cupping, or  by the
 application of leeches for the purpose of
 extracting blood from places affected by
 inflammations.  Phlebotomy is one of the
 most effectual means of the  medical  art;
 but its application is differently regarded
 by  the  most  distinguished  physicians.
 Hippocrates rarely  resorted to it; for he
 considered the cure  of fevers and  inflam-
 mations as the  work  of nature, and re-
 garded phlebotomy as  a mode of weaken-
 ing the efficacy of her operations.   His
 followers applied it more frequently, some-
 times even to excess.  The schools of the
 empirics (250 B. C), relying, like Hippoc-
 rates, on their own experience and on the
 observation of nature, endeavored to deter-
 mine the cases in which bleeding was in-
 dispensable.  But medicine declined with
 the general decline of science.  Greek phy-
 sicians,  indeed, still distinguished them-
 selves among the Romans;  but the sect
 of empirics had degenerated.  Excessive
 bleeding again became common, until As-
 clepiades of Bithynia  (Cicero's  physician
and friend) taught a new method of phle-
 botomy.  He considered the cause of the
greatest number of diseases to be  redun-
dance of blood,  and, on  this account,
advocated the practice  of bleeding,  but
 principally for the alleviation of pain, and
applied this remedy  frequently in case of
 local affections.*  After him,  Celsus gave
an account of the cases in which bleeding
 was necessary (A. D. 5),  and  his remarks
aud  directions  correspond  exactly with
 those of the greatest modern practitioners.
 Aretaeus, founder of a new  school (A. D.
70), prescribed  bleeding  more frequendy
in acute than in chronic diseases, and, in
extreme cases, he bled  the patient to com-
 plete exhaustion.   Galen (160), who re-
ferred the origin of a large  class of dis-
eases to excess of blood, ordered copious
bleedings; and this  practice gained great 
PHLEBOTOMY-4PHOCION.
103
repute, and prevailed for several centuries.
After the fall of the Roman empire, phy-
sicians were so  scarce in Europe, that
Charlemagne died of an inflammation of
the lungs, for want of bleeding and medi-
cal attendance.   The Arabian physicians
followed   the  authority  of Galen, and
spread his doctrine over Spain, Italy and
France.  Bleeding was still more general-
ly practised by the monks, who were in
the sole possession of medicine, as well as
of all other  science, in those ages.  At a
later period, astrology was connected with
the medical  art, and bleedings were pre-
scribed on certain days.  The popes, in-
deed, had often forbidden  the monks to
practise medicine ; but they either disre-
garded the orders, or considered  them as
referring only to surgical operations. Thus
surgery began to be separated from medi-
cine, and formed a new profession, includ-
ing the art of bleeding, applying leeches,
and shaving.  But when, after the inven-
tion of printing, the writings of the phy-
sicians of Greece, especially of Hippocra-
tes, began to circulate, and their doctrines
to revive, the  practice of bleeding,  at
least among physicians, was again con-
fined to certain  cases.   In Germany, Par-
acelsus (1525) overturned the system  of
Galen, and with it the practice of bleeding,
which  is  now  confined to the surgeons
and barbers alone.  In  France, Italy, &c,
the method of Hippocrates and the de-
generated system of Galen were, however,
not yet abandoned, and the  practice  of
bleeding  was carried to the greatest ex-
cess.   Helmont (1600), the founder of a
new system, doubted the use of extracting
blood, alleging against it that it weakened
too much the vital spirit, which he called
archams.   Harvey's discovery of the circu-
lation of the blood (1619) had some influ-
ence on die modes of phlebotomy, in  as
far as it  led  to  experiments (1642) by
which medicines were infused immediate-
ly into the veins, or a portion of the in-
fected  blood extracted, and supplied by
the blood of healthy men or animals.   In
England,  Sydenham  rose  (1673),  who
thought it possible to  expel  diseases by
copious bleedings.  He extracted  blood in
almost all  cases,  never less  than eight
ounces, generally ten  or more, and, in
cases of inflammation,  as much  as forty
ounces.  The pernicious consequences of
this practice  did  not escape  him, but he
thought he could not subdue disease  by
any other means.   Stahl (1707) attempted
to unite the  system of Hippocrates with
that of Helmont,  and established correct
and moderate principles of phlebotomy.
He taught that abundance of blood was
no disease, but might become so by a dis-
proportion created between the solid and
•fluid parts of the system,  in  wbicfi case
the proper balance ought  to be restored
But  he found bleeding  indispensable,  in
cases of too great excitement succeeded
by a congestion or effusion of blood.  To
prevent this,  he  prescribed occasional
bleeding.  His method was soon misun-
derstood and misapplied.   The extraction
of blood for the preservation of health was
every where thought necessary.  Bordeu
endeavored to stop this abuse in France.
Cullen (1777), who regarded  all  diseases
as proceeding from an unnatural state  of
the nerves; all irregularities of the  fluids
as the consequences  of  weakness and
spasm, recommended bleeding as the best
means to diminish the activity of the
whole body, and especially of the system
of the  blood-vessels.  He  recommended,
however, a due regard to  circumstances,
and mainly adopted Stahl's  doctrine  of the
superabundance of blood.  Stoll of  Vien-
na (1780), an admirer of  Sydenham, re-
sorted frequently to bleeding.  Several of
the later physicians sought, however, to
limit its too frequent application.   Woll-
stein (1791) recommended it only in a few
cases.  Gall,  also, improved  the system
still more.  Brown adhered to  the same
maxim, and limited the practice of bleed-
ing too much.   In modern times, the
abuses of  phlebotomy have again consid-
erably increased, because the antiphlogis-
tic method of healing has  risen into great
repute.  Bleeding is one of the most effec-
tual, but also one  of the most dangerous
means of checking disease.
  Phlegethon (<i>\cyeOwv, burning),  in the
Grecian mythology ; a river of fire in the
infernal regions.  (See Cocytus.)
  Phlegrean Fields ; a place  in Mace-
donia, where the battle of  the giants was
said to have taken place.   The name was
also  applied to a place near Naples (Fo-
rum Vulcani, Solfatara), where the ground
is impregnated with sulphur.  (See Gi-
ants, and  Naples.)
  Phlogisticateo Air ; nitrogen,  or
azote.  (See Nitrogen.)
  Phlogiston; the supposed general in-
flammable principle of Stahl.  (See  Oxy-
gen,  and  Combustion;  also Chemistry,
vol. iii, p. 124.)
  Phocas's Column.  (See Column.)
  Phocion ;  an  Athenian general, and
one  of the  most  virtuous characters  of
antiquity.   Though of  humble  descent,
he received a good education, and im-
bibed, under Plato and other philosophers, 
1C4
PHOCION.
those elevated sentiments which governed
his whole life.   His external appearance
was stern and  severe, but his disposition
was mild and gentle.  His eloquence was
distinguished lor clearness and brevity;
and his opinion was pronounced iu the
assemblies of the people, freely and with-
out  hesitation.   He first served  under
Chabrias, au officer of merit, but of a vio-
lent and unequal character.  He gained
his esteem and moderated his impetuosity.
His activity contributed essentially to the
naval victory  of Naxos (377 B. C), and he
afterwards collected, with great prudence,
the taxes of the islands.   In the war with
Philip  of Macedon,  the Athenians  sent
Phocion with some  troops to Euboea, in
hopes to induce the inhabitants to form a
junction with him.  The gold  of Philip
rendered this project abortive, and  Pho-
•ciou was obliged to retire, with his troops,
to an eminence for security.   The enemy
surrounded him, and made  preparations
for attack.  Reduced to despair,  Phocion
made an  onset, and gained  a  complete
victory.  Before the battle, he gave  per-
mission to all who desired  it,  to retire;
and, after the battle, he liberated the pris-
oners, to save them  from the fury of the
Athenians.    His conduct  was marked
with prudence, boldness and manliness.
He banished Plutarchus, who had made
himself tyrant  of  Eretria, and  left the
island secure from the  attacks of Philip.
Some time after, the Athenians resolved
to yield assistance to  the cities of the Hel-
lespont, threatened  by  Philip,   and the
command of the  fleet  was  intrusted to
Phociou.  The inhabitants of Byzantium
received him, and he not only saved their
city, but compelled  Philip to retire  from
the  Hellespont  Notwithstanding  their
success, Phocion always advised peace.
His honesty,  disinterestedness and patri-
otism were so  generally  acknowledged,
that he was nominated commander forty-
five times, without  once applying for the
office.   He always led a simple  life,  and
cultivated his small  farm with  his own
hands.  When  die inhabitants of Megara
requested  an  alliance with the Athenians,
Phocion zealously advocated the measure,
marched to the  city at the head  of a large
body of volunteers, and rebuilt  the walls.
When Philip appeared  in Phocis, with a
view to attack Attica, Phocion in vain ad-
vised peace.    The  battle of Chaeronea
(A. C.338) proved the justness of his opin-
ion. The Athenians disregarded the ad-
vice of Phocion, not to take part in the
assembly of the Grecian states,  convened
by Philip, till  they knew the intentions of
the king; and,  in  consequence, found
themselves obliged to furnish Philip with
a quota of cavalry and galleys.  This they
were reluctant to do, but Phocion an /ised
them to submit to adversity with patience.
After Philip's death, Phocion advised the
Athenians  not  to expose  themselves to
new disasters by joining a confederacy
against the young Alexander.  His opin-
ion was justified by  the event   When,
after the destruction of Thebes, Alexander
demanded of the Athenians the deliver-
ance of the orators who had  spoken so
violently ngninst him, Phocion undertook
die commission of appeasing the anger of
the king with the happiest success.  Al-
exander conceived a great affection for
him, and sent him a present of a hundred
talents, which he declined.  The deputies
found him carrying water, while his wife
was baking bread. But, not to displease
the king,  lie  requested the liberation of
some of his  imprisoned friends.   After
Alexander's death, the project was formed
of freeing  Greece from the Macedonian
yoke.   Phocion disapproved the measure,
though he accepted the command.  The
Athenians  were at first successful;  but
Antipater  soon  obtained the superiority,
and threatened  Athens,  which  was in-
stantly  abandoned by the orators who had
been so clamorous for war.   In this press-
ing danger, Phocion was s< nt ambassador
to Antipater,  who was encamped in the
territory of Thebes, and obtained, on hard
terms   indeed, a  promise that he w. uld
conclude a treaty without entering the ter-
ritory  of Attica.  The terms  were, that
Demosthenes and Hyperides  should  be
given   up,   an aristocratical government
formed, and a Macedonian garrison intro-
duced into Munychia.  This last condition
was long opposed by Phocion, but Antip-
ater was inflexible.   Under these hard
circumstances, all the  efforts of  Phocion
(who,   with'other distinguished men, was
then at the'head of  government), were
directed to mitigate the heavy burdens of
his country, and to turn his influence with
the Macedonians to its advantage. Nev-
ertheless, Phocion was accused of having
acted against the good of his country, and
of having betrayed it to the enemy.  He
was compelled,  by clamors and  accusa-
tions, to take refuge in Phocis,  with Poly-
sperchon,  who  soon  after delivered him
and other  refugees to the Athenians, who
demanded them.  Polysperchon also sent
a letter to  the city, acknowledging them to
be  guilty of treachery.  Their trial took
place  before the  assembly of the jieople.
Phocion, with several of his friends, was 
PHOCION—PHOENICIA.
105
condemned \o death unheard.  His calm-
ness continued unshaken.  " Tell my son,"
said he to a friend, who asked if he  had
any commission for him, " to forget  that
the Athenians have been  unjust to me."
When many had drank the fatal draught,
it  was observed,  that  there  was  not
enough remaining  for the rest, and the
officer  who  administered it refused to
procure more without pay.   Phocion re-
quested a  friend to pay  him, and said,
jestingly, " It is not even allowed us to die
gratis in Athens."  His body was thrown,
unburied, beyond  the limits of Athens,
but his friends carried it  to Eleusis,and
burnt it in the house of a  Megarensian
woman.  The Athenians became sensible
of their injustice-: they procured  his re-
mains, buried them  at the public expense,
erected a monument to his memory,  and
punished his accusers.
  Phocis ; a district of Greece, bounded
north by  Thessaly, east  by Locris  and
Bceotia, south by the bay of-Corinth, and
west  by Doris and the  country  of the
Ozolian Locrians.  The  principal  rivers
were  the Cephissus • and  Plisttis, and the
principal  mountain Parnassus.   Phocis
was the country of the  Hellenes.  Par-
nassus, son of Neptune, built Delphi, be-
fore the flood of Deucalion,  and gave his
name  to  the  mountain.  After  the  de-
struction of Delphi  by this flood, the  sur-
viving inhabitants built, on Parnassus, a
city  called Lycorea, where  Deucalion
reigned.  Their posterity spread  to  the
north, and conquered  the Pelasgians,  who
dwelt there.  At this time arose the name
of  Hellenes.   Several small kingdoms
were  erected.   Among  others, Phocus,
son   of  JEgeus, conducted  thither  an
^Eginetic colony, and  from him the whole
country took its name, Phocis.  In later
times the constitution was probably demo-
cratic.  The  Phocensians were  an  in-
dustrious people, and  subsisted chiefly by
agriculture.  They were distinguished for
their  bravery, of which they gave a signal
proof in the  war  with the Thessalians,
and in the Persian  and Peloponnesian
wars, in which last they took part as allies
of the Spartans.  They  were the cause
of the sacred war, so destructive to Greece,
and shared the general fate of their coun-
trymen, after the battle of Chaeronea, B.
C. 338.  (See Greece.)
  Phienicia, which is often considered as
a part of Syria, was a  narrow strip of land
on  the Mediterranean, extending from
Aradus on the  Eleuthrus to Tyre on the
Leontes.  Several  towns  on the coast,
still farther south,  within the limits of
Palestine, may also  have belonged to it;
on which account, Ptolemy extended the
southern limits to the Chorseus.  This
district, containing  not  more than 4238
square miles, was sandy, and was divided
by  the woody ridges of Lebanon, and
Anti-Libanus.  'It contained, in its most
flourishing times,  a great  number of con-
siderable cities,4but never formed a single
state.  The  oldest city was called Sidon,
now Saida, which was distinguished  for
its manufactures, especially of glass. Tyre,
a colony of Sidon,  was principally dis-
tinguished for its purple.  This city  re-
ceived the name  of old Tyre when the
later celebrated'Tyre was built on a neigh-
boring island, which  Alexander,  during
"his Siege of the city  converted into a pen-
insula.  TJyfcrlus (now Gebele, or Esbele)
was celebrated for the worship of Adonis.
Aco, afterwards Ptolemais, is now Acre;
Berytus  was afterwards  distinguished for
a  law-school.   These, and other  cities,
were at first colonies, dependent  on  the
metropolis;  but they became independent,
and, in  their  flourishing period (B. C.
1000—^660), formed  a   confederacy,  at
the  liead  of which was Tyre.  The
original  inhabitants of   Phoenicia were
probably nomads, who roamed about  the
shores of the Arabian and Persian gulfs:
thence they went  to  Palestine, from which
they retired into the country of their sub-
sequent residence, long before the arrival
of the Israelites,  in consequence of the
attacks of some powerful  tribe.   The
maritime position of their new country,
and its abundance of wood, led them to
fishing and ship-burlding.   Favored by
circumstances, the Phoenicians  became a
sea-faring people, engaged sometimes in
piracy, and sometimes in commerce. The
imperfect accounts  still  existing prove
that this was the  case very early.   Sidon
is called by Moses  the  first born son of
Canaan.  The  colonies  which emigrated
about the year 1500, in the time of Agenor,
to Asia Minor, Crete, Lybia, and Greece,
diffused  various  kinds  of 'knowledge.
Cadmus, his son, introduced into 'Greece
die  first notions  of civil society  and of
writing.   At the time of the settlement
of  the Jews  in Palestine, about 1440,
Sidon is called  the  great city.  Homer
mentions it as  distinguished  above all
cities for its manufactures.  As early as
the twelfth century before  Christ, the in-
habitants of Sidon  founded  colonies in
Africa.  Utica  was founded  about 1170
B. C, and in Solomon's  time, voyages to
Tarshish, on the south-west coast of Spain,
were common, from which we  may have 
106
PHOENICIA.
 an idea of the extent of the Phoenician trade
 and commerce. Safe and neighboring har-
 bors must, therefore, have been of impor-
 tance to the Sidonians.  On this account
 they built houses around a natural harbor,
 and erected a castle (Zor) on a rock.  Num-
 bers gradually settled here, and if, with
 Josephus and Tragus Pompeius,  we be-
 lieve that Tyre was built about 1184, then
 we must suppose that at this time it re-
 ceived a large colony, which converted the
 fortress into a city.  In a short time, the
 little town  grew so important, that, from
 1000 to about 600 B. C, it was the head of
 the Phoenician confederacy, as Sidon had
 previously  been.   They had not  power
 to cany on foreign wars, and they had no
 occasion for defence ; they sought to ex-
 tend their dominion by the peaceful colo-
 nization of uninhabited countries, and by
 alliances.  We hear first of the Tyrians
 being engaged in wars on  account of the
 attacks of the Asiatic conquerors, who were
 allured by their riches; these they earned
 on with  mercenary troops.   About the
 year 1000, Hiram, son of Abibal, conclud-
 ed treaties  of commerce and friendship
 with David and Solomon.  Ithobal, king
 of Tyre and Sidon, about 900  B. C, was
 die father of Jezabel.   He built  several
 cities in Phoenicia, and  peopled Auza, in
 Africa. To his son, Badozor, succeeded
 Mutgo (Muttinus or Mutgenus), father of
 Pygmalion, Barca, Dido and Anna.  Di-
 do, on  account of a dispute with Pygma-
 lion (B. C. 888), fled with Barca and Anna,
 and founded Carthage, (q. v., and  Dido.)
 The neighboring island Cyprus must have
 been then  under  the  dominion  of the
 Tyrians, for Pygmalion here built Carpa-
 sia.  Tyre must have subsequently main-
 tained  its superiority over the Phoenician
 cities, and probably abused it, for we find
 that the Cythcans of Cyprus revolted un-
 der the conduct of Elulaeus (about B. C.
 700), and called the Assyrians to their aid.
 Elulaeus, however, again submitted, and
 Salmanassar concluded peace.  On this,
 Sidon,  and many  other  Tyrian  cities,
 revolted and submitted to Salmanassar,
 whom  they supplied with  ships.  But
 the hostile fleet of sixty vessels was de-
stroyed by a Tyrian squadron containing
 only twelve,  and   the  Assyrians were
obliged, after five years, to raise the siege
of Tyre.  Thus Tyre remained 100 years
superior to  the Israelites.  In the mean
time, Sidon appears to  have again risen,
and to  have become independent of Tyre.
The alliance with Zedekiah against Neb-
uchadnezzar proved fatal to them.   Sidou
 was destroyed; Tyre was taken,  after a
thirteen years' siege, and never recovered
its former greatness.  Most of the inhab-
itants fled with their treasures to the insu-
lar  Tyre,  which now became the centre
of the commerce  of die world.  Itobal,
who perished in this siege, was succeeded
by  Baal, who was probably a vassal of
Babylon.  During the seven  years  after
his  death, suffetes were chosen by the
people.  The government was afterwards
again administered by kings subject to the
Babylonian sovereignty.  In the time of
Cyrus (B.  C. 555], Tyre, and probably all
Phoenicia, fell under the Persian yoke. The
kings of Tyre  and Sidon, Mapenus and
Tetramnestus, are  mentioned  as the most
experienced seamen in the fleet of Xerxes,
at die battle of Salamis, about B. C. 481.
Sidon was at this time  the richest city of
Phoenicia, and was at the head of the in-
surrection against  Artaxerxes,  Mnemon
and Ochus.  Tennes, king of Sidon, as-
sisted by the Greeks and Mentor, defeated
(B.  C. 361) the Persians; but Ochus, ap-
pearing with a  formidable force,  and the
city,  though  strongly  fortified,  having
fallen into his hands, by the treachery of
Tennes, the Sidonians, in despair (B. C.
350), burned themselves and their proper-
ty.  Other Sidonians, who were absent at
this time, rebuilt the city, on their return.
When Alexander entered Phoenicia, after
the battle  of Issus, the Sidonians (B. C.
333) submitted without a struggle, and re-
ceived for a king, instead of Strato, Ab-
dolonymus, of the blood royal, but then
a  gardener.   After  a siege of  seven
months, the aid of the Carthaginians not
having arrived, Tyre, at length, fell by
treachery, and was reduced to ashes; part
of the inhabitants were put to death, and
part sold  for slaves.  Alexander rebuilt
the city, but it  never attained its former
importance.   It afterwards fell under the
dominion  of the Seleucidse, as did Sidon
under that of the Macedonians.  About
65 B.  C, the Romans took  possession of
it.  From that time  Phoenicia shared the
fate of  Syria.   Tyre  was an important
rendezvous  for  the  crusaders  (1099).
The sultan of Egypt, who took it in  1223,
was soon  driven  out by the Franks, as
were, also, the Tartars, in 1263, who had
made themselves masters of it under  Hou
laku, together with  the  rest of Syria.  It
was finally subdued, in 1292,  by the
Egyptian sultan, since which it has shared
the  fate of the ruling country.   The PIiob-
nicians are more important when consid-
ered in reference to their commerce,navi-
gation and manufactures, than in respect
of the events of their history.   Compelled 
PHOENICIA—PHORCUS.                     107
by  the  Unfruitfulness of their soil, they
early betook themselves to  the sea as pi-
rates, and they gradually  extended their
voyages to the remotest countries.  They
bartered  the  productions of one country
for those of  another.  They  discovered
the manufacture of glass, wool and pur-
ple, and executed all kinds of mechanical
Works.   Their situation would lead the
Phoenicians to  trade  particularly in the
Mediterranean.   Cyprus was their nearest
landing-place; thence they extended their
voyages to Greece and the Grecian islands.
In  Rhodes  and Crete  they  established
colonies.  But  when the Greeks them-
selves became a powerful  and commer-
cial people, the  Phoenicians turned to the
northern coasts  of Africa.   Here, as in
Sicily and Sardinia, they founded colo-
nies, by  means of which they traded to
the interior of Africa, and with which
they always  continued on good  terms.
But then trade to Spain was the most im-
portant.  Here  they found  gold, iron, sil»
ver, tin  and  lead.   The preserved fruits
of the south were an important article of
commerce.   Gades (Cadiz), the most cel-
ebrated of their colonies, was the limit of
the voyages in the Mediterranean, and the
beginning of the more distant voyages in
the Atlantic.  They  sailed northerly to
the Cassiterides, Tin islands  (the Scilly
isles and Britain), and into  the North sea,
as far as the mouth of the Rhine.  On
the western  coast of Lybia  they  must
have  visited  and peopled  the  island of
Madeira and  the Fortunate  islands (Cana-
ries).  Their trade to Ophir, on the Ara-
bian gulf, and on the Persian gulf, perhaps
as far as Ceylon, was less important and
of shorter duration.  Their  circumnaviga-
tion of Africa is uncertain.   They traded
also in goods "brought to them in caravans
from the interior of Asia and Africa.   For
a long  time  their trade was  entirely by
barter ;  for the Numidians, not the Phoe-
nicians, are considered to  have stamped
the first coins.  They invented, or at least
improved, ship-building.  They used rud-
ders and sails, and followed, by night, the
course of the stars.  The invention of let-
ters and arithmetic has been attributed
to them, and they  probably had consider-
able astronomical and mechanical knowl-
edge.  On the other hand,  poetry and the
higher  branches  of mental  cultivation
were not pursued by them.  Of their writ-
ings nothing is  preserved  to us.   Their
language belongs to the Canaanite branch
of the Semitic family, and  is little under-
stood.   Their  religion  was  polytheism,
with  the worship  of images, aud human
sacrifices.   Their chief god was called by
the Greeks Cronos (Saturn), by the Ho
brews Baal or  Bel, also Adonis (Lord),
whose  worship spread into  Greece and
Egypt (Osiris).   Their principal goddess
was Baaltis (Isis), or Astarte, or Astaroth,
called by the Greeks  Aphrodite (Venus).
In Tyre, Melcarth  (Hercules) was wor-
shipped es  a local  deity, and his worship
extended thence to other countries.   The
Phoenicians likewise worshipped the Ca-
biri.  The  character of this commercial
people was not very high among the an-
cients.—For further information respect-
ing Phoenicia, see  Heeren's works  (elev-
enth volume, 1824).
  Phcenix; a Greek  coin,  lately  intro-
duced, and equal to the sixth part of a
dollar.
  Ph<enix ; a wonderful Egyptian bird,
about the size of an eagle, with plumage
partly red,  and  partly  golden.  This bird
is  said  to  come from Arabia to Egypt,
every 500 years, at the death of his parent,
bringing the body with him, embalmed
in myrrh, to the temple of the sun, where
he buries it. According to others, when he
finds himself near his  end, he  prepares a
nest of myrrh,  and precious herbs,  in
which  he  burns himself: but from  his
ashes he revives in the freshness of youth.
From late  mythological researches, it is
conjectured that the phoenix  is a symbol
of a period of 500 years, of which  the
conclusion  was  celebrated  by a solemn
sacrifice, in which the  figure of a bird was
burnt.   His restoring his youth signifies
that the new springs from the old.  Every
thing which more than sixty authors have
related of this bird—Strabo, Lucian, Pliny,
Plutarch, Herodotus, and others, and  all
the researches of the French and Italians
—may be found in Ant. Metral's-work  Le
Phinix, ou VOiseau   du Soleil  (Paris,
1824).
  Phonetic (from <j>u>vlu>, I speak); a term
applied to written characters which  repre-
sent sounds, as a, b, in contradistinction to
ideographic characters,  which  express
ideas;  e. g. the  Chinese signs of a hand
and a skin, to  signify tanner.—(For fur-
ther information on this  subject, see  the
articles  Hieroglyphics,  Chinese Language,
and Writing ; see also Philology, and Pa-
lenque.)
   Phonology.   (See  Philology.)
   Phorccs, or  Phorcys; son ofPontuS
and Terra,  or, according to others, of Nep-
tune and   the nymph Thesea, was the
father of many sea-monsters; for instance,
the Gorgons, and the  Hesperian dragon ;
according  to some, also of Scylla and 
108
PHORCUS—PHOSPHORESCENCE.
Thoosa, whom- his sister Ceto bore  to
him.
  Phosphorescence  is  the property
which certain bodies possess of becoming
luminous without undergoing combustion,
as when we rub or heat them, or in con-
sequence of the action of the living prin-
ciple  or of decomposition.  Two  pieces
of quartz, emit light on being rubbed  to-
gether.   Light is  seen in breaking lumps
of sugar.   A variety of blende (sulphuret
of zinc), on being scratched with a knife,
emits a  fine yellow light  In the year
1663,  Mr.. Boyle observed, that  the dia-
mond, when slightly  heated,  rubbed,  or
compressed, emitted a light  almost equal
to that  of  the  glow-worm.   The most
complete account we possess of the phos-
phorescence of minerals is that furnished
by doctor Brewster.-  He  obtained  his re-
sults by placing fragments of  the  bodies
examined upon a thick mass of iron heat-
ed a little below  redness, or introducing
them  into a pistol barrel similarly heated.
The following table presents some  of his
results :-.—
Name of tAe Min- Color of the Min-
    erals,         erals.
Fluor spar,      pink,
----------,     purple,
        ,     bluish white,
              white,
Calcareous spar, transparent,
Apatite,
Arragonite,
Hannotome-,
TopaZj.
Rubellite,
Petalite,
Color of the
  Light.
green.
Bluish.
blue.
white sparks.
yellowish.
yellow.
reddish yellow.
     do.
pink,
dirty white.
colorless,
white & bluish, bluish.
reddish,      scarlet.
reddish white, bright blue.
dark brown,   reddish yeltow.
Anatase,
The phosphorescence of anatase is entirely
different from, that of the other minerals. It
appears suddenly like a flame, and is soon
over.   Certain varieties of fluor require no
more heat than that of the hand  to  occa-
sion the emission of light The phosphoric
light of minerals has the same properties
as the direct light of the sun. The fore-
going  are  instances in  which it was  not
necessary to expose the bodies to the light
previous to their exhibiting  phosphores-
cence.  Certain artificial compounds emit
light  in consequence of the action of ex-
traneous light  The most  powerful of
these is the compound called  Canton's
phosphorus.   It is formed by mixing three
parts  of calcined oyster-shells in powder,
with one of flowers of sulphur, and ram-
ming the mixture  into  a  crucible, and
igniting it for half an hour.  The bright
parts  will, on exposure to the sun-beam, or
to the common day-light, or to  an elec-
trical  explosion,  acquire the property of
shining in the dark, so as to illuminate the
dial of a watch, and make* its figures legi-
ble.  It will, indeed, after a while, cease to
shine; but if we keep the powder in a well
corked phial, a new exposure to the sun's
light will restore the phosphorescent qual-
ity.   When the electric discharge is trans-
mitted along the surfaces of certain bodies,
or a little above them, a somewhat durable
phosphorescence is produced.   Sulphate
of barytes gives a bright green light, ace-
tate of potash a  brilliant  green  light, and
rock  crystal, a red and then white light
Temperature has a marked  effect  on the
emission of light by these bodies.  When
they are shining, the luminous appearance
ceases if they are exposed to the cold of a
freezing mixture.  It becomes more vivid
by applying heat;  and  if it has ceased, it
may  be  renewed  by applying a stronger
heat, so that a piece of  any solar phos-
phorus, which  has apparendy. lost its pow-
er, may by heat  be again made to  shine.
Some of the phosphorescent bodies, just
mentioned,  after  their luminousness  is
over,  upon partially heated iron, yield on
fusion a very vivid light   Lime  is the
substance possessing this property  in the
most  remarkable degree.  If a piece of
calcareous spar is placed  on charcoal be-
fore the compound blow-pipe,  it emits a
light so vivid and white that it can scarce-
ly be  looked upon.  The following fluids
have been found by doctor Brewster to be
phosphorescent  when  poured into a cup
of  heated  iron :  Albumen  (white of an
egg) diluted in water, isinglass in solution,
saliva, soap and water, solution of rhu-
barb,  do. of common salt, do. of nitre, tal-
low (the  phosphorescence of which may
be observed when a candle is extinguish-
ed in a dark room), alcohol, oil ofdill-seeds-
and oil of olives.  Several  cryptogamous
plants have been observed to be luminous
in the dark.  The Rhizomorpha phospho-
reus found in the mines of Hesse exhibits
light  when the  extremities of the plant
are broken.  Other species of Rhizomor-
pha have also appeared phosphorescent to
the miners.  But marine  animals are the
most remarkable for this property;  and to
them  is  now  fairly attributed the once
mysterious phosphorescence of the ocean.
This phenomenon is occasionally observ-
able every where at sea; but it is in warm-
er regions and more southern latitudes,
that it attains its greatest degree  of bril-
liancy and beauty.   In  these parts it has
been  thus described by a  scientific ob-
server :—" At one time, the evening serene
and delightful, a pleasant breeze just fill-
ing the sails, and the  bow of the vessel
throwing  the  water to each side, as  it 
PHOSPHORESCENCE—PHOSPHORUS.               109
gracefully parts the yielding  waves, all
round the ship, far as the eye  can  reach,
may be seen innumerable bright spots of
light rising to the surface, and  again dis-
appearing,  like a  host  of  small stars
dancing and sparkling on the bosom of the
sea.   At anodier time, the night dark and
lowering, a  fresh breeze  urging the ship
rapidly  onwards through  her pathless
track, upon  looking over  the stern, in ad-
dition to  the smaller specks just now men-
tioned, large globes of living fire may be
seen wheeling and  dancing in the smooth
water in  the wake of the rudder; now, at
a great depth shining through  the water,
then  rising  rapidly  to the surface, they
may be seen, as they reach the top of the
wave, flashing a bright spark of light, suf-
ficient almost to dazzle the eyes of the be-
holder ;  and  now, again,  they may  be
traced floating majestically along, till they
gradually disappear in the darkness of the
water  in  the  distance.   At other  times,
again,  when light  rain is falling, or per-
haps  previously to the rain coming on,
when a light uimbose cloud is overspread-
ing the sky, upon the water  being agitated
by the ship  passing through it, or  curled
up by a rope towing overboard in a bight,
a beautiful,  general luminousness  is  dif-
fused all around, bright enough to illu-
minate the whole ship's side, and the lower
large sails which may be  set at the time ;
and it is no unusual occurrence to have
this appearance so bright,  that a person
with little difficulty,  and near the surface
of the water, might be enabled to  read."
That  all  this light is  afforded by little
animalcules there cannot  be the smallest
room for doubt;  for they have been caught
in the very act of giving out the luminous
appearance, and in vast numbers ; and in
every instance where the water has been
properly examined  when luminous, they
have been seen in great quantities;  while,
on the other hand, when the water has not
been luminous, they have  not been visible.
They have been described and figured by
naturalists, who have studied them by the
aid of powerful microscopes;   and they
are found to belong to the mollusca, the
vermes, the  Crustacea and the  zoophytes.
Light is also emitted from certain land in-
sects, as from the  lightning-bug and the
glow-worm.  A kind of phosphorescence,
still different, is that observed in decompos-
ing animal and vegetable matter. Itappears
during the putrefaction of fishes, especially,
but has been observed also  from the flesh
of quadrupeds.  Our woods  during au-
tumn frequently exhibit a high degree of
luminousness in light rotten wood.
  vol. x.        10
  Phosphorus was discovered by Brandt
in 1669, though there are some reasons for
believing that the alchemists of an earlier
period  were-also acquainted with this sub-
stance.  Brandt kept his process secret for
some  time.   Kunckel, another German
chemist, knowing  only  that Brandt had
procured it from urine, entered  on the in-
vestigation, and succeeded in discovering
the process.   Mr. Boyle, in England, also
discovered it,  and Godfrey Hankwitz, a
man who was taught the process by Boyle,
sold it  for many years, at a high price, in
London.  In  1769,  Ghau, a pupil of
Scheele  of Sweden, having  discovered
that phosphate of lime  is the basis of
bones,  invented the process now generally
followed.  It is as follows:—100 parts of
burnt bones in powder  are to  be mixed
with 40 parts of sulphuric acid, and they
are to be suffered to remain in contact for
two days, the mixture being  frequently
stirred.  The whole is then to  be poured
upon a filtre of cloth, and the liquor that
passes through is to be added to a nitrous
solution of lead ; a  white  powder will be
formed; this  must  be  mixed with about
one fifth of its weight of charcoal powder,
and exposed to a strong red heat in a por-
celain retort, the beak of which is plunged
in water;  much gaseous matter will come
over, some of which will inflame sponta-
neously, and at length a substance will
drop out  of  the neck of the retort, and
congeal under the water, which is  phos-
phorus.  It may be purified by melting it
iu water, and  passing  it  under  water
through chamois leather.  It is semitrans-
parent, and of a white, or yellowish-white
color ;  it is  as soft  as wax ; insoluble in
water ; specific gravity, 1.77.  It melts at
the temperature of 90° Fahr., and boils at
550°.   When phosphorus is  exposed  to
air  at common temperatures, it  emits a
white smoke, which appears  luminous in
the dark. This depends upon its com-
bining  with oxygen, and  forming an acid
which  unites with  the aqueous vapor in
the  atmosphere,   and  they   fall  down
in the  fluid form.   When  phosphorus
is heated to  about  148°, it takes  fire,
and burns with  intense brilliancy, throw-
ing  off dense white  smoke, which is
a strong acid, diat soon becomes  liquid
by  taking moisture  from  the air.   It ^
forms  three acids   by  combining   with
oxygen.  When it  is inflamed in  oxy-
gen gas over mercury,  and   the  white
substance  produced  strongly  heated,
the  oxygen being  in  excess, for  every
grain of phosphorus burnt, four and a half
cubic inches  of  oxygen are  absorbed. 
110
PHOSPHORUS—PHOTIUS.
The substance so procured' is phosphoric
acid.  It becomes fluid at a red heat, and
is not volatile, even at a  white heat   Its
taste is intensely acid. It acts upon  arid
corrodes glass, and unites with alkalies and
oxides.  When phosphorus is heated in
highly rarefied air, three products result ;
one is phosphoric acid, another is an easily
volatile substance, appearing as a white
powder, and the third is a  red  solid, re-
quiring a heat above  that of boiling water
for its fusion.  The  second substance is
soluble in water, and the solution  is pos-
sessed of acid properties.  It contains less
oxygen than  the phosphoric  acid; for it
burns and becomes fixed when heated in
the  air.   It  is phosphorous acid.   The
third substance  requires  less oxygen than
phosphorus to convert it into phosphoric
acid, and is regarded as  an oxide of phos-
phorus.   Phosphorus burns  in  chlorine
gas, and unites with it in two proportions,
the one of which contains twice as much
chlorine as the other.  When these  are
thrown into water, the chloride is resolved
into  muriatic  and phosphorous acids, the
bi-chloride into  muriatic and phosphoric
acids.  Iodine also acts upon phosphorus at
common temperatures.   It  forms with
sulphur compounds  more  inflammable
than  pure phosphorus.   It is soluble in
alcohol, ether, and the expressed or vola-
tile  oils, especially by the  aid of a little
heat  The solutions in oils are luminous
when  exposed  to the  air.  The  com-
pounds formed  by phosphoric acid with
the alkalies, earths and metallic oxides, are
called the phosphates. Phosphates of al-
kalies are partially decomposed by heating
with  charcoal : phosphate  of ammonia is
decomposed  by heat alone.  The phos-
phates of the alkaline earths are not  de-
composed  when  heated with  charcoal.
Before  the  blow-pipe both alkaline and
earthy  phosphates melt into a  vitreous,
transparent globule.  They are soluble in
nitric  acid  without  effervescence,  and
precipitate from that solution by  lime-
water or ammonia.   Sulphuric acid  de-
composes them, and separates the phos-
phoric acid.  The alkaline phosphates are
soluble and  crystallizable;  the earthy
ones are insoluble.  The  phosphites  are
distinguished  from  the phosphates  by
appearing luminous when  heated  before
the  blow-pipe, and  by affording, on dis-
tillation, a  small quantity of  phospho-
rus.   They  become phosphates oh  ex-
posure to the air for a little time.  Phos-
phureted hydrogen.  This interesting com-
pound  of phosphorus and hydrogen ex-
ists  in the elastic form, and is  obtained
by combining phosphoms with any sub-
stance which, by a resulting affinity, shall
enable it to  decompose water.  Thus,  if
one part of phosphorus is heated with ten
or twelve of  a solution  of potash, the
alkali exerts this  operation,—the water
present  is decomposed,  its  oxygen com-
bines with  one proportion  of the phos-
phorus,  forming phosphoric acid, which
unites with the potash ; the hydrogen of
the  decomposed water combines  with
another portion of the'  phosphorus, pro-
ducing  phosphureted   hydrogen.   Or
lime may be substituted for potash.  The
distinguishing  peculiarity of this gas  is
its high inflammability, in  consequence
of which it takes fire whenever it  is pre-
sented to the atmosphere.  It cannot with
safety be mixed with air in any quantity,
from the  violent detonation  that would
ensue, and it is therefore allowed to burn
as it escapes  from the water, in which
the beak of the retort  containing the ma-
terials producing it is  immersed.  The
products of its  combustion, as it escapes
from the retort into the air, are phosphorous
acid and watery vapor,  which present  at
their formation  a  very singular appear-
ance : the bubble  of  gas, as  it escapes
and inflames,  expands  into a horizontal
ring of light white vapor, which enlarges
in diameter as it rises until it breaks ; this
is phosphorous acid, wafted by the aque-
ous vapor, and it owes this corona form to
the eccentric  impulse of the  explosion.
It is supposed  that many of those lights
which are said to have been seen at night
around  burying-grounds, and other places,
when animal and vegetable  substances are
undergoing  decomposition, arise,  in  part
at least, from phosphureted hydrogen. Bi-
hydruret of phosphorus is a  second  com-
pound of hydrogen  with phosphorus, ob-
tained  when solid  phosphorous  acid  is
heated out of contact with the air: the
oxygen of the water of crystallization pres-
ent converts part of the phosphorous acid
into the phosphoric, while  the hydrogen,
uniting  with a small proportion of phos-
phorus, forms this gas.  It is not spontane-
ously inflammable,  but detonates when
mixed with  atmospheric air and heated to
212°.  Phosphorus is employed in the arts
for the construction of fire-matches, and for
the preparation of phosphoric acid. Its use
in medicine has been attempted, but  its
violence is too great to be employed with
safety.  The phosphates are employed as
fluxes, and in the composition of pastes for
the imitation of gems.
   Photius ; a  patriarch of Constantino-
ple,  celebrated, about the  middle of the 
PHOTHJS—PHRENOLOGY.
Ill
ninth centuiy, for the brilliancy of his tal-
ents and the depth of his erudition.  He
was a native of Constantinople, and origi-
nally distinguished himself by his learn-
ing and ability as a layman;  but, on the
expulsion  of the patriarch Ignatius,  by
Bardas, was consecrated to  the vacant
see, 858.   During  the  succeeding ten
years, a controversy was  carried  on with
much  acrimony between him and the
bishop of  Rome, each party excommuni-
cating and anathematizing the other ; the
consequence of which was the complete
separation of the   eastern and Western
churches.   Bardas,  his  patron, being at
length taken off by his nephew and asso-
ciate in the empire, Michael the Third, that
prince was in his turn assassinated by Ba-
silius, the  Macedonian, who then ascended
the throne in 866. But Photius, denouncing
him for the murder, was in the following
year removed, to make way for the resto-
ration of his old enemy Ignatius, and was
forced to  retire into banishment   On the
death of that patriarch in 878, Photius, by
a flattering exposition of  a forged docu-
ment respecting the genealogy of the em-
peror,  acquired his  favor, and, being re-
stored, maintained  himself in the  patri-
archal chair during the remainder of that
reign ; but was at length accused, on in-
sufficient  grounds, of conspiring  against
•the new sovereign, Leo the  Philosopher,
who sent  him, in 886, into confinement in
an Armenian monastery, where he died in
891.   This learned and intriguing prelate
was the author of a  Bibliotheca, contain-
ing an examination of 280  writers; the
best edition is  that  of Bekker, a French
translation from which  was   announced
in  1831,  in  six volumes, octavo; of the
Nomocanon, a  digest of  the ecclesiastical
laws, acts of councils, &c, under fourteen
heads : a  Lexicon of the Greek Language;
and numerous epistles.   Of the Biblio-
theca there  are two other editions, that
of Vicuna, 1601, and that  of Rouen, folio,
1653.  Of the Lexicon, printed at Leipsic
in  1808 (edited by Hermann), there is  a
more  accurate copy in  manuscript at
Cambridge.  The Letters appeared in one
folio volume, in 1651.
   Photometer; an instrument intended
to indicate the different quantities of light,
as  in a cloudy or bright day, or between
bodies  illuminated  in different  degrees.
In  Leslie's photometer, the essential part
is a glass tube, like a reversed siphon,
whose two branches should  be  equal in
height, and  terminated by balls of equal
diameter: one of the balls  is of  black
enamel, and  the other of common  glass,
into which is put some  liquid.  The mo-
tion of the liquor, Which is sulphuric acid,
tinged red with carmine, is  measured by
means of a graduation;  the zero is situated
towards the top of the branch that is ter-
minated by the enamelled ball.  The use
of this instrument is founded upon the
principle that, when the light is absorbed
by a body, it produces a heat proportional
to the quantity of absorption.  When the
instrument is  exposed  to the solar rays,
those rays that are absorbed by the dark
color heat  the  interior air,  which causes
the liquor to descend, at first with rapidity,
in the corresponding branch.  But, as a
part of the heat which  had introduced
itself by means of the absorption is dissi-
pated by the radiation, and  as  the differ-
ence between the quantity of heat lost and
that of the heat acquired goes on dimin-
ishing, there will  be  a  point where, these
two quantities having become equal, the
instrument will be stationary, and the  in-
tensity of the  incident light is then esti-
mated by the  number of degrees  which
the liquor has run over.
  Phrat.  (See  Euphrates.)
  Phrenology  (from <pwv,  mind,  and
\oyoi, science); also called craniology;  the
doctrine ■first', systematically exhibited by
doctor Gall,-of the  formation and func-
tions of the nervous system, end particn-
larly of that portion of it which is enclosed
in the skull, and composes what  is called
the  brain:  hence the name - craniology,
from Kpaviov, the skull,  and  Aoya?, science.
To  give another  definition, "phrenology
treats of the faculties of the human mind,
and of the organs by means of which they
manifest themselves ; but it does not ena-
ble us to predict actions."   The origin of
this branch of physiology has been touch-
ed upon in the account of its author. (See
Gall.)   He published his observations in
a work entitled  Anatomic  et Physiologie
du  Sysleme nerveux  en general et du Cer-
veau en particulier (Paris, 1801 et seq., 4to.),
and illustrated them  by numerous en-
gravings in folio.  The chief points of his
doctrine are the following:   The brain  is
that organ of the  body  by which the mind
of man exerts its activity.   It is, however,
not active in all  its  parts in every act of
thinking;  but, as  every sense, every organ
of motion, and, in general, every function
of the body, has a particular nerve, or  set
of nerves, as its instrument, so every ope-
ration  of the  mind essentially  different
from the others has a separate part of the
brain for its organ, which is indispensable
to it. The strength and size of the nerve
are in proportion to  the power of action 
112
PHRENOLOGY.
 belonging to this organ.  The nerve of the
 trunk of the elephant has the strength of a
 child's arm.  Man's brain is more complex
 than that of any other member of the whole
 animal  creation.   It not only unites all
 those organs which are found singly in
 the brains of other animals, but has also
 others which are not found in them.  The
 skulls  of men exhibit great varieties, as
 well in the quantity of the brain as in the
 elevation of certain points; and observa-
 tion teaches that the better sort of heads
 are distinguished, if not  by a greater cir-
 cumference of the  whole skull, yet by the
 prominence of peculiar elevations,  that is,
 by a greater mass of brain at those points.
 In youth, the period of developernent, and
 the time of the  formation of the disposi-
 tions, the  whole  brain  has a tendency
 towards expansion.  If the upper part of
 a young skull is  taken off, the brain forces
 itself out, und cannot be pressed back into
 the same space  by replacing the part of
 the skull: with an  old skull,  precisely the
 contrary is observable.  The functions of
 certain  parts of the  brain  are  different
 from each other, and independent of each
 other, and those  parts of the skull  which
 cover them are distinguished by peculiar
 forms.   The brain is a convolution of or-
 gans.  The point of union of all the nerves
 must be considered to be where the spi-
 nal marrow and  the brain join in the neck
 at a spot, by pressure on which any animal
 possessing  a brain  is easily killed.   Part
 of the nervous substance descends as spi-
 nal marrow, gives out nerves to all the or-
 gans of the body, and is distributed at last
 entirely into nervous ramifications.   The
 second part ascends into the cavity of the
 skull, gives out branches to the cerebel-
 lum, and diffuses itself in the forms of rays,
 through the whole mass of the cerebrum,
 or rather composes it, leaving, however,
 in four places empty spaces (the ventri-
 cles).   The variety of functions  is  ex-
 pressed  by  an  equally great  variety in
 form and color.  The organs of the brain
 are double.  The   whole mass of brain
 may be divided into  two equal  hemi-
spheres, and singleness takes  place  only
 where those organs are supposed to exist,
 which seem to be destined to unite all the
activities  in  a  common  consciousness:
 hence, if an organ in one part is deficient,
 the other part may still be active; so that
the function belonging to them may still
be performed ;  as  one  kidney  may be
 wanting without  a total suppression of the
secretion of urine.  Those organs which
are found in all animals provided with a
brain (such  as have the most immediate
 connexion with the maintenance of the
 vital energy), are situated towards the base
 of the skull; but, when the brain becomes
 nobler by the addition of organs of more
 elevated faculties, these additional organs
 are found  towards the upper and outer
 parts of the  skull.  In a similar way, the
 increase of some parts of the brain shows
 itself by prominence beyond the others.
 The skull itself is in a passive state, that is,
 its form is determined by the surface of
 the brain, and does not press on the brain,
 if in a  healthy or natural  condition; for
 the brain exists even  in the foetus, before
 the formation of the skull.  It is then  only
 surrounded by the hard membrane called
 the dura mater, which has to form and  to
 nourish the skull.   The bones of the skull
 consist, in adults, of two laminae, between
 which lies a marrowy diploe.   Never-
 theless, the two lamina? are every where
 parallel with each other, except at a few
 points.  Accurate and continued observa-
 tion  and comparison  of men, says the
 phrenologist,  have shown that particular
 elevations of the skull allow us to infer a
 great developernent of the dispositions or
 faculties belonging to the  organs under
 these protuberances, but that, where all
 the functions are developed harmonious-
 ly (as in Wieland's head), the skull forms
 no  abrupt  elevations, but an  even arch.
 The observation of men in different situa-
 tions, and with peculiar dispositions and
 faculties, and of the  skulls of such indi-
 viduals, anatomico-physiological investiga-
 tions  of the brain, and particularly com-
 parative  anatomy, with particular refer-
 ence to the disposition or faculty by which
 particular animals are distinguished, and
 to the peculiar character of their skulls;
 pathological observations of persons  suf-
fering in the brain  or the mind, as of cre-
tins, idiots, insane  persons,  or  persons
whose brains have been injured by exter-
nal violence,  experiments  with  animals
(not unfrequently cruel ones), by wound-
ing or destroying certain parts of the brain,
 &c, furnish the facts on which phrenolo-
gy rests.   By means of such observations,
Gall considered that  he had found the
parts  of the brain belonging to several
faculties and dispositions.  These, as far
as they can be discovered by observation
of the exterior of the skull, are, of course,
 only such as are situated towards the sur-
 face of the  brain: a number of others, sit-
 uated deeper, and towards the centre, may,
 indeed, be conjectured at present, but can
 only be ascertained  by continued study.
 Whatever  may be the opinion respecting
 phrenology, it is certain that the observa- 
PHRENOLOGY.                            113
 tions of Gall, and other phrenologists, are
 highly remarkable; and Gall's idea is not,
 as  some  have  asserted,  immoral,  and
 founded  on  materialism.   From times
 immemorial, it has been known that men
 are born, not only with  different faculties
 of intellect, but also with different moral
 dispositions, which is true  both of single
 individuals, and of whole nations, and the
 phrenologist only strives  to find the organ-
 ic cause of these differences, which is as
 innocent as to ascribe peculiar dispositions
 to the influence of climate.   The phrenol-
I ogist does not say that these dispositions
 cannot  be overcome; but who does not
 know that moral  efforts are much  more
 difficult to some persons than to others ?
 The individual organs,  according to the
 classification and nomenclature  of doctor
 Spurzheim's  New Physiognomical Sys-
 tem, published in 1815, are as follows.
 (See Spurzheim.)  A faculty  is admitted
 as primitive if it exists in one kind of ani-
 mal and not in another; varies in the two
 sexes of the same species; is  not  propor-
 tionate  to the other faculties of the same
 individual; does not manifest itself simul-
 taneously with the other faculties (appears
 and disappears earlier or later in life  than
 other faculties); may act,  or rest singly ;
 may singly  preserve its proper state of
 health or disease. The organs are divided
 into those  of the propensities, the senti-
 ments, and the intellect.  Of the propensi-
 ties, nine  are enumerated :  1. amativencss,
 situated in the cerebellum, and indicated,
  during life, by the thickuess  of the neck
  at  the occipital  bone.  With  new-born
  children, the cerebellum is the least de-
  veloped of all the cerebral parrs, and is to
  the brain as 1 : 13, 15 or 20, and in adults,
  as 1 :  6, 7 or 8.  2. Philoprogenitiveness,
  situated  immediately above  the middle
  part of the cerebellum, and corresponding
  to the protuberance of the  occiput.  It
  produces the instinctive love of offspring,
  and, in general,  love of children, and  is
  with females larger than with  men.  3.
  ■Concentrativeness, immediately  above the
  last, and  below self-esteem.   It was first
  called, by Spurzheim, inhabitativeness, as
  it was  found in persons  and animals much
  attached to one  place; but now it  is be-
  lieved  that its function  is to maintain two
  or more powers in simultaneous and com-
  bined  activity.  This organ  is stated by
  Combe as probable.*  4. Adhesiveness, on
  each side of concentrativeness, just above
  the lambdoidal suture.  It produces an in-
  stinctive tendency to attach  one's self to
    * The organs not mentioned as probable are
  considered as established.
certain objects, animate and inanimate.  5.
Cornbativeness, at the inferior and mastoid
angle of the pant tal bone. It produces cour-
age, and propensity to attack.   6. Destruc-
tiveness, immediately above, and extending
a little backwards and forwards from the
external  opening of the  ear,  and  cor-
responding to the squamous plate of the
temporal  bone.   7.  Conslrudiveness,  at
that part of the frontal bone immediately
above the spheno-teinporal suture.  8. Ac-
quisitiveness, at the anterior inferior angle
of the parietal bone (Spurzheim first called
it covetiveness).   It produces the tendency
to acquire, or the desire to possess in  gen-
eral.  The great idea of property is found-
ed on it.  9.  Secreliveness, at the inferior
edge  of  the  parietal bones, immediately
above destructiveness, or in the middle  of
the lateral portion  of the  brain.   This
faculty  produces instinctive tendency  to
conceal spontaneous thoughts, emotions,
&c, from outward  expression,  until the
understanding shall have decided on  d.eir
propriety.  The nine organs of seiitin;. nts
are enumerated thus: a.  sentiments com-
mon to man  and the lower animals: 10.
Self-esteem, at the  vertex, or top of the
head, a little above the posterior or sagit-
tal angle of the parietal  bones,   if modi-
fied by other  organs, it is the source  of
great good.  The lower animais, such  as
the  turkey-cock,  peacock,  hcrse,  &c,
manifest feelings resembling pride or sell-
esteem.   II.  Love of approbation, on each
side of that of self-esteem, and commenc-
ing about half au inch from  the lambdoi-
dal  suture.   12. Cautiousness,  near the
middle of each parietal  bone, where the
ossification of the  bone  generally com-
mences.  13.  Benevolence, at the upper
part of the frontal bone, in the coronal as-
pect, and immediately before the fontanel.
6. Sentiments proper to man.  14. Vener-
ation, at the middle of the coronal aspect
of the brain, at the bregma or fontanel  of
anatomists.  15.  Hope, on  each side  of
that veneration, and extending under part
of  the  frontal and  part  of the parietal
bones.   16.   Ideality, nearly  along  the
lower edge of the temporal ridge of the
frontal  bone, producing  delight  in the
beau ideal.  Wonder, immediately above
ideality.   The function of this part of the
brain was not ascertained when the other
organs were  numbered, and it therefore
was left unmarked in the busts and plates.
It  produces   the tendency  to  believe  in
presentiments, phantoms, &c.;  probable.
17. Conscientiousness, on the posterior and
 lateral parts of the coronal surface of the
 brain, upwards  from  cautiousness, and 
114
PHRENOLOGY—PHRYNE.
 backwards from hope.  18.  Firmness, at
 the posterior part of the coronal  surface
 of the  head, close  upon the middle line.
 The intellectual faculties are,  genus  I,
 external senses: feeling of touch (extending
 over most parts of the body), taste, smell,
 hearing, sight.  All these  senses  convey
 the  impressions to the various  organs,
 whose province it is to form ideas  of such
 qualities.   Genus  II, knowing faculties.
 19. Individuality, at  the middle  of the
 lower part of the forehead, gives  the de-
 sire and ability to know facts and things
 without a view to  their application.  20.
 Form, indicated by  the width between the
 eyes.  Its  function  is to judge of form.
 21.  Size.   The  frontal sinus throws diffi-
 culties in the way of observing this organ,
 and Combe states it as only probable.  It
 gives an intuitive  facility of estimating
 size. 22. Weight, or resistance.  The fron-
 tal sinus, when very large,  extends to this
 organ, and renders  its ascertainment diffi-
 cult. It lies nearest to the organ  of size,
 and is  also  stated  as  probable.   It gives
 facility in judging ef weight or resistance.
 23.  Coloring, under the middle of the arch
 of the eye-brows, is connected with a great
 natural  power of perceiving colors.  24.
 Locality.   The  frontal sinus occurs occa-
 sionally, but not generally at the seat of
 locality, at the lower part of the  forehead,
 over the inner end of the eye-brow.  It is
 connected with a great memory for places,
 and a power of judging of the capabilities
 of ground. 25. Order,* connected with the
 love of order.  26.  Time, connected with
 the power of conceiving time, and of re-
 membering circumstances united only by
 chronological succession;  probable.  27.
 Number, connected with a great  talent for
 calculating.  28. Tune gives the percep-
 tion of melody.  A great developernent
 of this organ enlarges  the lateral part of
 the forehead; but its form varies accord-
 ing  to the direction and form of the con-
 volutions.  29. Language gives the pow-
 er of acquiring and  using words.  A large
 developernent of this  organ  is  indicated
 by the prominence and depression  of the
 eyes, this appearance being produced by
 convolutions of the brain, situated in the
 posterior and transverse part of the upper
 orbitary  plate, pressing  the  latter, and
 with it  the  eyes more  or  less forward,
 downward and outward.  Genus III. Re-
flecting  faculties.    30.  Comparison, an
 eminence of the form of a reversed pyra-
  * Phrenological  casts are at present  so com-
 mon, that it  is thought  more convenient to refer
 to them than to describe here the particular situa-
 tion of all the organs.
 mid, in the upper and middle portion of
 the  frontal bone, gives the power of per-
 ceiving resemblances.  31. Causality, be-
 tween comparison and  the  following, fur-
 nishes the idea of causatian.   32. Wit;
 prominent and rounded anterior-superior-
 iateral parts of the forehead. 33. Imitation,
 at the superior-anterior part of the forehead.
 We refer the general reader for a popular
 treatise on phrenology  to  Elements of
 Phrenology, by George Combe, which has
 gone through several  editions, and has
 been reprinted in the  U. States.   There
 exists in England a phrenological society,
 who publish a phrenological journal.
  Phrygians appears  to have  been the
 name of the primitive  inhabitants of Asia
 Minor, since not only the Trojans, but
 also the Mysians  and Lydians, were so
 called.   Under  the  Persian  dominion,
 Phrygia was the largest and most central
 province of Asia  Minor.   At a later peri-
 od it was divided  into Greater and Lesser
 Phrygia and Phrygia Epictetus, the north-
 western  part  of  Phrygia proper.   The
 principal cities were Apamea, Laodicea
 and  Colossae.  The inhabitants of this
 fertile  region  were  early  civilized, and
 paid much attention to  grazing and tillage.
 The history of Phiygia is altogether con-
 nected with mythological events.  Several
 of its kings are mentioned of the names of
 Gordius and Midas, (q. v.)  On the death
 of Adrastus (B. C. 560),  the royal family
 of Phrygia became extinct, and the king-
 dom became a province of Lydia.  It af-
 terwards formed a part  of the Persian, and
 still later of the Roman  empire.   In the
 music of the ancients, the Phrygian mode
 was of a martial  character.  (See  Mode,
and Music.)
  Phryne ; one  of the  most celebrated
courtesans of Greece, born at Thespia?, in
Bceotia.  She  arrived  at  Athens  in a
 humble condition, but  soon began to ac-
 quire wealth by trafficking in her charms.
 She became  the  mistress of Praxiteles
(q. v.) and  of Hyperides ;  the former of
whom immortalized her beauty by his art;
the  latter obtained her acquittal when she
had been accused of atheism, by exposing
her charms to the  aged judges  of the
Helicea.  This event was decisive of her
success.  She henceforth veiled her beau-
ties, and sold  her favors  only at  an enor-
mous price.  At Eleusis,  she went naked
into the sea, before the assembled multi-
tude, but this was probably to renew the
impression  of her charms.   (See Anady-
omene.)   Phryne,  or, according to some,
 Lais, once  wagered that she could  melt
 the  stern and  rigid Xenocrates; but her 
PHRYNE—PHYSIOCRATIC  SYSTEM.                115
temptations proved unsuccessful, and she
declared that he was  not  a man, but a
statue.  Even in her old age, she was not
without admirers,  as it was esteemed an
honor for any one  to be able to boast that
he had enjoyed her favors.
  Phryxus.   (See Argonauts, Athamas,
and Helle.)
  Phtha.  (See Hieroglyphics, p. 318.)
  Phthiotis.  (See Thessaly.)
  PHTHisis.(SeePu£>nonan/ Consumption.)
  Physical Astronomy. (See Astronomy.)
  Physical Geography, or the Natural
History of  the Earth, is that branch
of geography which treats of the surface
of the earth, of the  atmosphere  which
surrounds  it,  of the  substances  which
compose it, and of the organized  bodies
which it produces  or supports. (See Ge-
ography.)   Physical geography does not,
however, enter into the minute details of
natural  science; it gives a general view
of phenomena and their mutual relations,
and leaves  to die more rigorous sciences
the classification of  the   substances of
which they treat, borrowing from each its
results,  and  connecting them into one
whole.  The figure of die earth and its
relations to the other parts of the universe
are determined  by  mathematical  geogra-
phy ; physical  geography points  out its
natural  divisions into land and water, con-
tinents, seas,  oceans,  &c, and treats of
the external  configuration  of mountains,
valleys, coasts, &c  (See Earth, and the
separate articles.)   Having examined the
surface, we attempt to penetrate the inte-
rior,  and  determine   the  structure and
composition of the solid parts of the earth,
its strata, caverns,  veins, &c, the rocks or
aggregate substances of which it is formed,
their distribution,  properties,  age,  &c.
(see Geology);  we study the remains of its
past inhabitants, and the proofs of the vio-
lent revolutions which it  has undergone
(see Organic Remains); and seek  for the
causes of those revolutions.  (See Earth-
quake,  Volcano.)  We next examine the
simple  substances of  which the earth is
composed (see Mineralogy), and their va-
rious combinations  (see Metals, Earths,
Salts),  from  which we  obtain so  many
contributions to our  comfort, health  or
luxury.  If we then turn to the fluid parts
of die globe, hydrography points out its di-
visions into lakes, rivers,seas, oceans (seethe
articles), determines the different  natural
qualities of water,  its  temperature, chemi-
cal properties, &c. (see Mineral  Waters),
and the nature, extent and causes of those
great fluctuations, which  it regularly  or
irregularly undergoes.  (See  Tides,  Cur-
rents.)  The fluid  which  surrounds the
globe may next be examined (see Meteo-
rology), its  composition  determined, and
the curious phenomena of which it is the
theatre, and the movements to which it is
subject,  be  studied.   (See   Atmosphere,
Rain, Hail,  Snow,  Magnet,  Electricity,
Winds, &c.)   After concluding our ex-
amination of  inorganic nature, by re-
searches into the local temperature of the
atmosphere  (see   Climate,  Temperature,
Zones), we may next consider the  earth
as the residence of organized living be-
ings, which adorn its surface,  and feed
upon its inexhaustible resources.   Vege-
tables, from the abundance with which
they are produced, and  from their inti-
mate connexion with the surface of the
globe, first attract attention; botany ex-
amines,  in detail, the treasures of the
vegetable  world,  while physical geogra-
phy marks its general relations and traces
the influence of climate, temperature, soil,
atmosphere, &c, upon the  progress and
extent of vegetation, and the geographical
distribution of plants. (See Plants.) Rising
above the lowest form of organic to animal
life, we search the air, the land and the sea,
following  the  motions of insects, reptiles,
birds, fish and beasts, and fix the bounda-
ries widiin which they are  confined,  or
the spot of their origin and  the progress
of their migrations.  (See Animals, Zoilo-
gy, &c.)   Man, in his physical capacity,
his  animal organization,  his  variety of
complexion,  stature,  conformation  and
mode of life, the proportions of the ages,
sexes, deaths and  births, with  the  influ-
ence of heat  and cold,  moisture  and
drought,  local  habitation and climate,
upon his body and mind,  is the last and
highest  subject of  physical geography.
(See Man, Longevity, Physiology,  &c.)
Considered as a moral, social, political and
religious being, man in organized societies
is the subject of political  geography.  It
is not to be denied that physical geogra-
phy is yet in  its infancy.   But  an  incon-
siderable part of the surface of the  globe
has yet been examined; the seas still con-
ceal their treasures from us, and the bosom
of the earth has been but partially and su-
perficially opened to us.—See Bergrnann's
Physical Geography (Swedish,2 vols.,8vo.),
the geographical  works  of  Humboldt,
Maltc-Brun's System of Geography (vol. ij.
   Physics.  (See Natural Phdosophy.)
   Physiocratic  or  Agricultural Sys-
tem, in political economy.  Francis Ques-
noy, physician to Louis XV,  had observed
the very depressed state of agriculture  in
France, whilst travelling  with the  king, 
116  PHYSIOCRATIC OR AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM—PHYSIOGNOMY.
and ascribed it to the mercantile system
(q. v.) introduced  under Colbert, which
favored the industry of the cities.  Ques-
noy  published  his Tableau Economique
avec son Explication (175^), and developed
his system in his La Physiocratie, ou Con-
stitution  Naturelle  du  Gouvernement le
plus avantageux au Genre Humain (Paris,
1767, improved ; Yverdun, 1768,  6 vols.),
and a whole school, called the physiocratie,
soon  sprung up.   It  was not, however,
until the reign of Louis XVI,  under the
minister Turgot, that the  followers of the
system came into office.  Their authority
again sunk; but, in the revolution,they had,
for several years, a decided preponderance
in the convention.  Joseph II of  Austria,
and  Leopold of Tuscany,  his  brother,
were  friendly to the system, but did not
allow the perfect freedom of trade which
it recommended.   The principles of the
physiocratie system are,  1. The  earth is
the only source  of all national  wealth;
and only those  who use  or  increase the
natural powers operating  in the vegetable
and animal  kingdom,  as farmers, fisher-
men, herdsmen, miners, add to the amount
of actual wealth.   All  other laborers, me-
chanics,  manufacturers, merchants,  pro-
duce  nothing which  can  increase  the
public wealth ;  they   only  change  the
form  of the articles  produced   by the
former classes, and  their wages will always
be paid by the surplus of raw products,
which !he  farmer saves from his  own
consumption.  The merchant  only  pro-
motes the exchange of goods.  Still less
is  it  in the power  of  public officers and
men   in similar employments to  increase
the elements of wealth.   2. All members
of the community, therefore, are  divided
into  productive  and  unproductive.   To
the latter class  belong scholars, artists,
mechanics, merchants, &c, because all
of them  are to be supported by  the pro-
ductions  of the earth,  without  having
assisted directly in producing them. What
they  save from the wages received  from
the mass of the  natural  products,  in
vario'is forms, contributes, indeed, to na-
tional wealth, and  they become,  thereby,
a useful  class of citizens, indirectly in-
creasing  wealth.   It  is only  by  their
means, moreover,  that the agriculturist is
enabled to  devote  himself exclusively to
the culture of the earth.  3. From this it
follows that the  unrestricted exercise of
all honest occupations is  necessary to the
wealth of both classes.   The system in-
culcates freedom in regard to foreign com-
merce, as well as  to  the mechanic arts,
considering  it a matter  of indifference
 whether the products of a  country are
 consumed  by  natives or by foreigners.
 4. As, according to this system, all wealth
 is derived from the soil, the  only subject
 taxed should be  the  net produce of the
 soil.  The untenableness of  this system,
 without  replying to it  in  detail,  rests
 chiefly  in  the  misconception of nature
 and its products.   The fire of the steam-
 engine is as much a productive natural
 power as that  producing  grain, and the
 plough as much a machine as the steam-
 engine.
   Physiognomy (from Qfois,  nature,  and
 vo/ios,  law, rule) is the name  given to the
 countenance of man, considered  as an in-
 dex of his  general character, and also to
 the science which treats of the means of
judging of  character from  the counte-
nance.  This is the  general  acceptation
 of  the term; but there seems  no  very
good reason why  the  science  of  physiog-
 nomy should not be considered as extend-
ing to a man's whole appearance.  What-
ever be thought of the possibility of laying
down strict rules for such judgments, it is
a fact of every  day's occurrence, that we
are, almost without reflection  on  our part,
impressed favorably or unfavorably, in re-
gard to the temper and  talents of others,
by  the expression of their countenances.
The poetry of early ages contains descrip-
 tions of the features of heroes,  correspond-
ing to the character of the individual; and,
in ordinary life,every person who takesaser-
 vant is influenced by the expression of his
 countenance. The existence, therefore, of
a permanent external expression of the in-
 ward man, in some degree,cannot be denied;
 but that there exist exceptions, is a matter
of  course.   The  great question is, how
far we can  reduce our experience to cer-
tain rules.  As the face is that part of ani-
mals in which the noblest organs  are unit-
ed, by which they put themselves in con-
tact with the world, and,  for various rea-
sons,  shows most of their characteristic
traits, it has been made the particular ob-
ject of study by the physiognomist; and
comparisons  have been drawn  between
the face of  man and  that  of  animals.
Bapt della Porta (who died in  1615) made
such comparisons the basis of his physi-
ognomical  investigations,  and   had  the
heads of animals compared to human
faces  represented.  Tischbein, a German
 painter, has since carried out the same
idea much more  completely,  and doctor
 Gall has also made such comparative rep-
 resentations for the illustration of phrenol-
 ogy.  (See Gall.)   A great part of the art
 of painting and sculpture is  founded on 
PHYSIOGNOMY—PHYSIOLOGY.
117
physiognomy.   As the expression of the
face depends very muchupon the formation
of the fore part of the skull, physiognomy is
illustrated by craniology.* Amongthechief
points in physiognomy, Kant, in his an-
thropology, reckons, 1. the  general forma-
tion of the  face, particularly in the profile,
which  is  interesting, both in  respect to
the physiognomy  of individuals and of
nations,  as Blumenbach's  investigations
prove ;  2.  the  features  of the  face ;
3. the motions  of the face, as far as they
have  become  habitual ;  also  the walk,
&c   Kant  and others think they  can
show  why physiognomy  can never  be
elevated to a science.  It  is, however, a
subject of great interest, but the student
must  be on  his guard against a general
application of the rules which experience
seems to have furnished him.  This was
the reason why Lavater's system  lasted
but a short time, though he has collected
valuable materials.   (See Lavater.)  The
Dominican Campanella, who died in 1639,
was a physiognomist  J. Cross published,
in 1817, an Attempt to  establish Physiog-
nomy upon scientific Principles (Glasgow,
1817); and Spurzheim, the Physiognomi-
cal  System.
  Physiography.  (See Mineralogy,  vol.
viii, p. 509.)
  Physiology (from <f>bots, nature, in every
sense, and \oyos, science).  This word, first
used, as it appears,  by Aristotle, would
signify, according  to its etymology,  the
science which treats of all the phenomena
of nature,  the  whole universe, and thus
would  comprise  natural  philosophy as
well as natural histoiy; but the term has
been subjected  to some restrictions, and is
used, sometimes, for the scieuce which
treats of all the phenomena of living bod-
ies, and thus becomes  synonymous with
biology; sometimes for the science which
treats of animal life, and then is  synony-
mous  with  zoonomy, or dynamology; and
sometimes  for the science which treats of

  *  Physiognomy and phrenology, in  a certain
degree,  always  have  existed  and  will  exist.
Though our rules  for judging of men from their
appearance  may  often  fail, we still continue to
trust in them.  We cannot help considering it
strange if a sulky-looking man is found to be
kind, ami a stupid-looking man to be sagacious.
We find in  the autobiographical letters of  the
philologer Jerome Wolf (who died 1500), a curi-
ous  story, that the physician attending his father
on his death-bed, looking at the forehead of young
Jerome for some time, consoled his father by the
assurance that his son would be, at some future
time, a capable man, though he might then ap-
pear awkward and dull.—H.  Wolfii de Vitce
suit. Hatione, &c, communicated in Raumer's
Historisches Taschenbuch.
the phenomena of life in man, and then it
corresponds to one of the significations of
anthropology.  The most scientific use of
the word is that which applies it to the
phenomena of life in general, as all the
phenomena of life, animal  or  vegetable,
are intimately connected with each other.
The science would then include vegetable
physiology, animal physiology,  and com-
parative physiology, which corresponds to
comparative anatomy,  and examines the
analogies and differences presented by the
organic activity of the twoclasses of beings.
Physiology has  been further divided into
general and special, the former analysing
the phenomena of life in an abstract man-
ner, without making  the application to
particular species, whilst the latter exam-
ines the mechanism and the  results of life
in certain  species.   Physiology,  finally,
has been treated under the  subdivisions
of hygienic,  pathologic and therapeutic
physiology.  As long as  these divisions
serve simply to assist the student, without
conveying  wrong ideas as to the science
and the subject which it treats, viz. life, so
various in its manifestations, yet one and
the same throughout all nature, they may
be useful.  As  man stands highest in the
scale of  beings which we  have  an oppor-
tunity to observe, he is the most interesting
subject of physiology,  both  because ani-
mal life  is most developed  in  him, and
because his animal life is  intimately con-
nected with his intellectual and moral life ;
for, whatever may be the belief respecting
the state of the soul  before or after our
existence on this earth, it is certain that
during the time of our earthly life, the
soul and body are, in  more  than one re-
spect, intimately united.  Under this view
several German philosophers have treated
physiology, and attempted to draw from
it illustrations for the higher anthropology.
Without going into that subject at present,
we shall give here a brief outline of the
German  mode  of treating physiology,
which  is probably less familiar  to  our
readers than that of France and England.
The human frame consists of a multiplici-
ty of organs, which are  constantly  in a
state of mutual excitement and mutual re-
straint   The chain  of  causes and effects
is  endless,  yet observation has discovered
certain series and orders, called  systems.
Thus we have the systems of reproduc-
tion, irritability and sensibility, (q. v.)  The
province of the reproductive  system is
to preserve and unfold the  organization.
Matter is in unintemipted change: it un
dergoes a constant union  and separation.
This is as true of the animal frame as of 
118                            PHYSIOLOGY.
the lower forms of matter.   There is a
constant  succession of states,  and  the
whole  life of the organization  consists,
as it were, of innumerable smaller circles
of life, beginning with that of the simple
substances, each of which runs through
certain changes, and  then begins  anew,
and proceeding thence to the higher  or-
gans and systems.  This constant change
in the  animal frame requires a  constant
introduction of new matter into the system,
and a  constant separation of that matter
which has completed its brief tour of duty,
and must be thrown off as useless.  The
new matter  received has to uudergo a
series of changes  to adapt it to  the pur-
poses of animal life.  These changes  are
effected by means of a number of organs,
whose form, construction and activity cor-
respond to their destination.  These  are
the organs of ingestion and digestion,  the
mouth, throat, stomach and intestines,  the
absorbing vessels of the intestines,  which
in their course form glands, then canals,
ending at last in one  canal.   (See  Chyle,
Digestion, and Dyspepsia.)  The received
matter becomes purer and purer, that is,
fitter for animal life,  and eventually  be-
comes  blood  (q. v.), which change is  ef-
fected in  the lungs (q. v.), from which  the
blood collects in  the  left  cavities  of  the
heart  (See Heart for an account  of  the
circulation of the blood.)   The blood is a
fluid endowed with life, and  is spread all
over the organization, diffusing new mat-
ter and life in innumerable currents.  The
arterial  system penetrates every  organ,
and every organ gives to the matter thus
received  its peculiar character.  Part of
this blood, in the shape of coagulated fi-
bres, assumes the first organic form,  the
cellular texture (an animal crystallization,
as it were), attaches itself to  the already
existing matter of the same kind, in order
to assist the latter, if it is yet in the process
of formation, or to supply the  place of
that whose virtue is  exhausted, and, by
further processes, gives rise to the various
other parts of the  human body,  as  the
cellular texture, the  various membranes,
glands, hairs, bones,  cartilage,  muscles,
arteries, the capillary system, nerves, brain,
&c.  These single parts, by various com-
binations,  form  the  compound organs,
whose  functions vary  with their composi-
tion.  Another part of the blood is des-
tined to be changed into  various fluids;
this is  effected by the function of secre-
tion, for  which several organs  are des-
tined.  To these belong the secretion  of
the saliva in the  salivary glands,  of  the
gastric juice in the stomach, of the  gall in
the liver, milk in the breasts, of the mucus
in the mucous membranes, &c.  After the
various  forms of organic matter have run
through their short circle of life, they lose
their character of animal life and activity,
change their peculiar form, are dissolved,
absorbed in  proper canals, and  thrown
out. This is done by the absorbing lym-
phatic vessels, by the kidneys and urinary
passage,  the skin,  &c.   The  system of
irritability (q. v.) is composed of the fibre
formed  out  of the  blood, and endowed
with a  higher  life,  and consists of the
muscular fibre, which possesses  the fac-
ulty of  shortening  itself by  contraction.
Aggregations of these fibres form a mus-
cle.  Some of these are hollow muscles,
for the reception and transmission of flu-
ids, as the heart and the muscular mem-
branes.   The others are connected with
the system of bones, and serve for volun-
tary motion.   (See Muscles.)  The system
of sensibility consists of the matter in the
highest stage of life, and forms the whole
system of the nerves.  (See Nerves, and
Brain.)   These systems are closely con-
nected, and  are combined in each organ ;
thus we find every where cellular texture,
membrane, vessels, &c, and nerves which
diffuse a higher life throughout the organs,
and produce, by their general connexion,
a  harmony  in the  functions of all the
organs,  which, if undisturbed, is called
health.   To the series which gives rise to
this harmony of the functions belong also
the activities of the soul, in so far as the
material organization influences them, or
the soul influences the material organiza-
tion.  For, though the life of the soul  is
superior to the life of the body,—the latter
only following unchangeable laws of na-
ture, the former being guided by reason
and volition,—yet the close union of both,
and their mutual  operation,  cannot  be
denied.   The  material   organization  af-
fects the soul by the cerebral system and
nerves, the soul receiving ideas of outward
things  through the  senses  (see  Nerves);
and though  the cerebral  system  belongs
peculiarly to the  soul, yet it  is  nourish-
ed  and   maintained by  the same means
as the whole animal organization; and this
circumstance, and  perhaps the connexion
of the nerves of the systems of sensibility
and reproduction, give  rise to what we
call instincts  and  impulses connected
with the physical  wants.  Further, there
seems to exist a constant  yet silent influ-
ence of the  material organization on the
higher nervous system and the brain,owing
the support  of these organs by the blood,
and to the connexion in which all organs 
PHYSIOLOGY—PIANO-FORTE.
119
are kept  through the nerves; and these
circumstances  appear  to  explain  the
causes of the various temperaments  and
the change in our dispositions.  The soul,
on  the other  hand,  operates upon the
bodily organization  by many  voluntary
acts, which affect the organic life, by the
restraint of the appetites, and by the activity
■which its own operations necessarily ex-
cite in its organ, the brain ; and, filially,
by the direct influence of certain passions
and emotions, on particular parts of the
frame.   All  these  points are  minutely
treated in  physiology.  The histoiy of
physiology is intimately  connected with
that of medicine.  It began with scanty
materials aud hypotheses.  Hippocrates
bad but  a  very  imperfect knowledge of
the human organization, and very limited
views of the  origin of life.  Galen,  pos-
sessing a better  knowledge of  anatomy,
composed a better system of physiology.
From him originated the division of the
functions into vital, animal and  natural
functions, which has  maintained itself
down to our time.   After the middle  ages
had gone by,  the more thorough study of
anatomy led  to a better system of physi-
ology.  Harvey's discovery of the  circula-
tion of the blood was a great step, but it
induced  his successors to attempt to ex-
plain life by mere mechanical and hydrau-
lic  principles.   Staid  (q. v.) considered
the soul as the cause of life  and its  phe-
nomena ; but llaller made an entirely new
epoch, by the theory of the  irritability of
the fibre, which was made  the basis of
many  systems;  even Brown's  theory of
life, as arising from the irritability of the
organization, and  the influence  of ex-
ternal things, is  to  be  deduced  from
this source.  The progress  of chemistry
and  philosophy  gave  rise  to  another
mode  of treating physiology, the former
by analysing die simple substances of the
body, the latter by the faithful  investiga-
tion of what is-within and what  without
the limits of the reasoning faculty, thereby
banishing a number of untenable theories.
   Phytology (from <pvrdv, plant, and \oyos,
science); a word  not unfrequently  used
for botany by the Germans of late, they
considering it more  correspondent  than
botany to the denominations of the  kin-
dred  sciences,  zoology and mineralogy,
and better adapted to the more elevated
character which the science has received
of late, since the whole  nature of plants
has  been more  thoroughly studied  than
formerly.  (See  Plants.)
   Pia Mater, in anatomy;  a thin mem-
brane immediately investing the brain, (q.v.)
  Piano (Italian);  soft,  slow;  used in
music iu contradistinction to forte.   Pia-
nissimo ; the superlative of piano.
  Piano-Forte ; a musical stringed in-
strument, the strings of which are extend-
ed over bridges rising on the sounding-
board,  and are made to vibrate by means
of small, covered hammers, which are put
in motion by keys, and where a continued
sound is not contemplated, their sound is
dampened immediately after the touch of
the keys by means of leathern  dampers.
The piano has superseded the harpsichord,
principally owing to  its greater strength,
fulness and duration of tone. The strength
of the  tones has also been increased by
increasing the number of the strings for
each  tone.   There  are usually  three
strings for each tone.   The hammers usu-
ally strike the strings from below ; but, of
late, instruments have been made in Vien-
na, called Kapotasto,  in which the ham-
mers strike  the  strings from above, and
thereby produce  a  stronger tone.  A
change or prolongation of tone is produced
by means of pedals:  only a few, however,
are at present used.  Formerly, the clavi-
chord  and the spinnet supplied the place
of the piano-forte; and  all  three instru-
ments possess the advantage that a single
player on the same  can  produce a com-
plete harmony, and  the  most rapid and
difficult series of tones can be executed
by  means of a  simple  mechanism, on
which account these instruments greatly
facilitate the study of harmony.  To the
harpsichord the piano-forte  is inferior in
this single particular, that, in the former
instrument, the touch  has  a great influ-
ence on the character of  the tones,  while,
in the case of the piano-forte, they  are in
a manner prepared beforehand.   This in-
strument is usually tabular in shape (these
are commonly  of a  comparatively weak
tone), or spiunet-formed. Those  in the
shape of a long spinnet (grand piano-fortes)
are used as concert instruments, and have
the greatest compass and strength.  The
grand piano-forte is one of the noblest and
most  elegant musical  instruments.  The
common compass of piano-fortes at pres-
ent is  six octaves rising from the  lowest
F.  There are also instruments of this
class  in an upright form; for example,
Dietanaklasis, which, however, are less in
use.  The  piano-forte was  invented  by
Christian  Gottlieb Schroder of Hohen-
stein, in Saxony,  born in the beginning
of the  eighteenth century (about 1717, in
Dresden).  It has been gradually improv-
ed, till it has become one of the most im-
portant instruments in all musical enter- 
120                     PIANO-FORTE—PICARDY.
tainments  In strength and firmness, the
English  piano-fortes  excel   all  others.
They are, however, comparatively difficult
to use, and are very expensive.
  Piarists ; fathers of the pious schools
(scholarum piarum); the members of a re-
ligious order, who, in adtlition  to the three
usual monastic vows, took also a  fourth,
namely, to devote themselves  to the gra-
tuitous instruction of youth.   (See Monas-
tic  Vows, and  Orders,  Religious.)   This
order was instituted at Rome, in the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century, by Joseph
Casalanza (died 1648), a Spanish noble-
man, and confirmed by the pope in 1621.
In  1690, it was rewarded for  its  useful
labors, by the most important privileges of
the mendicant orders.  The  piarists are,
like the Jesuits, a secular order, subject to
rules.  They also resemble the Jesuits in
their costume, and in their devotion to the
service of the  church  and to education,
and  have been  the rivals of that order
from die time of their institution.   They
soon spread themselves through the Cath-
olic countries, particularly in the Austrian
dominions, and became  numerous and
powerful, without subjecting themselves
to the charge  of ambitious  views, and
without meddling in political matters, as
the  Jesuits did.   Many gymnasia and
schools in  Hungary and Poland are still
under their direction.  In  Bohemia, Mo-
ravia, Silesia and Austria, they have some
respectable colleges, and their services in
the cause of education have undeniably
been great.
  Piaster.  (See  Coin, division  Spain
and  Turkey.)  The Turkish piaster varies
much in  value.
  Piazza, in architecture, is a portico, or
covered walk, supported by arches; and
all walks, with porticoes around them, are
piazzas.
  Piazzi, Giuseppe, director-general of the
observatories at Naples and Palermo, was
born at Ponte, in the Valteline, in 1746;  in
1764, entered the order of the Theatines at
Milan, and studied  at Milan, Turin and
Rome, under Tiraboschi, Leseurand Bec-
caria.  In 1770, he was appointed professor
of mathematics at the new  university in
Malta, on the abolition of which he return-
ed to Italy, and, in 1780, became professor
of  the  higher  mathematics  at Palermo.
Having induced the viceroy to establish an
observatory there, Piazzi went to England
and France to purchase  the necessary
instruments.  The observatory was com-
pleted in 1789, and is described in Piazzi's
Della Specola astronomica de' Registudj di
Palermo, 1792—94.  His first observations
were  published in 1792.  He soon after
began his catalogue of stars, and dedicated
the first, containing 6784 stars, to the insti-
tute at  Paris.  January 1, 1801,  Piazzi
discovered the planet Ceres, in commem-
oration of which the king of Naples wish-
ed  to strike a gold medal in his honor;
but Piazzi preferred that the money should
be applied to the purchase of instruments
for the  observatory.   In 1814, he  com-
pleted  his  second catalogue,  containing
7646 stars.   He  had also  been occupied
in the reformation of the system of weights
and measures in Sicily.  The observation
of comets he always considered as useless.
In 1817, the king called him to Naples to
examine the plan of the new observatory
there; and  his last years were chiefly de-
voted to the subject of public education in
Sicily.  He died July 22, 1826.  His Le-
zioni elementari di Astronomia were pub-
lished at Palermo in 1817.
  Pib-Corn, or Hornpipe ; a  Welsh in-
strument, consisting  of a wooden  pipe,
with boles at the skies, and a horn at each
end, the one to  collect  the  wind  blown
into it by the mouth, and the other to con-
vey the  sound as modulated  by the per-
former.  This instrument  is so common
in Wales, that the shepherds' boys amuse
themselves   with  it while tending their
flocks.
  Picard, Louis Benoit, born at Paris, in
1769, early began  to write for the stage
with success. The friendship of Andrieux,
who assisted him with his advice, was
serviceable  to him, and he soon  became
an actor, making his debut at the  Theatre
Louvois (Odeon), where his dramas were
also represented with much applause.  In
1801, he became the manager of the thea-
tre, continuing to  perform and  write at
the same time.    He  soon  after  (1806)
withdrew from the boards, was admitted
to the French academy, and  intrusted by
government with the direction of the ope-
ra.  While  at the head of the opera, he
ceased writing, but, in 1816, resumed the
direction of the  Odeon, and again began
to write.  He died in  1828.   Picard, on
account of  his skilful delineation of char-
acter, was called  by the French  Le petit
Moliere.   He was the author  of more
than  seventy larger  and smaller pieces,
besides  several romances.   Among the
latter are Le Gil Bias de  la  Revolution;
L'honnite Homme, &c.
   Picaros.  (See Adamites.)
   Picardy; formerly  a  province  of
France, in the northern  part of the  king-
dom,  lying  on the British channel, to the
north-west   of Normandy, and south of 
PICARDY—PICHEGRU.                       121
 Artois.  (See France, and Department.)  It
 was for some time in  possession of the
 English crown.
   Piccini, Niccolo, born at Bari, in the
 kingdom of Naples, in 1728, was designed
 by his  father, a musician, for the church.
 But  the  young Piccini  soon displayed
 such a decided taste for music, that" he
 was placed at the Conservatorio di  Santo
 Onofrio, at  the  head of which  was the
 celebrated Leo.  After spending twelve
 years there, he left  the conservatory, thor-
 oughly grounded in the science of music,
 and animated with  a glowing imagination,
 which  wanted  only an  opportunity  to
 show itself.   The  prince  of  Vintimille
 mentioned him to the director of the Flor-
 entine theatre,  and  Piccini set  the  opera
 Le Donne dispetose, which was perform-
 ed with applause.  He soon after compos-
 ed Le Gelosie, and 11 curioso del propria
 Danno.  The latter was performed with
 applause during four  successive years.
 His  composition of Zenobia (1756) dis-
 played his  genius in the serious opera. In
 1758, he was invited to Rome to set Ales-
 sandro nelP Indie; and in  1760, appeared
 his celebrated Cecchina, or La buona Fig-
 liuola, which had an unexampled run  in
 Italy.  The next year, his  Olimpiade,  a
 serious opera, had the same success.  In
 this  piece, the  duet  was first  presented
 free from pedantry and technicality, in the
 new musical form, which  has since been
 universally adopted.   Piccini  continued
 to compose for the theatres of Rome and
 Naples for fifteen  years, during which
 time he enjoyed the undisputed suprema-
 cy in the public favor;  but, after  the ap-
 pearance of Anfossi (q. v.), one of Piccini's
 operas  failed at Rome, and, in conse-
 quence of the mortification which this oc-
 casioned him,  he fell sick, and, after his
 recovery,  determined to devote  himself
 solely to the theatres in Naples.   In 1776,
 he accepted an invitation, on very favora-
 ble  terms, from the  French court,  and
 went to Paris.  At that time,  besides nu-
 merous oratorios, cantatas, &c,  he  had
 composed  133 operas.   Being entirely ig-
 norant of the French language, he receiv-
 ed instruction from  Marmontel, and, with
 his assistance, brought out the Roland of
 Quiuault, which, notwithstanding the op-
 position of Gluck and  his  friends, was
 successful.   Although Gluck and  Piccini
 were personally reconciled,  yet the war
 between their respective admirers contin-
 ued (see Gluck); and, in order to compare
 their merits, the two rivals composed the
 same subject, Iphigenia in Tauris: in this
contest, Gluck  had the advantage.  In
   vol. x.           11
 1783, Piccini produced his Dido, which is
 considered his chef d'auvre.  He had been
 appointed director of the royal  singing
 school in 1782, but the revolution deprived
 him of his appointments, and he returned
 to Naples in 1791, where the king granted
 him a pension, and employed  him on va-
 rious occasions; but, having imprudently
 expressed revolutionary  sentiments, he
 was exposed to much bard treatment, and
 finally returned to France, where  he died
 in 1800.
   Piccolomim ;  a distinguished  family,
 originally of Italy.  The most celebrated
 members are, 1. JEneas  Sylvius Barthol-
 ommus, who, under the name of Pius II,
 ascended the  papal  throne in 1458.  He
 was one of the most learned popes, wrote
 the life of the emperor Frederic III, and
 a history of Bohemia.  He was secretary
 to the council of Basle, and defended the
 rights of the  councils against the popes;
 but, when he was made pope, he recanted
 all that he had said against the extent of
 the papal power.  His favorite plan of
 uniting the princes of Europe in a war
 against the Turks  was frustrated by his
 death, in 1464.   2. Octavio  Piccolomini
 was born in 1599, became one of the dis-
 tinguished generals  in the thirty  years'
 war,  was a favorite  of Wallenstein,  who
 intrusted  him with  a knowledge of his
 projects, when  he purposed to attack the
 emperor; but  Piccolomini betrayed him,
 and was one of those who were charged
 to take Wallenstein  alive or dead.   He
 was made prince of the empire, but dis-
 graced his military renown by his cruelty.
 He died  in 1656, in Vienna.
  Pichegrc,   Charles,  general of  the •
 French republic, born in 1761,  at Arbois,
 in Franche-Comte, of poor parents, was
 educated at that place in a monastery of
 the Minims (but without  entering the or-
 der,  as  has been  falsely  asserted),  and
 afterwards studied at the  college of  Bri-
 enne, where he distinguished himself so
 much by his  progress in mathematical
 science,  that  the recitations of his  class
 were  intrusted to him while yet a scholar.
 Bonaparte was at that time his pupil at
 Brienne.  At an early age, Pichegru en-
 listed as a common soldier in the first regi-
 ment  of artillery, and was soon made a
 sergeant  Towards the end of the  Amer-
ican war,  his  regiment  was ordered to
America, and he thus had  opportunity of
 becoming acquainted with the  land  and
sea service.  After his return, he was ap-
pointed   sergeant-major,  and  company-
adjutant ; and on the outbreak of the rev-
olution,  he embraced its  principles.  He 
122                            PICHEGRU.
was president of the political club in Be-
sancon, when  a  battalion  of national
guards, without subordination, discipline
or commander, arriving in the city, the
Besancou club proposed Pichegru as a suit-
able person to command them.  His first
care was to establish order and discipline—
a task which he accomplished with energy
and skill, and then  led his battalion to the
army of the Rhine.  Here he distinguish-
ed himself so favorably, that, in 1792, he
entered the general  staff,  and  became
colonel, general of brigade, and, in 1793,
general of division.  Meanwhile the reign
of terror had commenced in France.  Cus-
tine, Houchard, Biron and others perished
under  the  guillotine.   The suspicions of
those in power at Paris rendered it more
dangerous, at that time, to be at the head of
an army, than to storm a hostile battery ;
but Pichegru undertook the command of
the forces, disorganized  by the  loss of
the Weissemburg lines, restored discipline,
and led the disheartened u-oops to a series
of brilliant victories.   To resist the nu-
merous and better disciplined troops of
the enemy, supported  by an excellent cav-
alry, he introduced the system of sharp-
shooting, and  at  the  same time, by his
skilful  use of the mounted artillery,  suc-
ceeded in  paralyzing the tactics of the
enemy. Hoche commanded at that time
the right wing of the army in Alsace. Iu
connexion with this general, and nominal-
ly under his command (although, in fact,
he only followed Pichegru's plan of ope-
ration,  of which he subsequently assumed
the whole merit), Pichegru stormed the
lines of Hagenau,  Dec. 23, 1793, relieved
Landau, and took Lauterburg.  These suc-
cesses gained him the highest commenda-
tion in  Paris, even  from Robespierre and
Collot  d'Herbois.  On the dismissal of
Hoche, in 1794, he was appointed to com-
mand  the army of the north, which disas-
ters had reduced  to a  state of disorgani-
zation.  Here he also  restored order and
discipline.   After failing  in  the attack
(made  by command of the committee of
safety) on the enemy's centre,  under the
prince  of Cobourg, Pichegru, at his  own
peril, pressed forward into West Flanders,
and, by thus turning the enemy's flank,
gained (April 26—29)  the brilliant victo-
ries of Courtray, Montcassel and Menin,
which  forced Clerfayt to  a hasty retreat.
May 18, he defeated the united forces of
prince Cobourg and York, between Menin
and Courtray, and, to draw Clerfayt  from
his strong position at Thiel, he made a
movement towards Ypres, near which he
defeated the Austrian general, June 10
 and 13.  All West Flanders fell into the
 bands of the French, and, Jourdan having
 soon after gained the victory of Fleurus,
 Picliegrii passed the Scheldt, and thus cut
 off Clerfayt from the English army, took
 Bruges,  Ostend,  Ghent  and Oudenarde,
 and besieged or blockaded Nieuport, Sluys,
 Conde, Valenciennes  and Quesnoy.  He
 then advanced to Mechlin, defeated on the
 16th and 17th of July the combined Eng-
 lish and Dutch,  took Antwerp, drove (in
 September)  the   English  beyond  the
 Meuse, and, after a siege of three weeks,
Taptured Hertogenbosch (see Bois le Due),
 then deemed  impregnable.   October l9,
 he again defeated the  English at Puhlach,
 blockaded  Grave, and  occupied  11 u 1st,
 Axel, Sas de Gand and Nimeguen.   The
 cruel commands of  the convention,  to
 spare no Englishman, and to put to the
 sword the garrisons  of  Conde, Valen-
 ciennes, Landrecies and Quesnoy, unless
 they immediatelysurrendered,were evaded
 by Pichegru; and on January 2,1795, with
 an army destitute of almost every  thing
 but  courage, he  crossed  the Waal and
 Meuse on the ice,  took  Grave,  Bomrnel
 island, and fort St. Andrew, by storm, and
 invested Breda.  Thus was  Holland con-
 quered, the Dutch army dispersed, the
 English obliged to embark; the hereditary
 stadtbolder fled to England, and Pichegru
 entered  Dortrecht  and  Amsterdam  in
 triumph.  The convention now conferred
 on him the chief  command  of  the  army
 of the Rhine and  Moselle ; but he retained
 at the same time the command of the ar-
 my of the north, under Moreau, and of the
 army of the Meuse, under Jourdan.  In
 April, 1795, he was recalled, to take  com-
 mand of the  capital, where  the  terrorists
 were making  their last  efforts to recover
 their power.   Having suppressed the in-
 surrection of the fauxbourgs, for which he
 was called in the convention " the savior
 of the country," he returned to the  army
 of the Rhine, where, however, his career,
 hitherto  so  brilliant,  now  took another
 turn.  He entered into negotiations with
 the  prince  Conde, through Fauche-Borel
 (q. v.), to cooperate in the restoration of
 the Bourbons.  He was promised offices
 of honor, domains and  rents.   But the
 secret was  soon  revealed  to  the French
 government   Pichegru's conduct as gen-
 eral had already excited suspicion, for, in-
 stead of improving his  advantages  over
 the  enemy, he had  retreated  when he
 should have advanced. But Montgaillard,
 an agent in the negotiations  of the Bour-
 bons with the general, in whose hands was
 the correspondence on the subject, deliv- 
PICHEGRU—PICHINCHA, BATTLE OF.
123
 ered up the papers to the directory, who,
 too weak at the moment to bring the gen-
 eral to an account, recalled  him from the
 command, in 1796, under the pretence of
 appointing him ambassador to  Sweden.
 Pichegru declined the  post  of ambas-
 sador, but was blind  enough  not to per-
 ceive  the storm which threatened him,
 and,  instead of saving  himself while it
 was still time, he retired to the abbey of
 Belli vaux, near Arbois, which he had pur-
 chased, where he lived iu narrow circum-
 stances, till March, 1797, when the electors
 of his  department  (the  Upper Saone)
 chose him representative in the legislative
 body.   Here he was  chosen president of
 the council of the five hundred ; but he
 did not abandon his secret projects.   On
 the contrary, he appeared at the head of
 he Clichy party, and incurred suspicion
 by his propositions  in relation  to  the new
organization  of the national  guards  of
 Paris, evidently intended to overthrow the
 republican party.  The  directory, in con-
 cert with the council of elders, secretly
•sent for troops from the Italian army under
 Augereau, by whose aid, Sept.  4,  1797
 (18 Fructidoi;,  year V),  the plots of  the
 royalists were "baffled,- and Pichegru, with
 his accomplices, was arrested and sent to
 the Temple.  The directory published the
 correspondence of Pichegru with the em-
 igrant Bourbons, particularly with Conde,
 part of which had been obtained through
 Montgaillard, and part found by the army
 of the Rhine under  Moreau, in the bag-
 gage of general Klingin, and, with twenty
 of his accomplices, he was condemned to
 deportation  to  Cayenne.  The prisoners
 were conveyed  by way of Blois to Roche-
 fort, where they embarked.   Having  ar-
 rived at Cayenne,  they were transported
 to the unhealthy wilderness  of Sinainari,
 where  most  of them died of  the marsh
 fever.   Pichegru and seven others suc-
 ceeded, after remaining there eight months,
 in  escaping  to Paramaribo, the capital
 of the  Dutch  colony of Surinam,  in a
 Ight boat  From this place  diey went
 to England,  where  Pichegru,  now  an
 avowed adherent of  the  Bourbons, met
 with a favorable reception, and was order-
 ed to join the Austrian and Russian army,
 under Korsakoff*.  But as  Korsakoff, to
 whom Pichegru, before the battle of Zu-
 rich, had given some useful advice, which
 was neglected, was defeated, Pichegru  re-
turned  to England, where he was often
consulted  both by the ministers and by the
French princes.  The latter,  as is well
known, flattered themselves that Bona-
parte would play the part of general Monk
 (q. v.), and restore the exiles to the throne;
 but as the grounds  for this  hope  disap-
 peared, it was resolved to put the first con-
 sul out of the way; and in the  execution
 of this plan, Pichegru and Georges Cadou-
 dal, chief of the Chouans, and inventor of
 the infernal machine, with whom Piche-
 gru had become  acquainted  in London,
 were employed.  Having been landed on
 the French coast by captain Wright, in
 January,  1804, with  several  of the old
 Vendean leaders, the  conspirators repaired
 in disguise to Paris, hoping to find there a
 party favorable to their views, and to en-
 gage Moreau  (q. v.)  in their  plans.   But
 the police (under Fetiche") discovered the
 plot, and Georges was suddenly arrested.
 Pichegru escaped his  pursuers  several
 days, but was filially  betrayed by a  mer-
 chant, with whom he had taken  refuge,
 and arrested Feb. 29,1804. He was con-
 fined in the Temple, and a process com-
 menced against him ; but he was  found
 one morning (April 6) strangled in prison.
 An  attempt was made to  fix  on the first
 consul  the stigma of having  caused the
 unhappy  man to  be tortured  and  then
 strangled ; but this  would have been a
 most wanton  act of cruelty; the ordinaiy
 legal process  would  have  resulted in his
 condemnation to death, as it was proved,
 by his own confession, that  it  had been
 the intention  of himself and  his accom-
 plices  to  make away with  the existing
 head of the state. It  is more  probable
 that, in  despair at the  failure  of a plot
 equally foolish and wicked, he committed
 suicide by strangling  himself with the silk
 handkerchief,  which  was found  about his
 neck.  His body  was publicly exposed
 the day after his death, and no  traces of
 torture could  be perceived.   His private
 character is deserving of much  praise.
 Disinterested in a high degree,  he declined
 the  gifts that were  frequently  proffered
 him, and  his  humanity to prisoners was
 exhibited  on   more than  one occasion.
 When he was  transported to Cayenne, he
 was so poor that his friends were obliged
 to sell  his effects,  to  procure him money
 for his voyage.  Montgaillard  published a
 Mtmoire concernant la Trahison de  Piche-
gru  dans les Annies 3, 4 et 5  (1795,1796
 und 1797), which contains many disclo-
 sures with respect to his negotiations with
 the Bourbons.
  Pichincha,  the Battle of, was fought
 near the celebrated volcano of tins name,
 May 24, 1822, between the  Colombians
 under general  Sucre,  and the  Spaniards,
 assembled for the defence of Quito.  Su-
 cre succeeded iu gaining the vicinity of the 
124
PICHINCHA, BATTLE OF—PICKENS.
capital, and turniug the left flank of the
Spanish army stationed near it, by marching
over the frozen summits of Cotopaxi, and
sleeping on the  mountains.   In conse-
quence of this  and several successive dar-
ing  movements  of Sucre,  the  royalists
found it necessary to hazard a battle, and
sustained a total defeat  Quito  and  the
Spanish forces capitulated the next day,
and the patriots thus became possessed of
the entire presidency, with all the Spanish
magazines  and stores; and  the  road  to
Peru was left open to Bolivar.
  Pichler, or Pickler,  John Antho-
ny,  and John (father  and  son);  two
artists, celebrated for their skill  in gem-
sculpture.  The father was boru at Brixen,
in Tyrol, in 1700, and  died at Rome,  in
1779, with  the reputation of having  re-
stored this art to a high degree of perfec-
tion, which had sunk entirely since the
times of the ancients.   His son was born
at Naples, in 1734, and excelled his father.
His Hercules struggling with the Nenue-
an Lion, his Leander and his Achilles, are
master-pieces,  acknowledged as such by
all connoisseurs, and esteemed very nearly
equal to the most perfect works of an-
tiquity.  Pichler lived in Rome, where he
saw the emperor  Joseph II, who raised
him  to the  rank of nobility, and wished
him to live in Vienna with a decent salary ;
but Pichler refused this  offer, as well  as
several invitations to go to  England.  He
died  at Rome, in 1791, where J. G. de'
Rossi pubhshed a biography, subsequently
translated   by  Boulard  and Millin  into
French, and published in the Magazin En-
cyclopidique, with notes by Dufourny.   A
bust  of Pichler, made by Chr.  Hevestou,
was placed in the Pantheon.
  Pick-Axe ;  an axe   composed  of a
wooden handle, and an iron head, which
has two slightly curved prongs,  situated
on each side of the handle, and  forming
one piece.  The pick-axe is  employed in
loosening  the  soil, in  picking  out pave-
ment, &c.
  Pickens, Andrew, a distinguished rev-
olutionary   officer,  was  born  Sept  13,
1739,  in Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania.
Before his arrival at the age of manhood,
his family  emigrated to South Carolina.
In the  French war, which  terminated in
1763, he made  his first campaigns, having,
amongst other services, accompanied,  in
1761, the  expedition  under  lieutenant-
colonel  Grant, against the Cherokees, as
a volunteer, in conjunction with Marion
and Moultrie.  At the commencement of
the revolution,  he was  appointed a cap-
tain  of militia, and throughout the  war
displayed the utmost  courage, skill and
zeal, and rose by  regular and  rapid de-
grees to the  rank of brigadier-general.
During the period when South Carolina
was overrun  by  the  enemy,   and the
American cause  in that quarter wore the
gloomiest aspect, he was one of those who
indefatigably kept  up the spirit  of resist-
ance.  His  principal  services  were—in
an  expedition which he commanded iu
1781, against  the  Cherokees, whom he
completely subdued in  a few days, with
an  inconsiderable  force,  at Kettle creek,
where he defeated a large body of tories
under colonel Boyd,  with half their force,
and secured the internal peace of the
country for  a considerable time, by thus
breaking the strength of that party—and
at the battle of Cowpens, where he com-
manded  the  militia, whom  (what  had
never before been effected with militia)
he rallied after they had been broken and
compelled to retreat, and brought a second
time into action.  He  contr.'juted  much
to the final surrender of the enemy, and
congress  voted  him a sword.   At the
battle of the  Eutaw springs, he  com-
manded,  with Marion, the militia of the
two Carolinas, but in the early part  of the
action, he received  a severe  wound in his
breast by a musket ball;  which was pre-
vented, however, from being mortal by
the ball striking  the buckle of his sword.
After the conclusion of peace he was em-
ployed in various  civil  capacities.  He
was one of the  commissioners  who ac-
complished die  treaty  of Hopewell widi
the Cherokees, by  which that portion of
die state now called Pendleton and Green-
ville was acquired.  Soon afterwards he
settled at Hopewell.  He was a member
of the legislature,  and  afterwards of the
convention which  formed  the state con-
stitution.   Under the new constitution, he
again occupied  a  seat  in  the legislature
until 1794, when lie was sent to congress.
In that year also,  when the  militia  was
first organized conformably to the  act of
congress, he  was  appointed  one of the
two major-generals, but resigned his com-
mission after a few years. He declined a re-
election  to congress, and again  became a
member of the legislature, in which he con-
tinued until  about  1801.  In that year he
withdrew from  public  life.   In all the
treaties which had  been made previously
with the southern  Indians, he  had been
employed by the U. States as a  commis-
sioner, and  on  one  occasion  president
Washington had requested his attendance
at Philadelphia,  to consult with him on
the practicability and best means of civil- 
PICKENS—PICROMEL.
125
 *.zmg that  people.  He continued in  re-
 tirement until 1812, when he accepted a
 seat in the  legislature, the country being
 then  involved  in a  war with  England.
 He was also solicited to serve as governor,
 butjie declined.  He died October  11,
 1817, after a long life, in which he had
 enjoyed almost uninterrupted health, in
 consequence of the natural excellence of
' his constitution, combined with early and
 constant temperance and activity.  His
 character was marked by simplicity, de-
 cision and prudence.  His taciturnity was
' remarkable.  Throughout his  whole ca-
 reer, he was  distinguished for a scrupu-
 lous performance of every duty.
   Pickering, Timothy, colonel, was born
 in Salem (Mass.), July 17, 1745, of a  re-
 spectable  family.  He was  graduated at
 Harvard college in 1763, and, after die
 usual course  of professional  studies,  was
 admitted to  the practice  of the law.
 When the dissensions between the colonies
 and the mother country commenced, he
 soon became the champion and leader of
 the whigs of the quarter where he lived. He
 wasa member of all the committees of in-
 spection and correspondence, and bore the
 entire burthen of writing.   The address
 which, in 1774, the inhabitants of Salem,
 in full town-meeting, voted to governor
 Gage on the occasion of the Boston iiort-
 bill, proceeded  from his  pen.   A part of
 it, disclaiming any wish, on the part of the
 inhabitants of Salem, to profit by the clos-
 ing of the port of Boston, is  quoted by
 doctor  Ramsay,  in  his  History  of the
 American Revolution.  In April, 1775, on
 receiving intelligence of the battle of Lex-
 ington,  he marched, with the regiment of
 which he was at the time commander, to
 Charlestown,  but had not an opportunity
 of coming to action.  Before the close of
 the same year, when the provisional gov-
 ernment was organizing,  he was appoint-
 ed one of the judges of the court of com-
 mon  pleas for Essex, bis native  county,
 and sole judge of  the  maritime court
 (which  had cognizance of all prize causes)
 for the  middle  district, comprehending
 Boston, with Salem and the  other ports in
 Essex.   These offices he held until he ac-
 cepted an appointment in the  army.  In
' 1777, he was named  adjutant-general by
 Washington, and joined the  army then at
 Middlebrook, New Jersey.  He continued
 with the commander-in-chief until  the
 American forces went into winter quarters
 at Valley Forge,  having  been  present at
 the battles of Brandywine and German-
 town.  He then  proceeded to discharge
 the duties of a member of the continental
                   11*
board of war, to which he had been elect-
ed by congress, then sitting at Yorktown
(Penn.).  In this station he remained until
he  was appointed  to succeed  general
Greene in  the  office  of  quarter-master-
general, which he retained during the resi-
due of the war, and in which  he contrib-
uted much  to the surrender of Cornwallis
at Yorktown.   From 1790  to  1794, he
was  charged  by president Washington
with several negotiations with the Indian
nations on our frontiers.  In 1791,  he was
also  made   postmaster-general, and,  in
1794, removed from that station to the scc-
retariship of war, on  the resignation of
general Knox.  In 1795, he was appoint-
ed secretary of state in the place  of Mr.
Randolph.   From that office  he was re-
moved by president Adams, in May, 1800.
At the end  of the year 1801, he returned
to Massachusetts.  In 1803, the legislature
of that state chose  him a  senator  to con-
gress for the residue of the term ofDwight
Forster, Esq., who had resigned, and,  in
1805, reelected him to the same station for
the term of six years. After its expiration in
1811, he was chosen by  the legislature a
member of the executive council; and, dur-
ing the war of 1812, he was appointed a
member of the  board of war  for  the de-
fence of the state.   In 1814, he was sent to
congress, and held his seat until  March,
1817.  He  then finally retired to  private
life.  His death took place January 29,1829,
in the eighty-fourth year of his age.  In his
manners, colonel Pickering was plain and
unassuming.  In public  life, he was dis-
tinguished for energy, ability and disinter-
estedness ;  as a soldier, he was brave and
patriotic ; and his writings bear ample tes-
timony to his talents and information.  He
was one of the leaders of the federal party
in the  U. States.
  Pickets,  in fortification; sharp stakes,
about three feet long, sometimes shod with
iron, used in laying out ground ; but when
used for pinning the fascines of a battery,
they are from three to five feet long.   In
the artillery, pickets five  or six feet long
are used to pin the  park lines; in  the
camp,  they are used  about six or eight
inches long to fix  the tent-cords, or five
feet long in the cavalry camp to fasten the
horses.
  Pickle-Herring.  (See Haitequin.)
  Pico ; one of the Azores, so called from
a very high mountain, terminating, like
Teneriffe, in a peak.  (See Azores.)
  Pico della Mirandola.  (See  Miran-
dola.)
  Picquet.  (See Piquet.)
  1'icromel; the characteristic principle 
126                     PICROMEL—PICTURESQUE.
of bile, and named from two Greek words,
signifying bitter and honey, in allusion to its
sharp, bitter and sugared taste.  If  sul-
phuric acid, diluted with five parts of wa-
ter, be  mixed with fresh bile, a yellow pre-
cipitate will fall. On  heating the mixture,
leaving it to repose, and decanting off the
clear part, what remains is a compound
of  picromel and sulphuric acid.  It is
edulcorated with water, and digested with
carbonate of barytes, die result of which
is that  the picromel is liberated and  left
dissolved  in the water.  On evaporating
the water, the  picromel  is obtained in  a
solid state.  It resembles inspissated bile.
Its color is greenish-yellow.  It affords no
ammonia  by its  destructive  distillation;
hence the absence of nitrogen is inferred,
and the peculiarity of picromel.
  Picrotoxia (meaning a bitter poison) is
the peculiar principle of cocculus indicus.
When  separated from the coloring matter
and other substances with which it exists
in the berries of this plant, it presents it-
self in four-sided crystals, of a white color
and an ititensely bitter taste.  Alcohol dis-
solves one third of its weight of picrotoxia.
It is soluble in 25 times its weight of water.
Pure sulphuric ether dissolves two fifths of
its weight.   It is soluble, likewise, in other
acids, and may therefore be regarded as
a vegeto-alkaline principle.  M. Casaseca
thinks  that it is not a  vegetable alkali, but
merely a peculiar bitter vegetable principle.
  Pictet, Marcus Augustus, a naturalist,
born at Geneva, in  1752, was the pupil
and  friend  of the celebrated  Saussure,
whom  he succeeded  as professor of phi-
losophy, in 1786.  Pictet, after the incor-
poration of Geneva with the French re-
public, was one of the  fifteen appointed
to manage the public debt and  the fund
for the  support of the Protestant church.
In 1803, he became  secretary  of the tri-
bunate, as a member of which he exerted
himself particularly in extending die free-
dom of trade, and in improving and lay-
ing out roads and canals.  In 1807, on the
abolition of that body, Napoleon appoint-
ed him one of the fifteen general inspect-
ors of  the imperial  university.  In con-
nexion with his brother Charles, and Mau-
rice, mayor of Geneva,  he established, in
1796, the Bibliotheque Britannique, a peri-
odical which, since 1816,  has been issued
under the name of Bibliotheque Universelle.
In 1803, Pictet travelled iu the British isles,
and, after his  return, published his Voy-
age de trois Mois en Angleterre, en Ecosse
d en Irlande.   He was the author of sev-
eral  other works, chiefly  on  physical,
mathematical and agricultural subjects.
  Pictoc ;  a thriving commercial town
in the northern part of Nova Scotia.  The
first house was built in 1790.  In 1827, it
contained 1439 inhabitants.  It is the re-
sort of coasters from all parts of the gulf
of  St.  Lawrence, the  eastern shores  of
Prince  Edward's island,  and the  north
coast of Cape Breton.  The  coal-mines
in its vicinity are very extensive, and the
coal is excellent   Iron is also found, and
manufactured in  small  quantities.   The
harbor is capacious,  and easy of access.
There is no other town in Nova Scotia,
except Halifax, so well situated for trade.
  Picts.  (See Scots.)
  Picts' Wall;  an ancient wall built by
the  Romans to defend  the Britons from
the  incursions of the Scots and Picts, from
Carlisle to Newcastle.   It was first  built
of earth, by  the emperor  Adrian, in 123,
afterwards  of stone by  Severus, and, in
430, rebuilt of brick by Aetius, the Ro-
man general.  It was eight feet  high,
twelve  thick, and nearly   100 miles  in
length.  There are still some remains vis-
ible in  the  counties of Northumberland
and Cumberland.
  Pictures, Living,  or Tableaux Vi-
vans.  After attitudes (q. v.) had become
a peculiar study (see Hamilton, Lady), the
imitation of the attitudes of statues or pic-
tures by living persons became very  pop-
ular, and  it was  but  one step farther to
give to living persons the appearance of a
picture.  A frame is made of sufficient
width, covered with gauze, behind which
the  persons stand in their proper attitudes,
either invented by an artist (e. g. from the
striking descriptions of a poet), or  taken
from celebrated  historical  pictures, gay
or grave.  Living pictures are particularly
popular in Germany, where they are some-
times exhibited on the  theatre with the
necessary preparations, much more often,
however, in families on  birth-days and
similar festive occasions, and are a source
of great and refined amusement
  Picturesque,   in  the  most  general
meaning of the word, denotes every thing
proper for  painting; that  is to say, such
objects  as present a variety of tints, the
charm  of light and chiaro  scuro, &c.  It
is particularly applied to  wild, romantic
scenery.  The word  is easily transfer-
red  from the subject  to  the  treatment;
and we call  a picture which  satisfies the
claims  of  art, is  perfect in  its grouping,
represents a charming whole, &c, pictu-
resque.  This word,  too,  like numerous
other terms used in painting, is applied to
the  art of describing and representing by
the  pen; and  a book of travels is called 
PICTURESQUE—P1EDM0NTESE  REVOLUTION.          127
puiuresque  if it represents  a variety of
things and  scenes in a lively and forcible
manner.  Picturesque,  too, is often appli-
ed, at least in French, to liooks of this
Bort, when accompanied with illustrative
designs, as  in the common title Voyage
pittoresque.  In the theory of the arts, the
word picturesque is used as contradistin-
guished to poetic and plastic.  The poeti-
cal has reference to the fundamental  idea
to be  represented,—to the painter's con-
ception of his subject; whilst the pictu-
resque relates to the mode of expressing
the conception, the grouping, the distribu-
tion of objects, persons and lights.  The
poetical part of a  picture,  as well as its
mechanical  execution,  may be without
fault, and yet the picture a total failure, as
regards the picturesque.
   Picus, an old soothsayer, or wood-deity,
in Italy, sou of Saturn and father of Fau-
nus, was beloved by thesorceressCVrce, who
changed him intoa woodpecker because he
would not return her passion.  His wife,
Canens, pined away into air from grief
Picus was represented with the head of a
woodpecker, and presided overdivination.
   Piedmont ; a principality and principal
province  of  the  Sardinian  monarchy,
from which it was separated by the French
in 1798, and, in 1802, incorporated with
France.  (See Sardinian Monarchy.)   On
the fall of Napoleon (1814), it was restored
to the king  of Sardinia,  and the duchies
of Milan (the Sardinian  part) and Mout-
ferrat   have been united with  it.  It is
now   divided into twenty-six  districts.
Piedmont, in a narrower sense, borders
on the Valais and  Savoy to the north, on
France to the west, on Nizza and Genoa to
die south, and on the Sardinian  Milanese
and Montferrat to the east  Within these
Omits, it contains a population of 1,400,000,
on a superficial area of 6575 square miles ;
including  the Sardinian Milanese  and
Montferrat, it has a population of 2,322,000
on 12,000 square miles. Piedmont has
its name (pie di  monte, foot of the moun-
tain) from  its situation, at the foot of the
Pennine  Alps (in  which are  the  lofty
Montrosa and the Great Bernard) on the
north, and of the Graianand Cottian Alps
(including Montblanc,  the Little Bernard,
Montcenis and Monteviso) towards France
and Savoy.   The principal river is the Po
(q. v.), which flows down from these moun-
tains, and receives all the  rivers of the
province; the Doria, Stura and Sesia from
 the left, and the Vraita, Maira and Tauaro
 from  the  right   Ou  the  south  lie the
 Maritime  Alps, separating Genoa and
 Nizza from Piedmont.   To the north and
west it is covered with high mountainous
chains, from  which less  elevated ridges
shoot off, and terminate, in the central part,
in plains.  This portion, which is watered
by the Po, and which  is composed of an
agreeable variety of hill, plain and valley,
is the most fertile part, and is in a state of
high cultivation, yielding coin, wine, oil,
fruits, rice and hemp.  The breeding of
the silkworm is carried to such extent in
no other part of Italy, and produces yearly
22,000,000 lire worth of silk, most of which
is exported raw.  The northern, western
and southern districts supply the central
region with wood.   The Piedmontese are
industrious and frugal, and are all Catho-
lics, excepting 20,000 Waldenses.   (See
Chateauvieux's Letters on Italy.)  They
have some silk, linen and woollen manu-
factures, and thousands of them  are seen
travelling about Italy, France and Germa-
ny, as pedlars.  Their language is a mix-
ture of the  French and Italian.   The
capital of Piedmont is  Turin, (q. v.)
  Piedmontese Revolution. When the
house of Savoy was restored, in 1814, to
its  possessions on  the mainland of Italy,
it understood not how to  act  under the
existing circumstances.  Salutary regula-
tions, which had been introduced during
the period of the  French dominion, were
annulled,  and oppressive  ones  retained.
French and  Sardinian forms conflicted,
because the officers of the old and of the
new organizations did  not understanil one
another.   The course  of justice was arbi-
trarily  interrupted,  and the  greatot  dis-
satisfaction was created by the character
of the French military police.  This state
of things induced several men of the high-
est classes to aim, in imitation of France,
at a constitutional  form of government
for Savoy, Piedmont and Genoa.   The
events  in Spain, Portugal and Naples in-
creased the  excitement   Austria  was
making preparations against Naples, and
die  resistance expected  there  incr ased
the hopes of the Addfi and Federati for
Italian independence.   The friends of the
constitutional system  and the enemies of
the Ultramontanists formed a combination
for obtaining, by force, a freer  form of
government   Thus, at the end  of  Feb,
1821, a conspiracy arose  among the no-
bility and officers.  Through the influ-
ence of the Spanish ambassador to Turin,
the chevalier Bardaxi, the Spanish consti-
tution became the watch-word of the dis-
affected, though some preferred the sys-
tem of two chambers and the French con-
stitution.   It was  the  intention < f the
conspirators to choose the prince of Cari- 
128
PIEDMONTESE REVOLUTION.
gnano, their chief.   The revolution broke
out, March  10, among several regiments
at  Fossano, Tortona  and  Alessandria,
The  conspirators had  gained  over  the
common soldiers by the rumor that Aus-
tria required the disbanding of the nation-
al army,  and  designed  to  occupy  the
principal  fortresses  of Piedmont with
Austrian  troops.   Alessandria  was  the
focus of the  revolution.   On the 11th, the
cry of rebellion, and " Huzza for the king
and the Spanish constitution!" was heard
in Turin.  On the 12th, some officers open-
ed to the Federati and the students  the
citadel of Turin. The people now, for the
first time,  joined in the cry  "Huzza for
the king!  Huzza for the Spanish constitu-
tion ! War  on  the  Austrians!" On  the
13th, king Victor Emmanuel resigned the
crown, and,  in the absence of his succes-
sor (his  brother Felix, duke of Genevois,
who  was  then  at  Modena), appointed
prince Charles Albert of Carignano regent.
All the  ministers received  their dismis-
sion. The state-prisoners were set at liber-
ty, and  the  Carbonaria triumphed in a!!
places, with the exception of Nizza, whith-
er Victor  Emmanuel repaired, and  of
Savoy.  On  the evening of the 13th, the
regent found himself compelled,  at  the
demand of the deputies of Turin, to pro-
claim the adoption of the Spanish consti-
tution, on condition, however, of the royal
consent.   He swore to it on die  14th,  but
with a reservation of the former order of
succession, and of toleration  towards all
religions, besides the changes to  be made
by a national  parliament and the  king.
He appointed, at the same time, a new
ministry, and, on the 16th, a supreme jun-
ta.  Savoy was comparatively  little affect-
ed by the revolution.  It excited, howev-
er, much interest iu  Lombardy, and some
young men from Milan and Pavia hasten-
ed to Alessandria and Turin.   Meanwhile,
the emperor of Austria at Laybach  had
ordered, on the 14th, that an army should
advance to the frontiers of Piedmont, and
Alexander  caused   90,000  Russians to
march from Volhynia to Italy; but, the in-
surrection  being speedily  quieted, they
halted in Galicia.  The duke of Genevois
proclaimed at Modena, on the  16th,  all
that had been done since the abdication
of his brother,  null and void, and plac-
ed  the  count Salieri  della Torre, gov-
ernor of Novara, at the head of  the royal
troops, to put down the insurgents.  This
proclamation deprived the junta of cour-
age and energy.  In Turin, however,  the
insurgents maintained  their  influence ;
the Austrian ambassador  was obliged to
depart; an army was assembled to occu-
py  Lombardy,  and, on  the 21st, the re-
gent, the prince of Carignano, appointed
the count of Santa Rosa minister of war.
But that same night  the  prince fled to
Novara, whence he repaired to the Aus-
trian head quarters, then to Modena,  and
thence (as  the duke of Genevois forbade
him the court) to  Florence.  He  remain-
ed in retirement till 1823, when he fought
as a volunteer in the French army against
Spain, after which he returned to Turin.
He bad  formally renounced the regency
on  the  23d.  The minister of war ven-
tured on the  most daring  steps.  In  the
orders issued March 23, he declared that
the king was to be regarded as a prisoner
of  Austria;  all the  Piedmontese  were
called to arms; the  Lombards, he said,
would join them,  and France would  not
refuse its assistance.   In Genoa,  where
the governor, count Desgeneix attempted,
on  the 21st, to restore  the old order of
things, a part of the people  and troops, on
the 23d, maintained by force the Spanish
constitution.  But die news  of the  de-
struction of the Neapolitan army in  the
Abruzzi quelled the courage of the  insur-
gents.   Under  these  circumstances (ac-
cording  to  Santa  Rosa's  account),  the
Russian minister at Turin, count of Mo-
cenigo,  suggested  an  amicable  media-
tion : " no Austrian was to enter Piedmont;
full amnesty might be hoped for,and even
a constitution."  The junta accepted  the
proposition, but it was rejected  by  the
conspirators in  Alessandria.  Meanwhile,
at the request of the duke of Genevois, an
Austrian corps  under count Bubna had
approached the frontiers.  April 8, Bub-
na formed a junction with the royal army
at Novara.  A battle took place, and  the
insurgents,  after a  brave  resistance of
seven hours,  were wholly dispersed  on
the bridge over  the Agona.  The victors
advanced,  without  opposition,  towards
Turin.   The  junta,  therefore,  separated
on the 9th.   Count Santa Rosa evacuated
the citadel,  and, on the 10th, Della Tone,
the royal commander, entered Turin.  On
the 11th and  following days,  the Austri-
ans took possession, without resistance, of
the citadels of Alessandria,  Voghera, Tor-
tona, Casale, Vereelli,  Stradella and Va-
lenza.  ,In  consequence of the treaty of
Novara, of July 14, 1821,  the Sardinian
government paid 300,000 francs monthly,
for  12,000  men, besides furnishing their
provision.   The number  of the foreign
garrison troops  was subsequently dimin-
ished to 5000 men; and after the treaty of
Verona,  of Dec. 14, 1822, the last evacua- 
PIEDMONTESE REVOLUTION—PIERROT.
129
toon—that of Alessandria—took place, Oct.
31, 1823.   The restoration of the absolute
authority  of the  king ensued,  April  10.
The duke of Genevois, however,  did not
assume the regal dignity  till his brother,
by the declaration of Nizza, of April 18,
persisted  in  his abdication.  The insur-
gents fled, some through  Switzerland to
France, some embarked  in  Genoa  for
Spain.  The property of sixty-five per-
sons who had fled was confiscated, aud
July 19, Aug. 10 and 23, 1821, twenty-
one  were condemned to  be  hanged  for
high treason, and their property to be con-
fiscated.   The rest, likewise twenty-one,
were sentenced to  the  galleys.   Of the
whole, however, but dikteen were arrest-
ed, among whom were two of tiiose con-
demned to be hanged.  Of these, one was
executed at Genoa, and the other banish-
ed, because he had, on his flight, been
driven to Monaco by a tempest.  At the
*>ame time, the king issued from Piacenza
rigorous prohibitions  of  secret societies,
and two decrees of amnesty, with many
exceptions.  Oct 17, 1821, he  made  his
entry into Turin.—Concerning  the  revo-
lution of Piedmont, see the Trente Jours de
Revolution en PUmont, by  an eye-witness
(Lyons, 1821); Pre'cis Histor.  sur les Re'-
volut. des Roy. de Naples et de Piemont, en
1820  et 1821, par M. le  Conde D.  The
Hist, de la Re'valut. de Piem., by Alphonso
de Beauchamp (Paris,  1821),  contains
much that is false.  The  Simple Re"cit des
Evdnemens arrives en Piem., dans le Mois de
Mars et d'Avril, 1824, par  un Officicr Pti-
montais,  is not impartial.  Count  San-
torre de Santa Rosa, one of the opponents
of the government, wrote, hi France,  De
la Revolution Piemontaise  (3me idti., aug-
menUe de Notes et de VAnalyse  de  la Con-
stitut. Sicilienne, Paris, 1822).
   Pieno (Italian, full); a word often used
for tutti, grande,  or grossi;  and  some-
times with choro, as, pieno choro (a full
chorus); sometimes employed in a vehe-
ment or energetic sense.
   Piepowder Court.   (See  Courts of
England.)
   Pierian ; an epithet given to the muses,
from mount Pierus, in Thessaly, which
was sacred to them, or from their victory
over the nine daughters of the Macedo-
nian king Pierus, who were changed into
magpies for having  dared to engage in a
contest with them.
   Pierides was also one of their designa-
tions, for the same reasons.
   Pierre, Jacques  Bernardin  Henri de
Saint,  one  of  the  most  jngenious and
feeling philosophical French writers, bora
at Havre, in 1737, was, in his twelfth
year, so disgusted  with the restraints of
school, that  he sailed with his uncle  to
Martinico.  After his return, which was
hastened by  home-sickness, he entered
the engineer school at Paris, and went to
Malta in the capacity  of an  officer.  A
duel obliged  him to flee, and he received
the place of sub-lieutenant of engineers
in the service of Catharine II, which he
resigned after eighteen months.  He next
served with the French party  in Poland,
was made prisoner by the  Russians, re-
leased, and,  after residing in  Warsaw,
Dresden, Berlin and Vienna, returned  to
Paris.  He obtained a commission  in the
engineer  corps, stationed in the Isle de
France, but in two years threw up his
commission, on account of some disputes
in which  he  became  involved, and re-
turned to France.  Here begins his  litera-
ry life. He divided his small pension with
his mother,  and, in 1773, published his
Voyage a VIsle de France.  In 1784 ap-
peared his  Eludes de  la Nature.   Louis
XVI now appointed him superintendent
of the botanical garden and of the museum
of natural history.   His Paul et Virginie
(1788) passed through fifty impressions in
one year, and has been translated into almost
all the languages of Europe (English by
Helen Maria Williams).  Napoleon con-
ferred on him the order of the  legion of
honor, and Joseph Bonaparte granted him
a pension of 6000 francs.  St. Piene was
also the author of La Cliaumihc Indienne,
Harmmmes de la Nature, and several other
works.  His (Euvres appeared at Brussels,
hi 8 vols.  He died Jan. 21,1814,  at his
estate near Paris.  Aime Martin has writ-
ten an Essay on the Life and Writings of
Bernardin de St Pierre (Paris, 1820), and
edited his works, in 12 vols., 8vo.
   Pierre, St. ; a small island belonging
to France, near the southern  coast of
Newfoundland ; lat 46° 46' N.; lon. 56°
9' 27" W.   The  inhabitants, in   1831
1025 in number, are engaged in the cod
fishery.   The  colony  of St  Pierre and
Miquelon is under an  officer residing in
St. Pierce, called the commandant and ad-
ministrator.  These islands are also fish-
ing stations  for the French vessels en-
gaged in the fishery in this  region, the
number of which,  in 1825, was nineteen.
They are important to France, as  being
the only possessions which she retains  iu
these  latitudes.
   Pierrot ; a comic mask on the French
theatre, a mixture of the harlequin  (q. v.)
and the pulchinello. (q.  v.)  He is dressed
like the latter, and is facetious like the for- 
130                         PIERROT—PIGEON.
mer.  With the Italians, he is a simpleton
and servant.  (See Masks.)
  Piete,  Mont  de.   (See  Lombard-
House.)
  Pietism, in  German theology.   The
name of pietists was originally applied, in
derision, to some  young teachers of the-
ology at Leipsic, who began, in 1089, to
deliver ascetic lectures on the New Testa-
ment (collegia philobiblica, or collegia pie-
tatis) to the students and  citizens.  The
idea of imparting theological instruction in
a popular way, came from their friend and
teacher Spener (the German Fenelon), who
had  held religious meetings in Frankfort
from  the year 1670, at which the laity
prayed,  and were  allowed to ask ques-
tions, &c.  The theology of the Lutherans,
at that time,  had become stiff and dog-
matical, attacking  unsparingly all other
systems, and making the essence of the-
ology to consist in doctrines.   Spener and
his friends were desirous of reestablishing
a Christianity of love and charity,  which
should manifest itself in the life of the in-
dividual.  The governments, however, in
several places, soon prohibited such assem-
blies, and in some cases, they may, in fret,
have  given  rise to  disorders.   Pietksm,
however, did not expire ; on the contrary,
the practical principle  that a pious litb
was better than  erudition, gave  it much
success.  An austere, often sombre, mo-
rality, a belief in  a  sudden regeneration
by the  operation of divine grace, private
meetings for religious exercises,  &c, dis-
tinguished the pietists, though they never
formed  a separate sect.  But, like the sys-
tems of so many sects, originating  from a
sincere desire for some better means  of
quenching a religious thirst than the dog-
mas of the established church afforded, pie-
tism, in many cases, degenerated by degrees
into an ill-regulated religious excitement
The Jansenism and  quietism of France,
and  the Metliodism  of England,  sprang
from sources similar to those  of the Ger-
man pietism, and  in the present struggle
in Gennany, between the  rationalists and
supernaturalists, the feelings and  views of
the contending  parties, though their rela-
tive standing is different,  are much con-
nected with those  of the pietists and the
adherents  to  the established  doctrines.
(See Spener.)
   Pietola ; a village on the Mincio (q. v.),
about two miles from Mantua, according
to the traditions of the neighborhood the
birth-place of Virgil, which Silius Italicus
calls  Andes.  A grotto  in the vicinity is
called Virgil's grotto.   The  French laid
out a public garden  here, in which they
intended to erect a statue of the poet; but
it was destroyed during the second siege
of Mantua.  The claims of Pietola to this
honor are, however, rendered doubtful by
the latest investigations.  (See Virgil.)
  Pietro di Cortona. (See Cortona.)
  Pigafetta,  Antonio, the  companion
of Magellan, and the historian of his dis-
coveries, was born at Vicenza, towards the
end of  the  fifteenth centuiy.   Inflamed,
by reading the accounts of the Spanish
and Portuguese discoveries, with a desire
of visiting distant parts, he studied the
mathematical  sciences  and   navigation;
and when Magellan (q. v.) was sent out, by
Charles V, to search for a western passage
to the Moluccas, in consequence of the
dispute  between Spain and  Portugal con-
cerning the line of demarkation (q. v.)
between their respective possessions (see
Alexander VI),  Pigafetta obtained leave to
accompany  him.  He sailed from  Seville
Sept. 20,1519,  and returned to that port
Sept.  8, 1522,  having  been the first  to
circumnavigate the  world.   He kept a
journal of the voyage, of which  Ramusio
gives an abstract in the first volume of his
collection, and of which a  complete edi-
tion was first published by Amoretti (q. v.),
who discovered a copy  in the  Ambrosian
library.
  Pigalle, Jean Baptiste, a sculptor, born
at Paris in 1714, son of a  carpenter, was
the pupil of Lemoine and Lemayne, and,
by  the assistance of some friends, was
enabled  to  visit Italy.  After  spending
three years in Italy, be returned to France,
and executed  a  Mercury  and a  Venus,
which were presented to the king of Prus-
sia (1748), by  Louis XV.   In 1744, Pi-
galle had been  received into the academy
of painting  and sculpture, and, in 1756,
he  was employed to complete the monu-
ment to  marshal Saxe.  His reputation
was now established,  and Bouchardon
(q. v.)  iutrusted to him  the completion of
Lis celebrated  equestrian  statue  in  the
Place  Louis XV.  His last work was a
girl pulling  a  thorn from  her foot; this
statue,  and  another representing a boy
holding a cage, from which the bird had
escaped,  were much  admired  for  their
beauty and tenderness.   Pigalle, who had
been  appointed sculptor to the king, and
honored with  the order of St Michael,
died in 1785.
   Pigeon (columba).  The domestic pigeon
is supposed to  be derived from the canas,
or stock-dove ; it has been the companion
of  man from  a very   early period; the
varieties,  however, known to the Greeks,
were very few, but were greatly increased 
PIGEON—PIGMENTS.
131
among  the  Romans, with  whom  the
breeding of these  birds was  quite a sci-
ence.  The same  attention to  them has
continued in some modern nations, and the
adepts in the art  pretend that the almost
innumerable varieties may be  bred  to a
feather.  The names bestowed on  these
varieties are indicative of their peculiari-
ties, as, tumblers, croppers, carriers, runts,
&c.  In their wild state, the  pigeon tribe
live on  high trees, generally  in flocks.
They feed on seed, though sometimes on
fruit, retaining their food  in the crop for
some time.  The greater proportion of the
species build on elevated situations, form-
ing a loose nest of small  twigs, and wide
enough to contain  both sexes; the female
lays two eggs, several times a year.   They
feed their young by regurgitating the food
contained  in  the  crop.   They pair for
life, though they assemble in flocks.  They
have no song, their note  being a simple
cooing.  The external characters of the
genus  are  a weak,  slender and straight
bill; short  legs, with no  distinct mem-
brane between the toes; tail with twelve
feathers; they walk well, and fly  with
great swiftness,  continuing on  the wing
for a long time.  They are found in every
part of the world, but the species are most
numerous in  warm  climates.   Of all the
varieties of the pigeon, the most remark-
able for its attachment to its native place
is the messenger or carrier. This is distin-
guished from the others  by a broad circle
of naked white skin round the eyes, and
by its  dark blue or blackish color.  They
obtained their  name from  the circum-
stance  of their being used to convey let-
ters from one place to another.  The bird
is  brought, for  this purpose,  from the
place  wlu re  it  is intended to convey the
information ; a letter is tied under its wing,
and it is set at liberty; and, from some in-
conceivable  instinct, it  directs its  flight,
 in a straight line, to the  very  spot from
 whence it  had been taken.  (See Carrier
 Pigeon.)   There are several  species of
 pigeons found in the U. States, the most
 numerous of which is  the C.  migratoria,
 passenger or wild pigeon.  This is  of a
 bluish-slate color, with a white belly; the
 throat, breast and  sides  vinaceous; tail
 black, of twelve feathers,  five lateral whit-
 ish ; the female is  paler, and  her breast
 of a cinereous  brown.   These birds visit
 the different states, in innumerable  quan-
 tities,  but are more abundant in the West*
 em States.  The times of their appearance
 in Pennsylvania is early in the  spring, and
 again in autumn,  when they pass in flocks
 consisting  of thousands.  Wilson  states
that these flocks are insignificant in com-
parison to those observed in the Western
States, which abound in the favorite food
of these  birds.  They  breed  there,  and
the same author  mentions that some of
the breeding-places, as they are termed,
extend for thirty or forty  miles in extent.
They are taken by means of clap-nets,
managed by a person concealed  in a hut
composed of brush-wood.  In this way,
ten to forty or fifty dozens are  sometimes
taken at  a  sweep.  Their appearance is
also  a signal for  a general turn  out of
eveiy one that can obtain a gun.   (For a
detailed description, see Wilson, Am. Or.,
V. p. 102.)   The other American species
are,  the  C. fasciata, band-tailed pigeon ;
C. leucocephala, white-crowned pigeon;
C. Zenaida, Zenaida dove ; C. Carolinen-
sis, American turtle dove ; C. passerina,
ground dove.  (See Turtle Dove.)
   Pig Iron.   (See Iron, vol. vii, p. 72.)
   Pig of Ballast ; a  large mass of cast
iron or lead, used for ballast
   Pig of Lead ; the eighth part of a fod-
der,   amounting  to about  250  pounds
weight.
   Pigments ; materials used for imparting
color, whether by dyeing, painting,  or
otherwise.   (See  Dyeing.)  The coloring
substances used as paints are  partly arti-
ficial and partly natural productions. They
are  derived principally from the  mineral
kingdom;  and even when animal or vege-
table substances   are  used  for coloring,
they are always  united  with a  mineral
substance (an earth or an oxide), because
by themselves they have no body, which
they acquire  only by a  mixture  with a
mineral.   In  painting,  the  colors  are
ground,  and  applied by means  of some
liquid, which dries up without changing
them.  For  this  purpose different fluids
are  employed, and  the  difference of the
material used, with the method of employ-
ing  it,  has given rise to the modes of
painting in  water colors, oil  colors, in
fresco (q. v.),  in  distemper, &c.  For oil
painting (q. v.),  mineral substances are
 more suitable than  lakes prepared  with
 minerals, because the latter become dark-
 er by being mixed with oil.  The mineral
 colors all  consist of  metallic oxides, or
 salts, or of combinations of sulphur.  The
 first are less  liable to  change  than the
 others.  Among the metallic oxides used
 as pigments  are  minium and  massicot,
 from  lead;   the  ochres, burnt  sienna,
 umber,  from iron;  smalt, from cobalt.
 Among the salts, or saline metallic com-
 binations, are, white lead, Cremnitz white,
 from lead ;  Prussian blue, from iron;  ver- 
132
PIGMENTS—PIKE.
 digris,  mineral green, Brunswick green,
 from copper.   Metallic combinations con-
 taining sulphur are cinnabar (from quick-
 silver) and orpiment (from arsenic).  The
 lake colors have tin or alum for their ba-
 sis, and owe their  tint to animal or vege-
 table coloring substances.  Among them
 are the red lakes, prepared from cochineal,
 madder, and of inferior quality, from Bra-
 zil wood; the  yellow  from fustic, weld,
 &c; the brown from several other color-
 ing barks; finally, indigo, which, howev-
 er, is entirely vegetable.  In staining por-
 celain and glass, the metallic colors which
 are not  driven off by beat, and are not
 easily changeable,  are used.   Gold  con-
 taining tin gives a purple, nickel green,
 cobalt blue, iron and  manganese black,
 uranium  yellow,  chrome  green.   (On
 the subject  of painters'  pigments, their
 preparation and application, see Bouvier's
 Manuel des jeunes Artistes et Amateurs en
 Peinture (Paris, 1827\; Tingty's Painter's
 and Varnisher's Guide.)
   Pigiiv.  (See Pygmy.)
   Pik;:  (esox); a  genus of fish,  distin-
 guished  by  having only one  dorsal fin
 near  the  tail,  a long, slender body, com-
 pressed laterally, and the lower jaw  pro-
jecting beyond  the upper.  They are ex-
 tremely  voracious  and destructive,  and
 their  digestive  powers are as remarkable
 as their  voracity:  they  not only feed on
 fish, but also destroy young aquatic birds,
 &c.  They attain a great longevity, though
 many of the accounts given of the age
 which individuals  of  this  genus  have
 reached, must  be received with  great res-
 ervation.  The common pike (E. lucius^
 when  in  season, is beautifully marked
 with a mixture of green and bright yellow
 spots.  When   out  of  season,  however,
 these  colors become dull.  They grow to
 a large size, and are taken in great num-
 bers as an article of food.  Their  flesh is
 white, firm  and well tasted.  They are
 caught either in what  are termed crown
 nets,  or  by  the hook.   When  the latter
 mode  is  used, the line must  be very
 strong, and the hook fastened with wire.
 The bait  generally used is a small  fish.
 The Ohio pike (E. osseus) also attains a
 very large size, and is  exceedingly abun-
 dant  in   the western  rivers and lakes.
 This  fish presents  a formidable appear-
 ance,  being covered with bony rhomboid-
 al scales, forming a complete coat of mail.
 It is as voracious  and destructive  as the
 common species, and, like it, forms a pal-
 atable food, when not too large.
   Pike.   The  pike, in  the middle ages,
 with the cross-bow, sword and battle-axe,
 formed the chief weapons of the infantry.
 The  pike  was from sixteen to eighteen
 feet long, consisting of a pole with an iron
 point.  (See Lance.)  Men armed  with it
 were called pike-men. After the invention
 of guns, they gradually fell into  disuse,
 and,  in  factr can hardly  be considered
 very  effective arms  in modern warfare,
 unless in the bands of excited insurgents,
 or  of people fighting  for  their liberty,
 when  eveiy species  of arms is effective,
 even flails and staves, wielded  by monks.
 The Prussian Landsturm (q. v.) was arm-
 ed  with pikes in 1813, to be  used  iu  case
 no  better arms  were  to be had.   The
 Swiss  first  substituted the halberd (q. v.)
 for the pike, towards  the fifteenth century.
 For some time, every company in the ar-
 mies of Europe consisted of at  least two
 thirds  pike-men, and one third harque-
 bussiers. (q. v.)  Gustavus Adolphus, the
 great  improver of the modern art of war,
 about 1630, omitted the pike-men in some
 regiments entirely.  The invention of the
 bayonet (q. v.) drove it still  more out of
 use.
   Pike, Zebulon Montgomery,  was born
 at Lamberton, in the  state of New Jersey,
 Jan. 5, 1779.  His father was a respecta-
 ble officer  in the army of the  U. States.
 He entered the army while yet a boy, and
 served for  some time as a  cadet  in his
 father's company, which was then station-
 ed  on the  western  frontiers of the U,
 States, At an early age, he  obtained the
 commission of ensign,  and, some time
 after, that of lieutenant.   By a life of con-
 stant activity and exposure, he invigorated
 his constitution, and prepared himself for
 deeds of hardihood and adventure. When
 he entered the army, he had been instruct-
 ed  only  in  reading,  writing, and a little
arithmetic.   By his own exertions,  he ac-
 quired, almost without the aid of a mas-
ter, the French and Latin languages, the
former of which, it appears from his jour-
nal, he was able to write  and speak with
sufficient accuracy for the  purposes of
business.  To these he afterwards  added
a competent knowledge  of the Spanish,
 He also studied the  elementary branches
of mathematics, and became skilful in all
the ordinary practical applications of that
science.  He seems,  besides, to  have  had
a general curiosity, to which  no kind of
 knowledge was without interest: he read
 with avidity every book which fell  in his
 way, and thus, without any  regular plan
 of study, acquired a considerable stock of
 various information.  Soon after the pur-
 chase of Louisiana, the government of the
 U. States determined upon taking  mens- 
PIKE.                                133
Mres to explore their new territory, and
the immense tract of wilderness included
within its limits, in order to learn its geo-
graphical boundaries,  its soil  and  nat-
ural productions, the course of its  rivers,
and their fitness for the purposes of navi-
gation, and other uses of civilized life, the
numbers, character and  power  of the
tribes of Indians who inhabited  this terri-
tory, and their dispositions towards the U.
States.   With these views, while captains
Lewis and Clarke  were sent to explore
the  unknown  sources of the Missouri,
Pike was despatched, on a similar expe-
dition, for the purpose of tracing the Mis-
sissippi  to its  head.  Aug. 9, 1805, Pike
embarked at St Louis, on his first expe-
dition to the head of the  Mississippi, and
proceeded up the river, with twenty men,
in  a stout  boat, provisioned  for four
months; but they were  soon obliged to
leave their  boats, and proceed on their
journey by land, or in canoes, which they
built after leaving  their  large  boat, and
carried  with  them on  their march.  For
eight months and twenty days, they were
almost  continually  exposed to hardship
and peril, depending for provisions upon
the chase, and enduring the most piercing
cold.  They were sometimes for days to-
gether without food, and they frequently
slept without cover upon the bare earth,
or the snow, during the  inclemency of a
northern  winter.   During  this voyage,
Pike had no  intelligent  companion upon
whom he could rely for advice or aid, and
he  literally performed the duties of astron-
omer, surveyor, commanding officer, clerk,
spy, guide and hunter,  frequently preced-
ing the  party for many miles, in order to
reconnoitre, or rambling for whole days in
search of deer, or other game, for provis-
ion, and then, returning to his men in the
evening, hungry and fatigued, he  would
sit  down in the open air, to copy, by the
light of a fire, the  notes of his journey,
and to  plan the  course  of the next day.
Within  two months after his return from
this expedition, Pike was selected by gen-
eral Wilkinson for a second expedition, to
the interior of Louisiana, in order  to ac-
quire such  geographical information as
might enable government to enter into de-
finitive arrangements for a boundary line
between our newly-acquired territory and
North  Mexico.  Winter  overtook  the
party unprovided with any clothing fit to
  Erotect  them from cold and storms. Their
  orses  died, and, for  weeks, they were
obliged  to  explore their  way on  foot
through the wilderness, carrying packs of
Bixty or seventy pounds weight,  besides
   vol.  x.          12
their arms, exposed to bitter cold,  relying
solely on the produce of the chase for sub-
sistence, and often  for two or three days
altogether without food.   Several of the
men had their feet frozen, and  all, except
Pike and one other, were in some degree
injured by the cold. After a three months'
winter march, they explored their way to
what  they supposed to be  the Red river.
Here they were met by a party of Spanish
cavalry, by whom Pike was  informed, to
his great astonishment, that they were not
on  the  Red  river, but on  the  Rio del
Norte, and in the Spanish territory.  Op-
position  to this force  would have been
idle, and he reluctantly submitted to ac-
company the Spaniards to Santa Fe, to
appear before the governor.  From Santa
Fe, he was sent to the capital of the prov-
ince of Biscay, to be  examined  by  the
commandant-general, where  he was well
received, and entertained for some time,
after which he was sent on his way home,
under the escort of a strong party of horse.
He arrived, with his little band, at Natchi-
toches, July 1,1807.  The most vexatious
circumstance attending this unexpected
sequel to his expedition  was the seizure
of all his papers, except his private jour-
nal, by the Spanish government  He had
been  furnished with a complete set of
mathematical instruments, and had made
frequent and accurate  observations.  He
had thus ascertained the geographical sit-
uation of the most important points with
much precision, and had collected  materi-
als for an accurate map of a great  part of
the country which he traversed.  Pike,
upon  his return, received  the thanks of
the government, and was immediately ap-
pointed  captain, shortly after a major, and,
upon the further enlargement of the army,
in 1810, a colonel  of infantry.  A narra-
tive of his two  expeditions, accompanied
by  several valuable  original maps and
charts, was published by him,  in  octavo,
in 1810.  Immediately after  the  declara-
tion  of  war,  in 1812,  Pike was stationed
with his regiment upon the northern fron-
tier, and, upon the commencement of the
campaign of 1813, was appointed a briga-
dier-general.  He was selected to com-
mand the land  forces in an expedition
against York, the capital of Upper Cana-
da, and, April  25, sailed from Sackett's
Harbor, in the squadron commanded by
commodore Chauncey.  On  the 27th, he
arrived at York, with about 1700  chosen
men,  and immediately prepared  to land.
As soon as the debarkation commenced, a
body  of British grenadiers was  paraded
on the shore, and the Glengary fencibles, 
134                        PIKE—PILGRIMAGES.
a local force, which had been disciplined
with great care, appeared at another point
Large bodies of Indians were also seen in
different directions, while others filled the
woods which skirted the shore.  General
Sheaffe  commanded  in  person.   The
landing was effected under a heavy fire
of musketry and  rifles from the Indians
and  British.  General Pike  immediately
ordered a charge.  After a short conflict,
the enemy fled towards their works, and
the Indians dispersed  in every direction.
The whole force, being now landed and
collected, was  led on by general Pike in
person to the attack of the enemy's works.
After carrying one battery by assault, they
moved on towards the main works.  The
fire of the enemy was soon silenced  by
the artillery of the  assailants,  when  a
terrible  explosion suddenly  took  place
from  the British  magazine,  which had
been previously prepared for  this  purpose.
Large stones were thrown  in every direc-
tion with terrible  force, and scattered de-
struction and confusion among the troops.
General Pike was struck on the breast  by
a heavy stone, and  mortally wounded.
While the surgeons were  carrying him
out of the field, a tumultuous huzza was
.heard  from the  American  troops: Pike
turned his head with an anxious look  of
inquiry : he was told by a sergeant, " The
British union jack is coming down, gen-
eral—the stars are going up." He heaved
a heavy sigh, and smiled.  He was then
carried  on board the commodore's ship,
where he lingered for a few hours.  Just
before he  breathed  his last, the British
standard was brought to him: he made a
sign to have it placed under his head, and
expired without a groan.
  Pilasters.   (See Architecture, vol. i,
p. 338.)
  Pilate, Pontius, the successor of Va-
lerius Gratus in the government of Judea,
A. D. 27.  He is  said  to have been born
in Spain.  Pilate  was procurator, or pro-
positus, of Judea (Suetonius, Vespasian,^),
and, as was sometimes the case in a small
province, or in a part of a  large province,
discharged the office of a governor;  hence
he had the power of punishing  capitally
(Tacit. Anna!., xii, 23), which procurators
did not  usually possess, although  Judea
was a part of the  province of Syria.  He
endeavored to  introduce   the  Roman
standards with the image of the  emperor
into Jerusalem, in violation of the Jewish
usages, attempted to get possession of the
treasure of the temple, and  put  to death
some Galileans in the midst  of the sacri-
fices—an act which brought upon him t'ie
liostility  of Herod, tetrarch  of Galilee.
When Christ had  been  condemned to
death by the Jewish  priests, who had no
power of inflicting capital punishments, he
was carried by them  to  Pilate to be exe-
cuted.  Pilate, seeing nothing worthy of
death in him, sent him, as a  Galilean, to
Herod,  who, however, sent him back to
Pilate.   Yielding to  the clamors  of the
Jews, the Roman governor finally ordered
Jesus to be executed, but permitted Jo-
seph of Arimathea to take his body and
bury it.  Pilate  was  afterwards removed
from his office by Vitellius, prefect of Syr-
ia (A. D. 37), and, according  to tradition,
was banished  by Caligula to Gaul,  where
he is said to have died, or committed sui-
cide,  at  Vienne, A. D. 40.  The  Scala
Santa, near the church of Santa Croce, in
Rome, is said to  be formed of the twenty-
eight steps of the marble palace of  Pilate,
and the devout therefore ascend it only on
their knees.   In  the church itself is shown
the  inscription  in Greek, Hebrew  and
Latin, placed by Pilate rJn the cross.  It
is written with red lead » n cedar wood.
  Pilatre de Rozier.  (See Aeronau-
tics.)
  Pilchard (clupea pilchardus); a species
offish resembling the herring, not only in
form, but also in  its migrations and  stated
returns.  It is about nine inches in length,
with large scales: the back is bluish, and
the sides and belly  silvery;  the head is
compressed, and the mouth without teeth.
The upper angle of each of the  gills is
marked with a large  black spot.   These
fish annually appear on the English coast
during  the  summer,  and  are taken in
immense quantities.   The statements of
the numbers caught at one time are  almost
beyond belief: thus it is said that, in 1767,
there were at one time enclosed in the bay
of Ives, in Cornwall, 7000 hogsheads, or
2,450,000.  The  average amount of the
export of these fish from England is about
30,000 hogsheads.  In some years, so few
pilchards visit the coast, that great distress
is occasioned among the fishermen, who
mainly depend on the capture of these
fish for subsistence.   The dog-fish (a spe-
cies of shark) are great enemies  of the
pilchards, following  the  shoals, and de-
vouring them in  amazing numbers.
  Piles.  (See Hemorrhoids.)
  Pilgrimages.   To visit places  or ob-
jects with which interesting  associations
are connected is natural to every age and
people.  Athens or Rome, the ruins of a feu-
dal castle, or the  graves of the great or the
beloved, attract our steps and awaken our
sensibilities.   The livelier the susceptibil- 
PILGRIMAGES—PILLORY.
135
rty, the greater will be the interest  In
ages, therefore, in which feeling predomi-
nates  over  reason, this interest  will be
greater than in calmer times.  In early na-
tions, therefore, we find a strong disposition
to visit places which are hallowed by re-
ligious associations.  In  some religions,
however, this trait appears stronger than
in others, and the  visiting of holy places
is made an act of particular merit.  The
injunction of pilgrimages is common in
die religions of the East.   How important
an event is  the pilgrimage to  Mecca in
the life of a  pious  Mohammedan !  (See
Kaaba, Mecca, Hadjy, and  Mohammed.)
With the Christians, pilgrimages  became
more frequent as more honor was paid to
the relics of martyrs or saints^ and the
simple piety  of the early devotees  was
particularly gratified by visiting the sepul-
chre of the Savior, and the spots where he
had lived, taught and suffered.   The Sar-
acens permitted the Christian  pilgrims to
visit the  holy sepulchre without molesta-
tion ; but, when the rude Turks took pos-
session of Palestine, it  was very different,
and the  repeated complaints of pilgrims
returning from  Jerusalem  occasioned
the excitement which led  to the crusades.
(q. v.)  Pilgrimages were performed in
the middle ages to many different places.
Some spots,  however, attracted a much
larger concourse than others, the credulity
of the time associating with them peculiar-
ly great or numerous miracles, or peculiar-
ly  extensive  indulgences (q.  v.) being
granted to the pilgrims who visited them.
This was the case,  for instance, with
Rome, Compostella and Tours.  Pilgrim-
ages  were, in fact,  so  common, that the
learned lliihs considers them  as  a great
means of communication between the va-
rious nations of the middle ages, and as
having promoted the diffusion of many
arts and  improvements of various kinds,
at a time when travelling was dangerous,
when no newspapers existed, and, in fact,
the peaceful intercourse of nations was so
little developed. The  following instance
will show to what extent pilgrimages were
performed.   In 1428, in the reign of Hen-
ry VI, there went to the shrine of St. James
of Compostella, in  Spain, from London
■280 pilgrims, from Bristol 200, Weymouth
122, Dartmouth 90, Yarmouth 60, Jersey
60, Plymouth 40, Exeter 30, Liverpool 24,
Ipswich  20—in the whole, 926 pilgrims
from  11  towns. Catholics still continue
to make pilgrimages, but by no meaus to
the same extent as formerly, in times of
less  reflection and  more  enthusiasm.
Governuicnts, however, have discomiiged
the concourse of pilgrims, particularly as-
semblages  of several days' continuance,
which still  exist in some instances.  The
licentiousness which Burckhardt describes
as prevailing among the pilgrims to Mec-
ca (see Kaaba) agrees perfectly with what
is known of the  general  pilgrimages of
Christians.    Pilgrims  still  continue to
travel to Rome, where they are provided
for in establishments founded  by pious
persons.  The last numerous assemblage
of pilgrims at Rome was in the year 1825,
when pope Leo XII proclaimed a jubilee.
(See Jubilee.)
  Pillau ;  a seaport  of East  Prussia,
eight leagues from  Konigsberg, at the
southern extremity of a narrow peninsula
formed by  the Baltic  arid  the  Frische-
Tlaff; lat N. 54° 33' 39"; lon. E. 19° 55'.
The port is safe and commodious, and all
vessels going to  Konigsberg or Elbing
stop here.    A fort  protects the place;
4518 inhabitants.  Much fishing is carried
on here.
  Pillnitz ; a palace of the king of Sax-
ony, on the right  bank  of the Elbe,  two
leagues south of Dresden.   The court re-
mains here annually for some time.  Its
situation  is very  beautiful.   In history,
Pilbiitz is famous for  a meeting of the
emperor Leopold  II, Frederic William II
of Prussia, the count of Artois, the  ex-
minister Calonne, and several other per-
sonages, from August 25 to 27,  1791.  A
treaty  of offensive alliance was not con-
cluded, but preliminaries were agreed on
for a defensive alliance, between Austria
and Prussia, which was settled at Berlin,
Feb. 7,1792. The brothers of the king of
France received, Aug. 27, only an assur-
ance from Prussia and  Austria,  that they
hoped all  the  powers  whose assistance
had been asked for  would  be  ready to
contribute,  according to their means, to
restore the  royal family, and  to establish a
government  founded on  the rights of
sovereigns,  and the welfare of the people,
in which case Austria and Prussia would
join them.   In the mean time, they would
give orders that their troops s'/.ould hold
themselves in readiness to act  r-ix secret
articles are also  said  to have  existed.
(See Scholl's Histoire des Traitis de Paix,
vol. iv.) The French considered the Pill-
nitz convention as the  basis of the coali-
tion (q. v.) of Europe against  France,
which greatly irritated them.
  Pillory ; a frame of  wood erected on
posts,  with movable boards, and holes
through  which are  put the  head  and
hands of a  criminal for punishment   In
this situation criminals  in England were 
136
PILLORY-PINCKNEY.
formerly often exposed to the outrages of
the mob in a way inconsistent with any
rational notions  of punishment   Those
who were offensive to the crowd were in
no  small  danger from  the  missiles by
which  they were  assailed.  The  culprit
was allowed to  make speeches, defend-
ing himself and  attacking  his enemies.
In  1816, this punishment was abolished
in all cases except that of perjury.
  Pillow ;  a block of  timber whereon
the inner end of the bowsprit is  sup-
ported.
  Pilot Mountain.  (See Ararat.)
  Pilfay, or Bilpat, a fabulist, is said to
have lived 400 years before Clu'ist, and to
have written, by  the order of kibg Dab-
schlim, a well known collection of interest-
ing narratives and apologues, in  the In-
dian language, under the title of Kalila
and Dimnah, which, in ancient and mod-
ern times, has met with  general approba-
tion, and has been translated into most of
the Eastern and Western languages. But
it has been  shown by Beigel, in  Ideler's
work On the Names of  the Stars, p. 366,
that this account of die a-ufchar.is  entirely
erroneous,  and  that the  name   Pilpay
originated from the Sanscrit word  hitopa-
desa (useful instruction),  which is the title
of the  work in the Sanscrit edition (Ser-
ampore,  1804, 4to.;  London, edited by
Wilkins, 18V, 4to.).  Silv. de Sacy has
published a fine edition of the   Arabic,
with a French  translation (Paris, 1816,
2 vols.).  Wilkins  translated the Sanscrit
original into English (London, 1787).
  Pimelite; a variety of clay colored by
oxide of nickel.
  Pimento.  The quantity of pimento
imported into the U. States in  the year
ending September 30,1830, was 1,915*,211
pounds; the quantity exported during the
same time was 558,766.  (For an account
of the  plant, see  Allspice.)
  Pin ; in commerce, a little necessary
instrument  made  of brass wire,  chiefly
used by women  in adjusting  their dress.
When  the wire is received at the manufac-
tory, it is wound off from one  wheel to
another, and passed through a circle of a
smaller diameter in a piece of iron. Be-
ing thus reduced to  its  proper size, it is
straightened by  drawing it between iron
pins, fixed in a board in  a zigzag manner.
It is afterwards cut into lengths of about
four yards, and  then into  smaller pieces,
every length being sufficient for six pins.
Each end of these is ground to a point by
boys, each of whom sits with two small
grindstones before him, turned by a wheel.
Taking up a handful, he .applies the wires
to the coarsest of the two stones, moving
them round, that the points  may not by-
come flat.  He then gives them a smooth-
er and >harper point on the other stone:
a lad of  twelve  years  of age  can point
16,000 in an hour. When the wire is point-
ed, a pin  is taken off* from each end, till it
is cut into six pieces.  The next operation
is to form the heids, or head-spinnings, as
they are termed : this is done by a spinning
wheel.   One piece of wire is with rapid-
ity wound  round another;  and  the in-
terior one being  drawn out,  leaves a hol-
low tube between  the circumvolutions.
It is then cut by'shears, eveiy two turns
of the wire forming one head.  These are
softened by throwing them into iron pans
and placing them  in a furnace till they
are red hot  As soon  as they are  cold,
they are  distributed to  children, who  sit
with anvils  and hammers  before  them.
These they work with their feet by means
of a lathe.   They  take up  one  of the
lengths, and thrust the blunt end into a
quantity  of the  heads  which  lie before
them;  catching one at the extremity, they
apply it  immediately  to the  anvil and
hainmeiyand by a motion or two of the
foot, the point  and  the  head  are fixed to-
gether in much less time  than  can be de-
scribed,  and with a  dexterity that  can
only be acquired by practice.  The pins
are thrown into a  copper  containing a
solution of tin and wine lees.  Here they
remain for some time, and  when taken
out, their brass color has become changed
to a dull white.  In order to give them a
polish, they are  now put into a tub con-
taining a quantity of bran, which  is set in
motion by turning a shaft that runs through
its centre, and thus, by means of  friction,
the pins become entirely bright  They
are now  sejiarated from the bran, which is
performed by a mode exactly similar to the
winnowing of com; the bran flying off
and leaving the pin behind it fit for sale.
   Pinang. (See Prince of Wales's Island.)
   Pinchbeck ;  an  alloy of copper, in
 which the  proportion of zinc is greater
 than in brass.
   Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, a dis-
 tinguished American revolutionary officer,
 was born in South Carolina, and educated
 at Westminster  school, in  England, and
 subsequently at the university of  Oxford,
 in both of which institutions  he  enjoyed
 a high reputation for strength of charac-
 ter and proficiency in his studies.   After
 reading law at the Temple, he returned to
 Carolina, in 1769,  but was  not  able  to
 practise his profession  for any length of
 time, the commencement of the revolu- 
PINCKNEY.                             137
tion obliging him to exchange the gown
for the sword.  He was first appointed a
captain in  the  continental line, and, soon
afterwards, commander of the first regiment
of  Carolina infantry.   When the south
had been freed, for a period, from inva-
sion, by Moultrie's  gallant defence of the
fort on  Sullivan's island, colonel Pinckney
joined the northern army, and was made
aid-de-camp to Washington.  In that ca-
pacity he was  present at the battles of
Brandywine and  Germantown.   When
 he south was  again  menaced with dan-
ger, he returned to Carolina, and display-
ed great resolution and intrepidity, on the
rapid and harassing march  which saved
that city from general Provost, and on the
subsequent  invasion of  Georgia, and the
assault on the lines of Savannah.  On the
approach of the army under sir Henry Clin-
ton, and of the fleet conducted by admiral
Arbuthnot, he was intrusted with the com-
mand of the fort on Sullivan's island.  A
favorable breeze and a flowing tide, how-
ever, enabled the fleet to sail into the port
of Charleston,  beyond  the  reach of his
guns.   He then hastened  with  a part of
the garrison to aid in defending the city,
and was for continuing hostilities to the
last extremity, not, as he said, because he
thought they would eventually be able  to
repel the enemy,  hut because " we  shall
so cripple the army before  us, that, al-
though we may not live to enjoy the bene-
fits ourselves, yet to the U. States they will
 prove incalculably great."  Other coun-
 sel, however, prevailed, and he was made
 prisoner with  the rest of the besieged.
 Some time after the return of peace, he
 was placed in command of the militia of
 the lower division of the state, but was
 very  soon appointed  by  Washington,
 whose  confidence and  friendship he en-
joyed  in a  high degree, minister pleni-
 potentiary  to France.   He  resigned his
 commission in consequence, and  sailed
 for Europe.  The hostile feeling of the
 French directory  towards  this country,
 caused  them  to  reject  its conciliatory
 propositions in an insulting  manner, and
 to order its minister out of the territories
 of the  republic.  General Pinckney im-
 mediately  communicated to the  govern-
 ment  the  indignities which he  had re-
 ceived, and retired to Holland.  Not long
 afterwards, he was joined  by general Mar-
shal and Mr. Gerry, with fresh  instruc-
tions to reiterate propositions to the direc-
tory  for  the  adjustment of  differences.
 When, at length, war was inevitable, and
the whole U. States were resounding with
his celebrated sentiment, "Millions for
                   12*
defence, but not a cent for tribute," he
returned  home,  having been  named  a
major-general  by Washington,  who had
been  placed at the  head  of the forces
raised for the protection of the American
shores.   Superior rank,  however,  was
accorded to general  Hamilton, who had
been  his  junior  during the revolution.
Some one spoke to general  Pinckney of
this preference as unjust  but he briefly
answered, that he was satisfied that gene-
ral Washington had sufficient reasons for
it  " Let us," he continued, " first dispose
of our enemies; we  shall  then  have lei-
sure to settle the question of rank."  Pre-
viously to his going to France, as we
should have  mentioned before,  he had
been  offered,  by president  Washington,
several places under government of the
highest importance,  all of which, how-
ever,  private  considerations  obliged him
to decline.  The first  was that of judge
of the supreme court;  the  next that of
secretary of war, on the  resignation of
general Knox ;  and then that  of sec-
retary of state, when Randolph had  been
removed.   He was a member of the con-
vention which framed the  constitution of
the U. States, and afterwards, in  the con-
vention of South Carolina, assembled for
deliberating upon the instrument, he con-
tributed greatly to its adoption.   He died
in August, 1825.  As  a lawyer,  general
Pinckney was distinguished  for profound
and accurate learning, and  strength  and
ingenuity of  reasoning, without having
much pretension to eloquence.  In his
practice he was  high-minded and liberal,
never receiving  any compensation  from
the widow and orphan.   His literary at-
tainments were  extensive, especially his
classical  knowledge;  and  no  one  was
a more zealous friend to the  advancement
of learning.  For more than fifteen years
before his death, he acted  as president of
the Bible Society of Charleston—an office
to which  he  was named with unanimity
by  the Christians  of almost every sect.
In private life, his  polished manners and
generous  disposition' secured the esteem
and affection of all.
  Pinckney, Thomas,  late major-general
in the army of the  U. States, was born
October  23,  1750, in  Charleston, South
Carolina, and was the second son of chief-
 justice Pinckney and Eliza Lucas, daugh-
ter of colonel Lucas, governor of Antigua.
He was carried  to England in the year
1753, with his elder brother, the late gen-
eral Charles Cotesworth  Pinckney,  by
their father, who returned, in 1758, on ac-
count of the  war between France and 
138
PINCKNEY—PINDAR.
 England, to Carolina, where he soon after
 died,  leaving  directions  that  his  sons
 should receive the best education,  were it
 even necessary to sell part of his estate
 for that purpose.  They were educated at
 Westminster school and at Oxford. They
 studied law at the Temple, and  were ad-
 mitted to the bar iu England.  At the
 commencement of the revolutionary war,
 the brothers joined the continental army,
 where they rose to the rank of colonel and
 major. The elder brother was aid-de-camp
 to general Washington, and the younger
 served in that  capacity With  general
 Lincoln,  and then with count d'Estaign,
 who commanded  the French army at the
 disastrous siege of Savannah.  He also
 served as aid to general  Gates, and was
 wounded  and captured at the  battle  of
 Camden,  in 1780.  On his recovery,  he
 was sent, as a prisoner of war,  to Phila-
 delphia. During the administration of gen-
 eral Washington, he was offered the place
 of judge  of the federal court, which he de-
 clined.  He was then elected the  second
 governor of South Carolina, as successor
 to  general Moultrie,  and was eminently
 successful in establishiug the authority of"
 the laws, which had been deranged dur-
 ing the long and disastrous periods of the
 southern war.  Shortly after the termina-
 tion of his office, he accepted from gene-
 ral Washington the mission to the court
 of St James, where he continued several
 years.  He was then employed  on a mis-
 sion to the court of Spain, where he form-
 ed  the treaty of  St Ildefonso,  by which
 the free navigation of the Mississippi was
 secured to the U.  States, before  its cession
 to  France and subsequent  purchase by
 Mr. Jefferson.  The situation of his estate
 requiring his presence at home, he solicit-
 ed his recall, and returned to America  in
 1796.  Soon after, he was elected  a mem-
 ber of congress  from Charleston  district,
 where he generally acted with that party
 at the head of which was general Wash-
 ington.   After  a  few sessions,  he retired
 from public life, and  devoted  himself to
 the care of his estate and the education of
 his children.  At the commencement of
 the war of 1812,  he received  from Mr.
 Madison the appointment of major-gene-
 ral of the sixth military district  It was
« under his command that the Indian war
 in  which general Jackson  distinguished
 himself was undertaken and brought to a
 successful issue.  He advised the  war de-
 partment to subdivide his military district,
 extending from  North  Carolina to  the
 Mississippi, as too large for one command,
 and recommended general Jackson to the
command of a  separate  district to be
formed in the south-west.   At the return
of peace,  he was solicited by  the presi-
dent to continue his services, and especial-
ly to endeavor to recover the southern
property taken from the islands after the
signature in Europe of the treaty of peace;
but he preferred to resign  his command
and his connexion with public life.   His
private life was highly useful.  The  agri-
culture of his country  received his  con-
stant attention, and he contributed to ad-
vance it by many scientific improvements.
To these objects, and  to his large circle
of relatives and friends, he was devoted
till his death, November 2, 1828, in the
seventy-eighth year of his age.
  Pindar, Peter.  (See  Wolcot.)
  Pindar; one of the most energetic and
sublime poets of Greece.  He sang the
praises of the   victors  in  the  Grecian
games,—those  public festivals  in which
the most distinguished  men, even kings,
competed.   Not only the conquerors and
their  fellow  citizens,  but  all assembled
Greece was celebrated in his poems, and
thus they were soon spread wherever the
Greek language was spoken.  To under-
stand Pindar, it is necessary to be intimate-
ly acquainted with Greek antiquities.  In
the judgment of the best critics, his poems
belong to the most beautiful remains of
ancient literature.  Forty-five are still ex-
tant, fourteen in celebration of Olympic
victors,  twelve of Pythian, eleven of Ne-
msean, and eight of Isthmian.  They are
all written in the  Doric dialect.  Of* the
editions of Pindar, the following  deserve
to be recommended :—the edition of West
and Welsted (Oxford, 1697, fol.), of Heyne
(latest 1817, 3 vols.), and of Bockh (Leip-
sic, 1811, 3 vols., 4to.).   Some of the odes
have been translated by Gilbert West.—
Pindar  was  born in  Bceotia, in or near
Thebes, in the sixty-fifth Olympiad, about
520 B. C.  His father was a flute-player,
and he is said to have been himself a mas-
terly performer on the lyre.   At an early
age, he was instructed in music and poe-
try ; and for the developernent of his po-
etical talent he was especially indebted to
the beautiful Corinna, who was herself a
distinguished poet, and is said to have ob-
tained the pnze more  than once in the
poetic competition with her friend.  Little
else is  known with certainty of his life;
even the date of his death is doubtful: ac-
cording to some, he died  in his sixty-fifth
year, according to others,  he lived  to the
age of eighty or ninety.   His  reputation
was so great that Alexander, notwithstand-
ing his exasperation against the Thebans, 
PINDAR—PINE.
139
spared the house in which  Pindar had
lived, when the city was destroyed.  The
same had been done by the Spartans when
they entered  Thebes in triumph.  Even
in his lifetime, his fellow-citizens are said
to have erected a statue in his honor.
  Pindarees (that is, freebooters); the name
given in  British  India to  the hordes  of
mounted robbers who, for several years
(since 1812), infested the possessions of the
East India company.  In the autumn, when
the Nerbudda is so low that it is fordable by
cavalry, they  entered into the rich territory
of the company, devastated the country,and
carried off  the spoils  to their  mountains.
These freebooters had existed  since 1761,
but made themselves particularly formida-
ble in the nineteenth  century.  They were
descended   mostly  from  the  caste  of
Mohammedan warriors,  which formerly
received high pay from the Indian princes.
But the British East  India company  dis-
armed many of the  tributary   native
princes, and maintained under the com-
mand of the  English residents at the In-
dian  courts  large bodies of mercenary
troops,  which   the   mediatised  nabobs
•were obliged  to pay.   The number of the
Pindarees was thus  increased, and they
were secretly excited by the Indian tribu-
taries to attack  the  company. In 1817,
the British  governor-general,  the marquis
of Hastings, determined on the destruc-
tion of these  robbers, whose force was es-
timated at 40,000 horse.  Attacked on all
sides, they  were  conquered and dispersed.
Garrisons were placed in some fortresses,
and hostages  taken to Calcutta ; their oth-
er strong places  were demolished.  A fly-
ing party of seapoys was kept without in-
termission  on the right bank of the Ner-
budda, &c.  At  last, a moderate  yearly
tribute  was  imposed on  the subjected
tribes.  The  East India company has fol-
lowed the rule of increasing their revenue,
territory and  troops, after every war, at the
expense  of the  vanquished,  so that the
subjected princes have seldom ventured
to break a  second lance with the British
governor-general.
   Pindemonte,  cavaliere Ippolito,  an
Italian poet,  was born at Verona, in 1753,
and, at the age of eighteen years,  distin-
guished himself  by  his poetical produc-
tions.   Having   travelled  through Italy,
France and England, he preserved the im-
pressions made on him by his journey  in
his Viaggi.  In his Poesie Campestn, he
speaks with enthusiasm of English scene-
ry und life. His Arminio, a tragedy found-
ed  on the  death of Arminius, contains
choruses of warriors and  virgins  which
are models of style.  His lyric poems are
among his best works, and display a depth
of draught and feeling with which the au-
thor seems to have been inspired by Eng-
lish  literature.  Besides translations from
Homer, Virgil, Ovid and Oatullus, his Fa-
ta Morgana, Elogia di Gessner, and 11
Colpo di Martello,  are worthy of notice.
Pindemonte lived at Venice, and died in
1828.—His brother, the marquis Giovanni
Pindemonte (born 1751, died 1812), was the
author of some dramatic works—Compo-
nimenti Teatrali—and  translated Ovid's
Remcdia Amoris.
  Pindus ; a mountainous ridge in Greece,
between Thessaly, Macedonia, Epirus and
,/Etolia. It was, like Helicon and Parnassus,
a seat of Apollo and the muses. (See (Eta.)
It is now called Mezzovo.
  Pine.  A genus of plants, the princi-
pal one of the conifera, consisting of lofty
evergreen trees with acicular leaves, and
their branches disposed in a verticillate
form.  The flowers are  monoecious, and
the fruit is a cone, having the seeds attach-
ed to the inside of each scale.  The pines,
together with the  spruces and  larches,
form the most striking feature in the vege-
tation of temperate climates, and are, be-
sides, among the most useful of the prod-
ucts of the vegetable creation.  Formerly
these three genera were united; but the
true pines  are  readily  distinguished  by
having their leaves, to the number of two,
three or five, united at  base in  a cylin-
drical membranous sheath.  About thirty
species are known, of which nearly one
half inhabit North America.  Our account
of the  American species is chiefly drawn
from the truly noble work of the younger
Michaux.  We begin  with the red Cana-
dian pine (pinus  resinosa), a northern spe-
cies, inhabiting the whole of Canada from
the Atlantic to the  Pacific, and also found
in the  northern and eastern parts of the U.
States  : it  is rare on  the  coast south of
the forty-third parallel of latitude, and even
on the  mountains has not been hitherto ob-
served beyond the forty-first In Canada
and  Nova Scotia it is called yellow pine—a
name  which, in various parts of die U.
States, is applied to several different spe-
cies; it is  sometimes  also  improperly
termed Norway pine.  Even in  those dis-
tricts where  most common, it  does not
constitute a large proportion of the forest,
but occupies small tracts of a few hundred
acres,  where the  soil is  dry and  sandy,
and grows either alone or in company
with the white pine.  The trunk rises to
the  height of seventy or  eighty feet by
about  two  in diameter at base, and is 
140
PINE,
chiefly remarkable for its uniform size for
two thirds of its  length: the bark  is of a
clearer red than in any other of our pines ;
the leaves are in pairs, and are collected in
bunches at the extremity of the branches ;
and the scales of the cones are unarmed—
a character which serves to distinguish  it
from  allied  species.  The wood is com-
pact and fine-grained, rendered heavy by
resinous  matter, and is highly esteemed
for its strength and durability.   In the
British provinces and in Maine, it  is fre-
quently employed in naval architecture,
especially for the decks of vessels, furnish-
ing planks free from knots, of forty feet in
length.  It is also used for masts, and has
furnished the main-mast ofa fifty-gun ship.
It is  exported to G.  Britain,  both  from
Maine and  from the St Lawrence.  In
fine, Michaux esteems this tree of so much
importance,  that  he recommends its intro-
duction in the north of Europe.  When
young, it is a beautiful tree,  and the vege-
tation  is  always vigorous.  The  scrub
pine,  or  gray pine  (P. banksiana) is  a
dwarf species, from three to ten feet high,
extending farther north than any other in
America,  but  unimportant  in  a  useful
point of view.  Within the U. States it  is
found only  on  some of  the  northern
mountains.  The true yellow pine (P. va-
riabilis)  is  widely  spread  over  the  U.
States, south of lat. 42°, but is most abun-
dant in the sandy districts of lower NewJer-
sey,  the peninsula between the Delaware
and Chesapeake, and the lower parts of
Virginia.  On the south-western parts of
the Alleghany  mountains  and the sur-
rounding country, it enters  in a greater or
less proportion into the composition of the
forests, abounding on the most barren soil:
in the lower parts of South Carolina and
Georgia,  it is rare, growing  only in spots,
and is known by the name of spruce pine,
or, more frequently,  short-leaved  pine.
The trunk rises  to  the  height of fifty or
sixty feet, by fifteen or eighteen inches in
diameter at  base, and  sometimes more":
the leaves are four or five inches long, and
are usually  in pairs, but sometimes  in
threes on  the younger  shoots; the cones
are small, oval,   and  armed  with  fine
spines.  The heart  is fine-grained, com-
pact,  moderately resinous, and  is highly
esteemed for its excellence and durability.
Immense quantities are used  in  naval
architecture  at New York, Philadelphia
and  Baltimore,  for decks,  masts, yards,
beams and  cabins,  and it  is  considered
next in durability to the long-leaved pine:
it is, besides, employed for various me-
chanical purposes, and, in some districts,
houses  are  entirely constructed  of  it
The boards are exported to G. Britain and
the West Indies, and in both places, are
sold much higher than the white pine, but
at a lower rate than the long-leaved.  At
Liverpool the timber is called New  York
pine.  Turpentine and  tar  may be ob-
tained from the tree, but in too small quan-
tities, and with too much  labor to yield a
profit.  The  Jersey pine (P. inops), has
received this  appellation from being  most
abundant in the lower part of New Jersey,
where it grows in company with the yel-
low  pine.   It occurs, however, in the
more south-western parts of the Union,
and is sometimes called scrub pine.   This
is a small tree, rarely attaining the height
of thirty or forty feet, with a diameter of
a foot at base.  The leaves  are  in pairs,
one or two inches long, and the cones are
armed with strong spines.   The trunk is
too small to be of any utility in  the  arts,
and, besides, consists of a great proportion
of sap.   A small quantity  of tar has been
obtained from it in some parts  of Ken-
tucky.  The  Table  mountain  pine (P.
pungens) is remarkable for  being one of
the most local of our plants. The trunk
attains the height of forty or  fifty  feet; the
leaves are  thick, stiff, and in pairs; and
the cones are sessile, about three inches
long  by two in diameter  at base,  and
are armed with strong  ligneous spines.
The Table mountain in North Carolina is
almost exclusively covered with  this pine,
although it is rare on the surrounding sum-
mits,  and has not been found beyond the
immediate vicinity.   It has  not  yet  been
applied   to any  useful  purposes.    The
pond pine (P. serotina) occurs frequently
in the lower parts of the Southern States;
but, possessing nothing peculiar  in its ap-
pearance, and being appropriated to no
use, and being, moreover, lost in the wil-
derness  of long-leaved pines, it has re-
ceived no specific  name  from the  inhab-
itants.  The above appellation was given
it by  Michaux, from  the circumstance of
its growing on the borders of small ponds
and swamps, although as frequently found
in a dry soil.   The leaves are five or six
inches long, and are united by threes; the
cones are usually opposite, in pairs, about
two and a half inches long, and have the
form  of an egg; their scales are  armed
with  fine short  spines, which are easily
detached, and do not release the  seeds till
the third or fourth year.  This tree attains
the height of thirty-five  or  forty feet by
fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter  at
base, and  is  remarkable  for the remote-
ness  of the  branches, which   begin  to 
PINE.                                 141
epring on the lo* er half of the stock.
More than  half of  the largest  trunks
consists  of  sap;  and   for  this  reason
the timber cannot become of any great
utility in die arts.  The pitch  pine  (P.
rigida) inhabits the northern and middle
sections of the Union, and does not appear
to exist in the western or lower  parts of
the Southern States.  It is most abundant
along the Atlantic coast, where the soil is
diversified, but generally meagre.  The
ridges of the Alleghanies iu Pennsylvania
and Virginia  are  sometimes covered with
it, and in some parts of the latter state it
lias received the name of black pine. The
forty-fifth degree of latitude appears to be
its northern limit  It is frequently seen
in  large  and miry swamps,  and  in 6iich
situations attains the height of seventy or
eighty feet by two in  diameter at base;
and it appears to  support the presence of
sea-water  better than  any  other pine.
The leaves are in threes, varying much in
length, as do  the cones in size; the  lat-
ter are armed with acute spines.  The
tranches are  very numerous, and occupy
iwo thirds of the trunk,  which renders the
wood extremely knotty. The quality of
the  wood varies  according to the situa-
tion ; in  swamps it is light, soft,  and con-
sists ofa greater proportion of sap, but in
a  dry, gravelly soil it is compact, heavy,
and contains  a large proportion of resin.
These defects render it much inferior to
the yellow pine ; but, as this is becoming
scarce, it takes its place for some purposes.
In  some parts of, the Alleghanies  houses
are built of it, and it serves perfectly well
for ship pumps, for which purpose stocks
containing very little heart are preferred.
The bakers and brick-makers of our prin-
cipal cities, and above all, the steam-boats
of our eastern waters, consume it  in im-
mense quantities. From the most resinous
stocks the lampblack of commerce is pro-
cured.  The pitch pine seems to have
abounded  formerly in the New England
states, for they have furnished a  certain
quantity  of tar ;  and even at the present
time, a little tar is made on  lake Cham-
plain, for the use of the small vessels ply-
ing  on its surface.  A  small quantity is
also made in lower New  Jersey, and
brought to Philadelphia, where it is less
esteemed than the tar of die Southern
States.   Formerly the tar that was requir-
ed  on the Ohio, was obtained, at au  ex-
travagant price, from the Alleghanies, and
from the borders of Tar creek, which
empties into the  Ohio about twenty miles
telow Pittsburg.   The loblolly, or  old
 eld pine (P. tada), is found  throughout
the lower parts of the  Southern States,
and extends to the thirty-eighth parallel
of latitude.  In the vicinity  of Petersburg
and  Richmond it  is sometimes improp-
erly  called white pine.  From  this  point
to the Cape Fear river it is  abundant
wherever the soil is dry and sandy, often
exclusively occupying lands which  have
been exhausted by cultivation; and in the
more southern states, it is the most  com-
mon species after the long-leaved  pine,
but grows only along the narrow marshes
which intersect  the pine  barrens, where
the soil is moderately fertile and suscepti-
ble of  cultivation.   The loblolly pine
often exceeds eighty feet in height, .with a
wide spreading  summit,  and, next to
the  white pine,  is the loftiest of our
species.  The leaves are six inches long,
united by threes, or sometimes fours, on the
young and vigorous shoots.  The cones
ure four inches long,  and  armed  with
«trong spines.  The wood consists of a
Ktill larger proportion of sap than any above-
mentioned; trunks of three feet diameter
having hardly six inches  of heart; but, not-
withstanding, most of the  houses in that
part of Virginia are built of it, and it  is
even used for ground floors, although the
boards, which are only four inches  wide,
shrink and become uneven.  In the south-
ern ports it is used for  ship pumps, like
the pitch pine of the north, and at Charles-
ton for building wharves.  As the timber
decays speedily on  being exposed to the
air, this  is to  be  regarded as one of the
least valuable of the pines; but, on account
of its rapid growth and fine  appearance,
Michaux'-recommends it to the south of
Europe.  The long-leaved pine (P. palus-
tris) is, perhaps, the most important of all
our forest trees.  Not only does it .furnish
all the resin, tar, pitch and turpentine con-
sumed in the U. States,—articles so indis-
pensable  to our  navigating  interest,—
.but  the  timber is  hardly inferior  to the
white oak in naval architecture, and, more-
over, the tree grows only in a soil so ster-
ile as to  be incapable of being converted
to any other use. It is known in oommerce
under  a  variety of names; in  those dis-
tricts where it grows, it is called long-leaved
pine, yellow pine, pitch pine, andiroompine ,•
in the Northern States, it is teemed southern
pine, or redpine; and in England and the
West Indies, Georgia pitch pine. It usually
grows to the height of sixty  or seventy
foet with a trunk fifteen or eighteen inches
in diameter for two thirds of this height
The cones are very large, seven or eight
inches long, by four in diameter, are arm-
ed  with  small spines, and contain  seeds 
142
PINE.
 of an  agreeable  flavor.   The  unusual
 length of the leaves, about twelve inches,
 gives this tree  a  peculiarly striking ap-
 pearance.  It is first found about Norfolk,
 in lat 37°, and  from  this point  extends
 south, forming one unbroken mass of for-
 est throughout the Carolinas, Georgia and
 Florida.  It is  strictly confined  to the
 lower country, and is not found more than
 one hundred miles from the sea. Between
 Wilmington  and Fayetteville, however, a
 species  of oak is found  in some districts,
 disseminated in this pine forest, and is the
 only other tree  capable of disputing the
 soil.  The trunk  contains but little sap,
 and the concentrical circles  are close and
 at equal distances, while the resinous mat-
 ter is abundant and equally  distributed,
 which renders  the wood stronger, more
 compact and more durable than  in the
 other species: it is, besides,  fine-grained
 and susceptible ofa brilliant polish, and is
 applied  to a  great variety of uses.  Four
 fifths of the  houses in the south are  built
 of it, except the roof, which is covered
 with cypress  shingles; but in some dis-
 tricts, the roof is also  of pine.  In naval
 architecture, it is employed in the Southern
 States for the keel, beams, side-planks aud
 pins,  by which  they are attached to the
 ribs, masts and top-masts ; for the deck it
 is preferred to the true yellow pine, and is
 exported to New York and Philadelphia
 for that  purpose.   That variety which ac-
 quires a reddish  hue from  growing  in
 certain soils, and is known by the  name
 of red pine, i3 most  esteemed, and, in the
 opinion  of some shipwrights, is as  solid
 and durable on the sides of vessels as the
 white oak, but is said to form  less perfect
joints at stem and  stern.   It  is also  in
great  request in the north  for flooring
boards.   This is the only pine exported
from  the Southern  States to  the  West
 Indies;  and  numerous  small  vessels are
 employed in this  trade, especially from
 Wilmington  and Savannah :  the planks
 are also  sent to Liverpool,  where they are
 said to be employed in the construction of
 vessels  and  wet docks.  In  addition to
 this great consumption of the timber, ex-
 tensive  tracts of the pine forests are laid
 waste by the ravages  of a  small  insect.
 The long-leaved pine, besides supplying
 the U. States with nearly all the resinous
 matter  required in  ship-building (com-
 monly called naval stores), in which point
 of view its place could not be made good
 by any other species, furnishes a large an-
 nual surplus to be exported to the  West
 Indies, Great Britain, and other parts of
 Europe. Formerly tar was made iu South
 Carolina, Georgia  and Florida, but now
 this branch of business is almost entirely
 confined to the lower parts of North Car-
 olina.   The resinous products are of six
 sorts;  turpentine, scrapings, spirits of tur-         '
 pentine, rosin, tar and pitch : the two first
 are delivered in their natural state, but the
 others are modified by the agency of fire.
 The turpentine is  the sap  obtained by
 making incisions into the trunk, and the
 scrapings consist merely of the turpentine
 which becomes hardened before it reaches
 the boxes placed to receive it; in general
 3000 trees yield annually about 75  barrels
 of turpentine and 25 of scrapings: nearly
 100,000  barrels are  exported  annually to
 the Northern States and to G. Britain ; it
 is even carried to Paris, where it is called
 Boston  turpentine:  throughout  the  U.
States it is  employed in the  manufacture
 of yellow soap.  Great quantities of spirits
of turpentine are made in North Carolina
by distilling the turpentine in large copper
 retorts; and it  is estimated that six barrels
will  yield one  cask, or 122 quarts  of the
spirit:  about 20,000  gallons  are  annually
exported to other parts of the U. States, to
 England and to France.   The residue is
rosin, of which about 5000  barrels are
annually exported.   All the tar is  made
from the dead  wood ; and this is supposed
to be the cause of its inferiority to the tar
 of the  north of Europe, which is made
 from trees recently  felled.  Pitch  is tar
 reduced  by evaporation ; and care  should
 be taken in this process not to diminish it
 beyond one half of the bulk.   The long-
 leaved pine is strongly recommended by
 Michaux as a valuable addition to the re-          i
sources of the south of Europe, and  its          |
wood is superior to die European pines.
The white pine (P. strobus)  is the loftiest
tree in the U. States, and its timber, though
not without essential defects, is consumed
in much greater quantities, and  for a far
greater variety of purposes, than any other.
It attains the height of 150 feet, and even
 more, with a trunk  five and  upwards in
diameter: the  leaves are united by fives,
and the cones are four or five inches long,
 pendulous, and have thin, smooth  scales.         *
 Owing to the lightness aud delicacy of the
foliage,  the young trees make an elegant
appearance. It is most abundant between
 the forty-seventh and forty-third parallels
of latitude, and along the  Alleghauies to
their  south-western  termination.    The
 wood has  little strength,  gives  a  feeble
 hold to nails,  and is liable to swell from
 humidity in the atmosphere; but, on  the
other hand, it is soft, light, free from knots,
easily  wrought, durable, and furnishes 
PINE.                                 143
 boards of great width, and, above all,  is
 still abundant and cheap.  Throughout
 the Northern States,  three fourths  of
 the houses are almost wholly of white
 pine, as well  as the ornamental work on
 the outer doors, and in the interior in all.
 It  receives gilding well,  and is select-
 ed for looking-glass and picture frames.
 Carvers  employ  it exclusively  for  the
 images on the prows of vessels; and in the
 north it is used for the inside of mahogany
 furniture, for trunks, buckets, packing box-
 es, shelves, and a vast variety of other pur-
 poses.  In the Northern and Middle States
 it is employed exclusively for masts,and for
 this purpose  it would be replaced  with
 difficulty.  Great numbers of these  masts
 are exported to England, and are said to
 be  lighter than the Riga  masts, but have
 less strength :  the  bowsprits and yards of
 men-of-war are also of white pine.   The
 persons engaged in procuring white pine
 lumber, after having previously ascertain-
 ed  where the trees abound, in the begin-
 ning of winter enter the forests, and estab-
 lish themselves in huts covered usually
 with birch bark, although the cold is fre-
 quently most  intense.    When the trees
 are felled and  cut  into  logs, by means of
 their cattle they drag them  to the nearest
 river, after fixing  upon  them a  mark
 of property.   At the breaking up of the
 ice, the logs float down the  current till
 they arrive at their destination.  If stripped
 of their bark, logs  will remain uninjured
 for many years ; otherwise  they are liable
 to  be  destroyed by worms.  Maine fur-
 nishes  nearly  three fourths  of  all the
 white  pine lumber exported from  the U.
 States; and next to Maine  the shores of
 lake Champlain appear most  to  abound
 with it.  A portion of this lumber is float-
 ed  down  the  St  Lawrence  to Quebec,
 and the remainder is  conveyed through
 the canal to Albany, and there transfer-
 red into sloops for  New York.   Large
 forests of the white pine exist on the head
 waters of the  Delaware and the north
branch of the Susquehannah, and the lum-
ber is floated down those streams in the
spring,  for the  supply of the different
towns on the Delaware and Chesapeake.
 On the  head waters of the Alleghany is
cut all  the white  pine lumber destined,
not only for the supply of the towns on
the Ohio, but  for the New Orleans  mar-
ket, nearly 3000  miles  distant.   The
wood is also formed into clapboards and
shingles, which are almost   universally
in use in the  New England  states, but
which  last only twelve or  fifteen years:
they are exported  in great quantities to
 the West Indies.  The pinusfiexilis grows
 upon the Rocky mountains near the nead
 wateis of the Arkansas, extending to the
 limit of perpetual  snow.  It  is remark-
 able for  the  flexibility of the blanches,
 which  are numerous, recurved, and form
 a large dense  top.  The leaves  are  in
 fives, like those of the white pine, and the
 seeds are used for food by the hunters and
 Indians.  The pinus lambertiana is a spe-
 cies of gigantic size, growing west of the
 Rocky  mountains, between  the  fortieth
 and forty-third  parallels of latitude, and
 about one hundred miles from the Pacific.
 Like most of the pines, it is  found in a
 sandy soil; but it does not form dense for-
 ests, and is scattered singly over the plains
 among other species. The trunk rises from
 150 to upwards of 200 feet in height, and is
 from 7 to nearly 20 feet  in diameter.   It
 is remarkably  straight, and  is destitute of
 branches  for  two thirds  of its  height.
 The leaves are in fives, and the cones are
 pendulous  at the  extremities  of the
 branches, and  require two years to attain
 their full growth, when they are upwards
 of a foot in length, and nearly four inches
 in diameter  at the thickest part.   The
 timber is white, soft and light, and pro-
 duces abundance ofa pure amber-colored
 resin, which,  when the  trees  are  partly
 burned, acquires a sweet taste, and  in this
 state is  used by the natives as a subsitute
 for sugar.  The seeds  are  eaten  either
 roasted, or pounded into  coarse cakes for
 use during the winter season.   This spe-
 cies resembles most the white pine, but is
 very different in habit, and in the parts of
 fructification.  Among the more interest-
 ing of the exotic species  is the wild pine
 or Scots fir of Europe.  This  forms, al-
 most exclusively, immense forests, north
 of lat. 55°, but in more southern parts  is
 chiefly  found  on  the mountains.   The
 trunk attains the height of eighty feet and
 upwards, by four or five in diameter, and
 the timber is applied to a great variety of
 uses, and especially is excellent for  masts.
 These, together with the timber in other
 forms,  are  exported from Riga, Memel,
 Dantzic, and other parts  of the north to
the other maritime states  of Europe, and
particularly to  England.  Large vessels,
and even frigates, have been constructed
of this pine; but they are not so durable as
those built of oak. In those districts  where
it abounds, houses, as well as furniture, arc
generally  constructed of it, and it fur-
nishes excellent charcoal for forges; but
a more important product is the resinous
 matter,  consisting of tar, pitch and tur-
 pentine, of which articles it supplies four 
144
PINE—PINEL.
fifths of the consumption'in the European
dock-yards.   This pine has, besides, the
advantage of growing  in  extremely dif-
ferent soils and exposures,  and is strongly
recommended to  the  attention  of the
American people; when  the white pine
shall  have become scarce,  it wiff, per-
haps,  lie  more advantageous to substitute
the culture of this species.   The name of
red, or ydlow deal, is given in G. Britain to
its wood, while the wood  of the  Norway
fir (pinus picea) is called white deal.  The
P. maritima grows in the  south  of Eu-
rope,  and  is  useful on  account of its
yielding resinous products and lampblack.
The stone pine  (P. pinea)  is a Mediter-
ranean species, chiefly remarkable on ac-
count of  the seeds,, which have an agree-
able flavor, analogous to that of almonds,
and frequently make  their  appearance
upon the table.  They  are  three years in
ripening.   The trunk rises  to  the height
of fifty or sixty  feet, with a diameter at
base of fifteen or twenty  inches.  The
wood  is useful for  carpenter's work, &c,
and, according to Olivier, is the only kind
employed by the Turks for  masts.  Pine
forests are  extremely  liable  to  be fre-
quently ravaged by fire;  and  from their
great  combustibility it is  extremely diffi-
cult to arrest  the progress  of the flames
when   once   they  have  gained  footing.
In  some parts  of France, the  follow-
ing method  is  practised  with success:
—If a fire  breaks out in  the  forest, a
second is kindled at a point directly oppo-
site, when a  current of air sets from the
first to  the   second,  which carries the
flames to a common centre, leaving the
surrounding woods uninjured.
  Pine-Apple (bromelia ananas).   This
fruit, usually pronounced  the first in the
world, was originally found by the Euro-
peans in Peru, and has not been known
in Eurojie above two centuries.  It passed
from  Brazil  to the  West Indies, and
thence was transported  to the East Indies,
where it  has long been  successfully culti-
vated.  The leaves are canaliculate, and
spiny  on  the margin •. the  stem erect,, and
about two feet high; the flowers blue, and
united in a dense spike, which is crowned
at the summit with a tuft of leaves; the
berries, in ripening, unite, and give to this
spike  somewhat of the  form  of  a  pine-
cone,  but it is much larger.  The  seeds
have  been rendered  abortive by  cultiva-
tion.  The pine-apple is  most readily re-
produced by planting the terminal tuft of
leaves; but, in our green-houses, it is  far
inferior to the tropical fruit, and yet is very
generally cultivated in many parts of Eu-
rope, especially near the larger cities.  In
one or two of the southern  provinces of
Spain, it is raised in sheltered situations
in the open  air.  Many varieties of the
pine-apple have been  produced, but they
may be referred to seven principal ones.
Some of the other species of true bromelia
have crowns, and the  fruit of most of
them,  though small, is  eatable..  The B.
pinguin has  the  fruit separately in clus-
ters, and  not in  a cone, and the leaves
afford a fibre, which is manufactured into
cordage, or sometimes  into  good cloth.
From  the  pine-apple is made very good
wine, which  turns in about three weeks,
but  recovers by longer keeping.  The
fruit is also sometimes  preserved entire,
and, when token out of the sirup, is iced
with sugar*
  Pinel,  Philip, member of the institute,
and  of the legion of  honor, the Howard
of the insane,, was born in 1745, at St. An-
dre, in the department of the Tarn, stud-
ied  at  Toulouse, and  Montpellier, where
he supported himself by teaching mathe-
matics.  In 1778r he  went  to Paris, and
at first applied himself to the study of the
sciences connected with medicine,   but
afterwards devoted  himself  entirely  to
that science itself. In 1791,  he was made
directing physician at the Bicetre, an in-
sane hospital, and, in 1794,  at the Salpe-
triere.   The harsh treatment of the insane
then in vogue, their chains and unhealthy
dungeons,  filled him with horror.  He in-
troduced gentle treatment, uniting firmness
with kindness, and was the first definitely
to recommend  moral remedies (in  his
work Sur I'Alienation mentale), and one of
the earliest to establish a regular police in
the mad-houses.  He also proved the  exr
istence of  what he called manie sans di-
lire.   He  placed less stress  on physical
treatment,  and, in particular, be  agreed
with Bordeu  in condemning blood-letting.
In   general,   he  recommended  delay.
" What art cannot effect," he used to say,
"time may accomplish."  His  pathology
was founded on  Condillac's system of
philosophy, and was  directed more  to  a
consideration  of the obvious phenomena
than to a thorough insight into the nature
of diseases;  yet his  Nosographie philo-
sophique (Paris, 1798; 6th ed. 1818) formed
an epoch  in  French medicine, as it sup-
plied a want then generally felt.  In many
respects, Pinel is to be considered as  the
precursor of Bichat, since he was the first
to point out the  physiological and patho-
logical difference of the  various textures.
He edited, for some  time, the Gazette de
Sanit, and was a collaborator in Four- 
PINEL—PINK.                             145
croy's Midecine  e'claire'e par les Sciences
physiques, and  in  the  great Dictionnairc
des Sciences  medicates.  In the  time  of
terror, Pinel concealed the  unfortunate
Condorcct (q. v.) in  his house.  In 1823,
when the school of medicine was reform-
ed  by the government, M. Pinel was  re-
moved from his post on suspicion of en-
tertaining liberal principles; and he died
three years later, at the age of eighty-one
years.
   Pingre, Alexandre  Gui, canon  of the
congregation, and librarian of Ste. Gene-
vieve, astronomer and  geographer to die
marine, and  member of the academy of
sciences at  Paris,  was born  in  Paris, in
1711.  He distinguished himself at first
as  a  theologian, particularly  in the Jan-
senistic controversy;  but, at  the age of
thirty-eight,  he  was  induced to  devote
himself to astronomy, for the  purpose of
fitting himself for the place of  astronomer
to  the  academy of sciences at Rouen.
His observations here  caused  him  to be
chosen correspondent of the Paris acade-
my, in 1750, and, in  1751, he  was called
to Paris by its order, to erect  and super-
intend an observatory.  Here  he contin-
ued his observations for forty years, and
published an astronomical nautical alma-
nac from 1754 to 1757. In 1756,  he  be-
came  associe"  of the  academy,  whose
Transactions, from 1753  to 1770, contain
numerous papers by  him.  In  1757, he
entered upon one of the most difficult of
astronomical labors, the theory and calcu-
lation of comets—and  calculated the paths
of more comets than all the other astrono-
 mers of Europe together.  In  1766, he
 calculated the eclipses of the  sun and
 moon for a period of 2000 years,  for the
 second edition  of the Art de verifier les
 Dates, with a greater  degree of accuracy
 than Lacaille had done.   In 1767, he ac-
 companied Courtanvaux on a voyage, to
 try the  chronometers of Leroy and Ber-
 thoud, and made a report  on  the subject
 In 1769, he* made a second voyage with
 Fleurieu for the  same purpose, and, in
 1771, a third with  Borda.   In 1769, he
 observed  a passage of Venus over the
 sun's disk at cape Francois (he had been
 prevented from observing a previous pas-
 sage, in 1761, by the state of the weather).
 In 1783 appeared his Cometographie.   In
 1790, he  completed  his  History  of  As-
 tronomy during the Seventeenth Century,
 and, in 1786,  he published a translation
 of the astronomical poem of Mauilius. He
 died in May, 1796.
    Pinguin (from pinguis, fat), more com-
 monly called  Penguin  (aptenodytes);  a
    VOL.  x.          13
genus of birds exclusively found in the
Antarctic seas. Their feet arc placed more
posteriorly than in any  other  birds,  and
only afford diem support by resting on the
tarsus, which is enlarged  like the sole of
the foot of a quadruped.  The  wings are
very small, and are furnished with rudi-
ments of feathers only, resembling scales.
Their bodies  are  covered with  oblong
feathers, harsh to the touch, and  closely
applied  over each  other.   These,  with a
thick  coat of fat,  preserve the penguins
from the severity of the cold.  The water
is the natural element of these birds: on
land, their motions are slow and awkward,
and, from the form of their wings, or rath-
er fins,  they cannot fly.  While  in  the
water, they move  with great alertness and
rapidity. They principally feed on  fish.
The female lays  from one to three eggs,
forming a  rude excavation or burrow in
the sand, instead ofa nest, and it  is only
during the period of incubation that they
are to be found  on shore:  at  all other
times,  they  live  entirely on the  water.
The largest  species is the A. magellanica,
or  great magellanic  penguin,  which  is
perhaps the  most awkward and ill-shaped
of the genus;  for, although not more than
two feet in  length, their bulk is sometimes
so  great that they weigh from thirty to
forty  pounds.  They  derive their name
of penguin  from  their excessive  pingui-
tude, or fatness.  The birds which Buffon
has distinguished by this name belong to
a different genus, namely, alca, and are
known  among English naturalists  by the
appellation of auk.  They are  principally
natives  of the northern  hemisphere,  par-
ticularly of the Faroe islands.
  Pinion, in mechanics; an arbor or spin-
dle, in  the  body of which  are  several
notches, which catch the teeth ofa wheel
that serves to turn it round ; or it is a les-
ser wheel  that plays in the teeth  of a
larger one.
   Pinite is a crystallized earthy mineral,
found in granite and porphyry.  Its form
is that ofa six-sided prism, usually much
rounded on the lateral edges; color green-
ish black and gray;  dull, soft, and emit-
ting an earthy odor when moistened.  It
consists of silex 29.5, alumine 63.75, and
oxide of iron 6.75.  It is found in several
 European countries, and in the U. States,
at  Haddam, Connecticut, in granite, and
at  Lancaster, in Massachusetts, in quartz
veins in argillite.
   Pink (dianthus); a beautiful and favor-
ite genus of plants, belonging to the cary-
ophyllece.   More  than one hundred  spe-
 cies are known, all, with perhaps one or 
146
PINK-PINKNEY.
 two exceptions, natives of the  northern
 and temperate parts of the Eastern conti-
 nent  Their roots are annual or perenni-
 al; the stems  herbaceous and jointed; the
 leaves opposite and entire, and the flowers
 terminal, aggregate or solitary,and  always
 beautiful.  Many are common in gardens;
 and iieihapsno plant is morehighlyesteem-
 ed by the florist than the carnation,  both
 for its beauty and its rich spicy odor.  It is
 the general favorite in Germany and Italy,
 and nearly 400 varieties are enumerated.
   Pink ; a vessel masted and rigged like
 other ships, only that  this is built  with a
 round  stern,  the  bends and  ribs  com-
 passing so that  her ribs  bulge  out  very
 much.  This  renders the pinks difficult
 to  be boarded, and also enables them to
 carry great  burdens,  for which  purpose
 they are often  used.
   Pinkerton, John,  F. S. A., was born
 in Edinburgh, 1758, and was articled to a
 writer  to the  signet,  in whose office he
 continued five years.   In 1780, he went
 to London, where he published au  octavo
 volume of miscellaneous poetry, under the
 title of Rhymes, with dissertations On the
 Oral Tradition of Poetry,  and On  the
 Tragic Ballad, &c.  His Essay on Med-
 als (1784, 2 vols., 8vo.)  has since gone
 through two other editions.  Among his
 other works are Letters on  Literature,
 published in  1785, under  the  assumed
 name of  Heron, which obtained  him  the
 acquaintance  of Horace  Walpole, after
 whose decease he published Walpoliana;
 Ancient Scottish  Poems, from  the (pie-
 tended) Manuscript Collection of Sir Rich-
 ard Maitland, with Notes and a Glossary;
 Dissertation  on the Origin and Progress
 of the  Scythians or Goths;  the Medallic
 History of England (4to.);  Scottish  Po-
 ems, reprinted from scarce Editions (3
 vols., 8vo.); Iconographia  Scotica, with
 Notes (2 vols., 8vo., 1795—1797); Mod-
 em Geography, digested on  a  new Plan
 (2 vols.,  4to.,  1802 ;  reprinted  3 vols.,
 1807);  General Collection of Voyages and
 Travels (19 vols., 4to.), &c.  He died at
 Paris, March 10, 1826.
  Pinknet,  William,  a  distinguished
 American lawyer, was born at Annapolis,
 in Maryland, March 17, 1764.  His father
 was a native of England, and favored the
 cause of the mother country during the
 revolutionary struggle, while his son early
 avowed a decided attachment to that of
 his native land.  After receiving such an
education as the imperfect means of the
country could then afford, he commenced
 the study of medicine, but soon  relin-
 quished it, and entered, in 1783,  into the
 office of the late  judge Chace, then an
 eminent member of the Maryland bar. In
 1786, he was admitted to practice, and
 soon gave  indications of his future dis-
 tinction.  His style of speaking, however,
 in the  outset, was  entirely different from
 its subsequent character, being then calm
 and  placid.  In  1788, he was  elected a
 delegate from Harford county to the con-
 vention of the state  which ratified the
 constitution of the U. States, and' likewise
 a representative to the house of delegates.
 Soon after  taking  his seat, he  made  an
 animated speech  upon  the  report of a
 committee appointed to consider the laws
 of Maryland prohibiting  the  voluntary
 emancipation of slaves; and, in the ensu-
 ing session of 1789, pronounced another
 and superior discourse on  the same sub-
 ject  In  both he breathed sentiments  of
 the purest philanthropy.   In the year just
 mentioned, he was married at  Havre  de
 Grace (Md.) to the sister of commodore
 Rodgers. In 1790, he was elected a member
 of congress; but his election was contested
 on the  ground of bis not  residing in the
 district  for  which  he was chosen.  He
 made, himself, a  powerful argument  in
 support of his claim; but, after obtaining
 a favorable decision, he declined the hon-
 or, in consequence of his  professional pur-
 suits, and the state of his  private affairs;
 In 1792, he was chosen a member of the
 executive council of Maryland, and con-
 tinued  in that station  until November,
 1795, when, being elected a delegate to
 the legislature from Anne Arundel coun-
 ty, he resigned his seat at  the council
 board, of which at the time he was presi-
 dent  During all this period, in which he
 attained a distinguished political  rank  in
 his state, he  was so zealous and  indefati-
 gable in  professional pursuits,  that he
 gradually  rose  to   the   head   of the
 bar.  His acuteness, dexterity and ardor
 in the transaction of business, were com-
 bined with great readiness, spirit  and vig-
 or in debate, and with a rich and fluent
 elocution, adorned with the finest image-
ry, drawn from classical  lore, and a vivid
 fancy, the effect  of  which was increased
 by the manliness of his figure, a sonorous
and flexible voice, and a general anima-
tion and gracefulness of  delivery.   In
 1796, he was selected by president Wash-
ington as one of the commissioners on
the part of the  U. States, under  the  sev-
enth article of Mr. Jay's treaty with Great
Bntaui.   He  embarked for  London, with
his family, in July of the same year,  and
remained absent until 1804, earnestly en-
gaged in the business of his mission, and 
PINKNEY.
147
-also in attending to the claim cf the state
of Maryland for a large amount of public
property invested in the stock of the bank
of England  before  the  revolution,  and
w hich had become the subject of a com-
plicated chancery litigation.  His success-
ful exertions  in the latter affair  were
suitably  acknowledged by the  state  of
Maryland after  his  return.  He  recom-
menced  in  Baltimore his  professional
labors with renewed ardor, and with no
diminution of legal knowledge, as he had
continued  his habits of diligent study
during his residence  abroad, and had de-
rived all the advantage which could he ob-
tained from frequent intercourse with the
first  lawyers of England and  attendance
on its courts of justice.  He had, besides,
employed a portion of his time in  supply-
ing the defects of his early education, with
regard to English and  classical literature,
and, by his application to the subject of
elocution and the  English language, he
had added to  his natural facility and flu-
ency  a  copiousness  of  elegant  diction
which graced  even his conversation, and
imparted new strength and beauty to  his
forensic style.   In 1805, he was appointed
attorney-general of Maryland.   In the fol-
lowing year, he was again made minister
extraordinary  to treat with  the   British
.government,   in  conjunction   with  Mr.
Monroe, then  minister resident  at the
court of St. James, upon various  subjects
of difference  between the  U. States and
England.  In 1807, Mr. Monroe returned
home, and Mr. Pinkney was left in Lon-
don  as minister resident.  His exertions
to accommodate matters between  the two
governments  terminating  fruitlessly, he
took  his leave of  the prince regent, and
embarked  for the  U. States in 1811.  In
September of the  same  year,  he  was
elected a member of the senate of Mary-
land, and, in  the  succeeding December,
accepted the office of attorney-general of
the  U. States, tendered  to him  by Mr.
Madison.  When  war was declared be-
tween Great  Britain and this country, in
1812, he was  chosen to  command a vol-
unteer corps raised in Baltimore for local
defence, which was attached  as a battal-
ion  of riflemen to the third  brigade of
Maryland militia.   He was present, aud
behaved with great gallantry at the unfor-
tunate  battle  of Bladensburg, where lie
received  a severe  wound.    After  the
peace,  he resigned   his command.   In
3*1-1, a bill having been brought  into  the
bouse  of representatives,  requiring  the
attorney-general to reside at  the seat of
government,  Mr.  Pinkney resigned  the
office.   In  1815, he was chosen a mem-
ber of congress from Baltimore, and de-
livered an able speech on the treaty-mak-
ing power.   In 1816, he was a third  time
invested with diplomatic  functions, being
appointed by Mr. Madison special minister
to the  court of Naples, to demand  from
it  indemnity for  the losses  which  our
merchants  bad sustained by  the seizure
and confiscation of their property in 1809,
during the reign of Murat; and also min-
ister resident at St. Petersburg.  He was
induced to  accept those appointments  by
the necessity cf recruiting his mind and
body, almost worn out by his intense ap-
plication to professional duties.  He first
proceeded to Naples, where he had  vari-
ous conferences with die  minister  of for-
eign affairs, and addressed him an elabo-
rate note, the answer to  which,  however,
he could not wait foi-, being obliged,  by
his instructions, to repair at once to the
Russian  capital.  He returned  home in
1818.   In 1820, he  took his seat in con-
gress  as a senator  from Maryland, and
made an elaborate  and  powerful  speech
against the clause in the bill  for the ad-
mission of Missouri into the Union, which
prohibited the  introduction of slaves into
the new state.   He continued also to
prosecute his engagements at the bar with
his wonted ardor; and to his professional
zeal, indeed, he may be said to have fall-
en  a victim.   In  the session of the su-
preme court in 1822, he had exerted him-
self in the investigation and argument of
a cause in which he felt particular interest,
at a time when the state of his health un-
fitted  him  for  application  to study and
business. A severe attack of indisposition,
Feb. 17, was the consequence; and, after
a period of acute suffering, during  parts
of which he was in a state of delirium, he
expired on the 25th of the same month,
in  the  fifty-eighth  year of his age.  It
was as a lawyer that  Mr.  Pinkney was
preeminent  His legal attainments  were
extensive and profound, and in the inves-
tigations connected  with the science of
jurisprudence, his powers were exerted to
the most advantage.  His faculty of rea-
soning upon legal subjects has rarely been
equalled.   He was, besides, enthusiasti-
cally fond  of his  profession, and  no one
was ever more ambitious of its triumphs.
Into every  cause which he  undertook he
threw his whole soul; and for it he pre-
pared  himself with almost unparalleled
industry.   His oratory,  though at  times
too declamatory and rhetorical, was rich,
copious and fluent in a high degree.  For
the power  of undergoing  the  immense 
148
PINKNEY—PIOMBO.
labor which he incurred, he was indebted
to a constitution of gnat natural vigor.
His personal appearance  was  fine  and
commanding.
  PlNKNEYA  PUBESCENS,  Ol*  GEORGIA
Bark; a small tree, closely  resembling
the cinchona, or  Peruvian bark, and said
to possess the same febrifuge  qualities,
growing  wil.l iu the southern  parts of
Georgia.  It  rarely exceeds  twenty-five
feet in height, by  five or six inches  in
diameter at base ; the leaves are  opposite,
five or six inches long, oval, and acute at
each  extremity; the flowers are pretty
large, white, with longitudinal stripes of
rose-color, and are disposed  in  beautiful
clusters at the extremities of the branches;
each flower is accompanied with a floral
leaf, bordered with  rose-color  near the
upper margin ; the  corolla is tubular; the
stamens five, with a single style ; and the
capsule contains two ceils and numerous
seeds.  The wood is  soft and  unfit  for
u^e in the arts.  The inner  bark is ex-
tremely bitter, and is the part employed
with success in intennittents.
  Pinnace; a small  vessel used at sea,
with a square stern, having sails  and oars,
and carrying three  masts, chiefly employ-
ed to obtain intelligence and to land men,
&c.   One of the boats of a  man-of-war,
used to cany the officers to and from the
shore, is also called the pinnace.
  Pint.  (See Measures.)
  Pinto-Mendez.  (See Mendez-Pinto.)
  Pinturicchio, Bernardino,  an eminent
painter of the Roman school,  the disciple
of Pietro Perugino, was  born  at Perugia,
in 1454.  He  painted chiefly in history
and grotesque;  but  he  also  excelled  in
portraits.  His chief work was  the histo-
ry of pope Pius II, in ten compartments,
in the library at Sienna.   Others consider
his work in the cathedral of  Sospello his
best performance.  His  style  was effect-
ive, but he made use of too splendid col-
ors, and  introduced  abundance of gild-
ing.  He is said  to have  died of chagrin
at the following  circumstance :  Being
engaged to paint a Nativity for  the mon-
astery of St. Francis, at Sienna, he perti-
naciously insisted that every thing should
be removed out of the room  in  which  he
worked, and obliged the monks to remove
a great  chest, become  rotten from age.
In the attempt it burst,  and discovered a
hoard of 500 pieces of gold,  to the great
joy of the fathers, and  the  mortification
of Pinturicchio.  His death took place in
1513.  He generally executed  composi-
tions  of  Perugino  and Raphael, and re-
ceived a third of the pay.
  Piombi.no ; a  principality of Tuscany,
lying between Sienna and the Mediterra-
nean, opposite the  island of Elba,  from
which  it is  separated by the channel of
Piombino. The capital, of the same name,
has a population  of 4150;  population of
the principality  is  17,775; 210  square
miles.   Piombino was formerly a  sove-
reign principality, to which belonged the
island  of Elba;  but, in 1804,   Napoleon
granted it to his  sister  Eliza (see Bacci-
occhi),  and,  in 1815, it was annexed to
Tuscany.  (See Tuscany.)
  Piombo, Sebastiano del;  a  celebrated
painter, born at  Venice,  in 1485.   His
family  name was Luciani.  Having  re-
nounced music,  of  which  he   was very
fond, for painting, he studied at first un-
der  Giovanni Bellini,  and afterwards
under Giorgione, whose fine coloring he
imitated.  Sebastiano  commenced  as a
portrait painter, and the reputation which
he soon gained in  that branch  induced
Agostino Chigi, a rich merchant of Sien-
na, to take him to Rome and employ him
in ornamenting his house.   The delicacy
of bis  pencil was  much admired,  and
Michael Angelo, who seems to have been
somewhat jealous of the growing fame of
Raphael, encouraged him  to  enter into
competition  with that  master,  and oven
supplied him with designs,  which Piom-
bo often executed very happily, although
by no means capable of lofty conceptions
or sublime  inventions.   When Raphael
had painted  his celebrated Ascension, Se-
bastiano was induced by  Michael Angelo
to attempt to surpass it by the  Raising of
Lazarus, which is considered his  greatest
work.   His Martyrdom of St.  Agatha
was also ranked  among the pieces of the
first masters.  His chief  merit, however,
lay  in single figures and portraits.  His
Pietro Aretino and his Clement VII were
admirable likenesses, and  specimens of
perfect coloring.  He was high in  favor
with Clement, who created him keeper
of the  papal seals.  From this  circum-
stance he derived his surname Del  Pi-
ombo,  the   seals attached  to  the  papal
bulls being, at that  time,  of lead (piombo).
This post made it  necessary for him to
assume the  clerical habit, and  from that
time,  he painted but little.  He  wrote
verses, entertained learned men at his ta-
ble, and only occasionally painted a por-
trait.  He died in 1547.  It also deserves
to be mentioned, that he invented a pecu-
liar  method of painting  in oil on  walls,
in which manner there is a Scourging of
Christ to be seen  in S. Pietro in  Mon-
torio. 
PIONEERS—PIPE.
149
  Pioneers ; laborers  attached to an ar-
my for the making and repairing of roads,
and perfonning till labors connected there-
with,  digging trenches, &c.  In several
armies they are  united  with the  sappers
and poutoniers.  (See Pontoon.)
  Piozzi, Hester Lynch, an  English au-
thoress, born in 1739,  was  the daughter
of  John  Salisbury, of Carnarvonshire.
Early in life, she was distinguished in the
fashionable  world  by her beauty and ac-
complishments.  In 1763, she was mar-
ried to Henry Thrale, a brewer of great
opulence  in Southwark, which  borough
he then represented in parliament.  Soon
after commenced her acquaintance with
doctor Johnson,  of  whom she published
Anecdotes, in one octavo volume (1786).
Mr. Thrale dying  in  1781, his widow
married,  in 1784,   Piozzi,   a Florentine
music  master.   She  accompanied her
husband to  his native  city.   Among her
writings are, Observations made in France,
Italy and Germany (1789); British Synon-
ymy,  or  an  Attempt  at  regulating the
Choice of Words in familiar Converse
tion (1794);  Review of the  most  striking
Events aud Characters of the last 1800
Years  (1801), &c.   Mrs. Piozzi  died  at
Clifton, May 2,1821, in her 82d year.
  Pip, or Pep (pepia) ;  a disease among
poultry, consisting  of a white, thin skin,
or film, that grows under the tip of the
tongue, and hinders their feeding.
  Pipe, in law; a  roll in the exchequer,
otherwise called the great roll;  whence
there  is an office   called the pipe-office,
where cognizance  is taken  of forfeitures
to the  king.
   Pipe ;  a wine measure, usually contain-
ing from 110 to 140 gallons.  Two  pipes,
or 252 gallons, make a  tun.
   Pipe.   We have  given a  view of the
general laws of the motions of liquids  in
the articles Hydraulics, and Hydrostatics ;
but there are some practical results of
these laws, as applied to their motions in
pipes,  which derive importance  from the
great use made of pipes in  the convey-
ance  of water.  (See  Aqueducts.)   The
friction that occurs between a solid and
the surface  upon which it  moves can be
accurately ascertained, but not so with a
fluid ;  for in this, while one part may be
moving rapidly, another may  be quite
stationaiy, moving  slowly,  or even mov-
ing in  a contrary direction.   This is par-
ticularly  observable in  rivers, where the
central part, or main current, will always
be  found  flowing  with  much  greater
rapidity than either side ; and experiment
proves that the same effect occurs  when
                  13*
water flows through pipes; for that water,
which is in contact with the side of the
pipe, moves with  much more  resistance
than that at the centre, whereby the cal-
culated discharge  of any given pipe of
considerable length, becomes  much less
than is due to its magnitude.  The term
friction is applied to this  obstruction to
the passage of fluids, in the same manner
as it is to solids, and it exists to such an
extent as to become an object of consid-
erable inconvenience in practice.  It can
only be obviated by making the convey-
ing pipe of much larger dimensions than
would otherwise  be necessary,  so as to
allow the free passage ofa sufficient quan-
tity of fluid through  the  centre of the
pipe, while a ring or hollow cylinder of
water is considered to be nearly at rest all
around it.  Other circumstances besides
friction likewise  tend   to  diminish the
quantity of fluid which would  otherwise
pass through pipes, such as the existence
of sharp or right-angled turns  in them,
and  permitting eddies  or currents to be
formed, or not providing for the  eddies
that form naturally, by suiting the shape of
the pipe to them. It follows, therefore, that
whenever a bend or turn is necessary in v
water pipe, it should be made in as gradu-
al a curve or sweep as possible, instead of
the form of an acute or even right angle;
that the pipe should not only be sufficiently
capacious to afford the necessary supply,
but should be of an equal  bore  through-
out, and  free from all  projections or ir-
regularities, against which  the water can
strike and form eddies or reverberations,
since these will impede  the progress of
the fluid as effectually  as the  most solid
obstacles.   The friction of water in chan-
nels or pipes has been  found to increase
as the square of the velocity.  It has also
been found that the  form of the end of
the pipe which communicates with the
fountain head, or reservoir,  greatly affects
the quantity of water received  by it.  If
it be gradually enlarged like  a trumpet
mouth, a larger quantity of water will be
received than by any of the modes which
follow, because the direction given to the
particles by this form is most favorable to
their admission.  If the entrance  to the
pipe be abrupt, in consequence of the
cavity being wholly cylindrical, the parti-
cles will have a tendency to cross each
other, and  less  water will enter the pipe
in a given time.  And  if the end of the
pipe projects into  the reservoir,  a variety
of opposing forces will be produced among
the particles moving towards the entrance,
so that a smaller quantity will be received 
150
PIPE—PIPERINE.
by the pipe, than in either of the preceding
cases.  The form of the discharging ori-
fice, likewise, influences the quantity of
water delivered  by a pipe in a given time.
If the end of the pipe be enlarged, by add-
ing to it a frustum of  a hollow cone,  the
amount of water discharged in some cases
may  be  prodigiously  increased.   This
fact, described  by Venturi, appears to be
the result of the pressure of the  atmos-
phere, aided by  the inertia aud cohesive-
ness of the water. The pipes by which
water  is conveyed  beneath  the ground
are generally of small or moderate size,
are intended to  be water tight, and have
been made from a great variety of mate-
rials.   It is desirable  that  they  should
possess strength, tightness and durability,
and that the material  of which  they  are
composed should not  be capable of con-
taminating the  water.   Wooden pipes are
commonly hollow  logs,  perforated  by
boring through  their axis, and connected
by making the end of one log conical, and
inserting it into a conical cavity  in  the
next  Wooden pipes are in  common  use
in this  country, but are  liable  to decay,
especially at the joints,  where their thick-
ness is smallest   Iron pipes are considered
preferable to those of wood, being stronger,
and, in most situations, more durable. They
are made of cast iron, with a socket, or
enlarged cavity, at one end, into which
the end of the next pipe is received.  The
joints thus formed  are  rendered tight,
either by filling the interstices with lead,
or by driving iu a small quantity of hemp,
and filling the  remainder of the  socket
with iron cement, made of  sulphur, mu-
riate of ammonia, and chippings of iron.
Copper pipes are extremely  durable, and
are made of sheet copper, with  the edge
turned up and soldered. They require to
be tinned inside, on account of the poi-
sonous  character of some  of the com-
pounds which are liable to  be formed in
them.   Lead pipes  are much  employed
for small aqueducts, owing to the facility
with which they can be soldered, and bent
iu  auy direction.  They are commonly
cast in short pieces, and afterwards elon-
gated by drawing them through holes, in
the same manner as wire.  Leaden pipes,
in general, are supposed not to contami-
nate the water  contained in them, because
the carbonate of lead,  which is sometimes
formed  in them, is insoluble  in water.
They are not safe, however, for  pumps
and pipes intended to  convey acid liquors.
Stone pipes  preserve the  water contained
by them in a very pure state.  They are,
however, expensive,  on  account of the
labor of working them, with  the exception
of soap stone, which, being readily shaped
and bored, may be usefully applied to the
purpose of  conveying water,  in  those
places where it is easily procured. Earth-
en pipes, made of common pottery ware,
and glazed on  the inside, are sometimes
used,  but  are more liable to be broken
than most  of the other kinds.
  Pipe-Clay.  (See Clay.)
  Pipe, Smoking.   In Asia, the smoking
of pipes is much more general than that
of cigars,  though the  latter are also used,
and called in India cheeroots.  In Russia,
Poland  and  Germany  also,  pipes  are
much more  common  than cigars;  the
Spaniards, Portuguese  and  Americans
(both  North and South), however, much
[iieter the  cigars.  Smoking-pipes are  of
a great variety of kinds.  The simplest,
and one of the most esteemed, is the clay-
pipe.  (See Clay.)  These are formed in
moulds, the  hollow in the tube  being
made  by  running  up a wire; the pipes
are  then  dried  and baked in a furnace
moderately  heated.   Another  kind  is
made  of one  long cane, with a bowl and
mouth-piece, which is the usual form of
Turkish pipes:  the mouth-piece is of am-
ber, or a cheaper composition resembling
it  In Germany, there are a great number
of sorts of pipes, short, long, flexible, with
bowls of  wood, meerschaum, porcelain,
&c. The fine porcelain bowls are wrought
with much elegance,  and are articles of
very  considerable luxury.   A  German
pipe generally consists of four chief parts;
the mouth-piece, the tube, the bowl, and
a part which  connects the two latter, and
serves to collect the juice descending from
the tobacco, and prevent  it  from getting
into the tube.   The  Eastern hookah, or
houkar,  is a very curious instrument, the
essential  feature of  which is,  that the
smoke  passes through  water,  loses the
particles which  give it an unpleasant fla-
vor, and  becomes cool before it reaches
the mouth.  The mode of effecting this is
as follows:   From the bowl,  which  is on
an air-tight vessel, half filled  with water,
a small  tube descends into the water; in
the side of the vessel the smoking-tube is
inserted, so that it communicates  only
with the air in the vessel.  If the smoker
now withdraws the air in the vessel, the
atmosphere, pressing from without on the
bowl, forces  the smoke  of the burning
tobacco through the small tube into the
water, from which it immediately bubbles
up and  enters the smoking tube, which is
generally  very long and pliable.
  Piperine ; the active principle of pep-
per, a new vegetable  principle extracted
from black pepper by means of repeated 
PIPERINE—PIRACY.                        151
  digestions in alcohol.  The solution is at
  length  evaporated to dryness,  when  an
  oily,  resinous  matter is obtained.  This,
  on being washed in warm water, becomes
  of a  good green  color.   It has a hot and
  burning taste, dissolves readily in alcohol,
  less so iu ether.  Concentrated sulphuric
  acid  gives  it  a fine scarlet color.  The
  alcoholic solution, after some days, depos-
  its crystals, which are purified by repeated
  crystallizations in  alcohol and ether, when
  they form colorless four-sided prisms, with
  single, inclined terminations.  They have
  scarcely  any  taste.  Boiling water  dis-
  solves a small portion of it, but it is insol-
  uble in cold.   They ure soluble in  acetic
  acid, from   which  solution  feather-like
  crystals may be obtained.  The fatty mat-
  ter left,  after  extracting  the  pipeline,  is
  solid at a temperature of 32°, but liquefies
  at a slight heat.  It has an extremely bit-
  ter and acrid taste, is very slightly volatile,
  and may be considered as being composed
  of two oils, one volatile and balsamic, the
  other more fixed, and containing the acri-
  mony of pepper.
    Pipowders  Court.   (See Courts, vol.
  iii, p. 588.)
    PiquET;  a  celebrated  game at  cards,
  played  between two persons, with only
  thirty-two cards,  all the deuces, threes,
  fours, fives and sixes being  set aside.  In
  reckoning at this game, every card goes
  for the  number which  it bears, as a ten
  for a ten, and  the ace for eleven, only all
  court-cards go for ten, and the usual game
  is one hundred up.  In playing, the ace
  wins the king, the king the queen, and so
  on.  Twelve cards are  dealt round, usu-
  ally by two and  two; which done, those
  that  remain are laid in the  middle.  (For
  the rules of the game, see Hoyle.)
     Piracy is  the crime of robbery  and
  depredation committed  upon  the  high
  seas.   It is an  offence against the univer-
  sal law of society,  a pirate being, according
  to sir Edward Coke, hostii humani generis.
  As, therefore,  he has renounced  all the
  benefits of society and government, and
|  has reduced himself to the savage state
i  of nature,  by  declaring  war against  all
  mankind, all mankind must declare  war
  against him;  so  that every  community
  lias a right, by the rule of self-defence, to
  inflict  that punrrMment upon him which
  every individual would, in a state of nature,
  otherwise have been entitled to do, for
  any  invasion  of  his person,  or personal
  property. By various statutes in England
  and the U. States, other offences are made
  piracy.   Thus, if a subject of  either of
  these nations commits any act of hostility
against a fellow subject on the high seas,
under color of a  commission  from any
foreign  power, this  is an act of piracy.
So if any captain of any vessel, or mariner,
run away with the vessel,  or the goods,
or yield them up  to a pirate voluntarily,
or if any seaman lay violent hands on his
commander, to hinder him  from fighting
iu defence of the ship or goods committed
to his  charge, or make a revolt in the
ship, these offences are acts of piracy, by
the  laws of England and the U. States.
In England, by the statute of 8 George I,
c. 24, the trading or corresponding with
known  pirates, or the forcibly boarding
any  merchant vessel  (though  without
seizing  her or carrying her off), and de-
stroying any of the goods on board, are
declared to be acts of piracy ; and by the
statute   18 George II, c. 30, any natural
born subject, or denizen, who, in time of
war, shall commit any hostilities, at sea,
against any of his fellow subjects, or shall
assist an enemy, on that element, is liable
to be punished as a pirate.  By statute of
George  II, c. 25,  the  ransoming of any
neutral  vessel, which has been taken as a
prize, by the commander of a private ship
of war,  is declared to be piracy.  By the
act of congress April 30, 1790, if any per-
son, upon the high seas, or in any river,
haven or bay, out of the jurisdiction of
any  particular state, commit  murder  or
robbery, or any other offence which, if
committed within  the body of a county,
would,  by the laws  of the U. States, be
punishable with death, such offender is to
be deemed a pirate.  By the act of con-
gress 1820, c. 113, if any citizen of the
U. States, being of the crew of any foreign
vessel,  or any  person being of the  crew
of any  vessel  owned, wholly  or in part,
by any  citizen of the U. States, shall be
engaged in the foreign slave-trade,  he
shall  be  adjudged a  pirate.   Notwith-
standing the expression used in this stat-
ute,  the question,  says  chancellor Kent,
remains to be settled, whether the act of
being concerned in the slave-trade would
be adjudged  piracy, within  the contem-
plation  of the code of international law.
In England, by  the act of parliament
passed  March 31,1824, the slave-trade  is
also  declared to be piracy.  An attempt
has been made to  effect a convention
between the U. States and Great Britain,
by which it should  be  agreed that  both
nations  should consider the slave-trade as
piratical;  but this attempt  has hitherto
been unsuccessful.  In the time of Rich-
ard III, by the laws of Oleron, all infidels
were regarded as pirates, and their prop- 
152
PIRACY—PIRON.
erty liable to seizure wherever found. By
the law of nations, the taking of goods by
piracy does not divest the actual owner
of the property.  By the civil institutions
of Spain  and Venice,  ships taken  from
pirates become the property of those who
retake them.   Piracy is eveiy where pur-
sued and punished with death,and pirates
can gain no rights by conquest.  It is of no
importance, for the purpose of giving juris-
diction in cases of piracy, on whom or
where a piratical offence is committed. A
pirate, who is oue by the law of nations, may
be tried and punished in any countiy where
he may be found ; for he is reputed  to be
out of the protection of all laws.  But if
the statute of any government declares an
offence, committed on board one of their
own vessels, to be piracy, such an offence
will  be  punishable  exclusively by  the
nation which passes the statute.   In  Eng-
land,  the  offence  was  formerly cogniz-
able only by  the admiralty courts, which
proceeded without a jury,  in a method
founded upon the civil law.  But, by the
statute of Henry VIII,  c.  15,  it  was
enacted that  piracy should  be tried  by
commissioners nominated  by  the   lord
chancellor,  the  indictment  being  first
found by a grand jury of twelve men, and
afterwards tried  by another jury,  as at
common  law.  Among the  commission-
ers, there are always some of the common
law judges.  In the U.  States, pirates are
tried  before  the  circuit  court of the U.
States.   Piracy, in the common sense of
the word, is distinguished from  privateer-
iug,  by the circumstance that the pirate
sails without  any commission, and under
no national flag,  and attacks the subjects
of all nations alike; the privateer  acts
under a  commission from  a belligerent
power, according  to  certain  maritime
laws.  The only  instances in which pri-
vateering has  been  recognised by  any
nation as  unlawful, is contained in the
treaty of the  U.  States with Prussia, in
1785.   The  Barbary  powers,  notwith-
standing  some  doubts which  formerly
existed, have been regarded, for  a century
past, as lawful powers,  and not as pirates.
They have all the insignia of regular na-
tions, and are competent to maintain the
European relations of peace and war.
   Piracy, Literary.    (See Copyright,
and Literary Property.)
   Pir^us.   (See Athens.)
   Piranesi,  a celebrated architect, en-
graver and antiquary, was born at Venice,
probably  about 1711, although  one ac-
count says  in 1721.   He  passed  the
greater part  of his  life  at  Rome.   His
earliest work, published in 1743, consists
of designs of his own, in a grand style,
and is adorned with views of Rome.  His
other  works  are, Antichita  Romane,  or
Roman Antiquities, in 220  plates,  with
descriptions in Italian (4 vols., folio);  Fas-
ti Consulares Triumphalesque Romanorum;
Del CasteUo dell' Acqua Giulia (21  folio
plates) ;  Antichita  d'Albano  c di Castel
 Gandolfo  (55 plates);  Campus  Martius
Anliqua Urbis (54  plates);  Archi Trion-
fali,Antichi Tempj ed Amfiteatri (31 plates);
 Trofei d'Ottaviano  Augusto  (10  plates);
Delia Magnificenza ed Architettura de' Ro-
mani  (44 plates); Archildture Diverse (27
plates); Carccri d'lnvenzione (16 plates);
and about 130 views of Rome in  its pres-
ent state.   His  inventions display much
grandeur and fertility ; but his representa-
tions of real objects are not always faithful,
on account of the scope which he gave to
his imagination.  He died in 1778.  Two
sous,  Francis and Peter,  settled at Paris,
continued  his works, now amounting to
23 vols., folio.
  Pirithous ; son  of Jupiter and  Dia,
wife  of Ixion, king of the Lapitha?, and
friend of Theseus.  He married Dejanira
or Hjppodatnia, daughter of Adrastes, a
prince of the Lapitlnu, by whom he had
Polypcctes.   His marriage is famous for
the battle of the Lapithse and Centaurs,
occasioned by the attempt of a drunken
Centaur (Eutythion) to do violence to the
bride, and which resulted in the expulsion
of the Centaurs from Pelion.  After the
death of his wife, Pirithous  went to Ath-
ens, and, with Theseus, who had also lost
 his wife, carried oft* Helen  from Sparta.
Having reached Athens, they cast lots for
her, on condition that he who was suc-
cessful should .aid the other in procuring
a wife. She fell to Theseus, whom Pirith-
ous required to aid him  in  the rape of
Proserpine,  wife of Pluto.   The  two
friends, therefore, descended  into the in-
fernal regions,  but having  sat down  to
rest,  they  were unable  to  rise  again.
Theseus (q. v.) was afterwards set free by
Hercules,  but Pirithous remained in the
infernal world, loaded with  30a chains,
or,  according to some, was torn in pieces
by Cerberus.
  Piron, Alexis, a celebrated French wit,
poet and dramatist, born at Dijon, in 1689,
was the son of an apothecary.  He took
his degrees in the faculty of law at Besan-
con,  and  was about to be  admitted  to
practice, when his parents experienced a
reverse of fortune, which  obliged him  to
relinquish his design.   He remained some
time at Dijon, leading a life of dissipation, 
PIRON—PISA.                             153
in the midst of which  his literary efforts
were confined to the production of a few
satirical epigrams.   At length he  became
clerk to a financier, whom he quitted  to
go to Paris, where he was employed  as a
copyist, with a salury of forty sous a day.
This  irksome situation he  soon relin-
quished ;  and it was  with difficulty  that
he  obtained  the  payment of his pitiful
salary.   He  was next engaged to write
for the Theatre of the Comic Opera, and
his first  piece was Arlequin Deucalion,
composed in  two days.  His success in-
duced him to persevere, and, after writing
several  pieces, he produced, in 1738, his
chef-d'auvre, MHromanie, a cornedy, which
Laharpe characterizes as excelling in  plot,
style, humor and  vivacity almost every
other composition  of the kind.   Piron
afterwards wrote Fernand Cortes,  a tragic
drama,  and some  other pieces, acted at
the theatre de la Foire.   In the latter  part
of his  life he made repeated attempts to
gtun admission into the French  academy;
but the satirical effusions in which he had
indulged himself had made him so many
enemies among the academicians, that he
was finally rejected.  He revenged  him-
self for his disappointment by calling the
academy Les invalidcs du bel esprit, and
composing the humorous epitaph,
        Ci-git Piron, qui nefut rien,
        Pas nieme acudemicien.

The king, however, at the  solicitation of
Montesquieu, gave Piron a pension of 1000
livres.   His death took place Jan. 21,1773.
His bons mots were collected and published
in one volume 18mo.; and his Poisies Di-
verses were printed at Neufchatel, 1775, and
1793, 8vo.   His works entire form seven
volumes octavo, in the "edition of Rigoley
de Juvigny, 177(5.
   Pirouette, in  dancing; a  rapid cir-
cumvolution  upon one foot, which, on the
stage,  is  repeated  by  the dancers many
times in  succession.   In riding, it is the
sudden, short turn of a horse, so as to
bring his  head where his tail was.
   Pisa, one of the most ancient and beau-
tiful cities of Italy, iu the grand-duchy of
Tuscany, stands in a fertile  plain, about
eight miles from the entrance of the Arno
into the sea.   The air is tolerably healthy
and mild.  Instead of the 150,000 inhab-
itants,  which it formerly contained, the
city now numbers scarcely 17,000.   Si-
lence and solitude reign here,  as in the
other great cities  of Italy, which  have
finished their part  in histoiy.   The Arno
divides  the  city  into  two nearly equal
parts, connected by three bridges.   The
two  great quays (lungarno) are  adorned
with edifices in the  noblest style, whose
fortified appearance  recalls the  warlike
days of the  republic.   The streets are
mostly wide,  straight  and  well paved;
but the grass, glowing between the stones,
is  a melancholy  mark of depopulation.
Among the eighty ecclesiastical buildings,
die cathedral,  built in the eleventh centu-
ry by  a Greek architect, strikes one with
awe, and contains many remarkable mon-
uments.   Behind  the  cathedral  stands
the celebrated leaning tower, built  in the
twelfth century, by a German of the name
of William;  its inclination  amounts to
about  fifteen feet from the perpendicular.
It is a round tower of marble, consisting
of eight rows of pillars, one above another,
and  is 168 feet in height.    It has been
doubted, whether this beautiful tower has
actually sunk, or whether it was designedly
built with its present inclination.  Opposite
the cathedral standsthe 6aWw<en'o, or baptis-
tery, which is of the same age, round, and
adorned with pillars.  It was built by Dio-
ti  Salvi.   Between the two is the Campo
Santo, one of the greatest wonders of art in
Italy.  It  is an old church-yard, the earth
of which  the Pisans brought from Jeru-
salem, surrounded  by Gothic halls, the
walls of which are painted in fresco by
the most  celebrated  early  artists, among
whom are Memmi,  Orcagna, &c.   But
all are eclipsed by the inimitable paintings
of Benozzo  Gozzoli.  Carlo Lasanio, su-
perintendent of the Campo Santo, has
published  fine engravings of these pictures,
Pitture al Fresco del Campo (1812).  There
is also here a large collection of Etrus-
can  and  Roman antiquities, particularly
urns and  sarcophagi.  Among the other
churches,  we must  mention the church
Madonna  della Spina, distinguished  for
its delicate architecture,  and the church
S. Stefano,  built in a more modern style,
which, with  the neighboring palace, be-
longed to die military  order of St Ste-
phen,  that once  resided  here.  Several
palaces, and the Loggia de' Mercanti, are
worthy of note.  An edifice is still shown
as the tower of famine,  in which Ugolino
della Gherardesca perished  (in 1283), with
his children.  The  original tower, how-
ever,  no  longer exists.  The family of
Gherardesca (q. v.) was still extant at Pisa
in 1798.   The university is  old,  and has
always possessed  celebrated professors.
The observatory  and the botanical gar-
den are in the best condition. There are
in the city an accademia Italiana, a physico-
medical college, cabinets of art, and, in
the vicinity,  an agricultural  establishment, 
154                        PISA—PISCATAQUA.
S. Rossore, with a collection of breeding-
horses, a colony of 200 camels, and a herd
of 1800 wild cows.   The refinement and
kindness of the inhabitants make a resi-
dence in Pisa delightful to a stranger.   At
a little distance from the city, at  the foot
of Monte S. Giuliano, and named after
this mountain, are the Pisaii baths. Twelve
warm  sulphur springs are enclosed  in
large, convenient buildings, in which pro-
vision is made for  all die wants of the
visitors.  The baths are not, however, in
so high repute as they were in the middle
of the  last centuiy.  The splendid Car-
thusian   monastery   near  Pisa  is also
worth seeing. The trade and manufac-
tures of the place are of little importance.
Large quantities of  oil, which is  but little
inferior in quality to the oil of Lucca, is
made here; th« fields and  hills are well
cultivated, and the marble quarries in the
neighborhood are among the finest in Ita-
ly.  Pisa was a flourishing republic in the
middle ages,  and owed its prosperity to
the great  love of liberty, and the active,
commercial spirit, which distinguished its
citizens.   From the  Saracens the republic
conquered Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares,
and  was  styled  the queen of the seas.
Its territory oil the Tyrrhene shore com-
prehended the Maremma  from Lerici to
Piombino, which  was at that time culti-
vated and very fruitful.  By sea  the rival
of Venice and Genoa, she founded colo-
nies in the Levant, and sent forty vessels
to aid the king of Jerusalem.  Faithful as
a  zealous  Gibeline  to the emperor,  in-
volved in  a  bloody  struggle with  the
Guelfic Florence, with Lucca and Sienna,
which adhered to the pope,  an object of
jealousy to all her neighbors, overcome by
Genoa in a bloody naval battle, and torn
by  the internal  dissensions of powerful
families, she finally  sunk under the jeal-
ousy aud hatred  of Florence.   Ugolino,
however,  reigned but a short time over
the city,  which had been stripped of her
fortresses.   The courage  with which
11,000 Pisans  preferred to  suffer sixteen
years of severe imprisonment, rather than
surrender a fortified place to the enemy,
sustained  for a time the spirit of the  re-
public, which, with its own arms, defeated
the army of the Guelfs of all  Italy.  But,
being exhausted, it finally put itself under
die protection of Milan, and was  soon
after sold to duke Galeazzo Visconti, from
whose  successors Florence obtained it by
purchase, in  1406.  The city was com-
pelled to surrender by famine; and those
disposed to resist were kept iu obedience
by force.  The larger part of the citizens
emigrated.   But after eighty-eight year*
of oppression,  when  Charles VI11  of
France made an expedition into Italy, the
ancient  pride of Pisa was  aroused, and,
for fifteen years, she fought gloriously for
her liberty.  Simon Orlaudi  called bis
fellow citizens  to amis, and the  people,
under the protection of Charles VIII, who
took possession of Pisa by  a treaty with
Florence, adopted a constitution of their
own.  Then  began an obstinate war be-
tween Florence and Pisa.  The inhabit-
ants of the latter city, with the assistance
of the French  garrison, reconquered the
ancient territory, and defeated the Floren-
tine mercenaries.  Their courage foiled
every  effort of their former sovereigns.
When the French garrison departed, they
took the oath of allegiance to the French
king as their protector.  Pisa now became
a place  of  importance.  Princes and re-
publics negotiated, some for, some  against
the  continuance of  the revived republic.
Abandoned at last by all, the Pisans swore
to perish rather than submit to  their he-
reditary  enemy.  Florence  had already
made  itself master of the Pisaii territory,
and, on the last of July, 1499, the siege of
the city  was commenced with such ardor,
that, in a fortnight, the Florentines  hoped
to have  it  in their power.  But  the fe-
males of Pisa worked day and night to
repair the walls; and the  enemy  having
taken  u castle  by  storm,  they exhorted
their  disheartened citizens to  die  rather
than become the slaves of the Florentines.
By this spirit the city was saved, and the
enemy,  after great  loss, raised the siege,
September  4.  The Pisans now changed
their city into a formidable fortress. Even
an army  sent  by  Louis  XII, king  of
France (who wished to subjugate Pisa for
the Florentines), besieged it in vain.   In
1504,  the Florentines resumed the siege of
Pisa.  They attempted to dam up the Ar-
no above the city, but had to relinquish the
plan after great expense.   A third siege,
in 1505, was equally  unavailing.  The
city was finally (June*8,1509) reduced by
famine,  and submitted to the Florentines,
with  an amnesty  for  the  past.   Thus
Pisa,  haviug frustrated four attacks, and
asserted  its freedom for fifteen  years, fell
into the power of the  Florentines, and
ceased for  ever to  be independent.  On
its ruins was founded the power of Tus-
cany.
  Piscataqua, or Pascataqua ; the only
large  river of New Hampshire which has
its whole course within the state. It origi-
nates  from  the  junction of several small
streams in a wide and  deep  bed,  which 
PISCATAQUA—PISISTRATUS.
155
is formed partly by them and partly by the
tide.  The names of these streams are
Salmon Fall,  Cocheco, Bellamy Bank,
Oyster, Lamprey, Squamscot and Winni-
cut  The river  joins  the  ocean two or
three miles  below Portsmouth,  encloses
several islands, and forms at Portsmouth
one of the best harbors in America.
  Pisidia.  (See Natolia.)
  Pisistratus,  an Athenian citizen who
usurped the sovereignty of his  country,
was of noble descent, which  he himself
derived from Codrus, the last king of Ath-
ens,  and inherited from his father, Hippo-
crates,  a large fortune.  He received from
nature  those qualifications which give in-
fluence to  an individual, facility of speech,
and  uncommon  vigor of understanding.
To  these  he had added all the learning
of his  time.  On entering public life, he
lent his eloquence to  the plans of Solon,
his  maternal  relation,   for exciting the
Athenians to recover Salamis, and accom-
panied  the lawgiver iu the  successful en-
terprise against that  island.  By nature
ambitious, he  pursued  the  policy which
has so often succeeded in  democracies:
he gained  over the  lower classes of the
citizens by his affability and  unbounded
liberality.   He  relieved  their burthens,
laid open his gardens for their use, provid-
ed for the  sick, and caused the dead to be
buried. In all his harangues, he was the
advocate of civil  equality and a democrat-
ic constitution.  Solon  saw through his
policy, and  expressed his  apprehensions
of the  result.  They were but  too soon
verified.   One  day Pisistratus  appeared
in the market-place, with  several slight
wounds, which he had inflicted on  him-
self, and called upon his fellow-citizens to
protect him against certain alleged  ene-
mies, who had,  as he  said, attacked his
life on account  of his  adherence to the
democracy.  An assembly of the people
was immediately summoned, in which
one of his friends proposed that  a guard
should be  given  him for the  security of
his person.  This proposal was approved,
notwithstanding  the opposition of Solon.
A body-guard, by the  aid of which he
possessed  himself of the citadel of Athens,
was given him.  He disarmed the multi-
tude, and was now  master of the  city,
while  Solon departed  from his enslaved
country (560 B. C). But, though Pisistra-
tus,  by the manner in which he obtained
his power, drew upon himself the re-
proach of tyranny, his use of power was
by  no  means  tyrannical; for no lawful
prince  ever  showed  more moderation or
more regard for the welfare of the peo-
ple.  He made no attempt to abolish the
wise laws of Solon, but confirmed and ex-
tended their authority.  He always show-
ed the greatest respect for the  lawgiver,
but his endeavors to induce him to return
to Athens  were ineffectual.  The sove-
reignty of Pisistratus was not,  however,
secure.   Megacles, who was the  head  of
a hostile party, left Athens with his family,
and entered into a correspondence with a
third party, for the purpose of overthrow-
ing the power of Pisistratus.  Their pro-
ject succeeded, and Pisistratus was com-
pelled to leave  the  city.   But  Megacles
soon became dissatisfied with the party to
which he had united himself, and ofiered
to reinstate Pisistratus if he would marry
his daughter.   This proposition he imme-
diately accepted.  His return was effected
by  a  stratagem  which gives a striking
proof of the credulity of the people.  A
female of a majestic stature  was arrayed
in the armor of Minerva,  and it was pro-
claimed  that  the  goddess  herself had
brought back Pisistratus.   He entered the
city with her in a solemn procession, seat-
ed in a magnificent  car,  and was again
established  without opposition.  This fact
is related by Herodotus, who calls it ridic-
ulous.   Pisistratus  married, as he had
promised, the daughter of Megacles, but
did not live with her as his wife,  as he had
already a family.  To revenge this insult,
Megacles again  formed a hostile party,
which appeared so formidable to Pisistra-
tus that he  retired voluntarily to Eretria.
Here he occupied himself with the educa-
tion of his sons, and  took measures to re-
cover his power.  In the eleventh y< ar of
his second banishment, he entered Attica
at the head of an army.   Many Atheni-
ans who were dissatisfied with the democ-
racy, aud remembered his early  benefits,
joined him.  After having surprised and
dispersed the troops sent against  him,  he
entered the city, and made himself master,
for the  third  time,  of the sovereignty,
without bloodshed.  Pisistratus continued
to rule with his former mildness; but, in
order to weaken the popular party,  he
adopted a measure which  was very useful
to the state. He forced many of the idle
inhabitants to leave the city and cultivate
the country around, which by these means
was covered with cornfields and olive
plantations.  He exacted  from every one
the tenth part of his income and  earnings,
and  thus increased  the  revenue of the
state, which he expended in splendid pub-
lic buildings.   He also endeavored to ad-
vance the  intellectual  cultivation of the
Athenians.   He established a public libra- 
156
PISISTRATUS—PITCAIRN'S ISLAND.
ry, and collected and arranged the poems
of Homer.  As he well knew how tyran-
ny was hated, he carefully concealed his
power under the exterior ofa private citi-
zen.  He submitted, like  others, to the
sentence of the Areopagus, before which
he was accused of murder, and conduct-
ed  himself with as much  prudence as
clemency.  In this way  Pisistratus exer-
cised the sovereignty, not as the oppressor
but the  father of  bis  country,  which
scarcely  ever enjoyed a longer term  of
peace and prosperity.  He died 527 B. C,
leaving two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus,
to inherit his power, who were not, how-
ever, able to preserve it
  Piso;  a surname common to many Ro-
mans of  the Calpurnian family.   Lucius
Calpurnius Piso, when  consul, subdued
the seditious slaves in Sicily, and proposed
the law de repetundis, concerning  restitu-
tion in cases of extortion, in order to put
limits to  the avarice of the magistrates in
the administration of the provinces.  He
distinguished himself, as praetor, in Sicily
(where the purchase  of provisions  had
been committed  to him during a scarcity
of corn at Rome) by a rare disinterested-
ness, so that he received  the honorable ap-
pellation  of Frugi (the honest).   Another
Piso afterwards filled the office of consul
with Gabinius, in Cicero's time, and show-
ed himself particularly hostile to that great
man, who, in a speech which still remains
to us, spoke very  violently  against him.
Still later lived the Piso who, under Tibe-
rius, was prefect  of Syria, and distin-
guished himself for his pride, as  well as
for  his odious conduct towards the noble
Germauicus, the adopted son of Tiberius,
whom he is said to have taken off by poison.
  Pistachia Tree ; a  small  tree, with
heavy, crooked limbs, somewhat  resem-
bling" the walnut in foliage, indigenous to
Syria and  the neighboring parts of Asia,
and now cultivated in many parts of the
south of  Europe.  The fruit which forms
a considerable article of commerce,  is a
thin-shelled,  oval  and  acuminate  nut,
about as  large as an olive,  and has a very
agreeable flavor.  These nuts are dispos-
ed in racemes, and  are usually produc-
ed in profusion.  Michaux  recommends
the introduction  of this tree into West
Tennessee and  the Southern States.  It
flourishes in the same soil  and climate as
the  olive—in  dry, calcareous or stony
grounds, and  shuns a sandy and humid
soil.  As the plant is diaecious, care should
be  taken, in forming plantations, to allot
one barren to five or six fertile plants; and,
to avoid  mistake, young grafts,  stocks, or
suckers, from the root of an old tree, may
be employed.  The flowers of both sexes
are small,  greenish, and  inconspicuous.
From a second species of pistachia is ob-
tained the mastic of commerce. (SeeJWos-
tic.)
  Pistoia (anciently Pistoria); a provin-
cial  town  of Tuscany, six  and a half
leagues north-west of Florence, a bishop's
see, on a branch of the Arno ; lat. 43° 56'
5" N.; Ion. 10° 55' 12" E.;  with 9150  in-
habitants.  In the neighboring mountains
copper is found, also rock-crystal, called
diamond of Pistoia; and inflammable gas
issues from the  earth.  Pistoia was a  re-
public in the middle ages,  and lost its lib-
erty  with Pisa, in the beginning of the fif-
teenth century.   It is a place often men-
tioned in the histoiy of Florence.  It is
said  that the first pistols were  made here.
Many straw hats are manufactured in this
place.
  Pistol ;  a small hand gun,  of a struc-
ture  too well known to require particular
description.  Pistols are of various sizes,
some being so small that they may be de-
posited  in  the waistcoat  pocket   These
are called pocket pistols.  Others, such as
duelling and horse pistols,  are sometimes
nearly half as long as a carbine.   Pistol
barrels are  oftentimes rifled, and have fre-
quently the addition of a sight The best
pistols  are   manufactured  at  London ;
those of an inferior kind at  Sheffield and
Birmingham.  The stocks of the pistols
intended for the Turkey trade are usually
inlaid with  silver, gold, mother of pearl,
&c, and are, on the whole, far more cost-
ly than those sent to any other part of the
world.  Pistols, if  well  mounted, bring
high prices at Constantinople and Smyrna.
(For the*origin of the name, see Pistoia.)
   Pistole ; the name of  a coin and im-
aginary money, in use in several  parts of
Europe, more especially  in  Spain, Italy
and  Switzerland.  (See Coins.)
   Pitcairn's Islano ; in the south Pacific
ocean, lat.  25° 4"  S., lon. 133° W.,  six
miles long and three broad, covered with
wood, of a fertile soil, and fine  climate,
but  having neither river nor  harbor.   It
was discovered by Carteret in  1767, when
it was  uninhabited, but  was settled  in
1789, by some of  the mutineers  of  die
English ship Bounty.  The Bounty, under
the  command  of lieutenant  Bligh, had
been sent out to introduce the bread-fruit
tree from Otaheite into the West Indies,
but was taken possession of by the crew,
who set their  officers adrift  in  a boat.
Bligh and his companions arrived safely
in the island of Timor, after a voyage of 
PITCAIRN'S ISLAND—PITCHSTONE.
157
1200 leagues.  The next year  the admi-
ralty sent captain Edwards, in the Pando-
ra, to Otaheite, in  search of the twenty-
five  mutineers, who  were  supposed to
have  returned thither.  At his arrival in
the island (1791), four of them came on
board, and ten others,  who were  living
there, were taken the next day ; they were
carried home, with the exception of some
who were  lost by the wreck of the Pan-
dora, and most of them were executed.
According to their accounts,  the  muti-
neers, uuder Christian Fletcher, sailed for
Toohooai,  one of  the   Society islands,
with  the intention of settling  there, and
afterwards returned to Otaheite, where they
took on board a supply  of fruit trees and
twenty-four Otaheitans,  with whom they
went back to Toohooai.  Here they built
a fort; but disputes among themselves and
with the natives compelled them to aban-
don their project of forming a settlement,
and Christian, finding his authority gone,
proposed  to  return to Otaheite.  Those
who wished  to remain were landed, and
Christian, with the  eight remaining mu-
tineers and fifteen  Otaheitans, of whom
eleven were women, left the island.  Noth-
ing was known of their fate  until  1808,
when captain Folger, of Boston, having
touched at Pitcairn's island, was surprised
to  find it  inhabited.  After  landing, he
received an  account  of the colony from
an old English sailor, who called himself
John  Adams,  but  who  is supposed  to
have been Alexander Smith, the only sur-
viving  individual   of the  crew of the
Bounty.   Christian  had  destroyed the
ship soon after their arrival. A few years
afterwards, the English  were all killed by
the Otaheitans, except  three, who con-
cealed  themselves ; the Otaheitans  quar-
relled among themselves, and  were all
killed or  died  of their  wounds.   Two
of the Englishmen died soon after, and
Adams, or Smith, with several women and
children, remained the only inhabitants of
the island.  Captain  Folger gave  a cir-
cumstantial  account of his discovery  iu
 1813.  In 1814, the island was visited by
the British frigates Briton and Tagus, and
has  been  repeatedly visited  since. By
the visitors in 1814, the inhabitants were
thus described:—"This interesting  new
colony now consisted of about forty-six
persons, mostly growii  up young people,
besides a number of infants.   The young
men, all born in  the  island, were  very
athletic, and of the finest forms, their
countenances open  and  pleasing, indi-
cating much benevolence and  goodness
of heart;  and the young women  were
   vol. x.          14
objects of particular admiration;  tall, ro-
bust, and  beautifully formed,  their faces
beaming with smiles and unruffled good
humor, but wearing a degree of modesty
and bashfulness  that would do honor to
the most  virtuous  nation on earth; and
all of them, both male  and female, had
the most marked English features.  Then-
native modesty, assisted by a proper sense
of religion  and  morality,  instilled  into
their youthful minds by John Adams, the
leader of the colony, has hitherto  preserv-
ed  these   interesting  people  perfectly
chaste.  The greatest harmony  prevails
among them.  But what was most grati-
fying to the visitors, was the simple and
unaffected manner in which they return-
ed thanks to the Almighty for the many
blessings  they enjoyed.   Their  habita-
tions are extremely neat; and the village
of Pitcairn forms a pretty square."  John
Adams died in  1830.  Recent accounts
state that the  island was abandoned not
long after, on account of the scarcity of
water, and that the whole colony  of about
sixty individuals  had arrived at Otaheite.
   Pitch.   (See  Pine.)
   Pitch ; the acuteness or gravity of any
particular sound, or of the tuning of any
instrument.  Any sound less acute  than
some other sound, is said to be of a lower
pitch than that other sound, and vice versa.
The opera pitch is tuned above most oth-
ers, and is therefore said to be higher than
the common concert pitch.  (See Acous-
tics.)
   Pitcher  Plant.  (See Nepenthes.)
   Pitch-Pipe ;  an instrument  used  by
vocal practitioners to ascertain the  pitch
of the key in which they are about to sing.
It is blown at  one end.like a common
flute, and being  shortened or lengthened
by a graduated  scale, is capable of pro-
ducing, with  mechanical exactness,  all
the semitonic degrees within its compass.
   Pitch Ore.   (See  Uranium.)
   Pitchstone, Pearlstone, Pumice, and
Obsidian.  All  these substances, former-
ly regarded as distinct, are  now  included
under one species in mineralogy, the char-
acter of which is the following:  cleavage
none ;  fracture conchoidal,   sometimes
highly perfect, sometimes less distinct; in
the granular masses, the fracture is  more
or less uneven and splintery; lustre vit-
reous and resinous; colors black, brown,
red, yellow, green, gray and white ; hard-
ness between that of feldspar and quartz;
specific gravity  2.3.  The  variety called
obsidian possesses  the most perfect con-
choidal fracture  and the highest degree of
lustre.  Agreeably to  the degree of trans- 
158
PITCHSTONE—PITT.
parency, it is divided into transparent and  ed.   The  obsidian is often vesicular, the
translucent obsidian ;  the former of which  cavities being small, and keeping a con-
is  sometimes  called  marckanite.  If the  stant direction ; if there are a great many
high perfection of the conchoidal fracture  of them of larger sizes, the  whole  mass
disappears, the mineral takes the name of  becomes apparently very light, the origi-
pitc/istone. Pitchstone often contains those  nal color  disappears, and gives place to
faces which are called the faces  of dis-  a pearly or silky  lustre; and thus arises
tinet concretion; if these  are numerous,  the variety called pumice.  The analysis
variously  curved, and  contain  but little  of these varieties presents the following
matter between them, pearlstone is form-  results:

                                Obsidian.  Pitchstone. Pearlstone.  Pumice.
     Silex...............72.00       73.00      75.25       77.50
     Alumine.............12.50       14.50      12.00       17.50
     Potash.............),n          0.00       4.50       ? qnn
     Soda..............\ 10'          1.75       0.00       \ 3m
     Oxides  of iron and manganese   2.00        1.10       1.60        1.75
     Lime................0.00        1.00       0.50        O.OO
     Water...............0.00        8.50       4.50        0.00
Before the blow-pipe, they all  melt with
more or less facility into a  vesicular glass,
or they yield an enamel, according to the
fusibility of their  ingredients.  The geo-
logical relations of these species are very
remarkable.  Pitchstone forms mountain
masses, and is generally in close connex-
ion with porphyry.  Many of the other
varieties  occur  under  similar circum-
stances.  Pitchstone veins  sometimes oc-
cur in sandstone.  Pumice and obsidian
are among the products  of  volcanoes.
The southern countries of  Europe, South
America,   Mexico  and the  Sandwich
islands are  rich in the varieties of pitch-
stone.  Pearlstone,  in  particular,  occurs
in Hungary, and at Cabo de Gates, in
Spain.  Obsidian is very frequent in Ice-
land and Mexico; pumice in  the  Lipari
islands, Teneriffe  and Peru.  Obsidian is
employed  for mirrors, vases, snuff-boxes,
&c.   In Mexico aud the island of Ascen-
sion, very  sharp  fragments  are used as
tools and weapons.  Pumice yields a well
known  material for grinding and polish-
ing, and is also employed for a filtering
stone.
   Pith.  (See Medulla.)
   Pitt, Christopher,  an  English poet,
bom in 1699, at  Blandford, received his
education at Winchester, whence  he was
elected, upon the  foundation, to New col-
lege, Oxford.  In 1722, a relation present-
ed him to  the family living of Pimpenie,
where he passed his life in the perform-
ance of his clerical duties,  and the pursuit
of elegant literature.  He is  principally
known  by his  translation of the  iEneid
and of Vida's  Art  of Poetry.  Mr. Pitt
died in 1748.  (See Johnson's Lives of
the Poets.)
   Pitt, earl of Chatham.  (See Chatham.)
  Pitt, William, second son of the earl
of Chatham, was born May 28,1759.  He
received a private education  in  the  first
instance, and, at the age of fourteen, was
entered of Pembroke hall, Cambridge. On
quitting the university, he visited France,
aud studied at Rheims, and, on his return,
became a student of Lincoln's inn;  and,
in 1780, was called to the bar.   He attend-
ed the  western  circuit  once  or  twice,
when he was introduced into parliament
by sir James Lowther, as representative
for his borough of Appleby.   His maiden
speech  was delivered  in support of Mr.
Burke's financial  reform bill,  and he also
spoke in favor of a reform in parliament.
On the breaking up of the Rockingham ad-
ministration, he became chancellor of the
exchequer, at  the age of twenty-three,
under the premiership of the earl of Shel-
burne.  A  general peace soon  followed,
which being made the ground of censure
by a strong opposition, the  cabinet was
dissolved,  and  the Fox and  North  coali
tion  took  its  place.  On his retirement
from office,  Mr. Pitt resumed his efforts
for a reform in  parliament, and submitted
three specific  motions  on  the subject,
which,  although  supported by  Mr.  Fox,
then secretary of state, were rejected. On
the failure of the India bill of the  latter,
which produced  the dismissal of the co-
alition,  Mr. Pitt, although at that  time
only  in his twenty-fourth year, assumed
the station of prime minister, by accepting
the united posts of first lord of the treasury
and  chancellor of the  exchequer. Al-
though strongly  supported by the sove-
reign, he stood opposed to a large majori-
ty of the house of commons, and a disso-
lution took place in March, 1786.  At the
general election which followed, the voice 
PITT.
159
of the nation appeared decidedly in  his
favor, and some of the strongest aristo-
cratical interests in the country were de-
feated ;  Mr. Pitt himself being returned
by  the  university of  Cambridge.   His
first measure was the passing of his India
bill, establishing the  board of  control,
which was followed by much of  that  fis-
cal and financial regulation, which gave
so  much  e'clat  to  the early period of  his
administration.    The  establishment  of
the delusive scheme  of a  sinking fund
followed iu 1786.  Whatever may be  the
utility of the sinking fund in the regula-
tion of funded sale  and  purchase, as a
miraculous mode of liquidating the public
debt, its pretensions are now set at rest for
ever.   A  commercial treaty with  France
followed in 1787, and soon after, the min-
ister began to  exhibit  that jealousy  of
Russian aggrandizement, which,  but  for
the manifest unpopularity  of hostilities,
might have involved the  two countries in
war.  A similar spirit  was displayed  to-
wards Spain, respecting the free  trade at
Nootka sound;  and in  defence  of  the
stadtholder against the machinations of
France.  In  1788, Mr. Pitt resisted  the
doctrine of the opposition, that the regen-
cy, during the  king's indisposition,  de-
volved  upon the prince of Wales by right
The  minister  maintained, that it lay in
the two remaining branches of the legis-
lature to fill up the office, but that  the
prince could not be passed  over in nomi-
nating  to this  post  By the adoption of
this principle  he  was  enabled to pass a
bill restricting the regent's power, which
the king's recovery rendered unnecessary.
One  of the most momentous periods in
modern histoiy  had  now arrived. The
French revolution broke out, and pro-
duced  a  vibration in  every neighboring
state ;  and a  sensation was  created in
Great Britain,  which,  previously excited
as  she  had been on subjects of parlia-
mentary  and  general  reform, in a great
measure broke up the previous  party di-
visions.  A war against French principles
was declared on the one side, by which
all amelioration  was opposed; while, on
the other, the friends of rational reforma-
tion found themselves confounded with
ignorant  and  heated men, who espoused
gome of the wildest and most visionary
notions of the innovators of France.  To
make  alarm as effective as possible; to
encourage the dissemination of high prin-
ciples of government, and involve in com-
mon  obloquy all measures  of opposition,
nnd all projects of reform; to augment,
according to the apparent urgency of  cir-
cumstances,  restrictions  upon  personal
liberty, and make temporary sacrifices of
the spirit of the constitution to what  he
deemed the public safety,—such, accord-
ing to one party, were the principles  of
Mr. Pitt's government at this crisis; while
others would have had him gone much
farther,  and,  purely  on  a conservative
principle, would, in a constitutional sense,
have left him  nothing to  preserve.  The
details of the momentous contest which
followed, form no subject for the  biogra-
pher.   Great  Britain  was successful  by
sea; but, during the  life  of Mr. Pitt, the
conflict on  the continent  was  in favor of
France.  The  suspension of cash  pay-
ments in 1797, the necessity of attending
to home defence, the  mutiny in the fleet,
and the accumulation of  the public bur-
dens, which still press so heavily on the
nation, were some  of the bitter fruits  of
this struggle; which  were, however,  on
the other band, alleviated by a commer-
cial monopoly,  that, assisted by the tem-
porary operation of an  unlimited paper
issue,  materially  modified  the  conse-
quences both in form and in fact  In
1800, the Irish  union was accomplished.
Soon after the  accomplishment  of this
event, the hopeless aspect of the war with
France began  to  turn the national  at-
tention  towards peace; and Mr. Pitt deter-
mined to retire.  The alleged reason for his
retreat, not publicly avowed, but communi-
cated to his friends, was the opposition of
the king (see  George III) to all further con-
cession to the Irish Catholics, which had
been promised by the articles of the union.
(See Catholic Emancipation.)  He  accord
ingly resigned his  post in 1801; and the
crisis of revolutionary fervor having  for
some time abated, he carried with him
into retirement  the esteem of a powerful
[Mirty, which  hailed him as "the pilot that
weathered  the  storm."  The peace  of
Amiens succeeded;   and the Addington
(q. v.) administration, which concluded it,
Mr. Pitt supported for a time, and then
 joined the opposition, and spoke on  the
same side with his old antagonist Mr. Fox.
The new minister, who had renewed  the
war, unable to  maintain  his ground,  re-
signed; and, in 1804, Mr. Pitt once more
resumed his post at the treasury.  Return-
ing to power as a  war minister, he exert-
ed all the energy of his character to ren-
der the contest  successful,  and  found
means  to engage the two  great  military
powers of Russia  and Austria in a new
coalition (q. v.), which was dissolved by
the battle of Austeriitz.  Mr. Pitt, whose
state of health was previously declining, 
160
PITT—PITTSBURG.
was sensibly affected  by this event; and
his constitution, weakened by a hereditary
gout, and injured by a too liberal use of
wine, by way of stimulant, rapidly yield-
ed  to  the joint attack of  disease  and
anxiety.   The parliamentary attack upon
his old associate, lord Melville (see Dun-
das), not wholly parried either by minis-
terial influence or the merits of the case,
is thought to have  deeply wounded his
feelings,  and completed his  mental  de-
pression.  A state of extreme debility en-
sued, which terminated in  death, encoun-
tered with great calmness and resigna-
tion, January 23, 1806.  As a minister, it
would  be impossible to sum up the char-
acter of Mr. Pitt in  terms that would not
encounter a host of predilections or preju-
dices on every side.   It is, however, gen-
erally conceded, that his genius was better
adapted to the regulative process of peace-
able and  domestic government, than  to
the arrangement and conduct of that  war-
like exertion, which  his policy entailed
upon the country.   At the same time,  it
must be confessed, that he  had to encoun-
ter  overwhelming  energies—the result
of  a social crisis of most extraordinary
character.   If, therefore, he can  be ac-
quitted of a want of foresight in  volun-
teering such a conflict, the result of the
warfare, in establishing French ascenden-
cy on the continent,  may be regarded as
the effect of causes which no abilities could
have controlled. According to the theories
with which he set out in life, and as the son
of lord Chatham, much constitutional and
political improvement was to be expected
from him; and much prudent and useful
regulation he certainly effected.  In high-
er points, he was, perhaps, more the  man
of expediency than  of principle.  It has
been seen how he advocated and dropped
the subject of parliamentary reform.   In
u similar spirit he spoke and voted in fa-
vor of the abolition of the slave-trade; but
although supported  by the voice of a de-
cided national majority, he would  not
make a ministerial  measure of it,  as was
done without difficulty by his immediate
successor; nor can we trace any decided
social amelioration  to his  influence.  As
a financier, he was expert in practice rath-
er than scientifically grounded ; while the
waste and profusion of his warlike ex-
penditure were extreme, and will long be
felt in  their  consequences.  Although
love of power was certainly his ruling pas-
sion, he was altogether above the mean-
ness of avarice, and  his personal disinter-
estedness was  extreme.   So far from
making use of his opportunities to acquire
wealth, he  died  involved in debt, which
negligence  and the demands of his public
station, rather than extravagance,  bad led
him  to contract; his tastes being simple,
and  averse from splendor  and  parade.
Mr. Pitt possessed no advantages of per-
son  and physiognomy ;  a  loftiness ap-
proaching to arrogance was the habitual
expression of the latter in public, although
in private circles he has been described  as
complacent and  urbane.  His  eloquence,
if not more elevated or profound,  wns,
upon the whole, more correct than that
of any other orator of his time, and re-
markably   copious  and  well  arranged.
Although   neither  illuminated   by the
flashes of genius which characterized his
father's  oratory,  nor by the imagination
which  distinguished the  eloquence  of
Burke, it  was more uniformly just and
impressive than that of either; while tho
indignant  severity and  keenness of his
sarcasm were unequalled.  On the whole,
Mr. Pitt was a  minister of commanding
powers, and still loftier pretensions; and
he died in possession of the esteem of a
large portion of his countrymen.   A pub-
lic funeral was  decreed to  his honor by
parliament, and a grant of £40,000 to pay
his debts.—The  reader may consult  Clif-
ford's Life of Pitt (3 vols., 4to., London,
1809) or the later work of his tutor, doctor
Tomline (Prettyman), bishop of Winches-
ter (London, 1821), a review of which,  in
the 35th volume of the Edinburgh Review,
gives the Whig opinions concerning Mr.
Pitt.
  Pittacus of  Mitylene.   (See Seven
Wise Men.)
  Pittsburg; a city and capital of Alle-
ghany  county,  Pennsylvania,  230  miles
west-north-west  of Baltimore,  297 west-
by-north from Philadelphia, and 225 from
Washington; lat. 40° 32' N.;  lon. 80°  8'
W.;  population, in  1800,  1565; in  1810,
4768; in  1820,  7248; in  1830,  12,542.
Pittsburg is situated in  a beautiful plain,
on a point of land where  the  Alleghany
and  the Monongahela  unite to form the
Ohio.  The site  of the town  was  early
regarded as very important, and was se-
lected by the French for fort Du Quesne.
Afterwards this was called fort Pitt.   In
1760, a considerable town rose about the
fort; but the present town was commenc-
ed in 1765.  The Indian ware and  other
troubles of the western country prevented
its rapid growth till 1793.   It is now the
nval of Cincinnati in manufactures, and, in
population, wealth and importance,  is the
third town in  the Mississippi  Valley.
Pittsburg is well provided with houses  of 
PITTSBURG—PIUS VI.                        161
 worship for various  sects,  has a public
 library, three gr four banks, and a small
 theatre.   The  manufacturing  establish-
 ments are probably more numerous  and
 extensive than in any other town in Amer-
 ica, in proportion to its population.  In its
 manufactures, it resembles  Birmingham
 in England.  Their annual value was es-
 timated, in  1828, at $2,000,000.   In gen-
 eral, the town is well built; but the use of
 pit coal, in the houses and manufactories,
 gives a general dinginess of appearance to
 the town, from its dust and smoke.  The
 coal is found in the hills in the immediate
 neighborhood of the town; and  it costs
 little more than the digging.  There is no
 fear that the supply will either fail or be-
 come  difficult  to procure.  The inhabit-
 ants are a mixture of Germans, Irish, Eng-
 lish, Scotch, French, Swiss, and many
 other  nations, and are distinguished for
 industry and economy.  The  market is
 abundantly supplied,  but  the cost of arti-
 cles is much higher than in the towns  far-
 ther west on the Ohio.  At low stages of
 the water,  flat  and keel  boats  cannot
 always descend the river from  Pittsburg;
 and ibis circumstance diverts a  part of the
 travel  to the western country to Wheel-
 ing; still a great part of it centres at Pitts-
 burg,  arid,  in  high stages of the water,
 steam-boats  are continually arriving  and
 departing.  The  distance from Pittsburg
 to New Orleans,  by the river, is about
 2000 miles.  Every part of this region de-
 pends much on Pittsburg for supplies of
 machinery, cutlery, and many other man-
 ufactures.   A literary institution was es-
 tablished here in 1820, called the western
 university.  It  has  four instructors,  and
 fifty-three students.  On the banks of the
 Alleghany, near Pittsburg, are the villages
 of Alleghany and Lawrenceville; and on
 the Monongahela  are  Birmingham and
 Manchester.  The  surrounding country is
 very pleasant and fertile.
   Pittsfield, a jKist-town of Berkshire
 county, Massachusetts, at the junction of
 the principal branches of Housatonic  riv-
 er, contains  a bank, a medical institution,
 and several valuable manufactories. The
 medical  institution  has six professors and
 eighty-five students; population, in 1830,
'3570.
   Piu  (Italian);  more;  as piii  presto,
 quicker; piu piano, more soft.
   Pus II.   (See Piccolomini.)
   Pius VI,  pope,  whose secular name
 was John Angelo Braschi, was born at  Ce-
 sena, in 1717.  On  the death of Clement
 XIV, in  1775, he succeeded to the papal
 dirone, and shortly  after made a refornia-
                 14 *
tion in the financial department, and  also
improved the  museum of  the  Vatican.
But the greatest of his undertakings  was
the draining of the Pontine marshes, a
district between the Apennine mountains
and the  sea, overflowed with water ex-
haling pestilential  effluvia,  which  gave
rise to numerous diseases, and depopulat-
ed the surrounding country.  While, how-
ever, this pontiff was successful in his do-
mestic administration, he had the mortifi-
cation to  witness the absolute decay of
the temporal power of the holy  see.   In
1782, he made a visit to the emperor Jo-
seph II, at Vienna, to endeavor to dissuade
him from the prosecution of some ecclesi-
astical  reforms  which he meditated; but
the journey was wholly useless,  though
the death of the emperor put a stop to his
schemes.  Pius encountered  many other
misfortunes.  In France, he witnessed the
confiscation of the  property of the church,
and the suppression of the religious orders,
by virtue of the  decrees of the national as-
sembly ;  in Germany,  the  congress  of
Ems, for the abolition of the nunciature,
in 1785;  in  Naples, the contempt of his
authority, by withholding  the customary
tribute of a horse; and, in 1791, he  lost
Avignon  and  the  country of Venaissin,
which were reunited to France.  But all
this was only the prelude to greater adver-
sity.  In  the first coalition against France,
the pope ranged himself among  the ene-
mies of the republic.  In January, 1793,
Basseville, the  French  secretary  of lega-
tion, was massacred during a popular com-
motion at Rome.  After the victories of
Bonaparte iu Italy, in  1796, general Au-
gereau marched into the territories of the
pope, who, unable  to resist, was glad to
accept an armistice, which was signed at
Bologna,  June 13.   The pope having re-
newed hostilities, Bonaparte attacked  and
beat his troops at Senio, Feb. 2, 1797, and
proceeded towards Rome.   He  stopped,
however, to  treat with  ministers  sent by
his holiness, and, Feb. 19, was signed the
treaty of Tolentino, by which the pope
lost  Romagna,  Bologna  and   Fen-ara.
Dec. 28, 1797, in consequence of another
commotion, in which general Duphot was
killed, Joseph Bonaparte, the French am-
bassador, quitted Rome.  An army, com-
manded by general Berthier, entereu that
capital, Feb. 10, 1798, and, on the 15th,
proclaimed the establishment of  ihe Ro-
man republic, governed by consuls, a sen-
ate and a tribunate.  The pope, after  this
deprivation of his authority, was conveyed
to France as a  prisoner, and died at ^
lence, Aug. 29,  1799.  In 1802, his bo. j 
162
PIUS VI—PIZARRO.
was removed to Rome, and solemnly in-
terred.
  Pius  VII (Gregory Barnabas  Chiara-
monti) was born at Cesena, in 1742, and,
at the age of sixteen, was received into
the order of Benedictines.  After serving
as teacher in several abbeys, he  became
professor  of philosophy in  Parma, and
subsequently of theology in Rome, where
his fellow-townsman, Pius VI, created him
bishop of Tivoli,  and,  in  1785,  cardinal
and bishop of Imola. By the peace ofTo-
lentiuo, he became a citizen of the  Cisal-
pine republic, and displayed  an  inclina-
tion to republican  principles.  It  appears
to have  been under French influence
that he was chosen to fill the papal chair,
March 14, 1800, after which  his notions
underwent a total  change.  His domestic
administration was conducted with a rig-
orous economy and a wise policy in the
encouragement of commerce  and manu-
factures.  In 1801, he concluded a con-
cordate (q. v.) with France; in 1804, reviv-
ed the order of Jesuits in Sicily,  but was
obliged  to consent to  the  sale  of the
church lands by the Spanish court   Pius,
desirous of saving the wreck of the papal
power,  complied  with the invitation of
Napoleon  to be present at the coronation ;
but he  was  treated  with  little  respect,
either by the Parisians or by the emperor,
who crowned himself and  the  empress
with his own hands.   The pope, finding
that he was  to expect no favors, refused
to appear at the coronation in Milan, and
was received by his subjects, on his  return
(April 4, 1805), with loud expressions of
dissatisfaction.  The reforms of Joseph in
Naples, and  the secularizations in Germa-
ny, were  new sources  of mortification,
and, having  offended Napoleon by refus-
ing to  recognise  his  brother Joseph as
 ting  of Naples,  and  to  shut his   ports
 igainst  English ships, he was obliged to
 vitnessthe occupation of Rome by French
 roops (Feb. 2, 1808).  The  papal  cities
 vere incorporated with  the  kingdom of
 taly, and  the firm resistance of Pius to
 hese aggressions, and his threat of excom-
 nunicating  the emperor, could  not pre-
 /ent Rome  from  sharing  the  same  fate
 May 17, 1809]. June 10 and 11, the pope
 ssued  two  bulls of  excommunication
against all violators of the papal territory.
July 6, he was arrested in his chamber by
French troops, and, on  refusing  to re-
nounce all claims  to temporal power, con-
ducted to  Florence, and thence to Savona.
In his confinement, he rejected with firm-
ness the offers of Napoleon, and refused
to confirm the bishops appointed by the
latter.  In 1812, he was removed to Fon-
lainebleau, where Napoleon obliged him
to accede to a new convention (Jan. 23,
1813), by which he promised  to confirm
the bishops;  but the emperor ba\ing,
contrary  to  agreement, proclaimed the
concordate  before its  completion,  Pius,
whose  consent  had been entirely  condi-
tional, refused  to  concur in any concor-
date that should  not  setde all disputed
points.  He  was  therefore  treated as a
prisoner; but it is not  true that  he was
personally abused by Napoleon.  In 1814,
the pope was released, and restored to the
possession of all the papal  territories ex-
cept Avignon and Venaissin, in France,
and a narrow strip of land beyond the Po.
Although attached to the  old  hierarchal
  Eolicy, as appears  from  his  bulls and
  riefs against the distribution of the Bible,
against  Catholic  Switzerland,  &c, yet
none of his plans for restoring the old
state of things, except  the revival  of the
Jesuits, Aug.  7,  1814,  were  successful.
The concordates  with  France, Bavaria
and the Two Sicilies, and the convention
with Prussia, were, however, triumphs of
the policy of the  Roman court.  His ad-
ministration, which was  moderate and
wise, was much indebted for its character
to  cardinal  Consalvi  (q. v.), his intimate
friend and minister.  Rome became again
not only the refuge of fallen princes, and
proscribed families, but the seat of the fine
arts.  Pius VII died in consequence of a
fall, July 6, 1823, and  was succeeded  by
Leo XII. (q. v.)  In his exterior,  he was
simple ; in disposition, devout, benevolent
and mild.—See Gaudet's Esquisses His-
toriques  et  Politiques sur Pie  VII (Paris,
1824); and the Storia di Pontificato di Pio
VII (Venice, 1815).
  Pius VIII (Francis Xaviero Castiglione)
was born at Cingolia, a small town in  the
States of the Church, in 1759,  of poor  but
respectable parents.  He was early distin-
guished for his industry, talents and learn-
ing, and, having entered the church young,
passed through all the  orders of the hie-
rarchy,  having been created cardinal by
Pius VII, and, March 31,  1829,  unani-
mously elected pope by the conclave of
cardinals, on the death of Leo XII.  (q.v.)
Pius VIII died December, 1830, and was
succeeded by Clement XVI.
   Pizarro,  Francisco; the name ofa cel-
ebrated Spanish  adventurer,  one  of  the
conquerors of the new world.  His origin
and early habits were sufficiently bumble,
he being the fruit of an illicit connexion
between a peasant girl and an  hidalgo of
Truxillo) in the  neighborhood of which 
PIZARRO—PLAGUE.                         163
place he first saw the light, about the close
of the fifteenth century.  Receiving nei-
ther support nor countenance from  his
father, he was thrown  entirely upon his
mother's resources, who, so far from being
in circumstances to give him  even  an or-
dinary  education,  employed  him  as a
swineherd, and left  him totally  illiterate.
The spirit of adventure  which at that pe-
riod  pervaded Spain,  induced him  at
length to quit his inglorious occupation,
and, in company with some other soldiers
of fortune, to seek an improvement of his
condition by a voyage of discovery towards
the  newly-found  continent of America.
In 1525, the adventurers, over whom the
enterprising disposition and daring  temper
of Pizarro had gained  him  considerable
influence, sailed from  Panama.   Diego
Almagro (q. v.), a person of as obscure an
origin as himself, and Hernandez Lucque,
an ecclesiastic, being joined with  him in
the  command.  The Spaniards arrived,
after experiencing several difficulties, in
Peru, where, taking  advantage of  a  civil
war then raging in that country, they be-
came the allies, and, eventually, the en-
slavers, of Atahualpa, orAtabalipa, as he
is  variously called,  the  reigning  inca.
Treacherously seizing upon the person of
the  monarch, at  a  friendly  banquet to
which they had invited  himand his whole
court, they first compelled him to purchase,
at an enormous price, a temporary reprieve
from a death which they had determined
he should eventually undergo; and,  hav-
ing succeeded in extorting from him, it is
said, a house full of the  precious metals
by way of ransom, after a mock trial for a
pretended conspiracy, condemned  him to
be burnt, allowing him to be first strangled,
us a reward for  becoming  a Christian.
The news of their success brought a con-
siderable accession of strength from  Eu-
rope to the invaders; and Pizarro, iu order
 to consolidate  his  empire,  founded, in
 1535, the city of Lima,  which he intended
 as the capital of his possessions;  but the
 discord between the chiefs of the  expedi-
 tion, which even a sense of their common
 danger  had  from  the beginning failed
 wholly to suppress, when  this, their sole
 bond of union, was  withdrawn, broke out
 into open violence, and, in the struggle
 which ensued, Almagro, now in his  sev-
 enty-fifth year, was defeated, taken pris-
 oner, and strangled, by Ferdinand Pizar-
 ro, brother to the general.  This catastro-
 phe,  which took   place  in 1537,  was
 avenged four years  afterwards by  the son
 of the victim, and  bearing the same name,
 who, having  organized  a conspiracy
against the destroyers of his father, broke
into the palace at Lima, and, after an ob-
stinate resistance, succeeded in despatch-
ing Francisco Pizarro.  It is  impossible
to refuse to this adventurer the credit of
considerable military as well as  political
talent, though the one was sullied by  his
extreme barbarity, the other by his perfidy
and heartless dissimulation.  His assassi-
nation took  place June 26, 1541.  (See
Atahualpa, and Peru.)
  Pizzicato, or  Pizz.  (Italian); an ex-
pression  particularly applicable  to violin
music, and implying that  the movement,
or the passage over which it is written, is
to be  performed by die fingers  instead of
the bow.
  Place, La.  (See Laplace.)
  Plagiarism.   (See Plagium.)
  Plagium, in the  Roman law,  is  the
crime of stealing  the slave of another, or
of kidnapping a  free person, in order to
make him a slave.  According to German
law, it is the getting forcible possession of
a man's person, so as to restrain him of
his liberty.  Metaphorically, it is  used for
the act of stealing the thoughts and words
of another,  by  publishing them  as one's
own.   Plagiarism, though  often practised,
is not unfrequendy charged where  a sec-
ond invention has taken place, since  the
most  striking figures, for instance,  are
those which are most likely  to suggest
themselves to a variety of persons.   The
idea of raising  all the roofs of a  city, and
looking  into the interior  of the houses,
used  by  Quevedo and Le Sage, might
easily occur to  a  person unacquainted
with  their works, as the  writer lias had
occasion  to know.  Such repetitious of
course become more and  more  likely in
proportion as the number of books and
educated men increases.
   Plague ;  a disease characterized  by a
contagious typhus, and entire prostration
of the strength, and certain  local  symp-
toms, as buboes, carbuncles,  and  livid
spots {petechia).   The latter are  in  this
connexion the peculiar characteristics of
the plague, since the former also appear
in  other  malignant diseases.   In the be-
ginning, the patient generally experiences
great mental dejection and debility of body,
slight chills alternating with heats, which
are afterwards succeeded by a burning
heat  within, and a heaviness about the
head; tiien follows stupor; the  eyi s are
glaring,  glazed,  or  wild  and sparkling;
the face appears whitish and livid, and the
patient is melancholy, morose or anxious,
faint  and delirious.  In many cases, nau-
sea and vomiting occur.  The thirst  is 
164
PLAGUE.
unquenchable, the tongue reddish or yel-
lowish, the  speech  indistinct.   In  the
progress of the disease, the  face often  be-
comes red, the respiration quick and  un-
easy, and bilious, green or bloody and
black  matter, is vomited.  The delirium
often becomes fierce; the urine  is some-
times  turbid, black,  whitish or  bloody;
and hemorrhages take place, when  death
does not  immediately ensue; buboes  ap-
pear in the groins, the arm-pits, the  paro-
tids, and  other  places,  with carbuncles,
small, white, yellowish,  black spots, over
the  whole body. The  fear, anxiety and
despair which  seize  the patient with  the
first appearance of the  plague, increase
the  danger  of  the  disease.  Death,  in
many cases,  takes place on the  first day,
and frequently  in a  few hours  after  the
appearance,  but  sometimes not  till  the
second or third  day.   It  is considered
favorable  if the buboes and carbuncles ap-
pear at the same time, are very numerous,
and terminate  in  suppuration.   They
either terminate in suppuration, or become
indurated, are healed or cut out  In  re-
gard to the origin of the plague, and  the
manner in which it is communicated, veiy
different opinions have  been entertained,
according to  the state of medical science.
Iu early times, when calamitous events,
the causes of which were not understood,
were attributed to spirits and demons,  the
plague  was  also  ascribed to their  influ-
ence.  At a later period, it was accounted
for by changes  in the air,  poisonous  va-
pors which descended from the atmos-
phere, or to clouds of insects which were
received into the body by inspiration,  or
in the food, or by absorption through  the
skin, and thus comqrted the blood.  Phy-
sicians, according to the  tendency of their
theories, found the cause in  the excess of
sulphureous matter in the blood, or  in its
coagulation   or  resolution,   &c.   Many
have considered it as not contagious:  at
present, most  have   been convinced  by
experience of its contagious character.*

  * Doctor Madden, who paid much attention to
this subject, says, " I am thoroughly persuaded
that plague  is both contagious and infectious;  at
one period epidemical, at another endemical; in
plain English, that the miasma may be communi-
cated by the touch or by  the breath; that in one
period it is confined to a particular district, and at
another is disseminated among the people.  But
if plague have  one form more decided than an-
other, it  is  the endemic."  He considers; how-
ever, that the contagion generally derives its vio-
lence and virulence from  want of ventilation,  the
plague chambers in the East being  generally
closed and crowded with  patients, by  which
means the  air  in  them  is rendered  extremely
 The plague is a specific disease, and can
 originate of itself only in certain countries.
 Dot  weather, bad air and food, and filtbi-
 ness,  favor its  production and propaga-
 tion.f  The nature of the disease seems to
 consist in a diminution of the vital energy,
 which may be so rapid and universal, that
 the component parts of the system, partic-
 ularly the blood, lose their natural proper-
 ties, and  become corrupted, and life is de-
 stroyed before the nervous system is  able
 to  counteract, the  effects.   When the
 progress  of the disease is not  so rapid, the
 vital  energy which remains  is exhausted
 by febrile excitements  and local  inflam-
 mation.   Dissections have shown collec-
 tions of coagulated or decomposed fluid,
 black blood, inflammations of large por-
 tions of the skin, and carbuncles in great
 numbers.  The  buboes  discharge  an
 offensive matter, and extend  far inward.
 The  carbuncles which precede the  ap-
 proach of death, and contain dead parts,
 also generally reach deep inwards.  When
 nature possesses sufficient vigor, the in-
 flammations are on the skin rather than  in
 the interior.   The  buboes soon terminate
 in suppuration, and the carbuncles, when
 cut, discharge  a less corrupt  matter, and
 fall off.   The fever is carried off by a vio-
 lent sweat: the recovery is slow.   When
 the disease  is  completely developed,  it
 is  contagious:  to  this  is   owing  the
 terrible   devastations  which  it  causes.
 There is little doubt that the plague ap-
 peared in the  most  ancient tiirres, par-
 ticularly  where  a  numerous population
 was  crowded  together  in  the warm cli-
 mates; but we must not consider every
 disease as the plague which has  been so
 called by historians, as they often mean
 by  the term nothing more  than a malig-
 nant disorder prevailing  over a considera-
 ble extent of country.  Among the most
 famous instances is the  plague described
 in so masterly a manner by Thucydides,
 which, in the third year of the Pelopon-
 nesian war (430 B. C.), ravaged Athens,

 fo,u1-—See  Let.  XVIII.  in  his  Travels  in
 1830)  V'  8Wt' &C- (rePublished  Philadelphia,

 iu* i!i  B°th P1*1^ and malaria," savs doctor
Madden, " have their origin in putrefaction, ex-
haling an invisible  vapor, which can only be es-
timated by its consequences.  Malaria originates
in tne decomposition of vegetable matter.  Plao-ue,
according to my opinion, originates in the putre-
faction of  animal  matter.  The production of
both, of course, depends on certain states of
moisture and heat, which, in other places, of even
a damper climate  and higher  temperature, are
wanting to the generation  of these diseases."
(Mad.  ub. sup.) 
PLAGUE.
165
*hen besieged Iry the Spartans.   A large
number of the inhabitants of Attica had fled
into the city: fear, anxiety, want or bad-
ness of provision, and the corruption of
the air, caused by the crowded state of the
population, produced and  propagated the
plague in  the city.   Death generally ensu-
ed  on  the  seventh or ninth day.  The
plague  iu Jerusalem {A. D. 72), when it
was besieged by the Romans, is described
by Joseph us.  In Rome, the plague exist-
ed (A. D. 77) in the reign of Vespasian; of
Marcus Aurefius (170), when it raged over
almost all Europe and Asia.;  of  Com mo-
dus (in 189), and particularly of Gallienus
(in  262), when 5000 persons are said  to
have died daily  in Rome.   From that
time, the plague has always continued to
exist in Italy,  Greece,  Asia  and Africa,
and raged particularly in the  populous
cities, for instance  in  Constantinople,  in
the reign of Justinian, in 544, when 1000
grave-diggers are said to have been insuf-
ficient for the interment of the  dead.
This terrible plague continued its ravages
for fifty years, with but short intervals.  In
565, it appeared under the name of pestis
inguinaria, in Treves, in 588 in Marseilles.
In the seventh centuiy, it was in Saxony.
In  823, it prevailed  all over Germany,
and, from 875 to  877, was particularly
malignant in Saxony and Misnia, as was
also the  case in 964.  In  die  eleventh
century, it broke out in Germany at least
six times, mostly after or during a famine,
and raged with so much  violence that it
was believed that all mankind was doom-
ed  to be swept away by it.  This unfortu-
nate belief prevented the taking of effectual
means to  check it; and apathy in suffer-
ing was considered as an act of piety.  In
some cases, however, the Jews were sus-
pected  of having  poisoned the  wells, as,
in our own times, the Hungarian peasant-
ry suspected the nobility, when the chol-
era  morbus  swept away so  many of the
poorer classes: in fact, the ignorant of all
ages have been inclined to ascribe general
and far-spreading  diseases,  whose true
causes  are  unknown,  or disbelieved  by
them, to poisoned wells.   Thus the writer
recollects that, when the ophthalmia broke
out in the Prussian army in 1813, many
believed  the  French  had poisoned the
wells.   Similar notions were entertained
by   many French soldiers  during the
plague  which  swept  them off in  Egypt
In the twelfth century, the plague prevail-
ed  in  Germany above twenty-five  years.
In the thirteenth century, it was brought
into Europe by the crusaders. From 1347
to 1350 it traversed all  Europe,  aud was
then called the black death.  Since that time
it has never raged with so much violence.
Boccaccio, in the introduction to his Deca-
meron, has given a lively description of its
physical and moral effects  in Florence in
1348.   In the latter half of the fifteenth
century, it raged in all Europe, «nd was
accompanied with  the most terrible suf-
ferings.   The historians of that time give
the most horrible picture of distress.   Iu
the sixteenth centuiy, the plague again
raged, and, in 1563, was introduced into
Englaud, by the return of an English ar-
my from die continent   At die same
time, the sweating sickness prevailed on
the continent, which had  been imported
from  England,  towards the close of the
fifteenth centuiy: it was called in Germa-
ny  the English sweat, and  spread from
the seaports over Germany, France, the
Netherlands, Italy.   Though some means
were already taken against the plague, for
instance, lazarettos  built, yet it raged in
Europe during the seventeenth centuiy.
In  1603, 1625, 1636 and  1665, it made
great ravages in England.  As the plague
never  entirely  ceases  in  the  East,  in
Greece, and European and Asiatic Tur-
key, it has continually been introduced by
vessels into the  ports of Italy and France,
and has also been propagated in Western
Europe,  through Hungary, Poland and
Transylvania.   The quarantine roles •have
not, in  general, been  strictly observed,
and, as  late  as 1720, a Levantine  vessel
imported the plague into Marseilles, which
soon spread  all over Provence.   In 1795
and 1796, it extended  over die countries
on die Turkish  frontiers, but was checked
by the skill of die physicians.—See Histo-
ry of the Plague in Sirmia (in German).—
It broke out in 1816  at Noia, a town in
Naples. The ancients endeavored to avert
the plague by sacrifices, the Christians by
processions  and prayers.   The  ancient
physicians tried several modes of treat-
ment, among  them sweating.  The re-
searches of modern physicians have given
us a greater insight into the nature of the
disease, and  of its remedies, than were
possessed formerly, when  want of cour-
age was quite as fatal as want of knowl-
edge.  Precautions against contagion, and
when that has once occurred, the  speedy
expulsion of the poison from  the system,
the diminution of the  internal inflamma-
tion, the preservation  of the vigor of the
arterial  blood, the  strengthening  of the
nerves, the promotion of suppuration, the
seasonable resolution  of the carbuncles,
are the  main  points  of  the treatment.
Baldwin, English consul-general at Alex- 
166
PLAGUE—PLAIN-SONG.
andria, recommended (1795) oil friction,
which has been tried with success.  Hav-
ing observed that the oil  porters were
never attacked, he concluded that olive-
oil was a preservative against the plague;
and  his expectations  were  surpassed by
the favorable results of his process.  As
soon as any symptom of the plague is
perceived, the body of the  patient is vig-
orously and  quickly rubbed with  warm
oil, aud the  patient is put to bed. This
application is followed by a profuse sweat,
which is promoted by  elder  tea.  The
friction is repeated once or twice a day,
until a violent sweat is produced.  If
there are  buboes, they  must  be frequently
rubbed with oil, until suppuration follows.
Doctor Madden,  in  the work  already
quoted, gives the following as the results
of his experience, both  in  regard  to the
nature of the disease, and the treatment
of it: "I have giveu plague the name of
typhus gravissimus.  The symptoms, from
the first,  are general  debility, congestion
about the heart, not depending on inflam-
mation, but on the putrescent state of the
circulation.  It differs little  from putrid
typhus, except in its duration and erup-
tions. In every stage of plague, nature
appeal's  to  lie prostrate  under the influ-
ence of the poisonous miasma;  and, when
the patient  sinks at  last, it is  from the
want of force in the constitution to drive
out the  eruptions on  the surface.  The
bubo recedes, or the carbuncle diminishes,
or neither appear at  all externally;  but
they have seized on the internal vital or-
gans, and the immediate cause of death
has been shown by dissection to have been
carbuncles on the liver, lungs,  spleen, or
mesenteric glands: in short, it appears
that the  whole glandular system is  the
seat of the disease.  I have seen all the
different species of plague enumerated by
Russel and  the  French  authors, and  I
have no  hesitation in  pronouncing all
these different species  of plague to be the
symptoms of one  class only ; and I ass :rt,
there is but one indication to fulfil, name-
ly, to assist nature to expel the  poison by
strengthening the exhausted powers of the
constitution, and enabling it to  throw out
the morbific matter.  By what means is
this to be done ?—whether by emetics, by
purgatives,  by bleeding, by calomel, by
mercurial unction,  or  by  oil  friction?
There is none of these means I have not
tried, and out of the first eleven patients
so treated I  lost nine.  I had recourse to
another mode of cure: Strong stimulants,
diffusable and permanent, I now tried.  I
commenced  with wine and brandy the
first moment I saw the patient.  Whether
the eye was suffused, the cheek flushed,
and the skin arid, or the low delirium set
in or not, I administered it in the follow-
in<r manner:   The first dose was a tum-
bler of hot brandy and  water, about one
third spirit  This sometimes was vomited,
and again repeated:  the second time it
usually remained on the stomach, and, in
the course of two hours, it generally pro-
duced  perspiration,  even after James's
powder had tailed.  Two or three hours
after the first dose, another was exhibited,
and the patient  would  feel less of the
burning pain at the heart.  If vomiting
supervened,  it was again repeated; and,
during the day, it was now given every
four or six hours, according to circum-
stances. The buboes commonly increased
in size, and profuse sweating was  often
followed by petechia, or livid spots on the
chest:  when I saw this, I was always sure
of my patient.  The second day, I increas-
ed the strength  of the  dose; instead of
one third  spirit, I gave  one half,  eveiy
eight hours: no intoxication  came on, but
a  lethargic  drowsiness  was  common
enough, continuing  till the perspiration
broke out, or carbuncles appeared exter-
nally.   If, on  the  third day, the patient
was decidedly better,  I kept up the excite-
ment  with strong Cyprus wine, in  fre-
quent but small doses of two  table-spoous-
ful every two hours;  but, if the bad symp-
toms were unabated, I continued to  give
the hot brandy  and water  in  increased
quantities, till some decided  change took
place.   This active treatment it  was sel-
dom necessaiy to pursue beyond the sixth
day; indeed, in plague, if the patient live
to the sixth day, he is veiy likely to recov-
er; but the  third day  is that  which  is
most, to be feared.  The  only other treat-
ment was once or twice opening the bow-
els witii enemas,  for  purgatives by the
mouth do no  service, and  sponging the
body frequently with vinegar and water;
the head was constantly kept soaked with
towels dipped iu vinegar, and the buboes
were  poulticed with  very hot cataplasms,
sufficiently hot to give pain, and they were
allowed to burst spontaneously.   With
this treatment, at the rate of seventy-five
per cent  recovered.  In Candia, of nine
patients, five recovered;  and  some of these
were almost hopeless cases when I began
to treat them.  Every thing  in plague of
course  depends on  early treatment; for,
in a  disease which  commonly runs its
course in three  days, there is no time to
be lost."
   Plais-Soso ; the  name  given  to the 
PLAIN-SONG—PLANETS.
167
old ecclesiastical chant, when in its most
simple state, and without those harmonic
appendages with which it has long since
been enriched by cultivated science.
  Plane, Inclined.  (See Mechanics.)
  Planetarium.  (See Orrery.)
  Plane  Tree.  The Occidental plane,
or buttonwood (|?Zatanus Occidentalis), is,
among deciduous  trees,  the  largest  pro-
duction of the American forest It abounds
most and attains the largest size along the
interior waters of Pennsylvania and  Vir-
ginia, and especially along the banks of
the Ohio.   Here  stocks are sometimes
found from ten to fourteen feet  in diame-
ter, often beginning only to give out their
vast branches at  the height of sixty or sev-
enty feet,  and near the  summits  of the
surrounding trees.  At other times, this
tree divides at the base into several huge
trunks, equally surpassing its  neighbors in
bulk.  It does not appear to exist north of
latitude 45°, and is inferior  in size  for
some distance south of this point; neither
is it abundant  in the  lower parts  of the
Southern  States.  A moist and cool soil
seems indispensable, for it is  never found
on dry grounds.   In the  Western  States,
this tree is usually known by the name of
sycamore,  and in some districts is called
cotton-tree. The trunk and branches  are
covered with  a  smooth,  pale-green bark,
the epidermis of which detaches itself in
portions;  the roots, when first taken from
the earth, are of  a beautiful  red color,
which disappears on exposure to light iu
a dry place ; the leaves are alternate, pal-
mated, or lobed ; and the  flowers are unit-
ed in  little  globular, pendent  balls.  The
wood, in seasoning, takes a dull red color,
is fine-grained, and susceptible  of a good
polish, but speedily decays on exposure to
the weather.   When  thoroughly season-
ed, it may be used in the interior of houses,
but the defect of warping is attributed to
it, and cabinet-makers rarely employ  it
except for bedsteads, which, when  coated
with varnish, retain their color.—The Ori-
ental  plane, so celebrated by  the ancients
for the majesty of its  appearance, resem-
bles the preceding in  every respect,  and
bears the same relation to the forests of
Western Asia.   The  wood,  in those  re-
gions where it abounds, is frequently em-
ployed in the arts,  and is said to acquire
great hardness by being kept under water
for some  years,—an  experiment  which
would be  worth repeating on our own
species.
  Planets (from n\avaw, to wander); mov-
ing stars,  which shine by  reflecting the
light of the son, around  which they  re-
volve.   Homer and Hesiod were already
acquainted widk Venus, but considered the
morning and evening stars as two  differ-
ent bodies.   Democritus supposed  that
there were  several planets.  Pydiagoras
discovered the identity of the morning and
evening stars ; and, in the fourth year be-
fore Christ, Eudoxus brought the knowl-
edge of the  motions of the five planets
then known, from the Egyptians  to the
Greeks.  In addition to these five planets,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Sat-
urn, five others have been  discovered in
modern times: Herschel (Georgium Si-
dus, or Uranus), Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and
Vesta; so that, including the earth  and
moon, there are now  known eleven pri-
mary and eighteen secondary planets (sat-
ellites, or moons).  Like the earth,  many
of them, if not all, have the motion of ro-
tation on their axis, whence arise day and
night, and a common  motion around the
sun, around which they revolve from west
to east, through south, in  elliptical  orbits,
generally making a small  angle with the
ecliptic, in different times, depending on
their distances from the sun.  The  planet
nearest the sun is Mercury, though  thirty-
seven millions of  miles distant from it It
completes its revolution around the  sun in
eighty-eight days, moving with a velocity
of 315 miles a second.  It is the  smallest
of the six old  planets, its bulk being only
one eighteenth of that  of the earth.  Its
time of rotation on its axis is twenty-four
hours five and a half minutes, and  its ec-
centricity is  much greater  than  that  of
either of the other five old  planets, or of
Uranus.  Next to Mercury is  placed Ve-
nus, at  a distance of sixty-eight millions
of miles from the  sun, around which it re-
volvi s in 225 days, having a mean veloci-
ty of 21 miles a second.   It  turns on its
axis in  twenty-three   hours  twenty-one
minutes, as is known from observation of
the  spots on  its surface.   Mountains have
also been observed in it, the height of
some of which  is computed to exceed
eighteen miles.  Seen from the earth, Ve-
nus and Mercury  exhibit phases similar to
those of the moon, sometimes appearing
nearly full, sometimes half illuminated, or
in the form of a crescent, and sometimes
becoming invisible by turning to  us the
dark side.  In size, Venus is nearly equal
to the earth, and in her perigee approaches
it within 27,600,000 miles, though  in her
apogee, she may recede 165,600,000 miles
from it.   We have no certain knowledge
of a moon belonging to Venus; the sup-
posed discovery of one seems to have been
founded on a mistake.  Mercury and Ve- 
168
PLANETS.
nus appear, at times, like black spots pass-
ing across the face of the sun, whenever,
in their motion  in  their orbits,  like the
moon in solar eclipses, they enter the plane
of die ecliptic within a few liours of their
inferior conjunction.  This  phenomenon
is called a transit of Mercury or Venus.
A transit of the latter planet is of rare oc-
currence, two only taking place  in  about
120 years.  Those of Mercury are much
more frequent.  The next transit of Ve-
nus will take place in 1874; the next of
Mercurv, May 5 of the present year, 1832,
and May 7,1835, both of which will be
visible in the U. States.   These two plan-
ets, which are nearer to  the sun than the
earth, are called the inferior planets, and
those more distant are called the  superior.
Next in order to the earth (q. v,) and its
moon (q. v.) is Mare, 143 million miles dis-
tant from the sun.  In its orbit,  which it
accomplishes in one year and 322 days, it
moves with a velocity of fifteen miles a
second.  It is flattened at the poles about
one sixteenth of its diameter, and turns
once  in twenty-four liours thirty-nine min-
utes on its axis, which  is inclined to the
plane of its orbit at an angle  of  sixty-one
degrees.  The surface of Mars  is about
one fourth that of the earth, and, his den-
sity being less, the  quantity  of  matter is
only  one seventh.   Spots and  belts are
often observed on Mare; from which it is
conjectured  that it has a dense  atmos-
phere.  Between Mars and Jupiter there
is a great distance, which led to  the sup-
position that  there was some body between
then i; and this conjecture was verified, in
the beginning of this century, by the dis-
 covery of four new planets.  January 1,
 1801, Piazzi  (q.v.),at Palermo, discovered
 Ceres, which, at a disuuice of 263 million
 miles from the sun, completes its  revolu-
 tion  in four years seven months,  moving
 with a mean velocity of  Hi  miles a sec-
 ond.  On account of its small  size, it  is
 not visible to the naked  eye, and, viewed
 through a telescope, has the appearance
 of a star of the seventh magnitude.  This
 discovery was followed, March 28, 1802,
 by that of Pallas by Olbers, at Bremen.
 It is about the same distance from the sun,
 and  accomplishes  its  revolution in about
 the same time as Ceres.  It is supposed
 to be rather larger than either Vesta, Ju-
 no or Ceres.  This planet is distinguished
  from every  other by the great inclination
  of its orbit  to the ecliptic.  Juno, which
  revolves around the sun in four years and
  four months, commonly appears like astar
  of the eighth magnitude, and was discov-
  ered September 1, 1804, by Harding, at
Lilienthal.  Finally,  March 29, 1807, Ol-
bers discovered Vesta,  which appears of
the fifth to the seventh magnitude, is 225
million of miles from the  sun, and corn
pletes its  revolution  around the  sun  in
three years and eight months.  Jupiter,
the largest of the known planets, at a dis-
tance of 490 million  miles from the sun,
accomplishes its revolution, at the rate of
seven miles a second, in eleven years and
314 days, and is attended  by four moons,
which  were  discovered  by  Galilei,  at
Florence, January  7, 1610, and the largest
of which has a diameter nearly  equal  to
the semi-diameter of the earth.  The di-
ameter of Jupiter itself is 11J times greater
than the diameter of the earth ; its surface
is 118 times, and its bulk 1281 times great-
er than  that of the earth.   In  nine hours
fifty-six minutes it revolves on its axis,
which is inclined at an angle of eighty-
seven degrees to its orbit, and at the poles it
is flattened one fourteenth of its diameter.
On the surface of this planet belts parallel
to the equator are  usually observed.  At
nearly twice the  distance of Jupiter, or
900 million miles from the sun,  Saturn
passes through its  orbit, 5760 million miles
in length, in twenty-nine years and 169
days, accompanied by  seven  moons (of
which five were discovered in the seven-
teenth centuiy by Huygens and Cassini,
two in 1789 by Herschel), and by a very
remarkable double ring, which  is  21,000
miles from the  surface of the planet, and
27,000 miles in breadth ;  and  the interval
between them  is about 3000 miles.  Ac-
cording to Herschel, this ring completes its
rotation in ten hours thirty minutes, while
that of the planet itself is ten hours eigh-
teen minutes.   Finally, the knowledge of
our solar system was enlarged, March 13,
 1781, by Herschel's discovery of theGeor-
 gium Sidus (Herschel, Uranus), which is
 1800 million miles distant from the sun,
 and, accompanied by six satellites, accom-
 plishes its revolution in eighty-four years
 nine days, at the rate of  about four miles
 a second.  Its surface is nineteen times
 larger than the earth's, but so much less
 solid, that its quantity of matter is only 77 £
 times greater.  To render the vast distances
 from the planets to the sun more  compre-
 hensible, an illustration,  addressed  to the
 senses, is often drawn from the velocitj
 of a cannon ball, moving at the  rate  of
  eight miles a minute.  With this velocity
 a cannon  ball  would go from the sun tc
  Mercury in nine and a half years, to Ve-
  nus  in eighteen, to the earth  in twenty-
  five, to Mars in thirty-eight, to Vesta ir
  sixty, to  Juno in sixty-six, to  Ceres am 
PLANETS—PLANT.                          169
Pallas in sixty-nine, to Jupiter in 130,  to
Saturn in 23fci, and to Uranus or Herschel
in 479, while it would go from  the earth
to the moon in twenty-three days.
  Planimktry ;  that part of  geometry
which considers lines and  plane figures,
without any regard to heights or depths.
Planimetry is particularly restricted to.the
mensuration of planes and other surfaces,
as  contradistinguished  from stereometry,
or the mensuration of solids, or capacities
of length, breadth and depth.
  Planisphere; a projection of the sphere,
and its various circles on a plane, as upon
paper, or the like.  In this sense, maps of
the heavens and the earth, exhibiting the
meridians and other circles of the sphere,
may be called planispheres.
  Plant.  Plants are generally defined as
being organized bodies without voluntary
motion. (See Animal.)  In this case, how-
ever, as in numberless others, it is much
easier to understand the word than to find
a  definition  sufficiently  comprehensive
and sufficiently exclusive.   Plants consist,
like all organized bodies, of solid and fluid
parts.  To the former belong the cellular
substance,  the various vessels, the fibres
and the pith (see Medulla); to the latter
belong die sap and the  various juices,  as
well as the air contained in  plants.  The
air, the sap and the juices have appropri-
ate vessels.   The entire or proper vessels,
so called, are intended to contain the prop-
er juices of the plant, and are  generally
found filled with oils or resinous juices.
They are  generally in bundles in the cel-
lular part  of the bark, and  are found in
the young shoots  of almost  every plant.
The spiral vessels, so called from their ap-
pearance,  are the largest of the vegetable
vessels, and in  many plants their structure
is visible to the naked eye.   Their nature
and their real  economy are very obscure.
They are situated  round the medulla  of
the  young  shoots  of trees  and  shrubs.
The  perforated vessels are cylindrical
tubes, the sides of which are said to  be
pierced with minute perforations.  They
have, apparently, no office hut that of air
vessels.  The  fluid  substances  of plants
move iu the vessels just enumerated. The
proper  juices contain nourishment adapt-
ed for assimilation into the substance of the
plant.   They correspond in plants to what
we call in animals blood, and may well be
compared with it as to their functions.  In
a physiological respect,) nany  points of cor-
respondence between animals and plants
are observable. Power of contraction, irrita-
bility, power of formation, power of repro-
duc V.i, and other powers, are possessed
   vol.  x.           15
by plants as well as by animals, though in a
lower degree.   The vital power preserves
in plants, as it does in animal bodies, in all
the changes to which they are subject, the
peculiar character of the individual; and
by it the chemical affinity of the  primi-
tive substances of which organic  bodies
consist is modified,  so  as  to be different
from what it is in inorganic bodies.  If
this vital power ceases, the organic body
dies, and its component parts become sub-
ject immediately to the  universal laws of
affinity  prevailing in inanimate nature.
Whether sensation is to be ascribed  to
plants  is doubtful,  because, as yet, n©
nerves have been discovered  in  them;
and the phenomena connected  with  cer-
tain plants, which seem to indicate the ex-
istence of sensation  in them, may,  per-
haps, be reduced to simple in-itability.
Motion, as a consequence of vital power,
is not to be denied to plants.  Several of
them, under certain circumstances, exhibit
a motion in certain external parts, which is
similar to that of animals.  The motion
of the juices  in plants  was known long
before its cause  was understood.  Mal-
pighi seems to have looked for  the cause
in a movement of the vessels; Hales in the
warmth of the atmosphere; later natural-
ists have referred it to mechanical causes,
considering the vessels of plants as capil-
lary tubes, (q. v.)  But  the insufficiency
of these explanations is  easily seen, and it
appears more  conect to consider the ini-
tability of the vessels as the cause  of the
rising of their juices.  This view is con-
firmed by the  fact that the  juice ceases to
rise if the irritability of the vessels is dead-
ened by electric shocks.  But in what this
irritability consists, and  how it operates,
has not, as yet, been demonstrated.   Only
its existence is known; and experiments
have proved  that,  by  certain  artificial
means, it  may be increased as well  as
diminished,—nay,   entirely   destroyed.
Warmth, moreover,   seems to influence
the motion of the  juice in  plants;  other-
wise why should not the irritability pro-
duce motion in the juices in winter ?  A
certain degree of heat is necessary  before
the juices begin to rise and the  growth  to
proceed.   Cold weather immediately pra-
ctices a check or  suspension.  The heat
of summer appears to weaken this irrita-
bility by degrees, till at  length  the juices
move  more and more slowly, and begin to
stand still in autumn. With the irritability
of plants, too, their sleep and their turning
towards the  light is closely connected.
The former seems to ensue after they have
been in continued and violent activit .  It 
170
PLANT.
is  particularly observable in  the  corolla,
but also, in a lower degree, in the leaves.
The disposition of plants to turn towards
the light is easily seen  in such as  have
light from one side only, as all the stalks,
branches, leaves and blossoms turn in that
direction.—Another important point in the
physiology of plants  is  their breathing.
This consists in an absorption and  exhala-
tion, especially observed in the case of the
leaves.  If a fresh leaf is put in a tumbler
filled  with  spring-water,  and exposed to
the rays of the sun, itsoou appears cover-
ed with small air-bubbles, which, by de-
grees, rise  to the surface of the water,
where they burst.  If they are caught,  it
is found that they contain oxygen.  The
light of the sun is necessary to  this  phe-
nomenon ;  mere heat is insufficient to
produce it  Experiments respecting the
breathing of plants  have led to very dif-
ferent opinions.  Ingenhouss  thinks  that
plants exhale oxygen only in the light of
the sun, but during the  night  azote  and
carbonic  acid  gas.  According  to Sene-
bier, healthy plants and their leaves do not
exhale any air whatever  during the night;
the same was maintained by Spallanzani.
Ackermann, on the other hand, maintains
that plants, like animals,  must continually
inhale the basis of vital air (oxygen),  and
exhale carlwnic acid.  But plants exhale
not only gaseous matter;  fluids  are evap-
orated from them, the amount  of which
is considerable.  It is asserted that a  tree
of  middling  size evaporates daily about
thirty pounds of moisture.—As to the odor
of plants, the recent progress of chemistry
shows that the basis of it does  not (as
might have been supposed of so fleeting,
diffusible,  almost imponderable,  entirely
invisible a substance, affecting only the ol-
factory nerves) consist of a gaseous mat-
ter.   Fourcroy showed that there does not
exist a separate principle of scent  This
property is as essential to bodies as  gravity,
but is proportionate to their volatility : the
most volatile  bodies  have the  strongest
odor.—The taste of plants seems to de-
pend on  the proportions of their elemen-
tary ingredients,  and on the degree of
heat to which the plant is exposed.   The
rays of the sun, also, have a powerful in-
fluence on it   Of the colors of plants the
same is  true that has been said  of their
scent. Even Aristotle observed that plants
are colored by the sun.  Ray,  Bonnet,
Senebier, and others, made various exper-
iments connected with this point  Sene-
bier found that when plants were  put in a
dark place, their green leaves become first
yellow on the surface  and then white;
whilst young plants whicn nad grown irp
in the dark, when brought by him gradu-
ally to the light, exchanged their  white
color for yellow, which, after a while, be-
came darker, and showed by degrees green
spots, continually  increasing in number
and  size, so  that,  after  some  time,^ the
parts before  white  acquired a  perfectly
green color.  With blossoms raised  in the
dark  the change  of color  is but slight
Bonnet  asserts the  cooperation of heat
in this process: but, according to the ex-
periments of Van  Mons and Vasalli, the
light of lamps and of the moon operates
in the same way.   The cause of this re-
markable  phenomenon  is  at  present
known.   Plants become lighter in conse-
quence of combination  with the oxygen
which they inhale, darker if they lose it
The different proportion  of oxygen  to its
other component parts gives die various
gradations  and shades.   Saturation with
oxygen  gives the yellow and white  color.
But  if a plant saturated with  oxygen is
exposed  to the rays of the sun, the sub-
stance of the light unites with the oxygen,
the latter escapes, and the plant reassumes
its green color.  For the rest,  the  color
seems to have its seat in the cellular sub-
stance ;  the epidermis, however, is  with-
out color.   The chemical analysis  of
plants shows  that  all vegetable matter
consists  chiefly of hydrogen, carbon and
oxygen.  Their different proportions pro-
duce the variety of vegetable substances.
Of these substances chemistiy has distin-
guished gum,fecula or starch, sugar, glu-
ten, albumen, gelatin,  caoutchouc or Indian
rubber, wax, fixed oil,  volatile oil, camphor,
resin, gum-resin,  balsam, extract, tannin,
acids, aroma, the  bitter, the  acrid and the
narcotic  principles, and ligneous fibre. Sev-
eral  of  these  substances are capable of
transformation into each other.  Thus the
tasteless  mucilage passes  into sugar or
acid.  These  changes are produced by
heat, moisture, air, alkalies, which change
more or less the proportion of the original
constituents.   The  formation,  therefore,
of the various substances in vegetables is
the consequence of truly chemical opera-
tions, which may be traced from the germ
to the ripe fruit. To determine how the
original constituents are absorbed by light
and heat, and  united to each other by the
vegetable organization in such a manner
that they produce the various substances
of which plants are composed, and which
again, in their last analysis, are resolved
into those original constituents—this is the
problem of vegetation.  The way in which
plants grow, i. e. in  which the nutritious 
PLANT.
171
parts pass into the plants, is thus stated:—
Water and carbon resolve themselves into
their constituent  parts,  enter into  new
unions, and thus form the solid portions
of plants.   Hydrogen separates from the
oxygen in order to unite with carbon, and
thus oils, resin  and the like, are  formed.
At the same time, oxygen is formed  from
the water and carbonic acid,  and passes
off, in union with  caloric, as oxygen gas.
By means of these substances, the increase
of  the  vegetable fibres,  or  the  proper
growth, is produced, though we  are not
able to see clearly the way in  which it is
effected. As to the fructification of plants,
the same general theories exist as in re-
gard to the fructification of animals; i. e.
the theory  of evolution, which considers
the germ of all creatures as already exist-
ing,  and only waiting  for the  process
which is to call them into life, and the
more philosophical theory of actual gene-
ration by a wonderful cooperation in the
two sexes.   This process  in plants takes
place in  the following way, veiy similar to
that iu the case of animals :—Plants  have
male and female  organs of  generation,
which may be observed by the naked eye;
yet these parts are generally  not  perma-
nent, as in  the case of animals, but change
after fructification  has taken place.  The
pollen or farina is prepared and preserved
in certain vessels destined for this purpose,
called anthers.   Its finest part penetrates
through the stigma, an opening in the fe-
male | »art, through the pistil to the ovary,and
fructifies the germs or ovules lying there.
With most plants both sexes are united in
one  flower; with a few they are separated.
The former are  called  »er/ec/ flowers, the
latter male or female.  The two latter either
stand on one  stem or belong to different
plants.  With the (so called) perfect flowers
fructification is  effected most easily ; and
also, where the same stem  has male and
female  blossoms, no particular difficulty
exists;  but  where the  two sexes  are en-
tirely separated, fructification  takes place
only  when the two  plants  of different
sexes stand near enough for the pollen of
the male plant to be carried to the  female
by the wind or by insects.   If this or an
artificial fructification.does not take place,
the germ either falls  off,  or  it forms a
fruit, which, however, is  incapable of
germinating.  Wonderful, indeed, are the
means by which nature effects the fructi-
fication of these plants! Within die flower
of the plants are generally glands, which
exude a honey,  by which  insects are at-
tracted ;  but, in order to obtain this, they
must powder themselves  in  the  male
flowers with the  pollen.  Visiting after-
wards  a  female  flower with the same
view,  they  must deposit the pollen on
the pistil.  In  some  other plants, where
the male and female parts in  perfect flow-
ers are placed so as not to be able to reach
each other, little flies are attracted by the
honey,  but  immediately upon  their en-
trance  the flower closes, and  thus the
insects, who crawl in all directions to find
a way  of escape, are forced to fructify it.
Grasses are generally fructified  by the
wind.   Linnaeus founded his system (sex-
ual system) on  the generating organs of
plants.  (See the  article Botany, for other
systems.)  He divided the whole vegetable
world   into   twenty-four  classes.    The
twenty-three first comprise the plants with
visible blossoms, the phanerogamous.  Of
these, the  thirteen first receive their names
from the number of their stamens, or male
organs of  generation : their names are, 1.
monandria, with one stamen; 2. diandria,
with two; 3.  triandria, with three;  4.
tetrandria, with four; 5. pentandria,  with
five; 6. hexandria, with six; 7. heptandria,
with seven;  8. octandria, with eight; 9.
enneandria, with nine ; 10. decandria, with
ten; 11. dodecandria, with twelve to nine-
teen ; 12. icosandria, with twenty ; \3.poly-
andria, with  more than twenty stamens.
In all these classes, the  orders, or first di-
visions of classes, are determined by the
number of female parts of fructification;
i. e. the pistils; for instance, monogynia,
with  one  pistil;  digynia,  with two; tri-
gynia, tetragynia, &c.   The fourteenth
aud fifteenth classes are determined rather
by  the situation of the filaments.  They
are called, 14.  didynamia, in whose blos-
soms are  always  tour stamens,  of which
two are longer  than  the rest—hence the
name;  15. tetradynamia, in  whose blos-
soms  are  always  six  stamens, of which
four have  longer filaments than the others.
Each of these  classes contains  but two
orders.  Those in the fourteenth are de-
termined by  the circumstance of the  seed
lying naked in the calyx (gymnospermia),
or being  covered (angiospermia).  In the
fifteenth class, the orders are determined
by the comparative  length  of the pod or
silique, the  first being  termed  siliculosa,
the second  siliquosa.  In the 16th, 17th
and 18th  classes,  the  number of bundles
in which  the filaments are united, deter-
mines   the class; 16. monadelphia  (one
brotherhood), when the filaments are unit-
ed  in  one bundle ;  17. diadelphia  (two
brotherhoods),  when  they are united  in
two; 18. polyadelphia (many brotherhoods).
The orders in these classes are determin- 
173
PLANT.
ed by the number of the separate stamens,
as  monandria,  diandria, triandria,  &C
19. Syngenesia (grown together), or com-
pound flowers.  Almost  all the flowers
belonging to this class consist of a  num-
ber of small flowers  united.  This chiss
has six orders :—(a.) polygamia aqualis,
if the compound flower consists of perfect
flowers only ; (b.) polygamia superflua,
when in one compound flower there are
fertile female  flowers, styliferous  as well
as perfect dowers ; (c.) polygamia frustra-
nca, when there  are  perfect flowers, and
female flowers, but the former only  fertile
and yielding  seed ; (d.) polygamia  neces-
saria, in which the reverse takes place,
and the  hermaphrodite flowers have no
real stigmas ; (e.) polygamia segregata, in
which there are  two  sets of calyces, the
outer, or common iuvolucrum, and an in-
ner or included calyx containing one or
more florets, and  thus  producing as it
were  a doubly compound  flower ;  (f.)
monogamia (an order now abolished) was
so named because it  had no compound
flowers.   20.  Gynandria,  of which  the
character is, that the stamens, one or more,
are attached  to  the pistil or style.   The
orders arc determined by the number of
stamens, and are  deiiouiiiinted monandria,
dianlria, £cc.  21.  Monacia (on.>-housed
plants), in which the  s;:xes are separate,
yet on one stem.   The orders in this class
are not only  determined  by the number
wf stamens, but there are also monadclphia,
syngenesia and gynandria.   In the last an
imperfect pistil exists in the male flowers,
on which stand the stamens.  22. Dicecia
(two-housed plants), with entirely separate
sexes, i. e. in  which  one plant produces
only male, the other  only female flowers.
The orders are as in  the 21st class.  23.
Polygamia (a class now generally abolished
and incorporated  with  dicecia);  plants
with complete and incomplete flowers dis-
tributed on two  or three  different indi-
viduals of the same species.  The three
orders of this class are called moncecia,
dwecia and triezcia, according  to the mix-
ture on one, two or three stems. 24. Cryp-
togamia.  To  this class  Linnaeus  refers
all  plants  in  which he found po sexual
parts; but in many they have been since
discovered, and even in those in  which
they are not yet known, they certainly
are not wanting.   It contains four orders:
—-1. ferns; 2. mosses; 3. sea-weeds,liver-
worts, lichens; and, 4  fungi.  The palms,
whose sexual parts Linnaeus was unable
to determine, and which he therefore de-
scribed in  an appendix, are  at present
distributed among the other classes.  Later
botanists have reduced the 24 classes to
20.  This sexual system (so called) has been
opposed by Schelver (Kritik der Lehrc von
den Geschlechtern der PJlanzen  (Heidelb.,
1812), and Fortsetzung der Kritik (Carls-
ruhe, 1814),  and particularly Henschel,
Ueber die Sexualitdt der PJlanzen (Bresl.,
1820), whose views  have attracted much
attention.  They start from the principle
that the animal has the advantage of the
plant in individuality, both in  the general
structure aud in that of the  various parts,
and that the  individuality which is the
most prominent, is the animal generatit v ;
on the other hand, that with plants the
similarity in the general structure, as well
as in that of the single parts, is incompat-
ible with diversity of sex, and that there-
fore all  proofs alleged  in  support of the
latter must  undergo  a  reexamination.
Henschel undertook  this; but Treviranus,
in  his  Die Lehre  vom GescJdcchte der
PJlanzen (Brem., 1822), has contradicted
most of his statements. Yet the famous
K.  Sprengel adheres fully  to HenseheFs
views.  To this artificial system is oppos-
ed  the natural, which is founded on the
presence or absence  of the chief organs,
because  plants differ  from  each  other
chiefly in this way.  Oken followed this
system in his Natural History for Schools
(Leipsic, 1821).  And  such an one only
can give an insight into the great and beau-
tiful order of this vast kingdom of nature.
—See Decandolle's Organographie Vige-
talc (2 vols., 60 engrav.).  As a convenient
manual, we would refer the reader to Nut-
tail's Introduction to Systematic and Phys-
iological  Botany,  2d  edit,  Cambridge
(Mtuss.), 1830.   Respecting  vegetable ge-
ography, see Schouw's Diss, de  Scdibus
Plantarum originariis (1816); his Grund-
zuge einer Allg. PJlanzengeogravhie (Co-
penhagen, 1822; translated from the Danish
into German, Berlin, 1823); Alias of Ve-
gd. Geography  (Berlin,   1824);  Alex-
ander von Humboldt's works; particularly
the  introduction  to Bonpland's  (q. v.)
work, Nova Genera et  Species Plantarum,
by  Kuuth.—Anatomy of Plants.  A more
accurate knowledge of the  organization
of plants has been obtained chiefly by the
zealous and patient investigations of Ger-
man and French  naturalists, as Sprengel,
Link,  Treviranus,  Mirbel, Richard, and
many others.  A short view of the organ-
ization of plants must suffice for our pur-
pose. I.  General Si-ucture of Plants. The
primitive form, which  appears  in the ear-
liest stage even of the lowest plant, is  the
globule, which we may observe  even  in
the nourishing juice, which exudes from 
PLANT.                                173
Ac inner  bark {liber)  of trees.   These
globules,  liecoming  connected,  form  a
texture  of cellules, which is  universally
diffused  through  the  vegetable  world.
The sides of these cells  are entire, without
any  apertures, so that  one  cell has no
communication with  the others; but the
juices contained in them perspire organi-
cally in the same way as those in the ani-
mal  body.  In those  cases in which the
globules do not touch eaeh other on all
sides, .they leave interstices, which serve
as passages for the juices, particularly in
trees with  acicular  leaves.   Yet these
passages are  very often wanting  in the
cellular texture, because the little glob-
ules which form the  latter are  attracted
so uniformly, that  regular spaces are pro-
duced,  the  sides  of which are  perfect
squares,  pentagons or  hexagons.   The
cellular texture serves for the preservation
and preparation of the juices.   Hence it is
generally  filled with  mucilaginous, sac-
charine, oily or resinous substances.  The
cellular texture, in the more perfect plants,
has a remarkable connexion with  the air.
From the ferns upward, it becomes more
regular towards the surface of the plant,
and  full of.^paces, which  are filled  with
air,  received  through  apertures of a pe-
culiar organization.   These apertures are
found mostly  where  a  green   surface
covers the plant, most frequently, howev-
er, on  the lower  surface of the leaves.
They are more or less oval, generally sur-
rounded by a glandulous ring, and have,
sometimes, below them, small folds, which
keep them open.  They may be consider-
ed as destined to inhale  and to exhale, but
merely gases, not watery liquids.  The sec-
ond original formation  is  the rectilinear,
fibrous, or, more properly, tubular struc-
ture.  Powerful magnifiers show that the
fibres are real tubes  filled with juice, but
not  continuous,  but  here and there  ter-
minating in a point,  e. g. in the liber of
trees, also  in the alburnum and in the (so
called) nerves and  ribs of leaves.  Their
first beginnings appear  already in the mu-
cilaginous nourishing  juice, where they
have the form of needles,  and crystallize
as it were in bundles.  These tubes have
the softest skin and the smallest diameter
among all the original formations ; yet
they are extremely extensible and tough.
They fonn what is spun as flax, and what
is obtained for useful  purposes from hemp,
from  the  paper-mulberry,  &c.   Their
chief purpose seems  to be the conducting
of the ascending juices. The third original
formation is called the spiral form, because
it consists primitively  of fibres  spirally
wound, which form  the sides of cylin-
drical  canals.  This  formation  appears,
from the ferns upward, in the more perfect
plants, surrounded by  the  vessels in bun-
dles and single.  In the trunk of common
trees, it generally forms the alburnum and
the wood.  With the palms, the  grasses,
&c, the spiral bundles are distributed in
the cellular texture.  The spiral  canals
pass through all parts.   Through the leaf-
stalk they  penetrate with  the vessels that
convey the juices into the nerves  of the
leaves, through the flower stalk into the
corollae, into the filaments, the ovaries, the
pistils, even  into the seeds.  As long as
they  remain  original, they have no wall,
but that which is formed by those winding
fibres.  But they are not always found in
this original form.  They  appear often as
annular vessels, often as stair-shaped, or as
perforated  vessels, &c.  At length there
are transitions from them to the cellular
form, particularly in the  trees with acic-
ular  leaves.   Here appear oblong cells
perforated  with   regular  holes provided
with  margins; nay, in the yew we even
find cells with divisions winding spirally,
which probably take the place of the spiral
canals not  existing here.  The  function
of this third original  formation  seems to
be the preparation and conducting of the
gases, the  moisture, &c, which proceed
from the juices of the plants. II. Particular
Structure of the single Parts of Plants.  The
root  The surface even of the finuest roots
is surrounded with fine  hairs,  and  the
points are covered with a spongy cap, by
which and  the hairs the absorption of the
moisture in the ground is carried on.  A
bundle of tubes passes through the centre
of the root, in which there  is no pidi.  The
stem  consists in  woody  dicotyledonous
plants of three distinct parts—the bark,
the wood and die pith. The bark is com-
posed of  four parts,  1.  a dry,  leathery,
tough membrane, the cuticle ; 2.  a cellu-
lar layer adhering to the cuticle, and called
the  cellular  integument; 3.  a  vascular
layer; and, 4. a whitish layer, apparently
of a fibrous texture, the inner bark, which
is of a more  complicated structure than
the other layers.   The  wood is  at  first
soft and vascular, and is then called albur-
num ; but it afterwards becomes hard, and
in some trees is of a density almost  ap-
proaching that of metal. It is composed of
concentric and divergent layers, the former
consisting of longitudinal fibres and of ves-
sels of various kinds, the latter of flattened
masses of cellular substance, which cross
the  concentric layers.   The individual
cells are narrow and  horizontal in their 
174
PLANT—PLANTAIN TREE.
length, and extend in series from the cen-
tre to the circumference of the wood, so
as to form  nearly right  angles  widi the
tubes of the concentric layers.  Various
opinions have been entertained respecting
the origin of the wood or alburnum.  Mr.
Knight has proved that the alburnum is
formed from the secretion deposited by
the vessels of the liber.   Wood, while  in
the state of alburnum, is  endowed with
nearly as much irritability as the liber, and
performs functions of great importance  in
the vegetable system ; but when it is hard-
ened, these functions cease, and in  time
it loses its  vitality, not uufrequently de-
caying iu the centre of the trunks of trees,
which often, however, put out new shoots,
as if no such decay existed.  To carry on,
therefore, the functions  of the  wood, a
new circle  is annually  formed over the
old.  The hardness of these zones increases
with die age of the tree, those  in the cen-
tre being most dense.   In the centre of
the  wood  is the pith, enclosed  by the
medullary  sheath.  The  pith or medulla
in the succulent state of a stem or twig, is
turgid with aqueous  fluid, but, before the
wood is perfected,it becomes dry and spon-
gy, except  near the terminal bud, or where
branches are given off, in which places it
long retains its moisture.  In the majority of
woody dicotyledons it is longitudinally en-
tire.  The color of the pith iu the succulent
shoot, or the young plant, is green,  which,
as the cells empty, changes to  white; but
to this there are some exceptions.  In the
greater number ©f plants no  vessels are
perceptible in the pith.  Little is known
as yet with certainty concerning its func-
tions.   The majority of leaves are  com-
posed of three distinct parts, one firm, and
 apparently ligneous, constituting the frame-
 work or skeleton of the leaf; another, suc-
 culent and pulpy, fills up the intermediate
 spaces: and a third, thin and  expanded,
 encloses the other two, aud forms the cov-
 ering for both surfaces of the leaf.  The
 first of these parts is vascular, the  second
 cellular, and the third a transparent cutic-
 ular pellicle. The cellular substance be-
 comes more compact towards the upper
 surface, and is here generally covered by a
 sort of varnish.  Towards the lower surface
 it becomes looser, and receives those aper-
  tures which permit the entrance  of air.
  In flowers the  calyx is generally  of the
  same construction with the leaves; but the
  corolla consists of the most delicate cel-
  lular substance, whose inner surface rises
  in the most delicate prominences. The
  spiral canals ofa very small diameter pass
  singly through the  lower  part  of  the
leaves of thecorolke, aud no trace of aper-
tures.is to  be discovered.  The Alain iiita
have a similar consU-uction; but the an-
thers differ  in construction froi-i ah the
other parts.  Entirely  cellular, they con-
tain, from  the beginning,  a number of
bodies pecdiarly  formed,  called poUen.
The surface of the female  stigma is cov-
ered with  the finest haire, which, without
a visible aperture, receive the fructifying
mass in the same  organic way as the hairs
of the root receive the moisture  bf the
earth.   The ovary contains, before the
fructification, merely little bladders, filled
with  the  nourishing juice.   After the
fructification, the  future plant shows itself
first in a little  point which floats in that
juice.  Nourished by the latter, the little
plant either swells and developes its parts,
the cotyledones particularly becoming vis-
ible ; or, if the juice is  not entirely used
up, it coagulates  to a body like albumen,
and the plant remaius in the case of the (so
called)  monocolyledones, undeveloped.—
(For the pressing  of plants, see Herbarium.)
   Pla.ntagenet, Family of. (See Great
Britain, History of.)
   Plantain (plantago major); an insignifi-
cant and common weed, iutrJduced here
from the eastern continent, and which  so
closely accompanies the steps of civilized
man as to have received from some of our
Indian tribes the  name of the white man's
foot.  The leaves are all radical, oval ; nd
pctiolate,  and from amongst them arise
several long cylindrical spikes of greenish
inconspicuous flowers.
   Plantain Tree. By the  English this
name is frequently applied to a species of
banana (musa paradisiaca) now cultivat-
ed in all tropical  climates.   The stem of
this plant is soft, herbaceous,  fifteen  or
 twenty feet high, with  leaves often more
 than six feet long,  and nearly  two broad.
 The spike  of flowers is nearly four feet
 long, and nodding.  The fruit, which sue-'
 ceeds the fertile flowers on the lower part
 of the spike, is eight or nine inches long,
 and above an inch iu diameter,  at first
 green, but when ripe, of a pale-yellow
 color, and has a  luscious, sweet pulp.   It
 is one of the most useful  fruits  in  the
 vegetable creation, and, as  some  of  the
 plants are  in bearing  most of the year,
 forms the entire sustenance of many of
 the inhabitants of tropical climates. When
 used as bread, it is roasted or boiled when
 just full  grown ; and when ripe, it is made
 into tarts, sliced,  and  fried with butter, or
 dried and  preserved as  a  sweetmeat
 Three dozen plantains are  esteemed suf-
 ficient to serve one man for a week, in- 
PLANTAIN TREE-ELASTIC.                  175
 stead of bread, and wifi support him much
 better.
   Plaster of Paris.  (See Gypsum.)
   Plastic, in the English language used
 as an adjective only (from the Greek itXa<r-
 TiKos, from nX(i(r<rw, I form or shape); but in
 some other  languages a  word  exists, to
 which, in English, plastics would corre-
 spond (Greek *Aa<m«,;).  The term is of
 much importance in the theory of die arts
 and in criticism.  With the Greeks, Ger-
 mans, &c,  it comprises the whole art of
 shaping figures from hard or soft masses.
 Three species are distinguished :—1. the
 art of shaping forms from soft masses,  as
 clay,  wax, gypsum, wheat-flour—the ars
 plastica proper, according to  the original
 meaning of *\acou>.- it precedes sculpture;
 2. sculpture, or the art of making statues
 of harder masses (e. g. marble, alabaster,
 sandstone)—the ars statuaria; 3. the sculp-
 tura of the ancients, comprising works cut
 in wood and ivory.   The materials which
 the ancient artists  used chiefly  were,  1.
 clay.   Dibutades  of  Sicyon   invented
 among the Greeks figures of clay.  There
 are very ancient figures of this  kind, of
 Greek and Egyptian origin.  2.  Gypsum,
 used  for stucco-work, and still  found  in
 antique buildings.  The art of casting  in
 gypsum was not known to the Greeks till
 late.   Lysistratus,  brother to Lysippus,
 who lived  in  the time of Alexander, in-
 vented it.  Mengs, among the moderns,
 has devoted great attention to this art In
 Dresden and Madrid are collections of his
 casts, taken from the finest works of the
 plastic art in Italy.  (See Mengs.) 3. Wax.
 The same Lysistratus invented the art of
 casting figures of wax.  The Roman im-
 ages were formed of wax,  and numberless
 figures, parts of bodies, &c, are  made of
 it at present in Catholic countries, as offer-
 ings to be presented to saints.  4. Wood.
 The Greeks made many works of wood,
 from  the earliest times to the most flour-
 ishing period  of art.   Wooden statues
 were erected to the victors in the Olympic
 games.  5.  Ivory.  The use of this mate-
 rial for plastic works is also very old, and
 the Greeks  continued to use it  much  in
 the times of their highest perfection. The
 naked parts of the Olympian Jupiter and
 Minerva, in the Parthenon, were of ivory.
 6. Stone,  (a)  Marble.  Among the an-
 cients, the Pentelican and Parian marbles
 were  the most celebrated.   Under Vespa-
 sian were discovered the Lunensian quar-
 ries, at present called Carrara  quarries,
 the marble  of which is whiter  than the
 Greek.  The Vatican Apollo  is  made of
it  (b) Alabaster.   The Etrurians worked
much in it:  the Indian was most esteem-
ed,  (c)  Basalt,   (d) Granite.  Only the
Egyptians worked  in  this; their statues
and obelisks are  generally of granite and
sienite.  There are two sorts of the granite,
a red and a bluish sort,  (e) Porphyry, of
which there are also two sorts, one red, the
other greenish, with golden spots. This, the
hardest of all stones,  was yet frequently
wrought by the ancients into statues,as well
as vases,  (f) Egyptian lime-stone, soft and
white,or dark green. 7. Glass, the invention
of which is very old.  The ancients made
of glass not only-many utensils fordomestic
purposes, but also urns of the  dead,  and
great  drinking  vessels, ornamented  with
raised work, or cut.  Obsidian must  be
mentioned here, akind of mountain-crys-
tal, discovered by a certain Obsidius. (See
Pitchstone.)  8. Murrhinum.  (See Mur-
rhine Vases.)  It is probable that  it was a
kind of Chinese steatite. 9. Metal, (a) Gold,
partly employed for entire statues, partly
for the covering of ivoiy  statues,   (b) Sil-
ver,  (c) Bronze.  This metal was  very
much used; die  best ore  for preparing
it  was obtained by the Greeks from the
islands of Delos and JEghw; at a later pe-
riod, the Corinthian became the most pop-
ular.  The most  common mixture  wus
12£ parts tin to 100  copper.  Metals were
at first wrought with the hammer; at a
later period they  were cast.  At  first, fig-
ures were cast in several pieces, which
were  united by  swallow-tails, so called,
shaped thus, ^;  at length, the art of cast-
ing whole figures was invented, but it af-
terwards went out of use; aud it was not
till the sixteenth centuiy that the Italians
began again to cast  large bronze figures.
The first large statue cust in Italy was that
of pope Paul III  by Guglielmo della Por-
ta. In 1699, the first great work in bronze
was cast in Paris.   The first of all the fig-
ures cast in bronze  is  ascribed by the
Greeks to Rhoecus and Theodoros of Sa-
mos.  (cQ Iron, which was  the last used
for plastic purposes.  Glaucus discovered
the art of casting iron;  at Delphi were
consecrated offerings made by him. Nev-
er was the art of casting in iron carried to
greater perfection  than in our times, par-
ticularly  at  Berlin.   (See   Sculpture.)—
Plastic, in its narrowest sense, signifying
that which is fit to be represented in forms,
or is well represented in fonns, is opposed
to picturesque in its widest sense, signify-
ing that which is fit  to be represented, or
is well represented in painting.  Intimate-
ly connected with the general  difference
between the spirit of ancient and that of
modern  art,  to  which  we  have  already 
176                          PLASTIC—PLATA.
often alluded, is the circumstance that the
Greeks had a much greater disposition to
express their ideas in forms than in pic-
tures, so far as the fine arts are made use
of for the expression of ideas.   They ac-
cordingly carried the arts which  speak
through the form  to  the highest perfec-
tion ; i. e. the  plastic  aits.  The religion
and prevailing sentiments of  the Greek
led him to view this life as the  most im-
portant purt of his existence, and the per-
fection of this life as the chief perfection
to which he could aspire; whilst the mod-
em, or Christian,  considers every  thing
with reference to  a future life, to which he
aspires.  The  chief aim  of the latter, in
the fine arts, therefore, is the expression of
glowing feeling.  He makes the forms and
beings which he finds on the earth express
his views of a more perfect  and  purer
world for which he longs (and colors and
tones are the most ready means of so do-
ing), whilst the Greek embodies all his
ideas in forms to  which  he does not at-
tempt to give  an  expression superior in
kind to the terrestrial, like the Christian,
but merely idealizes them, i. e. developes
their excellences so as to give them what
would  be  terrestrial perfection. On  the
whole, we may say the ancients strove
much more to  represent the beautiful fol-
ks own sake, whilst with the moderns it is
made subsidiary to the expression of feel-
ing.  Hence the  necessary consequence
that, wherever it  was  admissible,  the
Greeks represented naked human beauty,
the most perfect in creation ; and to such
a degree did that gifted and finely organ-
ized people develope their sense of beauty
and the power of  embodying it  iu  forms,
that they have  ever since remained the
models of successive ages.  So great and
general, indeed, was the sense  for plastic
beauty with the Greeks, that it influenced
most of the  other branches  of art,  as
painting, which has with the Greeks a de-
cidedly plastic  character; and Schlegel is
quite correct when he says that, in  order
to understand perfectly well the tragedy
of the Greeks, it is necessary  to be thor-
oughly acquainted with  their plastic art,
liecause the mind  of the Greek has, in ev-
ery thing connected with the beautiful, an
eminently plastic turn; and the poet does
not develope before our eyes  great and
peculiar characters  by a series of events
and actions, nor does he present views
which are the consequence of connecting
all our  present existence with another
world; but he conceives the existing world
idealized, perfected by its own  laws, and,
if he composes for representation, this
 view closely ollies itself to the spirit which
 pervades the sculpture of his country.—
 Plastic is also used  in praise of modern
 poems or historical writing, if they are so
 well executed that they represent charac-
 ters or actions as expressively as a sculp-
 tor would do by a fine statue.
   Plata, Rio de la (that is,  river of sil-
 ver) ; a large river  of  South America,
 which flows into the Atlantic ocean be-
 tween latitude 34° 55 and 36°  21' S.  It is
 formed by the  union of the  Parana and
 Uruguay.  The former rises in Brazil, and
 receives the  Paraguay coming from the
 same country, after which  it unites  with
 the Uruguay, also  coming from Brazil, at
 about 175 miles from the ocean.  At this
 point, the Plata is thirty miles wide ; at its
 mouth, about 100  miles.   The Paraguay
 rises in latitude 13° 30' S., and receives the
 large rivers Pilcomayo and Vermejo from
 the west.   The whole length of the  Pla-
 ta, from the head waters  of the Paraguay
 to the ocean, is  about 2300 miles.   The
 basin which it drains extends from lat 13°
 to 38° S., and from lon. 51° to 74° W., and
 is therefore about 1800 miles from north to
 south, by 1500 from east to west  Except-
 ing the Amazon, it has the largest volume
 of water of any river in the world.   The
 navigation of the Paraguay is difficult on
 account of the shoals and falls.  The Pa-
 rana is deeper than the Plata, and is  ren-
 dered dangerous by  its  numerous sand-
 banks.  The ports on the Plata are Mon-
 tevideo and Buenos Ayres.  It  was first
 discovered by Solis, who gave it the name
 of La Plata, but from whom it was often
,also called the  river of Solis.  Sebastian
 Cabot, then in the  service of Spain, visit-
 ed the river a few years afterwards (1526),
 and penetrated to the Paraguay.
   Plata,  United  Provinces  of  the
 (Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata,
 or Republica Argentina) ; a  republic of
 South America, consisting of a part of the
 former Spanish viceroyalty of the Rio de
 la Plata, or Buenos Ayres.  The republic
 of Bolivia, the state of Paraguay, and the
 republic of the  Banda Oriental,  which
 were  comprised within the limits of the
 viceroyalty, now form independent states.
 The United Provinces are  bounded on
 the north by Bolivia;  on the east by Para-
 guay, from which they are separated by
 the river  Paraguay,  the  Banda  Oriental
 (which the Uruguay separates from them),
 and the Atlantic ocean; south  by Patago-
 nia ; and west  by' Chile  and the Pacific
 ocean.  The extreme length, from lat. 20°
 to 40° 10'  S., is about 1400 miles; the
 breadth varies  from  500 to  800 mUes. 
PLATA, UNITED PROVINCES OF THE.             177
 Tne viceroyalty extended  over an  area
 of about 1,500,000 miles; the Argentine
 republic comprises about two thirds of
 this surface, with a population estimated
 Rt 2,000,000, of which 600,000 are Span-
 ish Creoles, 600,000 mestizoes, 800,000 In-
 dians, and 25,000 negroes.   This  part of
 the countiy was  first discovered by Juan
 Diaz de Solis,  in 1517, and was further
 explored by Sebastian Cabot, then in the
 service of Spain, hi 1526.  In 1553, the
 first Spanish colony was founded here by
 don Pedro de Mendoza, who built Buenos
 Ayres.  The   government  was at  first
 dependent upon that of Peru, and, in  con-
 sequence of the restrictions imposed on its
 commerce,  had no  other communication
 with other parts of the world than by the
 annual fleet from  Spain.  But as the pop-
 ulation  multiplied,  aud  the agricultural
 produce increased, some relaxations in the
 monopoly system took place, and finally,
 to put a stop to the smuggling, which had
 been carried on to a great extent, register
 ships were allowed to sail, under a license
 from  the council of the  Indies,  at  any
 time.  The annual flotilla sailed  for the
 last time in 1748; in 1774,  a free trade
 was allowed between several  of the Amer-
 ican ports, and, in' 1778, several Spanish
 ports were allowed an open  trade to Bue-
 nos Ayres.   In the same year, the vice-
 royalty of Buenos Ayres was constituted,
 and, as it included the rich  provinces of
 Upper Peru, became not only important
 ;s an agricultural colony, but for its valu-
 able mines.  The commerce continued to
 increase in  value until the  war between
 England and Spain (1797), after which it
 never revived, and has been entirely anni-
 hilated by the recent events.   In 1806 and
 1807, the inhabitants, having victoriously
 repelled the attacks of the English, under
 generals Beresford and Whitelocke, learn-
 ed to  know their own  strength, and, in
 1810,  the first insurrection against  the
 mother  country  broke  out at Buenos
 Ayres.   In none  of the  Spanish colonies
 were there so few blacks; none had been
 so much neglected by the mother country;
 hence in none were shown a greater una-
 nimity of purpose, and firmness in resist-
 ance.  The inhabitants  of  this  colony
 were, also,  superior to most of the colo-
 nists in  cultivation  and  character.   Li-
 niers, a French  officer  who had con-
 ducted  the  successful  resistance  to  the
 British, was declared viceroy, in the place
 of the  Spanish governor.  But as be fa-
 vored the cause of Joseph Napoleon, he
 was soon after deposed, and  the junta of
-the province of Buenos Ayres managed
 the government under Cisneros, the new
 Spanish viceroy; the latter, however, was
 deposed by the junta, on account of his
 attempts to revive die eld Spanish policy,
 and sent home.  The junta took upon
 itself the administration, in the name of
 Ferdinand VII. Chile followed  this ex-
 ample, and sent troops to the assistance
 of Buenos Ayres.   The insurgents  like-
 wise took possession of Upper Peru, where
 an insurrection had already broken out at
 La Paz, Aug. 16,1809.  Liniers, who was
 supported by some of the  internal prov-
 inces,   matte  an  unsuccessful  attempt
 against  Buenos Ayres; he was deserted
 by his  troops, and, having been made
 prisoner with some of his  adherents, was
 shot.  The other provinces joined Buenos
 Ayres, and the Creoles were eveiy where
 victorious.  In 1811, the junta was dis-
 solved, in consequence of the intrigues of
 its president; and a  congress, assembled
 at Buenos Ayres,  vested  the  executive
 power in the hands of a triumvirate; but
 the progress of the Spanish arms in Peru
 led the congress, in  1814, to name Poza-
 das supreme director of the republic, with
 a council of seven ; and the government
 thus  acquired -more uuity and vigor.
Monte Video  was  yet occupied by  a
 Spanish  garrison,  but  was  soon after
 taken by the Buenos Ayrean forces; Ar-
 tigas, the commander in the Banda Ori-
 ental, then declared himself independent,
 defeated the troops of Buenos Ayres, and
 took possession of Monte  Video,  which,
 in 1817, fell into the hands of a Brazilian
 force.  (See Artigas, and Banda Oriental.)
 At the same time, Paraguay, under doctor
 Francia, declared itself independent (See
Francia, and Paraguay.)  In 1816, a new
congress met at Tucuman,  which named
 Pueyrredon director  of the republic, on
July 19, declared the countries on the  Pla-
ta independent, and, having transferred
its sessions to Buenos Ayres, issued  a
declaration (Manfestacien hiitorica y po-
litico de  la Revolucwn de la America,  Od.
25), containing  a  list of  twenty-eight
grievances.  The republic  now assumed
the title of United  Provinces  of South
America, and, Dec. 3, 1817, proclaimed a
reglamento provisorio  as preliminary to a
constitution.   The  congress, chosen in
compliance  with  the reglamento,  was
opened  in February, 1819, and, on the
25th of May,  the new constitution  was
published.  It was on the  model of that
of the U. States, and  secured  personal
freedom  and  equality,  liberty of con-
science  and of the  press,  and the right
of suffrage. Pueyrredon, who declined re- 
178        PLATA, UNITED PROVINCES  OF THE—PLAT^EjE.
election to the place of supreme director,
was  succeeded in that  post by general
Rondeau.  The country still continued in
a disturbed state,  and, in 1820, colonel
Rodriguez  was  placed at the  head of
affairs by the federalists.  The nomination
of Rivadavia, who had previously been
plenipotentiary to Paris and  London, to
the place of secretary of  state in 1821,
contributed to restore order; the province
of Buenos Ayres yielded its claims to su-
periority  over the other provinces, which
established  separate  provincial  govern-
ments,  and sent  deputies to  a general
congress  at Buenos Ayres, May 1, 1822.
The  treaties of peace and amity, con-
cluded  with Santa Fe, Entre  Rios and
Corrientes,  restored peace, and  general
amnesty established domestic tranquillity.
The  confederacy now consisted  of the
nine  provinces of Buenos Ayres, Tucu-
man, Cordova,  Salta,  Cujo, Potosi, Co-
chabamba, La Paz and Puno.   The vigi-
lant  and prudent  policy  of  Rivadavia,
who  was also at the head of the depart-
ment of foreign affairs, changed the con-
dition of the country.  The  revenue of
1823 exceeded the expenditures; the cus-
toms, in  particular, were much increased
by the commercial  prosperity.  In 1822,
the congress of the U. States, considering
that the jirovinces of Buenos Ayres, after
having, from the year 1810, proceeded in
their revolutionary  movements  without
any  obstacle  from the government of
Spain,  had  formally declared their inde-
pendence in 1816; and that, after various
intestine  commotions  and external col-
lisions, those provinces had attained do-
mestic  tranquillity,and a good understand-
ing with all their neighbors, and actually
exercised, without opposition from with-
in or die fear of annoyance from without,
all the  attributes of sovereignty,—resolved
that they ought to be recognised as an in-
dependent nation ; and a minister plenipo-
tentiary was, therefore, appointed to Bue-
nos  Ayres  (1824).   In 1825, a treaty of
peace,  commerce and navigation was con-
cluded with Great Britain.  At this time
the republic assumed the title of United
Provinces  of La  Plata.   The  principal
functions of government were discharged
for several years  by  a  constituent con-
gress,  the  executive  power  being in-
trusted to the provincial government of
Buenos Ayres.   In February, 1826, Riva-
davia was chosen president of the United
Provinces.  In December preceding, the
emperor  of Brazil had  declared war
against the Argentine  republic, in conse-
quence of  its having taken possession of
the Banda Oriental.  Garcia, who  was
sent  by Rivadavia to negotiate a peace,
having ceded the Banda Oriental to the
emperor, the president was  induced, by
the general  dissatisfaction with this  step,
to resign.  The successes of the Argen-
tine  arms led to articles of agreement
with Brazil  (August, 1828),  by which it
was  stipulated that the Brazilians should
evacuate the disputed province, which
was declared an independent state.  (See
Monte  Video.)  On the resignation of Ri-
vadavia, congress dissolved,  each of the
provinces again became independent, and
colonel Dorrego  was chosen  governor of
the province of Buenos Ayres.  The new
governor was expelled from the city in
December of the  same year, by general
Lavalle, the head of the Unitarios,  who
caused himself to be  proclaimed govern-
or, and, having made Dorrego prisoner,
caused him  to be shot  on the spot.  A
civil war of the most bloody description
ensued, and, in August, 1829, general La-
valle found himself compelled to resign.
He was succeeded by general Viamont,
who was at the head  of the federal party,
who, in turn, gave way to general Rosas
in December  of the  same year.—See
Funes, Historia civil del Paraguay,  Bue-
nos  Ayres  y Tucuman   (Buenos Ayres,
1825);  Nuiies,  Historical, political  and
statistical Account of the United Provinces
of La Plata (translated from the Spanish,
London, 1825); Head's Journey across the
Paippas; Miers,  Travds in  Chile and La
Plata  (2 vols., London, 1826); Haighs,
Sketches in Peru, Chile and Buenos Ayres
(London, 1831);  Miller's Memoirs (2 vols.,
London, 1828);  the American  Annual
Register (I, II, III, IV).
   Plat.e.« ; a  town  in Bceotia,  cele-
brated for the battle in  which the Per-
sians, under Mardonius, were defeated bv
the Greeks,  B. C. 479.  After Xerxes had
been defeated at Salamis (q. v.), he re-
turned with the greatest part of his forces,
but left 300,000 men, under Mardonius, in
Thessaly, to influence the negotiations of
that commander with the  Greeks.  On
the  failure of his attempts  to negotiate,
Mardonius advanced towards Attica, and
laid waste eveiy  thing with fire and sword.
One  hundred  thousand Greeks, under
Pausanias and Aristides,  having solemnly
sworn to prefer  death to subjugation, ad-
vanced against the Persians, and the two
armies met near the small town of Platan,
September  25.  The loss of the Greeks
was inconsiderable.  Mardonius fell, and
hardly one tenth part of his urmy escaped
by flight; but few ever returned to their 
?LATJEJE—PLATINA.                        179
 country.  On the same day, the remnant
 of the Persian fleet, which had escaped
 from Salamis, was destroyed off Mycale
 by the Greeks, under the Athenian Xan-
 thippus  and  the   Spartan  Leotychides.
 From  that time, Greece was freed from
 invasions from  Persia.   The  Plataeans
 distinguished themselves both at Marathon
 and  Platsese.
   Plate Glass. '  (See  Glass.)
   Platina is a metal of modem discovery,
 and  owes its name to the idea at firet en-
 tertained of its being  related to  silver, it
 being a diminutive of the Spanish word
 plata.  We shall firet describe its ore, de-
 nominated  in mineralogy  native platina.
 It occurs in very small, irregularly formed
 grains, of uneven  surface,  usually flat-
 tened, and having the appearance of being
 worn by attrition.   They are destitute of
 cleavage, and possessed of a hackly frac-
 ture ;  lustre  metallic ;   color perfect
 steel-gray;   streak  unchanged  and shill-
 ing ;  ductile ; hardness a little above that
 of floor; specific gravity  17.3.   It gen-
 erally contains a little iron, and is accom-
 panied, besides, by  iridium, osmium, rho-
 dium, palladium,  and  alas  by  copper,
 chrome and titanium.  It is very refrac-
 tory, and  soluble  only in nitro-muriatic
 acid.   The pierces in which  it occurs
 rarely exceed a few  grains in weight.
 It has been found principally in secondary
 deposits, and was first brought from Peru,
 and from  Choco, in New  Grenada.   It
 also  occurs  in Brazil  and St. Domingo;
 but of late comes,  in the largest quantity,
 from Siberia, where it is found in the au-
 riferous sands of Kuschwa, in the Uralian
 mountains.    The  richest  beds of these
 sands are  from two and a half to  five
 feet in thickness, and  yield from one to
 three  pounds  of  metal  for about 3700
 pounds of sand.   Native  platina is also
 abundant on the western slope of the Ura-
 lian  mountains.   More  recently, it has
 been found in a sienitic rock, along with
 oxide of iron  and  gold.   The grains  in
 which  it occurred, possessed the same
 shape as  those found in the sands.  This
 locality is near Santa Rosa, in the province
 of Antioquia.  To procure the pure metal
 from its ore has been one of the most dif-
 ficult problems in metallurgy; and all the
 processes formerly  employed have given
 way to the ingenious  one invented  and
 practised, for a long time privately,  by
 doctor Wollaston, and  which he made
 public, through the Philosophical Trans-
actions, in 1829.  The crude platina  is
dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid (formed in
the proportion of three pounds of muri-
 atic acid to two of the simple aqua fortis).
 The acid should  be allowed to  digest
 three or four  days, with a  heat  which
 ought gradually to be raised.   The solu-
 tion, being then poured off, should be suf-
 fered to stand until a quantity of fine
 pulverulent ore of iridium, suspeuded in
 the liquid,  has completely subsided, and
 should then be mixed  with a solution of
 muriate of  ammonia (the salt  being dis-
 solved  in five  times its  weight of water).
 A yellow precipitate of platina will imme-
 diately fall,  which must be  well  washed
 in order to free it from the various impu-
 rities known to exist in native platina, and
 must ultimately be well pressed in order
 to remove the  last remnant of the wash-
 ings.  It is next to be  heated, with the
 utmost caution, in a black lead pot, with
 so  low a heat as just to expel  the whole
 of  the muriate of ammonia, and to occa-
 sion the particles of platina  to cohere  as
 little  as  possible ;  for on this depends the
 ultimate ductility of the product   When
 turned out of the crucible, it will be found
 of a gray color, and, if prepared with due
 precaution, lightly  coherent.  It now re-
 quires to be rubbed between the hands, in
 order to procure, by  the gentlest means,
 as  much as can possibly be so obtained
 of  metallic  powder,  so  fine as to  pass
 through  a fine lawn sieve.  The coarser
 parts are then to be ground  in  a wooden
 bowl,  with  a wooden pestle,  but  ou no
 account  with any harder material, capable
 of burnishing the particles of platina (be-
 cause  burnished particles of platina will
 not weld); and indeed  every  degree of
 burnishing  would prevent the particles
 from  cohering in  the further  stages of
 the process.   And since platina cannot be
 fused by the utmost heat of our furnaces,
 and consequently  cannot be  freed, like
 other metals, from its impurities during
 igneous fusion by fluxes, nor be rendered
 homogeneous  by  liquefaction, the  me-
 chanical diffusion  through water should
 here be  made  to answer, as far as  may
 be,  the  purposes of melting, in allowing
 earthy matters to come to the surface by
 their lightness,  and in making the solvent
 powers of water effect, as far as possible,
 the  purifying powers of borax  and other
 fluxes, in removing  soluble  oxides.  By
 repeated washing, shaking and  decanting,
 the  finer parts of the gray powder of plat-
 ina  may be  obtained as  pure as other
 metals are rendered by  the various  pro-
 cesses of metallurgy;  and if now poured
 over, and allowed  to  subside in a clean
 basin, a uniform mud, or pulp, will be ob-
tained, ready for the  further process of 
180
PLATINA.
casting.  The mould to be used for cast-
ing the metallic powder, is a brass barrel,
65 inches long, turned rather taper within,
with a view to facilitate the extraction of
the ingot to be formed, being 1.12 inches
in diameter at top, and 1.23 inches at a
quarter of an  inch from the bottom, and
plugged at its larger extremity with a stopper
of steel, that enters the  barrel to the depth
of a quarter of an inch.   The inside of
the mould being now well greased with a
little lard,  and the stopper being fitted
tight into the barrel  by  surrounding it
with blotting  paper (for the paper facili-
tates the extraction of the stopper, and
allows  the  escape of water during com-
pression), the barrel is to be set upright in
a jug of water, and is itself to be filled
with that fluid.  It is next  to be filled
quite full with the mud of platina, which,
subsiding to the  bottom of the water, is
sure to fill the  barrel without cavities, and
with uniformity—a uniformity to be ren-
dered  perfect by subsequent  pressure.
In order, however, to  guard  effectually
against cavities, the barrel may be weigh-
ed after filling it; and  the actual weight
of its contents, being thus ascertained, may
be compared with that weight of platina
and water which it is known, by estimate,
that the barrel ought to contain.   A cir-
cular piece of soft paper first, and  then of
woollen cloth,  being laid upon the surface
of the barrel, allow the  water to pass dur-
ing  partial  compression by the force of
the  hand with a wooden plug.  A circu-
lar plate of copper is then placed upon the
top,  and thus sufficient  consistency  is
given to the contents to allow of the bar-
rel being laid horizontally in a forcing-
press.  After compression, which is to be
carried to the utmost limits, the stopper at
the  extremity  being taken  out, the cake
of platina will easily be removed, owing
to the  conical form of the barrel;  and,
being now  so hard and firm that it may
be handled  without danger of breaking, it
is to be placed upon a  charcoal fire, and
there heated to redness, in order to drive
off moisture, bum off grease, and give to
it a firmer degree of cohesion.  The cake
is next to be  heated in a wind-furnace;
and, for  this purpose,  it is to be raised
upon an  earthen stand, about two and a
half inches  above the grate of the furnace,
the  stand being  strewn over with a layer
of clean  quartzose sand,  on which the
cake is to be placed, standing upright on
one of its ends.   It is then to be covered
with an  inverted cylindrical pot of the
most refractory crucible ware, resting at
lis open end on  the layer of sand; and
care is to be taken that the sides of the;
pot do not touch  the cake.  To prevent
the blistering of the platina by heat, which
is  the usual defect of this metal  in its
unmanufactured state,  it is  essential  to
expose the cake to the  most intense heat
that a wind-furnace can be made to re-
ceive, more  intense than the platina can
well be required to bear under any subse-
quent  treatment,  so  that  all impurities
may be totally driven off.  The furnace is
fed with coke, and the action of the  fire
maintained  for about  twenty  minutes
from the time of lighting it  The cake is
now to be removed from the furnace, and,
being placed upright upon an anvil, is to
be struck, while hot, upon the  top, with a
heavy hammer,  so  as at one  beating
effectually to close the  metal.   If in this
process the cylinder should become bent,
it must on no account be hammered on
the side,  by  which treatment it would be
cracked immediately, but must be straight-
ened by blows given upon the extremities,
dexterously directed, so as to reduce to a
straight line the parts that project.   The
ingot of platina, when  cold, may be re-
duced by the processes of heating and
forging, like any other metal, to any form
that may be required.  After forging,  the
ingot is to be cleaned from the ferruginous
scales which its surface is apt to contract
in the fire, by  smearing over its surface
with a moistened mixture of equal  parts,
by  measure, of  crystallized  borax and
common salt of tartar, which, when in
fusion, is a ready solvent of such  impuri-
ties, while it  does not act, like caustic
alkali, upon the platina  itself.  It is then
to be exposed  upon a platina tray, under
an  inverted  pot, to the heat of a wind-
furnace.  The ingot may then be flattened
into leaf, drawn into wire, or submitted to
any of the processes of which the most duc-
tile metals are capable.  The mean specific
gravity of the metallic cake of platina pow-
der, when taken from the press, is  10; that
of the cake fully contracted by heat, before
forging, is from 17 to 17.7 ;  that after forg-
ing is about 21.25, and that of wire, 21.5,
being the maximum density of this metal.
Pure platina has a  white color, very much
like that of silver, but is inferior in lustre
to that i.ietal.  Its malleability is far less
than that of gold or silver, but  superior to
that of tin.   It may be drawn into wires
that do not  exceed the 2000th part of an
inch.  It is  a  soft metal, and, like iron,
admits of being welded at a high tempera-
ture.  A  wire one tenth of an inch sup-
ports 590 pounds without breaking.  As a
conductor of heat, it ranks between gold 
PLATINA—PLATO.                         181
and silver.   It undergoes no change from
the combined agency of air and moisture,
and it may be exposed  to the strongest
heat of a smith's forge without suffering
either oxidation or fusion.  On heating a
small wire of it, by  means of galvanism,
or the  compound blow-pipe, it is fused,
and  afterwards  burns  with the emission
of sparks.  Platina is not attacked by any
of the  pure acitls.  Its only solvents are
chlorine and nitro-muriatic acid,  which
act upon it with greater difficulty than on
gold.  The resulting orange-red  colored
liquid,  from which  the excess of  acid
should  be  expelled by cautious evapora-
tion, may be regarded as containing either
chloride of platinum, or the muriate of its
oxide.  According to Berzelius, there are
two  oxides of this metal, the oxygen of
which is in the ratio  of 1  to 2.  The prot-
oxide prepared by the action of potash on
protochloride of platina is ofa black color,
and  is reduced  by a red heat. The per-
oxide is  obtained with difficulty; for, on
attempting to precipitate it from the muri-
ate, by means of au alkali, it either falls as
a sub-salt, or is held altogether in solution.
It is of a yellowish-brown color, resem-
bling rust of iron when dry, and is nearly
black when anhydrous.   Like peroxide
of gold, it is  a very feeble  base,  and is
much disposed  to unite with alkalies.—
 Chlorides of platina.  The perchloride is
procured by evaporating muriate of plati-
na to dryness, by means of a  gentle heat.
It is deliquescent, and is soluble in water,
alcohol and ether.  The muriate of plat-
 ina  is the protochloride,  and  is resolved,
 on heating, into platina and chlorine.  Ac-
cording to Mr. E. Davy,  there are  two
phosphurets and three sulphurets of platina.
 The salts of platina have the following
 general characters: their solution in water
 is yellowish-brown;  sulphureted hydro-
 gen  throws down the metal in  a black
 powder; hydriodic acid  produces a thin
 film of platina upon the surface of the so-
 lution, after a few liours standing.  The
 sulphate of platina is formed by the action
 of nitric acid upon the sulphuret,orhydro-
 sulphuret  It is soluble in water, alcohol
 and ether.  When a strong aqueous solu-
 tion  of it is mingled with alcohol, in equal
 volumes,  and heated, it  will deposit  a
 black  powder,  which, on being washed
 and  dried, and heated to the temperature
 of 400°, explodes  with  violence.   This
 detonating compound  is  analogous to
 those  which  ammonia  forms with the
 oxides of gold and silver.   The  useful
 alloys of platina are not numerous. With
 eilver  it forms a tolerably fusible white
   vol. x.          16
alloy, malleable and brilliant when  pol-
ished ; but it scales and blackens by work
ing.  Gold,  by  a  forge  heat, combines
with platina, and the alloys, in all propor-
tions, are more  fusible than platina.  In
the proportion of 38 grs. to 1 oz., it forms
a yellowish-white, ductile, hard alloy; it
is so elastic after hammering, that  it has
been proposed to use it for watch-springs.
Mercury, by trituration with spongy plat-
ina, forms an  amalgam at  first soft, but
which  soon  becomes  considerably firm,
and  has been  much used  in  obtaining
malleable platina.   A coating of platina
can lie given to copper and  other metals,
by  applying  to them an  amalgam  of
spongy platina, and five parts of mercury;
the latter metal is then volatilized by heat
Lead combines  with platina readily ; and
iron and copper in like manner:  the last
mentioned, when added in the proportion
of 7 to  l6 of platina and 1 of zinc, and
fused in  a crucible, under charcoal pow-
der, fonns the alloy called artificial gold.
Steel unites with platina in all proportions,
and, especially in the proportion of from 1
to 3 per cent, of platina, forms a tough and
tenacious alloy, well adapted for cutting
instruments.   Arsenic  unites easily with
platina, and was once employed for ren-
dering the latter metal fusible.  Platina is
a metal of great utility.  It is used for the
construction of large boilers for the con-
centration of sulphuric acid, the larger
ones of  which cost upwards of 300 guin-
eas.  Its uses in chemistry are numerous,
and very important.  It is also employed
for staining pottery ; and has lately been
coined in Russia, and forms a part of the
circulating medium of that country.
  Plato (from nXarvs, broad).  The cele-
brated Greek philosopher  of this name
was so called  on account of the breadth
of his chest  and forehead.  His original
name was Aristocles.  He was the son of
Ariston  and  Perictione, and was born
about 429 B. C.   Among his ancestors
were king Codrus and the lawgiver Solon.
Circumstances were favorable to his early
education:   his  body and  mind  were
equally  developed.   In gymnastics, he
was instructed by  Ariston,  in  the rudi-
ments of letters by the grammarian Dio-
nysius, in painting  and  music by Draco
and Metellus,  in  philosophy at first by
Cratylus.  Until his twentieth  year, die
gifted youth tried his  creative  power
in  epic, lyric and dramatic poetry with
much ardor. Nothing satisfied him.  We
now see him  introduced by his father to
the wise Socrates,  who,  die story says,
 was just relating to his pupils a dream, in 
182
PLATO.
which he had seen a young swan fly from
the altar of Cupid into the academy, and
alight in his lap, whence  he poured, with
an enchanting  song, into  the air:—''See,
here,  the academic swan!" he exclaims,
perceiving Plato.  He cultivated die mind
of his new pupil for  eight years, and the
acute and  profound views of the scholar
tasked his faculties, and awakened in him
admiration and love.  After the sage—ac-
cused of deriding the gods of his country
—had drank the hemlock, Plato, thirsting
for the highest knowledge  which his
times could afford,  left  Athens.  He firet
visited Megara, where he staid for some
time with Euclid (the head of the Megnrean
school, and formerly also  the disciple of
Socrates), exchanging opinions, and  call-
ing to mind the lessons of  their teacher.
He then visited Magna Gnccia, where he
held intercourse with the Pythagoreans;
Cyrene, a  Greek colony in Africa, where
he  became acquainted with Theodorus;
also Egypt, the land  of ancient wisdom,
and was prevented only by the breaking
out ofa war from visiting Syria and  Per-
sia.  At the age of about forty years, he
returned, and  arrived at  Syracuse,  then
ruled by the tyrant Dionysius.  He form-
ed a friendship with Dion, a relative, in-
deed,  of Dionsyius, but hostile to the ef-
feminate luxury of his countrymen, and
inspired with a noble zeal  fin-the improve-
ment  of his country.  Dion introduced
him to  the tyrant, to try whether inter-
course with his friend might not dispose
the ruler more  favorably  towards  liberty.
But Plato's philosophic and independent
spirit  offended the tyrant,  who  became
suspicious of him, and, when  Plato em-
barked,  in consequence of the representa-
tions of Dion and Aristomenes, he bribed
the latter to kill or sell him.   Aristomenes
did the latter,  but Anniceris  ransomed
him;  and Plato at last returned to Athens,
where,  about  the  99th  Olympiad, he
taught philosophy in the academy—a gym-
nasium  situated in the suburbs.   In the
second  year of the 103d Olympiad (368
B.  C),  Dionysius I died, and  Dionysius
II succeeded him.  Dion  now entertained
new hopes, and Dionysius,  who was de-
sirous of having learned men at his court,
joined him  in  an  invitation to Plato to
visit Syracuse  again.  The philosopher
was fully conscious of the danger and
probable failure of his visit; but the  hope
of being useful made him once more re-
solve to leave the shores of Attica.  Speu-
sippus accompanied him.  The beginning
promised  well: his  entrance into Syra-
cuse  was solemnly  celebrated.  He in-
structed the prince in mathematbics: but
he soon became again the object of jeal-
ousy and  intrigue.   Philistius, the histo-
rian, who had  been banished under the
late reign, was recalled,  in order, as  was
pretended, to support the tottering throne.
He iiumed the suspicions of the  tyrant
ag'iinst Dion, and hardly had three months
elapsed from the time of Plato's arrival  in
Sicily, when his friend was carried to the
coast of Italy.   Plato was obliged,  by re-
peated and urgent invitations, to take  up
his residence in the royal p:t!ace,  where
he was closely observed; and if it had not
been for the breaking out of a war, his re-
quest for dismission  would probably not
have been complied with.  It was granted
at length, but on condition that he should
return after the conclusion of peace.  He
now went back to Athens, where he tried
to console  Dion.  Peace was concluded,
and Plato was  reminded of his promise.
lie, however, resisted all the flattering as-
surances which were made him for some
time.  At last  Dionysius sent a  vessel
bearing  letters  and  personal friends of
Plato to prevail on him to repair to Syra-
cuse.  He yielded  at last with  the hope
of doing something  for his friend  Dion.
But his situation became worse than  it
had been  on his previous  visit.  Dion's
income was  kept  back, and Plato's life
was  even endangered.  Arehytas, how-
ever, persuaded the tyrant that a political
measure  required  the return  of Plato :
he was  allowed to  depart, and even his
travelling expenses were paid.  He land-
ed in Elis,  where he found Dion, who
formed a plan for punishing the tyrant; but
Plato was unwilling to  accede to  it.   It
cannot surprise us that a man of so elevat-
ed a character was calumniated, and ac-
cused of avarice,  intemperance,  vanity,
and even flagitious crimes. These charges
are refuted by the high  esteem  in which
Plato  was  held, by  his  life and actions.
He died  in the first year  of the  108th
Olympiad (348  B. C), on his eighty-sec-
ond birth-day, a hale old man, breathing
out his life in soft slumber among friends,
at a wedding banquet  An inscription in
the Cerainicus, where he was buried, pro-
claimed his merit, and the love of his con-
temporaries.—In order to understand the
whole of Plato's philosophy, and seize its
true spirit, it is necessary to acquaint one's
self with  the  gradual  unfolding of the
Greek philosophy, and the different modes
m which it  was cultivated in the various
schools, and, at  the same time, to be ac-
quainted with the spirit of Oriental meta-
physics.  The conceptions ofa mind like 
PLATO.
183
Plato's, inspired with  the  most lofty and
glowing desire to show the connexion of
the human soul with the original fountain
of light and perfection, and its aspirations
for a reunion with it (which can be ex-
pressed only in feeble  comparisons and
imperfect images); of a mind to  which
the greatest earthly good appeared  to be
the union of kindred souls in the love and
zealous search for truth (the Platouic love);
of a mind  which conceived  the human
soul to contain, in its present state of lost
perfection, all the germs of regeneration
and restoration to the kingdom of truth—
the works of such a lofty, pure and gifted
spirit require to be studied with peculiar
attention, and with a spirit superior to the
temptation to ridicule images and compar-
isons that  attempt to  convey  thoughts
for which  language is insufficient, and
which  remind us of St. Augustine's ex-
pression, that we are placed too  high for
our own understanding. We must expect,
indeed,  to  meet  some strange mistakes,
when a spirit like Plato's  enters into the
details of particular subjects,  as, for in-
stance, in  his  Republic;  but this very
treatise affords most insight into the mind
of the philosopher, although  it  discloses
but a part of his whole system or doc-
trine.  Of such a system of philosophy,
however,  it would be impossible, within
our limits, to give a view that would con-
vey any satisfactory idea.  No  scholar of
late has done so much for the  just appre-
ciation of this great mind as professor
Schleierniacher,  by his  arrangement of
the various writings of Plato, accompanied
by  profound and learned commentaries,
and by a translation of them into  German.
Professor Schleierniacher  first arranged
tiie dialogues according to the  connexion
of their subjects, and thus formed  three
groups:  1.  the  elementary dialogues, in
which are contained the first  indications
of that which is the foundation of all the
following: of dialectics, as the technical
part of philosophy, of ideas, as  the proper
subject  of it, therefore  of the possibility
and the conditions of knowledge, in which,
however, the theoretical is separated from
the practical.  In this class lie places the
Phajdrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Laches, Char-
mides, Eutyphron, Parmenides,  likewise
the apology of* Socrates, Criton, Ion. the
Lesser Hippias, Hipparchus, Minos, Alci-
biades II.  2. Those dialogues which treat
of the application of these principles, of
the difference between philosophical and
common knowledge in their application
to the two. great  sciences,  ethics  and
physics.  These are the Gorgias, Thete-
tetos, Menon, Euthydemus, Cratylus, the
Sophist, the Politician, the Banquet, Phae-
don, Philcbus,  &c.  3. These  in  which
the theoretical and practical become  one
and the same.   These are Timaeus,  Cri-
tias, the  Republic, the Laws, Epiiiomi.s.
In addition  to Schleierniacher, we would
mention Ticdemanu's Dialog. Plat. Argu-
menta exposita el illuslrata (Bipont, 17 e6),
and Tennemann's System of the Platoi.ic
Philosophy  (Leipsic, 1792—95, 4  vols.);
further, Heusde's Initio Philosophic Pla-
tonics (Utrecht, 1827).  The best editions
of  Plato are, besides the Aldine, that of
Henry Stephens (1578, 3 vols.,  folio; the
Frankfort edition, 1602,  folio, and  the
Bipont edition, 1781—86, 13 vols.).'  The
latest are by Bekker  (q. v.), Stallbaum
and A?t  A German version of Plato is
publishing at present by Schleierniacher,
third  edition,  with  illustrative treatises.
Pr. Cousin  has  translated Plato's Works
into French—(Euvres  completes de Pla-
tan (Paris,  1827, 7  vols.).   The effect
which a  mind so vast was calculated  to
produce was very great.   The school of
Plato was calletl  the  academy, and  lias
been generally divided into the old, mid-
dle and  new.   Among tiie philosophers
of  the first division   are   Speusippus,
Xenocrates, Polemo, Crate?, Crantor, the
immediate followers of Plato.  The found-
er  of the middle  academy is Arcesilaus,
whose successors were  Lacydes, Evander,
Ilegesinus and  Carneades, the  last of
whom was the  founder of the new acad-
emy :  his  successor  was Clitomachus.
His pupils, Philo and Charmides, again
deviated  from  the  doctrines  of  the
new academy,  and approached  more  to
those of  Plato  himself.   Some  others
adopt a  fourth  division, whose founder
was Philo, who  again took the  dogmatic
direction.    Cicero (Qu.  Acad, i,  43  et
seq.) only adopts  the  division  of  old
and new.   Aristotle,  Plato's  pupil  for
many years, became the  founder of the
peripatetic school.  (See that article, and
Aristotle.)   The  difference between these
great men is striking:  Gothe calls Aris-
totle "a man cf an architectural  genius,
who  seeks  for a  solid basis  for  his
building, but looks no farther,  who  de-
scribes an immense circuit for its found-
ations, collects materials from all sides, ar-
ranges them, lays one above the  other,
and thus ascends in regular form pyram-
idally, while Plato, like an obelisk, nay,
a flame, seeks  the heavens."   Aristotle
was critical, scrutinizing whatever came
within the  range  of his  comprehensive
mind, while Plato brings every thing  into 
184                       PLATO—PLATYPUS,
 connexion with Iris elevated view of the
 human soul; and we may be allowed to
 mention the beautiful conception of the
 difference  of these  powerful  minds,  iu
 Raphael's  School of Athens—one of the
 grandest pictures ever produced, of which
 they form the two chief personages—Ar-
 istotle, with a look of deep reflection, uud
 eyes directed forward, while Plato lifts up
 his right arm, as if testify ing of the worlds
 above, like a prophet.  Plato was consid-
 ered, when  Christianity began to spread,
 its the firmest prop  of heathenism; but
 the followers of the  new faith attempted
 to reconcile his doctrines with the Chris-
 tian.  The Tjhief supporters  of his doe-
 trine at this time were the New Ptatonists
 (q. v.), also "called Alexandrian philosophers,
 mid eclectics. Aristotle had the  decided
 predominance until the fourteenth centu-
 ry,  when  Platonism  revived,  and the
 greatest struggles ensued between the
 Platonists and the Aristotelians.   Gemis-
 thius  Pletho inspired Cosmo de' Medici
 with a  love for Plato, so that the duke
 established a Platonic academy, took the
 son of his  physician, the  translator of
 Plato, Marsilitis Ficinus,  into his house,
 and gave him a villa  near to his own of
 Careggi.   Cousin's and Schleiermaeher's
 translations  and commentaries on Plato
will undoubtedly contribute much to make
him better understood by the English and
Americans.
  Platoff, or  Platow, hetman of the
Cossacks, was bom in the southern part
of Russia, about 1763.  He entered young
into the military service, and iu 1806 and
 1807, he had the rank of lieutenant-general
 in the Russian army sent to-the assistance
 of Prussia.   He was afterwards employed
 against the  Turks in Moldavia,  and was
 made a  general  of cavalry.   When the
 French invaded Russia, in 1812, Platoff
 was again called into  actual service, and,
 though  he was defeated at Grodno, and
 obliged  to  retire into the interior, he re-
 turned during the  retreat of the enemy
 from Moscow, and, with twenty regiments
 of Cossacks, he harassed them in their flight,
 and contributed greatly to the advantages
 gained over them.  In 1813, after the bat-
 tle of Leipsic, he entered France, and was
 at Paris with the emperor Alexander,
 whom he accompanied to England.  At
 London, he was the object of popular ad-
 miration, and a magnificent  sabre  was
 presented to him.  Iu 1815, he command-
 ed the Cossacks destined for the second
 invasion  of France, and again made  his
 appearance  at Paris.   After the  restora-
 tion  of peace, he -retired to Tchsrkash,
 on the river Don, where fiedied in Febru-
 ary, 1818.
  Plato.mc Love.  (See Plato.)
  Platom sts, Ne w. (See .Yew Platonisls.)
  Plato's Repubuc.  (See Plato.)
  Platte, or La Platte River, in Mis-
 souri Territory, rises in the Rocky moun-
 tains, and flows east into the Missouri.   It
 is of great length,  and is 600 yards wide
 at its mouth.
  Plattsburg; a post-town, and capital
 of Clinton county, New  York, on a fine
 spacious bay,  on the west side of lake
 Champlaifl, at the mouth  of Saranac river.
 It is 160 ttjiles north of  Albany, and  60
 south of Montreal; lon.  73° 26'  W.; lat
 44° 42' N.; population, iu 1820, 3519; in
 1630, 4013.  The U. States' barracks are
 four miles above the village, on the Saranac.
 The village  is handsomely laid  out, and
 contains a bank and several manufactories.
 During  the last  war with Great Britain,
 this town was  twice  in the hands of the
 enemy,  and the  last  time was nearly re-
 duced to ashes.  It is also famous, in that
 war, for being the  point of attack for the
 British army of 14,000, under-sir George
 Prevost  This army was  aided  by the
 British  fleet,  having 95  guns and 1050
 men, under the command of commodore
 Dowuie.  The American army stationed
at the  forts  of Plattsburg,  consisting of
2500 men, commanded  by  general Ma-
comb,   effectually  resisted  the  enemy.
The American fleet, commanded by com-
 modore Macdonough, had  86.guns and
826  men, and totally destroyed the fleet
of the enemy.  The  British loss in killed,
wounded, and deserters, was estimated  at
2500;  the American loss, both  on land
and  water, was  only 235.   This batde
 was  fought Sept. 11, 1814.
  Platypus  (ornithoryncus).   This  ex-
traordinary animal, which  is peculiar to
New Holland,  almost appeaj-s to be a link
 between the aquatic  birds and the mam-
malia.   It is about  a foot long, having a
flattened body  like that of the otter, cover-
ed with a thick soft fur, moderately dark
 brown above, and whitish beneath.  The
 muzzle  is elongated, enlarged and flatten-
 ed,  resembling the beak  of a duck, like
 which its edges are armed with transver-
 sal plates.  The teeth are  situate in the
 back part of the mouth, two on each side,
 with flat tops and no roots.  The feet are
 furnished with a membrane  uniting the
 toes, and in the anterior feet extending
 beyond the nails.  The tail  is flat and ob-
 tuse.  From the  form of this animal it is
 fitted to reside in the water, and it must
 feed on  soft food, as the  structure of the 
PLATYPUS—PLEBEIANS.
165
beak will not enable it to grasp any thing
firmly.  From the accounts of travellers,
it seems probable that these animal.s pro-
duce eggs ; if so, their alliance to birds be-
comes still greater ; this fact, however, is
not substantiated.  The platypus is arm-
ed with a spur on each hind leg, having a
canal iu it similar to that in the poison-
fong of venomous serpents, and, like this,
also, furnished with a gland at base, se-
creting a  fluid ;  hence it is  likely that
wounds  produced  by  them  would  be
dangerous.  They have no  external ear,
aud their eyes are very small.  There is
a genus closely resembling the platypus,
also peculiar to New Holland, viz. echidna,
or spinous ant-eater, which, however, is
not amphibious.  (See  Memoirs on the
anatomy of this animal, by sir E. Home,
Meckel, Cuvier, St. Hilaire, &c.)
  Plautus, Marcus Accius, one of the
oldest Roman comic writers, was boru at
Sarsina, in Umbria, and flourished, about
B. C. 2U0, as die manager  of a company
of players in Rome.  Aldus Gellius tells
us  that, for some time, he was in a very
destitute condition, and was compelled to
earn his livelihood by turning a mill.  He
must have possessed an inexhaustible fund
of guyety,  since, even in a condition so
unfavorable to poetry, he seems to have
composed some comedies.  About twenty
of  them,  principally  entire, have come
down to us. The names are either borrow-
ed  from the persons of the piece, as Am-
phitryon (the husband of Alcmena, moth-
er  of  Hercules), Curculio (Corn-Worm,
the name of a sponger), Epidicus, Pseudo-
lus, Stichus (names of slaves), Bacchides
(name of two frail fair ones), Menaechmi
(the name of a pair of twins), Miles GIo-
riosus (the Braggart Soldier), Captivi (the
Two Captives), Mercator (the  Merchant),
Pomulus  (the Carthaginian),  Persa (the
Persian),Truoulentus (theFierce), or from
something which serves as a  foundation
of the play, as Aulularia, Cistellaria, Mos-
 tellaria, sc. Fabula (the Pot or the Treasure,
the Casket, the Ghost).   Plautus's  merit
consists in having introduced into the Lat-
 in  language  the plays of Diphilus, Epi-
 charmus and others, by translations or im-
 itations, and  by this means contributed to
 improve  and eurich  it   The  ancients
 praise bis pithy, antique language; and,
 according to  Varro,  the  31 uses, if they
 had spoken  Latin, would have used the
 language of  Plautus.   The wit and sen-
 tontiousiiess  of the old comedian were no
 less admired.  Much may be learnt from
 Plautus of the  language  of conversation
 mid common life, although much of it is
                 16*
obsolete and not to be imitated.  Much,
too, is vulgar, the jests  often  low, and
sometimes obscene.  The subject of his
pieces is frequently an obscene stoiy, hu-
morously  treated.  In  general,  his  dia-
logue has more  merit than his plots and
dramatic action.  An excellent edition of
the comedies of Plautus  was issued by
Erncsti  (Leipsic, 1760, 2 vols.).   A later
edition, with a running commentary, ap-
peared at Bipont in 1788 (3 vols.); anoth-
er by Schmieder (Gottingen, 1804 to 1805,
2 vols.); and the latest  by Bothe (Berlin,
from 1809 to 1811), in four volumes. There
is an English translation, by Thornton,  in
five volumes (1769).
  Playfair, John ; a distinguished natu-
ral philosopher anil mathematician, bom
at Bervie, near Dundee,  in Scotland,  in
1749. His father was a parochial clergy-
man of the Scottish  church.   Having
finished his education at the university of
St Andrews, he  received ordination, and
succeeded to his  father's benefice in 1772.
After holding it some  years, he resigned
it, and, going to  Edinburgh, obtained the
mathematical chair in that university.  In
1778, he published, in  the Philosophical
Transactions, a paper  On the Arithmetic
of Impossible Quantities; and on the
establishment of the royal society of Ed-
inburgh, he was appointed one of the sec-
retaries.  To the firet volume of its Trans-
actions he contributed an Account of the
Life and Writings of Matt. Stewart, Prof.
of Mathematics  at  Edinburgh, and an
essay On the Causes which affect the Ac-
curacy of  Barometrical  Measurements;
and  several  other communications from
him appeared in  the subsequent volumes.
Professor Playfair devoted much time to
the study of geology ; and, in 1816, visit-
ed the Alps, for the purpose of making
geological observations on the  structure
of those mountains.   He adopted the
opinions of doctor  James Hutton, which
he  defended in  his Illustrations  of the
Huttonian Theory of the Earj;li (4to.). His
death took place at Edinburgh, July 20,
1819.   Besides  the productions already
noticed, he  was the author of  Elements
of Geometry (8vo.); Outlines of Natural
Philosophy (2  vols., 8vo.); and  of a dis-
sertation on the Progress of the Mathemat-
ical aud Physical Sciences since  the Revi-
val of Letters (first published in the Supple-
ment to Encyc. Britannica, reprinted sep-
arately in Boston, 1 vol., 8vo.).  His works,
collected in four volumes, with a memoir
prefixed, appeared  in Edinburgh in 1822.
   Plebeians  (plebs),  among  the  Ro-
mans ; the people, or that class of citizens 
186
PLEBEIANS—PJJCA POLONICA.
which did not belong to the senators (see
Patricians) or knights (see Equestrian Or-
dei-); in the later ages of the republic, all
those who had no public station, but lived as
private individualson.theirown resources,
and, in general, all whose fortunes did not
amount to at least 400,000 sesterces ; they
were mechanics, merchants, soldiers, &c.
The poorer classes in particular, who lived
principally by the largesses made by the
state, or the rich, or by their patrons, and
by the sale of their votes (which was for-
bidden by law), were called plebeians.  A
distinction  was made between  the  plebs
i-ustica and the plebs  urbana;  the  latter
comprising the  industrious  classes, the
mechanics and shopkeepers, as well as
the numerous idlers and paupers, &c, liv-
ing in the city; the former, the citizens
residing in the country, who  lived by ag-
riculture, and were  the  most  respectable.
(For an account of the struggles of the
patricians and plebeians, see Rome.)  In
the most flourishing period of the repub-
lic, after the death  of Sylla, the number
of  Roman citizens was about 400,000,
nearly half of whom lived in Rome and
its  vicinity, and formed, after deducting
the senators and knights, the third estate.
  Plebis-scita.  (See  Civil Law.)
  Pledge, or Pawn, is a species of bail-
ment,  being  the deposit  or placing of
goods  as security  for  the  payment  of
money borrowed, or the fulfilment of an
obligation or promise.  It is distinguished
from  a mortgage of chattels, by the cir-
cumstance that the legal property in  the
chattel mortgaged is  in the mortgagee,
whereas the  legal  ownership  of goods
pawned remains in the pawner, though,
according to the definition of a  pawn and
pledge, the pawnee  not  only has the right
of possession, but must be in possession.
If  the money is not paid at the time stip-
ulated, the pawn  may be  sold by  the
pawnee, who may  retain enough of  the
proceeds to pay the debt  intended  to be
secured.  In some  cases the terms of the
deposit are the forfeiture of the pawn in
case the pawner does not fulfil the prom-
ise or obligation to guaranty which  the
pawn  is given.
   Pleiades ; the seven daughters of At-
 las, who, being pursued by Orion, were
changed, by Jupiter, into doves.   They
 were translated to the  heavens, and form
 the assemblage of the Seven Stars in  the
 neck  of Taurus,  called  by the Latins
 Vergilia.  There are,  however, only  six
 stars visible in Pleiades—a fact noticed by
 Ovid.  The Podical Pleiades is a  name
 given, by the Greeks, to seven celebrated
,poets,  of the time  of Ptolemy Philadel-
phia.   (See  Alexandrian  School.)   A
French Pleiades was  formed in imitation
of it, in the reign of Henry II; it consist-
ed of Ronsard, du Belloy, Jodelle,  &.c.
  Pleonasm (from  i\\toviwpos, a redundan-
cy), in rhetoric, is  a figure of speech by
which we use more words than seen, ab-
solutely necessary to convey our meaning,
in order to express a thought with more
grace  or  greater energy ; it is sometimes
also applied to a needless superabundance
of words.
  Plesiosaurus. (See Organic Remains.)
  Plessis is found  in a number of French
geographical names, and is derived from
the Low Latin plexitium,  signifying a
hedge, fence.
  Pleurisy (pleuritis); an inflammation
of the pleura, or membrane which lines
the internal surface of the cavity  of the
breast, and covers the external surface of
the  lungs.   The   pleurisy  is generally
caused by  colds,  rheumatism, bleeding,
&c.  It.comes on with an acute pain in the
side, and is accompanied by a difficulty of
breathing, attended with pain, by cough-
ing and feverish symptoms.  At first the
cough is dry, but is afterwards commonly
attended  with  expectoration.   The  in-
flammation  then disappears, but is .some-
times  succeeded by suppuration, and the
lungs  sometimes become  attached to the
walls  of the breast.  The disease is  not
dangerous if the patient has not been pre-
viously attacked by  it, nor in its firet stages,
nor if it is properly attended to in season.
The application of  leeches and other less
antiphlogistic remedies, and blistering, are
recommended.
   Plica  Polonica.   The  Weichselzopf,
or plica Polonica, derives its  name from
its  most  prominent  symptom—the  en-
tangling of the  hair into a confused mass.
It is generally preceded by violent head-
aches, and tingling in the ears; it attacks
the bones and joints, and even the nails
of the toes  and fingers, which split lon-
gitudinally.  If so obstinate  as to defy
treatment, it ends  in  blindness, deafness,
or in the  most  melancholy distortions of
the  limbs,  and sometimes in all these
miseries together.  The most extraordi-
nary part of the disease, however, is Us
action on the hair.  The individual hairs
begin  to swell at the root, and to exude a
fat,  slimy substance, frequently  mixed
with  suppurated  matter, which  is  the
most  noisome feature of the malady.
Their growth is, at the same  time, more
rapid, and their sensibility  greater, than
in their healthy state; and, notwithstand- 
PLICA POLONICA.
187
ing the  incredulity  with which  it was
long received, it is now no longer doubt-
ful, that, where  the  disease has reached
a  high degree  of malignity,  not only
whole masses of the  hair, but.even.-single
hairs, will bleed if cut off", and that, too,
throughout their whole length, as well as
at the root.   The hairs, growing  rapidly
amidst  this  corrupted  moisture,  twist
themselves together  inextricably, and at
last are plaited into  a confused, clotted,
disgusting-looking mass.  Very frequently
they twist themselves into a number of
separate masses, like ropes; and there is
an instance of such a zopf growing to the
length of fourteen feet on a lady's head,
before it could be  safely  cut oft*.  Some-
times  it assumes  other  forms,  which
medical  writers have distinguished  by
specific names,as the bird's nest plica, the
turban plica,  the Medusa head plica, the
long-taded plica, the club-shaped plica, &c.
The hair, however, while thus suffering
itself, seems  to  do so merely from con-
tributing to the cure of the disease,  by
being  the  channel  through which the
corrupted matter is  carried off from the
body.   From the  moment  that the hair
begins to entangle itself, the preceding
symptoms always diminish, and frequent-
ly disappear  entirely, and the patient is
comparatively well,  except that he must
submit to the inconvenience  of  bearing
about with him this disgusting head-piece.
Accordingly, where there  is reason to
suspect  that  a  Weichselzopf is forming
itself, medical means are commonly used
to further its out-breaking on  the head,
as the natural  progress  and only true
cure of the disease ; and, among the peas-
ants, the same  object is pursued  by  in-
creased fHdi  and  carelessness, and even
by soaking the hair with oil  or  rancid
butter.  After the hair has continued to
grow thus tangled and noisome for a pe-
riod, which is in no case fixed, it  gradu-
ally becomes dry; healthy hairs begin to
grow  up under the plica, and,  at last,
" push it from its stool."   In the  process
of separation, however,  it unites itself
so readily with  die new hairs, that, if not
cut off at this stage,  it continues hanging
for years, an entirely foreign  appendage
to the head.   There are many instances
of Poles, who, suffering under poignant
ailments, which  were,  in reality, the
forerunners of an approaching Weichsel-
zopf, have in vain sought  aid in  other
countries, from foreign  physicians, and,
on their return, have found a  speedy,
though a very disagreeable cure, in the
breaking out of the plica.  But till the
plica has run through all its stages, and
has begun of itself to decay, any attempt
to cut  the hair is attended with the ut-
most danger to the life  of  the patient;
it not only affects the body  by bringing
on convulsions, cramps, distortion of the
limbs, and frequently death, but the im-
prudence has often had  madness for its
result;  and, in fact, during the whole
progress of  the disease,  the mind is, in
general, affected no less than  the  body.
Yet, for a  long time, to cut off the hair
was the first step taken on the approach
of the  disease.  People  were naturally
anxious to get rid of its  most  disgusting
symptom,  and they ascribed the melan-
choly effects that uniformly followed, not
to the removal of the hair, but merely to
the internal  malady, on which  this re-
moval had  no influence; and  medical
men had not yet  learned that this was
the natural outlet of the disease.  Even
towards the  end of the last century, some
medical writers of Germany still main-
tained that the hair should instantly  be
cut; but the examples in which blind-
ness,  distortion, death,  or insanity,  has
been the immediate consequence of the
operation, are much  too  numerous to al-
low their theoretical opinion any weight
The only known cure is to allow the hair
to  grow till it  begins to rise  pure and
healthy from the skin,  an appearance
which indicates that the  malady is over;
it is then  shaved  off,  and  the  cure is
generally  complete, although  there are
cases in which the disease  has  been
known to return.  The  length  of time
during which the head continues iu this
state of corruption, depends entirely  on
the degree  of malignity in the disease.
The  Weichselzopf, at once  a  painful, a
dangerous, and  a disgusting  disease, is
not confined to the human species;  it at-
tacks horses, particularly in  the  hairs of
the mane, dogs, oxen, and  even wolves
and foxes.   Although   more   common
among the poorer classes, it  is not pecu-
liar to them, for it spares neither rank, nor
age, nor sex.  Women, however, are said
to be less exposed to it than  men, and
fair hair less than brown or black  hair.
It is contagious, and, moreover, may be-
come  hereditary.   Among  professional
persons, great diversity of opinion pre-
vails  regarding its origin  and  nature.
According to some, it  is merely the re-
sult of filth  and bad diet; but, although
it certainly is more frequent among the
classes who are exposed to these  mise-
ries, particularly among the Jews, whose
beards  it  sometimes attacks as  well as 
186
PLICA POLONICA-PLINY.
their locks, it is by no  means confined to
them; the most wealthy and cleanly are
not exempt  from its influence.  Others
again, allowing that it is much aggravated
by uncleanliness  and  insalubrious food,
set it down as epidemic, and seek its ori-
gin in some particular qualities of the air
or water of the  country, just as  some
have sought  the  origin of goitres; but,
though more common in  Poland than
elsewhere, it is likewise at home in Livo-
nia and some other parts of Rus.-ia, and,
above all, in Tartary,  from whence, in
fact, it is supposed to have been first im-
ported during the  Tartar invasion, iu the
end of the thirteenth  century.  A tiiird
party has made it a modification of lepro-
sy.  The  more ignorant classes of the
people  believe that it  is a preservative
against all other diseases, and therefore
adorn themselves with  an  inoculated
Weichsdzopf.   (See Russell's  Tour in
Germany.)
  Plinth.  (See  Architecture,  vol. i, p.
338.)
  Pliny  (Caius Plinius Secundus), the
elder, a Roman knight, was born at Vero-
na, A. D. 23.   He was  one  of the great-
est scholars of Rome.   He devoted him-
self to jurisprudence,  but made  a cam-
paign into  Gennany,  and  afterwards
filled many public offices,  among them
the office of a procurator in Spain.  His
uncommon spirit of inquiry  was  aided
by an unwearied  industry.  Eveiy mo-
ment that was  not employed in the busi-
ness of his office, he appropriated to his
studies.   He was a very early riser, even
in winter; very often  did  not retire to
bed at all, and used to read while at meals,
and iu the bath, or had some one to read
to him.   He diligently noted down every
thing of importance; and ofteu said, that
no book was so bad, but that something
might be learned from it.  If he was not
able  to write  himself,  he  dictated.  In
this  way,  Pliny,  notwithstanding his
many public affairs, wrote many impor-
tant works, which give proof of his very
extensive learning.  He finally became a
victim to his curiosity.  Being one day
in the neighborhood of Vesuvius, a terri-
ble eruption of this volcano  (A. D. 79)
induced him to approach for the purpose
of viewing it closely, notwithstanding the
danger to which he was exposed.  The
hot ashes even fell upon his vessel; still
he continued to take note of every thing
he saw.   While'  the  earth around him
threatened, he passed  the night  quietly
with a friend not  far from the mountain,
and the next morning,  on the  sea-shore,
he perished by a suffocating vapor which
spread over  the  whole  country.   The
writings of this diligent and active  man
are principally lost;  among  them  the
work on the war in Germany,  and his
Universal  History.  The Historia Natu-
ralis,  or Historia Mundi, in 37 books, is
extant; it is a rich collection  of facts of
every kind, from  the whole circle of na-
ture and science, and also from the histo-
ry of art, which is the  more valuable, as
Pliny drew  from many lost books.   Of
the old critical editions, that of Hardouin
(Paris, 1723), is the best
  Pliny (Caius Plinius Cuecilius Secun-
dus), the  younger, a nephew of the for-
mer, was born A. D. 62, at Comum (Co-
mo).  Having been adopted by his uncle,
he  learned to make a wise use of time,
applied himself early, with the  greatest
assiduity, to  the study of eloquence and
philosophy, and, when  a boy of thirteen
years of age, made an attempt to write a
tragedy in the Greek language.   In Syria,
where he  was the  commander of a le-
gion, he enjoyed  the society of the phi-
losopher Euphrates, and afterwards made
his  appearance  in Rome  as an advocate
with success, filled several public offices,
and was consul in his  thirty-ninth year.
By  the favor of the emperor  Trajan, ho
was appointed  augur and  governor of
Pontus, in Bithynic, which office he ad-
ministered for two  years, to the general
satisfaction.   He was one of the most dis-
tinguished, and best, and we may also add,
one cf the most fortunate men of his age.
He  had most of the requisites for the en-
joyment of life—a cultivated mind, a gen-
erous heart,  friendship and  love.  As an
author he labored with ardor.  He  at-
tempted several departments of literature,
both in prose and poetry.  Of his writings,
only a collection of letters,  in ten books,
and a panegyric on Trajan, remain.   The
letters are addressed to different friends,
some  of t!nm to the emperor, und are on
various subjects.  Their elegance and in-
tellectual  tone   make  them  attractive
and very instructive.  In his Panegyric
on Trajan, he is, as  some think, extrava-
gant in his praise and in his rhetorical
ornaments.  It is not, indeed, to be rec-
ommended as a model, yet it is an  im-
portant work for the history of the noble
emperor and his time.  The Letters and
the Panegyric were edited together, with
notes, by Gesner (Leipsic, 1739); Ernes-
ti (Leipsic, 1770), and  others.   A later
critical edition of the Letters, with notes,
was edited by Gierig (Leipsic, 1800), and
the complete works of Pliny, by  the 
PLTNY-PLUM.                           189
some (Leipsic,  1806);  afterwards  by G.
H.  Schdf'er  (Leipsic,  1805);   and  by
Titze (at Prague,  in 1820).  The  Pane-
gyric was  edited by .Gierig, with notes
(Leipsic, 1796), who  also published a
work On the Life, Moral Character and
Literary Reputation   of  the  Younger
Pliny.  The Epistles of Pliny have been
translated  into English by lord Orrery
and Mr. Melmoth.
   PLOTiNus,tliemostdistinguished among
the New Platonists, was born at Lycopo-
lis, in Egypt, 205  B. C, is said to have
studied philosophy at Alexandria,  tinder
Aninionius, travelled, at the age of thirfy-
nine, into the East, to learn the doctrines
of the Magi, and in his fortieth year, be-
came a teacher of philosophy in Rome.
His writings and instructions excited  the
most enthusiastic admiration among his
disciples.   He  died B. C.  270, in  Cam-
pania,  his  death  having  been  hastened
by  his austerities.   His pupil Porphyry
wrote his Life, and arranged his writing's.
Marsilius  Ficinus  firet edited and trans-
lated them.  Crewzer  has jniblished his
Dissertation on Beauty (Heidelberg, 1814),
and Engelbardt has translated  his  En-
neades into German, with  a commentary
(Erlangen, 1820—1823.)   (See New Pla-
tonists.)
  Plough  Monday ;  the next Mondav
after Twelfth Day.  On Plough  Monday,
the  ploughmen in the northern part of
England  used to draw a plough from
door to door, and beg money for drink.
   Plover (charadrius);  a genus  of the
gralla,  or  waders, distinguished by  hav-
mg a  moderate sized  -compressed beak,
enlarged at the end, and the hinder toe ex-
ceedingly small, not touching the ground.
They inhabit all parts of the world, trav-
ersing temperate climates in the  spring
and autumn.  They are  gregarious, and
are  generally seen in  meadows,  or on
the  sea-shore, in  search  of food,  which
they procure by stirring the earth or mud
with their  feet, and thus  inviting worms
and aquatic insects to  the surface.   The
female  lays  about four eggs, in a rude
nest in the sand.  Their fiesh is excellent,
and hence they are much sought  for by
sportsmen.   There  are  many species
in the U.  States,  some  peculiar to  the
country, and others also found in Europe.
They are  thus enumerated by C. Bona-
parte : C. scmipalmatus (ring plover), pe-
culiar  to  America ;  C.  melodius (ring
plover), peculiar  to America; C.  Wilso-
nius (Wilson's plover), peculiar to Amer-
ica; C.  vociferus  (killdeer), peculiar to
America;  C. pluvialis{goldenplover), in-
habits throughout the world ; C. hdveti-
cus (black  bellied  plover), inhabits the
north of both  continents.  The  ruddy
plover belongs to the genus tringa, and is
also found in both continents.
  Plum (prunus); a genus of plants be-
longing to the rosacea, and now separated
from the cherry, chiefly  on account of
the large oval fruit  covered with  a fine
whitish dust, the oblong, conqa-essed and
acute stone, and the different manner in
which the young leaves are folded.  About
a dozen species are known, all inhabiting
the north temperate regions of she globe,
and two or three of them natives of the
U. States.  They are small trees or shrubs,
with alternate leaves, ond white flowers,
either solitary or disposed in fascicles  in
the axils of the ancient leaves.  The com-
mon garden plum (P. domesiica) does not
seem to be  a native of Europe, and prob-
ably was introduced from Syria.  It is
mentioned by Dfoscorides and Theopbras-
tus, and now is very generally cultivated
throughout  Europe, as  well as in -most
parts of the U. States.  It is-a robust tree,
of middling stature, seemingly adapted to
every kind of soil, though most 'flourishing
where it is  light and a little sandy.  The
varieties are very numerous, and differ in
color, taste, size and form ; some are riiot
larger than cherries, while others are near-
ly two  inches in diameter; some are ob-
long or ovoid, and others perfectly globu-
lar ; the color is either white, green, yel-
low, red,  purple, blue or  blackish; the
taste acid,  austere,  insipid, sweetish  or
aromatic;  the  consistence of  the flesh
coriaceous, hard, soft, melting, diy or wa-
tery ; all,  however, .have a smooth skki,
which is always more or less covered with
a fine whitish dust, easily removed  by
rubbing.   The most esteemed of all these
varieties is the green gage or nine Claude.
(See Green Gage.)    Our own  country,
however, produces a variety hardly, if  at
all, inferior, viz. the Washington  plum:
the form  of this last, and the  perfume
which it emits before being cut,  are simi-
lar to that of the green gage, but the skin
is dull yellow, assuming an orange cast on
the side exposed to the sun, and is more
or less mottled with  crimson dots; the
flesh is yellow, firm, very sweet  and lus-
cious, and separates freely from the stone.
The origin of the  Washington plum is
remarkable, and deserves a passing notice.
The parent tree was purchased  in the
New York market,  and remained  barren
for several years, when it was struck by
lightning, and destroyed.   The root after-
wards threw up a  number of vigorous 
100
PLUM—PLUNKETT.
shoots, which  were  suffered to remain,
and  in  due time produced  fruit.   The
foliage of this tree is also among plums
remarkable for its beauty.  Almost all the
varieties of plums may  be dried and con-
verted into prunes,  but those which are
most fleshy, and best retain their quality,
are preferred.   Prunes  now  form a con-
siderable article of commerce, and  are
imported chiefly from France, particular-
ly from  the port of Marseilles.  Plums
may also be preserved  iu  various man-
ners, in spirits of wine or sugar, or formed
into marmalade, jellies, &c.  The  wood
of the plum tree is  hard, compact, trav-
ersed with reddish veins, and susceptible
of a fine polish.  It is frequently employ-
ed by turners and cabinet makers, but re-
quires to be thoroughly dried.  The sloe (P.
spinosa) is a thorny shrub, growing wild in
most parts of Europe, and bearing a small,
round,and nearly black fruit,of an extreme-
ly austere taste.  The juice of  this plum
is frequently employed  to communicate a
red color and astringent flavor to wines.
  Plumbago, or Graphite.   This valu-
able mineral is sometimes  found in thin,
inegular, six-sided tables ;  but more gen-
erally in scales,  or compact  Lustre me-
tallic; color iron-black, or dark steel-gray;
streak black, shining; opaque.  It is duc-
tile and  flexible  in thin laminie ; hardness
between talc and gypsum ;  specific grav-
ity 2.  It conoists of carbon 96, and iron
4.  In a high degree of heat,  it is com-
bustible, and leaves a residue  of oxide of
iron.  It is infusible  alone, and with ad-
ditions.   It sometimes  occurs iu beds in
primitive rocks, particularly those of the
trappean variety.  When found in prim-
itive limestone, it is disseminated in scales,
after the manner of talc. It is also found
in the coal formation.  Its most remark-
able depository is at Borrowdale, in Cum-
berland, England, where it exists in a bed
of trap,  alternating  with clay slate.  It
occurs crystallized  in  the limestone of
Orange county,  New York,  and Sussex
county, New Jersey, and exists in large
fibrous masses near Rogers's rock on lake
George, New York;  but its only valuable
locality in the U. States is at Sturbridge,
in Worcester count}', Massachusetts,where
it forms  veins  in gneiss about a foot in
width.  It was wrought by  the French
about 100 years ago; since which time it
has  been neglected  until  within  a  few
years, but is now vigorously and success-
fully explored by an enterprising compa-
ny.  The chief employment of plumbago
is in manufacturing pencils and crucibles;
the  latter particularly for the mint.  It is
also used for giving a gloss  to iron  stoves
and railings, and for diminishing the fric-
tion of machinery.
  Plumber's Solder.  (See Bismuth, vol.
ii, p. 116.)
  Plum Island ;  a sandy beach and tract
of salt meadow, extending from Newbury-
port bar, at the mouth of Merrimack river,
to Ipswich bar,  at the mouth of Ipswich
river.  It is nine  miles long,  nearly  one
wide, and is covered on the side next the
sea with  sand, which  is blown up into
little hills and ridges.  These sandy ele-
vations are covered with bushes, bearing
the beach plum  in great perfection.  A
turnpike and bridge lead from  Newbury-
port to this island.  It is much resorted
to in September aud October, when  the
plums are ripe.
  Plunkett. WilliamConyngham Plun-
kett, lord Plunkett, the son  of a Presby-
terian clergyman in the north of Ireland,
was born in 1765, and educated at Trinity
college, Dublin, where, as  a  rewtird for
his ciassical merit, he obtained a  schol-
arship.  In 1787,  he took  the  degree of
bachelor of law, and he was  then  called
to the bar under the auspices of lord Yel-
verton.   His reputation in the  courts soon
became great, and his practice propor-
tionally extensive.  In 1797,  he held a
seat  in  the Irish  parliament,  and voted
against the union.  In 1S03, he was  ap-
pointed solicitor-general for Ireland, and
in 1805, attorney-general and privy coun-
sellor.  On the trial of Robert Emmet, he
was counsel for the prosecution, end was
accused of some  unfairness towards the
prisoner;  but from that charge he fully
vindicated himself.  3Ir. Plunkett'* prac-
tice,  however,  was chiefly in chancery,
and he is described as displaying,  in the
complicated questions of  that  court,  a
mind at once subtile and  comprehensive,
with grea power, acuteuess and clearness
of reasoning, conveyed in perspicuous,
copious,  yet condensed language,   liis
manner as a forensic speaker"was charac-
terized by great  simplicity and earnest-
ness ; he was not so eminent  as  some of
his brethren for mere law learning.  Dur-
ing the short administration of the  whigs
in 1806, he continued to fill the office  of
attorney-general in Ireland, but  retired
when his friends were displaced.  In Jan-
uary, 1807, he first procured a seat in the
imperial parliament, as one of the  mem-
bers for  Midhurst; and in 1812, he was
returned for the university of Dublin.  In
the house of commons Mr. Plunkett dis-
tinguished himself as an  eloquent  and
argumentative  speaker,  particularly  on 
PLUNKETT—PLUTO.
191
the Catholic question. During the admin-
istration  of lord Liverpool, he was again
appointed  attorney-general  for  Ireland,
and in 1827  was  raised to the peerage,
under the title of baron  Plunkett.  Lord
Plunkett was a  constant and able advo-
cate of the Catholic relief bill.  Iu De-
cember,  1630,  on  the  formation  of the
whig ministry,  he  was made lord high
chancellor of Ireland.
   Plurality is used in  contradistinction
to majority, in reference to votes given in
at elections.  Majority  signifies at least
one more than half of all the  votes given
in, whilst plurality means only the great-
est number of votes, so that if there  are
three or  more candidates  for nn office,
one of them may have a  plurality without
a  majority, which latter is  required  in
many cases by law.  If none of the can-
didates for the presidency of the U. States
has  a majority, the election of die presi-
dent devolves upon  the  house cf repre-
sentatives of the U. States, who are bound
to elect one of the three candidates who
had die most votes—a case which occur-
red when Mr. John Q. Adams was chosen.
In France, majority, in this sense, is called
tnajorite   absolue.—Plurality of  benefices
signifies the holding of more  benefices
than one by the same clergyman (pluralist)
at the same lime.
   Plus,  more, in mathematics, signifies
 addition ;  the sign by which it is indicated
 is -f-; thus, A-j-B, which is read, A  plus
 B, denotes that the quantity A is to be
 added to the quantity B.  Plus, or its sign,
 -4-, is also  used  to indicate a positive
 magnitude or relation,  in opposition to
 minus (—), which indicates a  negative.
   Plutarch ; a learned and prolific Greek
 writer, born at Cheronsea, in Breotia, A.
 D. 50.  According to some, Trajan  was
 his pupil.  In the  reign of that emperor,
 he was invested with some civil offices in
 Rome, where he taught philosophy ;  and,
 having  returned to his  own  country, he
 died there iu 120  or 130.   He is said to
 have written  about  300 philosophical
 and historical works, of  which  125 are
 extant,  but some  of  these  are falsely
 ascribed to him. The philosophical works,
 which commonly go under the  name of
 Ethica  or Moralia, explain the Platonic
 doctrines, combat  the Stoic  and Epicu-
 rean, and treat of various practical subjects
 in a popular way; they show him to  have
 been of an active turn of mind, and  con-
 tain happy applications of extensive learn-
 ing.  His historical writings are yet more
 distinguished, and are valuable as throw-
 ing much light on ancient history, partic-
ularly his Lives (44) and Parallels of illus-
trious Greeks and  Romans  (edited  by
Bryan, London,  1729, 5 vols., 4to.; Leip-
sic, 1812—14, 9 vols., 12mo.;  by Coray,
Paris, 18G9—17, 6 vols.;  translated into
English by the Langbornes);  his Greek
and  Roman  Researches, Iris ar.d Osiris,
or of  Egyptian  Antiquities,  and Apo-
thegms.  The treatise  On the Doctrines
of Philosophers (edited by Cassini, 1751,
and by Beck, 1786), which contains valu-
able materials for the history of philoso-
phy, is probably not by him.  His manner
of treating his subject is easy, often super-
ficial, and this is also the character of  his
style, which is censured as being  too
much  ornamented  by  quotations  from
poets and philosophers.   Among the edi-
tions of his complete works, those of I!.
Stephens (Paris, 1572, 13 vols.); of Ruol-
dus (Paris, 1624, 2 vols., folio);  of Frank-
fort  (1599  and  1620,  2 vols.,  folio); of
Reiske, (Leipsic, 1774—fc>2, 12 vols.), and
of  Hutten  (Tubingen,  1791—18C5,  14
vols.), are the best Amyot's French trans-
lation of the Lives (Les Vies des Hommes
Illustres) was republished at Paris in 1825
(10 vols.), with a Notice sur Plvtarque by
Coray.   The  name  Plutarch  is  often
given to a  collection  of lives of distin-
guished men.  Such collections exist  not
merely in  English,  but also in French,
 Italian, Russian, German and Swedish.
   Pluto (among the Greeks, Ais, Aides,
 Hades, the Invisible), third son of Saturn
 and Rhea, a brother of Jupiter and Nep-
 tune, to  whom, on  the partition  of the
 world,  fell  the  kingdom of the shades.
 There, under the surface of the earth, he
 is enthroned as the ruler of the dead.  As
 far beneath his habitation as the heaven
 is above the earth, lies Tartarus, the  ac-
 cess to which  is by a gate guarded by
 himself;  thither,  after  death,  must all
 men descend.   Powerful, terrible, inflexi-
 ble  to prayers or flattery, is the dark-haired
 god.  Hercules, however, carried off his
 dog, the fearful Cerberus, who lies before
 Pluto's  dreadful abode. He rides on  a
 chariot drawn by four black horses, which
 be guides with reins of gold.  His helmet
 makes the  wearer invisible.   So says the
 Iliad.  The  Odyssey  gives a somewhat
 different account  It does not  explicitly
 place his habitation beneath  the  earth.
 Ulysses sailed  from iEsea  with a north
 wind, passed over the  ocean, and landed
 near  the  lofty rocks and the  grove of
 Proserpine (q. v.),  where the Cimmerians
 dwell  in  everlasting  darkness.  Having
 arrived there,  he proceeded  along the
 ocean  until  he reached the  nocturnal 
199
PLBTO—PLYMOUTH.
 darkness, the abode of Ais, where dwell
 the  dead.  But according to Hesiod, on
 the western margin of the northern hemi-
 sphere, wrapt  in  eternal darkness,  one
 cleft, in a  cavity under the surface of the
 earth, leads down to the  dead, another to
 Tartarus.  Yet belli of these subterranean
 abysses are mentioned by him under the
 latter name.  Homer, and those poets- who
 followed  next  after him,  described the
 realms of Hades as being under the  sur-
 face of the earth, where the dead, like the
 living on earth,  good and bad, dwell to-
 gether, and a  lew enemies of the gods
 alone suffer torments; Tartarus was a dis-
 tinct region.  But as philosophy, by bolder
 conjectures concerning the surface  of the
 earth, arid, finally, by  the doctrine  of a
 floating sphere,  did away  the  old notions
 of Tartarus, and the belief of a future ret-
 ribution gained  ground ; the realms of.the
 dead, placed  at first under  the surface
 of the earth, and then  by some in the
 centre, were separated  into Elysium  and
 Tartarus.   These changes had also an in-
 fluence on the notions entertained respect-
 ing the sovereign of the lower world.  He
 not  only gained in outward  power  and
 supremacy, but the conceptions  of his
 character were changed ;  he became a be-
 nevolent being,  who held  in his hand the
 keys  of the earth,  and blessed the year
 with fruits; for  from the abyss of night
 come all riches  and plenty.  It is  there-
 fore not strange, that the  later ages, con-
 founding Hades with Plutus (q. v.),  called
 him  Pluto, and attributed to him dominion
 over the treasures concealed in the bowels
 of the earth.  He fought with his brothers
against the Titans, and  received from the
 Cyclops, whom  he had released, the hel-
 met that makes  its wearer  invisible, which
he lent to Mercury  in the war  of the
 giants, and to Perseus  in his expedition
against the Gorgons,  and which  after-
wards came into the possession of Meri-
ones. The Furies and Charon  are  his
 ministers.   He  judges every open and
secret deed, and  to him are subordinate the
three judges ^Eacus, Minos and Rhada-
 manthus. Bacchus, Hercules, Orpheus and
Ulysses entered  his realms alive, and  left
them uninjured ;butTheseus and Pirithous,
whose object  is  said to have been the ab-
duction of his wife, he caused to be chain-
 ed, though the former is said to have been
 subsequently  released by  Hercules.  The
worship of Pluto was extensively spread
 among die Greeks and  Romans.  The
 cypress, the box, the narcissus, and  the
 plant adiantum (maiden-hair), were sacred
 to him: oxen and goats were sacrificed to
 him in the shades of nFght, and his priesfa
 were crowned with cypress.  He is repre-
 sented  in  gloomy majesty, lus forehead
 shaded by his hair, and with a thick beard.
 His head  is sometimes covered with  a
 veil.  He frequently also wears his helmet,
 or a crown of ebony, or a  wreath of adi-
 antum  or narcissus.   In his hand he
 holds  a two-forked sceptre,  a staff or  a
 key; by his side is Cerberus.   He is
 either seated on a throne of ebony or in  a
 chariot.  His epithets are  "the subterra-
 nean Jupiter," "the Stygian," &c.
   Plutus, son of lasion and  Ceres, was
 the god of riches.   His genealogy  shows
 the  meaning of the allegory, which is
 merely this,  that '* Agriculture produces
 wealth."  At first Plutus had the use of
 his eyes, but Jupiter struck him blind, be-
 cause he confined his gifts to the good ;
 and he thenceforth conferred them equally
 on the good and the bad.  His residence
 was under the earth.  He is weak, and
 limps when he comes to mortals, but swift-
 footed or winged when he leaves them..
 Fortune carries him  in  her arms, and he
 also forms one of Minerva's retinue.   He
 is sometimes confounded with Pluto, (q. v.)
  Pluviose.   (See  Calendar,  vol.  ii, p.
 403.)
  Plymouth ; a borough town of  Eng-
 land, in Devonshire, and, on account of its
 harbors and  the  docks  in its neighbor-
 hood, one of the most important maritime
 places in the kingdom.  It is- situated at
 the head of the capacious haven of Plym-
 outh sound, on the eastern side ofa tongue
 of land formed  by  the  estuaries of the
 rivers Plym and Tamar, which here emp-
 ty themselves into  the sea.   Plymouth
 stands at the mouth of the  Plym, within
 about a mile and  a  half of the town  of
 Devonport,  formerly  called   Plymouth
 Dock, to which it is united  by the inter-
 vening  town of East Stonehouse.  The
 town having gradually risen from die con-
 dition of a small fishing town to its pres-
 ent size, most of the streets are irregular,
and by no means elegant or commodious;
 but the new parts of the town are hand-
some, and are  spreading rapidly.  The
public  buildings are, the custom-house,
 the exchange, the  Athenaeum,  the public
 library, the theatre, the royal hotel, place*
of worship, the classical and mathematics
school,  the  mechanics'  institute,  &c.
Plymouth is divided  into two parishes.
Of the two parish churcrres, the most an-
cient is that of St. Andrew, built previous
ly to 1291, a  handsome  building of tht
Gothic order; Charles's  church is also i
Gothic structure.  Among the charitabl* 
PLYMOUTH—PNEUMONY.
193
 institutions, which are  about thirty, are a
 work-house,  a  public dispensary, an eye
 infirmary, a lying-in charity, a public sub-
 scription school, alms-houses, Bible socie-
 ties,  &c. &c.   Government has several
 military and naval establishments at this
 port.  Of the  fortifications, the  most re-
 markable is the citadel, which was erected
 in the reign of Charles II.  It is  placed in
 a most commanding situation on the east-
 ern  end of  the height called  the Hoe
 (which shelters the town  from  the sea).
 It is exceedingly well fortified, and is con-
 stantly garrisoned.   It contains  the resi-
 dence of the governor of Plymouth, and
 barracks for  five or six hundred troops.
 Under the eastern walls of the  citadel is
 the victualling office, an  extensive range
 of buildings,  containing the granaries and
 ovens for  supplying the bread, as also the
 cellars and store-houses for wine, spirits,
 meat, &c. for the use of the king's vessels
 in harbor.  The port of Plymouth is dis-
 tinguished for its capacity, and the securi-
 ty which it affords in its several parts.  It
 is capable of containing 2000 sail, and is
 one  of the finest  harbors in the world.
 It consists of three divisions or harbors,—
 Sutton  pool, immediately adjoining the
 town ; Catwater, an extensive sheet, form-
 ed by the estuary of the  Plym ; and the
 harbor or bay of Hamoaze.  At the mouth
 of these harbors the great bay of Plymouth
 sound forms an excellent roadstead, which
 is now. completely secure by the erection
 of  the breakwater across its  entrance.
 This work  is an insulated mole, or vast
 heap of stones, stretching across the en-
 trance  of the sound, so far as to leave a
 passage for vessels at either  end, and op-
 posing a barrier to  the heavy swell rolling
 in from the  Atlantic.  Its length is 1700
 yards, the  eastern  extremity being about
 60 fathoms to the eastward of St. Carlos's
 rocks; and the western, 300 west of the
 Shovel rock.   The middle part is contin-
 ued in a straight line 1000 yards, and the
 two extremities incline towards the north-
 em side of the straight part in an angle of
 about 120 degrees.   This great work was
 begun Aug. 12,1812. During its progress,
 convincing proofs of its efficacy and utility
 were afforded.   The expense of erecting
 the breakwater is estimated at £1,171,100.
 The Eddystone light-house is an important
 appendage to the harbor; the entrance of
 which would, without this beacon, be ex-
 tremely dangerous. (See Eddystone.)  Be-
sides the importation of coals, culm, corn,
 wine, timber, and articles for home con-
sumption, Plymouth carries on a consid-
erable trade much promoted by the estab-
  vol. x.         17
 lishment of a chamber of commerce, in
 the year 1813.  In the 18th year of Henry
 VI, Plymouth was incorporated as a bor-
 ough, and  it sends two members to par-
 liament. It is governed by a mayor,  re-
 corder,  and twelve aldermen, under whose
 care an active police is established.  The
 garrison at this port is  under the  com-
 mand of a  military officer styled the gov-
 ernor, who  is also  generally  commander-
 in-chief of the western district. The na-
 val affaire are under  the  direction of the
 port-admiral, whose residence is at Devon-
 port  The population of Plymouth, with
 Devon,  is  01,212.  It  is 218 miles from
 London, and 44 from Exeter ; lon.  4° 7'
 W.; lat.50°23'N.
   Plymouth ; a post-town, port of entry,
 and shire town of Plymouth county, Mas-
 sachusetts,  formerly the capital of the
 Plymouth  colony,  and  the oldest town in
 New England.  It was settled by the Pil-
 grims, who arrived in  the May Flower,
 Dec. 22, 1620.  It  stands on a fine harbor
 of the same name,  36 miles south-east  of
 Boston.  The court-house  is  in lat. 41°
 57' N.;  lon. 70° 42' 30" W.   The town-
 ship, though often  divided, is still sixteen
 miles long, and five  broad.  The harbor
 is spacious, but  shallow.   The town has
 considerable commerce,and valuable man-
 ufactures of iron.   An elegant hall has
 been  erected for the use of  the pilgrim
 society.   Population, in  1820, 4348;  in
 1830,4751.   The Indians called this  town
 Accomack-  A part of the rock on which
 the pilgrims  Jandect has  been conveyed
 to the centre of the town.
   Plymouth,  Colony of.   (See  JVet*
 England.)
   Pneumatics (from the Greek nvn/ta,
air) is that  branch  of natural philosophy
 which treats of the mechanical properties
of elastic fluids (see Elasticity), the inelas-
tic fluids belonging to the province of hy-
draulics and  hydronamics  (see the  arti-
cles).  The elastic fluid  with which we
are most familiar is atmospheric air; and
it possesses all the  mechanical properties,
which it is necesary to notice in any elastic
fluid.  (The laws of pneumatics will  be
found treated of under the heads  of Air,
Air-pump, Baromder, Pump, Acoustics.)
  Pneumony; inflammation of the lungs.
The species, according to Cullen,are perip-
neumony and pleurisy.   (See Pleurisy.)
The most general cause of this inflamma-
tion is the application of cold to the body,
which gives a check to the perspiration,
and determines  a  great flow  of blood to
the lungs.   It attacks principally those of
a robust constitution  and  plethoric habit, 
194
PNEUMONY—POCAHONTAS.
and occurs  most frequently in the winter
and spring.  Other causes are violent ex-
ertions in singing, speaking, or playing on
wind instruments.  The true peripneumo-
ny comes on with  an  obtuse pain in the
chest or side, great difficulty of breathing
(particularly in  a recumbent position, or
when lying on the side affected), together
with a cough, dryness  of the skin,  heat,
anxiety and thirst.  If relief is not afford-
ed in time, and the inflammation proceeds
with violence, the face  will alter to a  pur-
ple color; an effusion of blood will  take
 filace into the  cellular substance of the
 ungs,  so as  to  impede  the circulation
through that organ, and  the  patient will
soon be deprived of life.  When it  goes
off by resolution, some very evident evac-
uation  attends it; the evacuation which
most frequently  terminates the complaint,
and which does it with the greatest effect,
is a  free and copious expectoration of
thick white or  yellow  matter, slightly
streaked with blood ; and  by this the dis-
ease is carried off generally in the course
of ten or twelve days.
  Po (Padus, Eridanus), the largest river
of Italy, rises in mount Viso, in the  Cot-
dan Alps,Piedmont, at an elevation of 6000
feet above the sea.  It flows from west to
east  through Piedmont, and  from Pavia
forms the southern boundary of the Lom-
bardo-Venetian  kingdom, v^liich it sepa-
rates from the Sardinian territories, from
Parma, Modena, and  the States of the
Church.  It receives, during a course of
320 miles, the Doria, Sesia, Tessino, Adda,
Oglio  and  Mincio from the left, the
Tanaro with the Stura, the  Scrivia, Tre-
bia, Taro, Lenza, Crostolo, Sechia, Panaro
and  Reno from the  right,  and empties
itself by four mouths into the gulf of Ven-
ice.  It is the main channel  of commer-
cial communication in  Upper Italy, but it
often does  great mischief by its inunda-
tions, and it occasionally changes its bed;
the swamps which  it leaves are used for
the cultivation of rice.   In many parts of
its course  it  is  confined  by dikes.   The
canal Gran Naviglio connects the Tessino
with the Po, in a straight line.
  Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan,
a celebrated Indian warrior in Virginia,
was born about the year 1595.  She dis-
covered the warmest  friendship for the
English, who colonized  Virginia when
she was about twelve  years old, and was
eminently useful to the infant settlement
The first remarkable evidence of this at-
tachment was displayed  in  1607, when
captain John Smith was taken prisoner
by her countrymen, and  brought before
Powhatan, that he  might  put him  to
death.   As the savage lifted his club to
dash out the brains of the prisoner, whose
head was laid on a stone at his feet, Poc-
ahontas threw herself on  Smith's body,
and prevailed on her father to  spare his
life.   Captain  Smith was  suffered  to
return  to Jamestown, whence  he sent
presents  to Powhatan and his benefac-
tress.   From  this  time,  Pocahontas fre-
quently visited  the  settlements of  the
whites, to whom she  furnished provisions
at times  when  they were  particularly
needed.   In   1609,  Powhatan   invited
Smith to pay  him a visit, promising him
a supply of provisions, but designing to
entrap  and destroy  him and  his  party.
Pocahontas, becoming informed of this
plot, ventured through the forest at mid-
night, to disclose it to Smith.  For three
or four years  she continued  to assist the
settlers in their  distresses, and  to save
them from the effects of her father's ani-
mosity.   During this period, the  infant
colony  had experienced  numerous vicis-
situdes of good and bad  fortune.  Smith
had been  driven by faction to England,
and the rapacity of his successors plunged
the settlement into an Indian war.  An
attack was made on one of the forts by
the Indians under Powhatan, when  the
commander and thirty men were slaugh-
tered, only one person, a boy, surviving,
who was saved  by Pocahontas.  About
the year 1612,  Pocahontas,—from what
cause is not ascertained, but most prob-
ably on  account  of her extraordinary
attachment  to  the   whites,—incurring
her father's resentment, left her home,
and visited the territory  of Japazaws,
chief  of  Potowmac.   Captain Argall,
coming up the river on a trading expe-
dition,  and conceiving that Pocahontas
would  be a valuable hostage, prevailed
on Japazaws, by the  tempting offer of a
copper kettle, to surrender  her to him.
Powhatan refused  to ransom her on the
terms proposed.  During her detention,
Mr. Thomas Rolfe, an Englishman of re-
spectable character, became attached  to
her, and offered her his hand.  It was
accepted,  and, the  consent of Powhatan
being obtained, the marriage was solem-
nized in presence of the uncle of Poca-
hontas  and her two brothers.  This event
relieved the  colony from the enmity of
Powhatan, and preserved peace between
them for many years. In the year 1616,
Pocahontas embarked with her husband,
and several  Indians, of both  sexes,  for
England,  where she was baptized, ex-
changing  her  Indian name  for  that  of 
POCAHONTAS—PODAGRA.
193
Rebecca.  She became a subject of cu-
riosity to all  classes of people.  She re-
ceived, in London, a visit from her for-
mer  friend,  captain   Smith, whom, for
some  unknown purpose, she  had been
taught to believe was dead.  When  she
first beheld him, she was overcome with
emotion, and, turning from him, hid her
face in her hands.  During her stay  in
England, she advanced greatly  in  the
knowledge of the English language, and
her conversation was much sought after
at court.  Her residence among civilized
men, however, was destined to be short.
While about  to embark from Gravesend,
in company  with her husband and an
infant son, to revisit her native land,  she
died, at  the  age  of twenty-two years,
leaving one  son, who was educated by
his uncle, in London, and afterwards be-
came a wealthy and distinguished char-
acter in Virginia.  His descendants still
exist in that commonwealth.
  Pocock, Edward, an Oriental critic, a
native of Oxford, was born November 8,
1604, and educated  at Oxford.  He pre-
pared for the press such parts as had not
been  edited of the Syriac New  Testa-
ment, from a manuscript in the Bodleian
library (Leyden, 1630,4to.). In 1629, Po-
cock was appointed chaplain to the Eng-
lish factory at Aleppo,  and applied him-
self there to  the cultivation of Oriental
literature.  He  was employed by Laud
to collect manuscripts and  coins for the
university of Oxford; and, in 1636, was
invited to fill the newly founded Arabic
professorship at Oxford.  He subsequent-
ly undertook  a second voyage to the East,
and remained some time at Constantinople
collecting ancient  manuscripts.  He re-
turned in 1640, and assisted Selden in the
publication of part of the annals of Eu-
tychius, under the title  of Origines Alex-
andrine (1641.)   In 1648, he -was appoint-
ed Hebrew professor at Oxford, to which
the king, then a prisoner in die Isle of
Wight, added the rich canonry of Christ-
church ; and  the grant was confirmed by
the parliament  In 1649, he  published
Specimen Historic Arabum (4to., reprinted
at Oxford, in  1805).  In 1650, lie was de-
prived of his canonry,  for refusing  to
subscribe  the engagement required by
the parliament.  In 1655, he  published
some of the writings of Maimonides, un-
der the title of Porta Mosis, and assisted
in Walton's Polyglot Bible.  In 1658 ap-
peared his edition of the Annals of Eu-
tycbius, in Arabic, with a Latin version
(2 vols., 4to.). The restoration, in 1660,
enabled him  to recover his church pre-
ferment ; and the same year, he printed
an Arabic  translation of Grotius's work
on the Truth  of Christianity.   In 1663,
he produced an Arabic and Latin edition
of the Historia Dynastiarum of Abulfara-
gius (2 vols., 4to.).  He  died at Oxford,
in 1691, leaving Commentaries on the
Minor Prophets, and some other works.
  Pococke, Richard, a  divine and Ori-
ental traveller, was born in 1704, at Soudi-
ampton, and received his  education at
Oxford.  He engaged in a voyage to the
Levant, in 1737, and, after visiting Egypt,
Arabia,  Palestine,  and  other countries,
returned home, through  Italy and Ger-
many, in 1742.   He published, in 1743—
1745, A Description of die East (2 vols.,
folio), comprising  an account  of those
parts of the world in which he had trav-
elled, and  containing much curious in-
formation.  He was  promoted to the see
of Ossory, in 1756; whence, in  1765, he
was translated to Elphin  and Meath.  He
died of apoplexy the same year.
  Podagra (from m>us, foot,and«ypa, pain);
that species of gout which irecure at regu-
lar intervals, attacking the joints of the
foot, particularly of the great toe, and at-
tended with sharp pain.  The pain is de-
scribed  as  resembling that produced  by
laying a burning coal upon the toe, or by
forcing asunder the joint with a red lies
iron.  When the disease is violent, the
whole foot  is so sensitive, that the slight-
est pressure,  the lightest touch, or even
the  agitation  occasioned by a strong
draught of air, causes the most exem-
ciating pain.  The first stage of the dis-
ease is peculiarly painful, on account of
the  inflammation of the  surfaces of the
joints, by  which  the nerves are affect-
ed.   In a  week,  or sometimes a fort-
night,  the  inflammation  subsides,  the
pain ceases, and the part becomes swol-
len.   The  swelling  contains the prod-
uct  of  the gouty  inflammation, lym-
 fhatic  mixed   with  earthy  substance.
 t gradually subsides, leaving here and
there swellings on the foot.   The attacks
usually  recur once a year, in spring or
autumn,  sometimes  twice,  and even
oftener.  As long as they are regular,
they are not dangerous, as nature has the
power of throwing off the disease in the
extremities.  The notion that there is no
remedy against the podagra,  and that a
person who has been once  attacked can
never be cured, is erroneous.  By short-
ening the  period  of inflammation,  the
secretion of the gouty  matter  may  be
promoted, and  the  pain  more  speedily
assuaged.   In  the interval of the attacks, 
196
PODAGRA—POETRY.
if attention is paid to the diet and manner
of living, if the patient confines himself
to simple food, and avoids the exciting
causes of the disease, its violence may be
gradually diminished,  and the disease
itself may  be eradicated; while, by die
neglect of these precautions, it continu-
ally becomes aggravated, and, as the sys-
tem  grows  weaker, irregular and retro-
cedent, in which stage it  is often  fatal.
(See Gout.)
  Podalirius.   (See JEscidapius.)
  Podolia ;  a government of Russia,
bounded  north by Volhynia and Grodno,
east by Ekaterinoslav and Chereon, south
by Moldavia and the Dniester, and west by
Bukowine ; population, 1,462,000; square
miles, 20,350.  It is divided into 12 cir-
cles.  The inhabitants are mostly Poles,
but Russians and Jews are numerous.
  Piecile (itokciX^); a  portico in Athens,
containing a picture gallery.  (See Polyg-
notus.)  Zeno taught his doctrines  here,
whence he was called  the stoic (from aroa,
a  portico),  and  his  school,  the  stoic
school.  (See Zeno, and Stoics.)
  Poelenburg,  Cornelius, a painter,
born at Utrecht, in 1586, became a pupil
of Bloemaert, and afterwards went  to
Rome. Here he studied Raphael's works;
but he was deficient in design, and there-
fore confined himself principally to natu-
ral scenes on a small  scale, in which  he
excelled.   Rubens adorned  his  own
cabinet with Poelenburg's productions.
Charles I invited him  to England, where
he painted a portrait of the king and other
works, but soon returned home, and died
at Utrecht, in 1660. His vvorks are rare,
and  esteemed for delicacy of  touch and
sweetness of coloring.
   Poetic3.   (See Poetry.)
   Poet  Laureate.  Among the Greeks,
from whom the custom was also adopted by
the Romans, it was the practice to crown
the successful poets iu the musical contests
(see Music) with a wreath of laurel.  The
emperor Domitiau crowned with his own
hand poets and orators, at the  Capitoline
games, which had been instituted by him.
In the thirteenth century, the custom was
renewed by the Italians, and  the crown-
ing of Petrarca (q. v.) in  the capitol was
solemnized with great pomp.   Every one
must recollect the description of the coro-
nation of Coriiine. The German empe-
rors conferred the title of poet laureate
(gekrontc didder, or, as he is called by the
Italians,  poeta cesareo) on their  court poet.
Conrad Celtes (q. v.) was the firet who re-
ceived that  honor.  The  emperore also
granted  to the counts palatine the right of
conferring that title.   In England, the first
mention of a king's  poet, under the title
of poet laureate, occurs,  according  to
Warton, in the reign of Edward IV, from
whom John Kay received it.  Poeta lau-
reatus was, however, also an  academical
title in England, conferred by  the univer-
sities  when die  candidate  received  tho
degrees in grammar (which included rhet-
oric and versification).  The last instance
of a laureated degree at Oxford occurs in
1512.   Skelton was laureated at both uni-
versities (in 1489 and 1493),  and seems
also to have been  court laureate to Henry
VIII.   Ben Jonson  was  court  poet to
James I, and received a pension, but does
not appear to have had the title of laureate
formally granted  him.  Dryden was  ap-
pointed laureate to Charles  II, and after-
wards to James II, by regular patent un-
der privy seal.  (See his prose works  by
Malone.)  The  firet patent of this kind,
issued in  the reign of Charles I (1630),
assigns as  the yearly gratuity  to the lau-
reate £100, and a tierce of Canary wine
out of the royal  cellars.  Nahum Tate,
Rowe, Eusden, Cibber, Whitehead,  T.
Warton, Pye (who  consented to  a com-
mutation of his wine for £27), and South-
ey (1813),  have  been the  successors of
Dryden.
   Poetry, Poesy (from the Greek toiVt,
from nuicu., I create, or produce, with refe-
rence  probably  to  the creative power
essential to a poet).   The numberless un-
successful attempts  to define  poetry warn
us against circumscribing within the com-
pass of a few words, a subject so vast, so
variegated, and so interwoven with all the
activities of the human spirit The defi-
nitions usually given, even  if true, amount
only to illustrations  or explanations.   To
make a full exposition  of our views on
this subject would far exceed our limits.
Oue of the chief traits of  the poetical is,
that it peculiarly  affects the  imagination
and the feelings.  When  we speak of
actions or the creations of genius  as poet-
ical, thetenn implies further that they had
their  origin in  conceptions in which the
imagination and  the  feelings were chief
agents. Hence the  universality of poetry ;
hence the preponderance of  the  poetical
in the language and conceptions of early
nations.  A common idea, the  result of
experience, or simple reasoning may lie
conceived (and accordingly expressed) by
the poet  in such a way as to strike  our
feelings  with  peculiar force, or  ideas
which, though elevated in themselves, are
familiar to all, may receive new impres-
siveness from a new and striking way of 
POETRY.                              197
expressing them. For instance, the pre-
cept to love  our enemies; who does not
feel that this elevated sentiment is render-
ed still more striking by the illustration of
Menou, who  adds to the precept,  " like
the sandal tree,  which sheds perfume on
the axe that fells  it ?"  A great  part of
poetry, in fact, consists  in a  striking ex-
pression of common ideas, because it is
impossible that a poet should always have
new ideas.  It is gratifying to find a new
conception of a familiar idea presenting
the subject in  a light in which we had
never viewed it.  But if the language ad-
dressed to feeling and imagination chiefly,
is often used to convey a plain idea  poet-
ically, or  to give a familiar  one a new
charm, this language, on the other hand, is
often the natural expression of an elevated
imagination, which soars through regions
to which our  wishes,  hopes  and  faith
aspire, and speaks in metaphors because
common  language is inadequate to ex-
press its  conceptions.   Poetry has been
divided into natural  and artificial; the
former signifying that poetry  which con-
sists in conceptions only, and not in the
expression and arrangement  of them by
the rules  of art.  According  to  its sub-
 jects,  and  the relation which the poet
 holds'to his productions, it is  divided into
 the  poetry of subjective (q. v.) feeling,  or
 lyrical poetry (6ee Lyrics); narrative poe-
 try  (see Epic),  and  that which  presents
 actions as happening, while the poet him-
 self is kept entirely out of view; dramatic
 poetry (see Drama).  The name machine-
 ry is given in  epic and dramatic poetry
 to superhuman beings  introduced by the
 poet to solve  difficulties or  perform  ex-
 ploits which  surpass  human  power.—
 Poetics  is  the theory  of poetry, and is
 partly a branch of practical  aasthetics
 (q. v.), partly a branch  of philology;  the
 former, as far as the principles of the beau-
 tiful and of the fine arts are applied to
 poetry ; the latter, as  far as it is the  theory
 of  poetic style, or the technical part of
 poetry.   It is  one of the theories earliest
 developed,—nay, aesthetics grew out of it
 Among  the  Greeks, Aristotle treated  it
 in his ittpj nonjn/tijj, of which  we only pos-
 sess a fragment (best edition by Gottfr.
 Hermann).  Horace, in his Ars Podica,
 or letter  to the Pisos,  shows himself  his
 pupil.    In modern  times,   it has  been
 treated   by Marc. Hier. Vida, Torquato
 Tasso and  many  other Italians, Nic.
 Boileau, Jul. Cses. Scaliger, Ger. Voss,
 L. Racine, D'Alembert, Marmontel,  Baum-
   farten (q.  vA the founder  of aesthetics,
   oh. Ad. Schlegel, Salzer,  Engel, Jean
Paul  Fr.  Richter  (in his Vorschule der
JEslhctik) and Clodius.  Besides these, the
theory of poetry in general  has  been
treated by Lessing, Klopstock, W. von
Humboldt, Herder, Schiller,  Gotlie, the
Schlegels, Midler and others; in English,
by Blair,  Wordsworth,  Campbell.   We
may divide the history of poetry into two
periods; the one before the birth of Christ,
the other  since.  The  Hebrews are the
first people from whom poetical produc-
tions have descended to our times.  Only
obscure traces remain of any earlier poe-
try of the Indians, Persians,  Syrians and
Arabians.   The religious poetry  of the
Hebrews  is of  very ancient date, and
possesses a solemn character, distinct from
that of the other nations of antiquity.  It
begins with  cosmogony, becomes at  a
later period of  a warlike character, then
assumes the form of sacred songs  in the
time of David, and attains under Solomon
(from 1044 to 975)  its greatest elevation,
after which it assumes a prophetical char-
acter.  (See Hebrews.)  We next come to
classic antiquity, and become acquainted
with poetry in the plastic character, which
it assumed  in  Asia Minor  and Greece,
under the influence of  the prevailing pa-
ganism, which  received such rich and
various hues  from the glowing  ima-
gination  of the people.   Greek   poetry
may again be divided into three periods:
the firet of these extends from the earliest
times of Greece to the Persian war.   Greek
poetry begins in Thrace  and Asia Minor,
and die great national epic of Homer, or
the Homerides, the rhapsodists, the cyclic
and gnomic poets, indicate a wide diffu-
sion of poetry at that time.  Lyric poetry
soon attained a peculiar  eminence.  The
secoud period  extends  from the Per-
sian  war  to the  time  of Alexander the
Great.  It is the flourishing period of the
dramatic  art,  and  of  cultivated  Greek
poetry in general.  The third period shows
the decline of  Greek  poetry under the
successors of Alexander, and the revival
of the same in Alexandria.  (See Greek
 Literature.)  From the Greeks we turn to
their imitators, the  Romans,  whose lan-
 guage was not  employed in  poetry till  a
 late  period, and  who,  until  the  second
 Punic war, or until the time in which
 they became closely connected with  the
 Greeks, made only rude essays in poetry-
 The era  of Augustus  and Tiberius was
 the golden age of their poetry, and  it
 thence declined continually, until the in-
 troduction of  the Christian  religion and
 the irruption of the barbarians.  The frag-
 ments which have come down to us from. 
196
POETRY—POGGIO BRACCIOLINI.
the flourishing period  of Indiau poetry,
some centuries before  Christ,  are  of au
original character and  peculiar delicacy.
The second chief period of the times since
Christ (see Modern,  and Romatilic), firet
shows us the  Latin language  applied iu
die Christian worship to a mystic religious
poetry ; and later, in the ninth, tenth and
succeeding centuries, employed by  learn-
ed men in imitations of the old Roman
poetry; contemporary with these we wit-
ness the rise  of Arabian poeny.  (q.  v.)
A peculiar poetry sprung up  in the mod-
ern languages, among the French, at  the
tune of the Provencals or Troubadours,
in the eleventh century.  In its devotion,
valor and love, the  spirit of  chivalry is
apparent.  (See Romantic.)  This roman-
tic  poetry  of the  Franks declined into
mere artificial  rhyming, after the end  of
die twelfth centuiy.   Under the dominion
of Francis I,  poetry somewhat revived;
but the age of Louis XIV was the golden
era of French poetry;  although it often,
but in  its own  manner, imitated the an-
cients, and  modernized ancient materials.
Rhetorical elegance and easy wit were its
chief aim.  (See French Literature.)   The
modern Italian poetry sprung from the Pro-
vencal.  But a poetry of  a natural character
began in Sicily, after the thirteenth century,
and flourished, peculiarly from the time of
Dante and Petrarch to that of Ariosto and
Tasso, in the thirteenth, fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, and  thence declined
into bombast and imitation.  (See Italian
Poetry.)   The  Spanish  poetry appears
originally the sister of the Provencal, but
mingled with the Oriental character. The
earliest Castilian poetry, properly so call-
ed, belongs to the thirteenth centuiy; but
it began  to  flourish  under the adminis-
tration of Charles I,  and declined  under
Philip IV.   Simultaneous with it, and in
connexion  with it,  flourished  the Portu-
guese.  (See Spanish Literature, and Por-
tuguese Literature.)  The German poe-
try,  which is  closely connected with  the
northern, and has  its  own epic  cycle,
flourished  at  various  times,  and  with
much variety of character, but most vig-
orously when  free from the  influence of
foreign models.  (See German Poetry.)
The origin  of the English and  Scottish
poetry is lost, like that  of the German, in
the distant period of the bards; it was
refined  by the  Norman  French poetry.
But the flourishing  period  of  English
poetry is placed in  the  times of  queen
Elizabeth, although Chaucer is esteemed
the  father  of  modern EngUsh poetry.
The Scandinavian poetry, otherwise call-
ed northern, presents chivalry peculiarly
colored by the northern  character,  since
the thirteenth century,  when the German
Hddcjibuch (book  of heroes)  was intro-
duced into Norway, and  foreign tales be-
came blended with  native ones.  In the
fourteenth  century, the  poetry of the
mastersingers  took  the place  of   that
which had been founded on the ancient
eigas.  (See  Danish  and Swedish  Lan-
guage and Literature.)    These are the
principal divisions in the history of poetry.
For further  information, see  Warton's
Histonj of English Poetry,  Sismondi's
Litterature du Midi de I'Europe, Bouter-
vvek's History of modern  Poetry and Elo-
quence (in German).
  Poggio Bracciolini, one of the early
promoters of literature in Italy, was born
at Terranuova, in the Florentine territory,
in 1380.   On  completing his education,
he went to Rome, where he obtained the
office of  writer of apostolical letters, and
in 1414 attended John XXII to the coun-
cil of Constance.   In 1416 he undertook
the task of searching the monasteries for
ancient manuscripts;  in that of St. Gall
he discovered a complete copy of Quin-
tilian, with a part of the Argonautics of
Valerius  Flaccus,  and in other religious
houses several of Cicero's orations, and
obtained  copies of the  works of Silius
Italicus, Vegetius, Ammianus Marcellinus,
Columella, &c.  In 1418, on the invitation
of cardinal Beaufort, he  visited England;
but the barbarism  of the country at that
period soon  led  him  to return, and he
finally attached himself  to  Cosmo de'
Medici.  In 1440, he published his Dia-
logues on Nobility, one of the most finish-
ed of his works.  In 1453, he was chosen
chancellor to the Florentine republic. His
History of Florence had not received its
last polish at his death  in 1459.  Poggio
was licentious, quarrelsome  and intem-
perate in controversy ;  but his sentiments
are in general  liberal and manly, and he
may be deemed the most elegant composer
in Latin  (the language of all  his works)
of that period.  His writings are nume-
rous, and upon various topics.   Many are
discussions on moral arguments, a few are
philosophical,  and several  controversial:
the remainder are  chiefly translations,
orations  and  letters, the chief  fault of
which  is diffuseness.   His Historia Flo-
rentina, which comprises the period from
1350 to 1455, is to be found in the collec-
tions  of  Graevius  and  Muratori.  The
whole of the works of Poggio were pub-
lished  together at Basil, 1538.—See his
life by Shepherd (Liverpool, 1802). 
POICTIERS—POISON.                         199
  Poictiers.  (See Poitiers.)
  Point, in music, as conjoined  with
others, has  various  significations.   The
different  uses to which points were for-
merly applied, render the perusal of old
compositions extremely difficult and per-
plexing.   In those  works we  meet with
the point of perfection, point of augmenta-
tion, point of division, and point of altera-
tion.  The point of perfection was added
to those notes which were denoted by the
modal signs to be perfect, or equal to  three
notes of  the same value, but which  were
rendered  imperfect  by position.   The
point  of  augmentation  is that  in modern
use, which  the old masters used only in
common or imperfect time.   The point of
division, or imperfection, was  placed be-
tween  two  shorter notes that followed,
and were succeeded by two  longer, in
perfect modes, to  render  both the long
notes imperfect The point of alteration,
or of duplication, was placed  before two
shorter notes preceding a longer, in  order
to double the length of the second short
note.   In modern music, the point,  taken
as an increased power  of the note,  is al-
ways equal  to the  half of the  note to
which it appertains.
   Point, in geometry, as defined by Eu-
clid, is a quantity which has  no  parts, or
which is indivisible. Points are the ends
or extremities of lines.   If a point is sup-
posed to be moved  any way, it will, by its
motion, describe a line.
   Point is also an iron or steel instru-
ment, used with some variety in several
arts.  Engravers, etchers, cutters iu wood,
&c, use points to trace their  designs on
the copper, wood, stone, &c.
   Point, in  manufactures, is a  general
term  used for all kinds of laces wrought
with the  needle:  such are the point de
 Vinise, point de  France, point de Genes,
&c,  which are distinguished by the par-
ticular economy and anangement of their
points.
   Point, among sailors; a low arm  of the
shore which projects into the sea, or into
a river, beyond the contiguous part,  of the
beach.   To point a gun ;  to direct it to-
wards any particular object or point.
   Point blanc, in gunnery,  denotes the
shot ofa gun levelled horizontally.
   Point Comfort, Olo ;  a cape on the
coast of Virginia, at the mouth of James
river, on  the north side, about ten  miles
south-east of Hampton, twenty north of
Norfolk; lon.  76°  20- W.; lat. 37° 3'N.
Extensive fortifications have been erected
here; and at the Rip Raps, one mile dis-
tant, a mount has been  formed by placing
stories in the water, thus forming an island
of four acres, with fortifications command-
ing the entrance of the river.
  Pointer.  The  dog called  pointer is
found in Spain,  Portugal  and  France,
with but slight difference of form.  It is
not a native of England,  but has long
since  been naturalized  there.   "Those
pointers," says  Johnson in his Shooter's
Companion, "which I have  seen direct
from Spain, are heavy and clumsily fonn-
ed ; those from Portugal  are  somewhat
lighter;  while  the  French breed  is re-
markable for a wide furrow which runs
between the  nostrils, and gives to the
animal's countenance a  very grotesque
appearance.   They are  all  thick  and
heavy, with large, chubby heads,  long,
pendent ears, and short, smooth hair; they
are often ill tempered and snappish, and,
in fact, are good for little in this country till
they have  been crossed  "with the  more
generous blood of these islands.  Yet the
conjunction of the setter and pointer is
by no means advisable.  Excellent point-
ers have been produced by the fox-hound
and the Spaniard.   In crossing  with the
Spanish pointer, the deep-flewed  hound
is to be preferred,  and from judicious
crossing excellent pointers  are to be met
with in most parts of England.   They
differ from the setter, as, when they have
approached  sufficiently near  the game,
they stand erect,  whereas the true-bred
setter will  either  sit upon his haunches,
or lie close to the ground, generally the
latter.   Pointers often suffer  much from
sore feet.   1  have generally found white-
footed dogs  much more tender in this
respect  than those whose feet  are of  a
dark color.   Pointers are sonletimes used
with  bells round  their  necks  in  cover
shooting.   When the dog set«, the ringing
ceases, and the shooter  proceeds  to the
spot.   Pointers are very susceptible of
education,  and not so apt to  forget their
lessons  as  the setter, and  their  speed,
strength and persevering spirit enable them
to continue the chase for a length of time
almost incredible."   Pointers are used  in
finding  feathered game of various sorts,
partridges, pheasants, &c.
   Point of  Sight.  (See Perspective.)
   Poison.   A  poison is any substance of
which a small quantity taken into the stom-
ach, mixed with the blood by  wounds,  or
through die lungs, or absorbed through the
skin, can produce changes in the bodies
of brutes or men, deleterious to the health,
and even destructive to life, by means not
mechanical.  Many poisons operate chem-
ically, corroding the organized  fibre, de- 
200
POISON.
suoying the form and connexion of  the
parts,  exciting powerfully,  and  causing
inflammation and mortification.  To this
class belong most of the poisons of the
mineral kingdom; as, 1. many metallic
oxides and salts, as arsenic, one of the
most destructive poisons, of which a few
grains produce fatal effects.  Many prep-
arations of copper are  also poisonous, as
verdigris,  and many paints; also very acid
or salt articles of food or drink  cooked in
copper vessels.   Many  preparations of
quicksilver, as corrosive  sublimate,  red
precipitate, &c,  some common prepara-
tions of antimony, should also  be named
here.  2.  Strong mineral and  vegetable
acids, when introduced into  the  body in
an  undiluted  state, as concentrated  sul-
phuric acid or oil of vitriol, nitric acid or
aqua fortis, muriatic acid, &c.  3. Some
plants contain an extremely powerful and
corrosive  substance,  as the wolf's milk
(euphorbium  esula),  the  daphne  mezere-
um, &c.  4. Of the animal kingdom,  the
cantharides  (q. v.), or  Spanish flies,   as
they are  called.   The operation of all
these poisons is very expeditious ; when
they enter the stomach, violent sickness is
felt, incessant straining and vomiting take
place, with most excruciating pains in  the
stomach and bowels, as if knives were
driven through  them;  then follows  in-
flammation, if relief be not speedily ob-
tained, and this is succeeded by mortifi-
cation.  Other poisons operate more by a
powerful  action  upon the nerves, and a
rapid destruction of their energy.   These
are the sedative or stupifying poisons, and
belong for the most part  to the vegetable
kingdom.   Their effects are sickness, vio-
lent  head-ache, dizziness,  darkness or
spots before  the eyes,  powerful and  in-
voluntary  motions of the limbs and of the
whole  body, distortion of the eyes, an-
guish,  loss of consciousness, and at last
apoplexy and death.  To this class belong
opium,  hemlock,  henbane,  belladonna,
&c.  There is also a similar  poison con-
tained  in  the bitter  almond and in the
kernel  of  peaches, which is rapidly de-
structive of life (the Prussic acid), which
shows  its  effects either when those sub-
stances  are taken into the  stomach  in
great quantities,  or when  their concen-
trated oil,  obtained by distillation, is swal-
lowed.  The same substance  is found in
the cherry laurel; and, among the pro-
ductions of the animal world,  in the Prus-
sian blue.   Among plants, there  are many
which unite the properties of both kinds,
which stimulate by means ofa sharp, acid
substance, and are also subsequently seda-
tive,  from the  operation  of a narcotic
principle.   To  these  belong the purple
fox-glove (digitalis purpurea), the monks-
hood (aconitum napdlus),  &c.   Other
poisons operate  by suddenly and entirely
destroying many of the functions neces-
sary to  life.  To this class belong all the
kinds of gas and air which are irrespira-
ble, suffocating  vapors, as  carbonic acid
gas, or  fixed air in  cellars, where beer is
working, wells, &c, fumes of sulphur and
charcoal, air corrupted by the respiration
and perspiration of many people in closed
rooms, concentrated effluvia of flowers in
similar  places,  &c.  Many preparations
of lead, as sugar of lead, white lead, wine
sweetened by the addition  of lead, are to
be counted in this class, since they destroy
the activity of the absorbent vessels in the
abdominal  canal,  contract  the  bowels,
produce colicky pains, and finally prevent
the absorption of the chyle by which ihe
body is to be nourished.  Pope Clement
XIV, according to the common belief in
Italy, was destroyed by a terrible poison,
called I'acquelta.  The  Indians of South
America,  between  the  Amazon and the
Orinoco, apply  a  very powerful  poison,
called the Wourali poison, to the heads of
the arrows with which they shoot their
game.   It destroys life very quickly, with-
out corrupting or imparting any bad qual-
ity to the flesh.   (See Waterton's Wander-
ings,  description of  his  first journey.)
The so called  morbid  poisons, or conta-
gions,  do not  belong  to  this class,  and
are  very improperly  called  poisons,  as
for instance, the poison of hydrophobia.
(See  Contagion.)   Every  substance  is
called  an antidote,  which counteracts the
effect  of a  poison, more especially the
remedies which  belong to  each  kind of
poison  respectively.   Antidotes  are  as
various  as  poisons.   They  sometimes
protect  the  body  against the  operation
of the poison, sometimes change this last
in such  a manner  that it loses its inju-
rious  properties, and sometimes  remove
or remedy  its violent results.  Thus,  in
cases  of poisoning by  acrid and corro-
sive  substances, we use  the  fatty, mu-
cilaginous substances,  as  oil,  milk, &c,
which sheath and protect the coats of the
stomach and bowels against the operation
of the poison.  Against the metallic poi-
sons, soap and liver of sulphur are most
efficacious, as they prevent  the operation
of the poison by combining the alkali and
sulphur with the corrosive particles of the
metal.   Oil, alkalies and soap are the best
remedies for the powerful acids. For can-
tharides, mucilage, oil,  and camphor, are 
POISON—POLAND.
201
 employed.  We oppose  to  the narcotic
 poisons the weaker  vegetable acids, vine-
 gar, the acid  virus,  coffee.   Prussic acid
 is  neutralized by alkalies and irorj.  To
 arouse those  poisoned by opium, we use
 wine,  coffee, brandy, camphor, &c.  It
 was formerly believed that all poisonous
 matters could be thrown out of the body
 widi the perspiration; and hence we find
 among the  old antidotes a large number
 of sweating  medicines.   In  this  idea
 originated the alexipharmacon of the an-
 cients, the famous mithridate, the theriaca,
 &c, which produced, however, no other
 effect than increased activity of the  ner-
 vous and circulatory system,  from which
 followed  sweats,  and perhaps  as much
 harm as good to the sufferer.
   Poitiers (anciently Pictavi); a town
 of France, on the Clain, formerly capital of
 the province of Poitou, at present of the
 department  of the  Vienne;  population,
 21,562; lat. 46° 35'  N.; lon. 21' E.; 68
 leagues south-west of Paris.   It is a very
 old place, surrounded  by a wall, with
 narrow, crooked streets;  its  cathedral is
 ouly  remarkable for its age; it contains
 several  literary  institutions,  and some
 manufactures.   Poitiers is celebrated for
 the battle fought  in its vicinity (at Mau-
 pertuis), between the French, under their
 king  John,  and the English, under  Ed-
 ward  tho Black Prince, Sept. 19, 1356.
 (See  Edward III, and  Edward, Prince of
 ft'ales.)  The English army  did not  ex-
 ceed  ! 2,000 men ; the French  was not less
 than  60,000 ;  hut the English were supe-
 rior in discipline and subordination. The
 French van was at once routed, and their
 c: ntre  was  broken almost at the first on-
 H'-t  John  was  made prisoner after an
 ohs.iuate  resistance, and,  though treated
 widi great courtesy by the conqueror, was
 detained  prisoner in  London  for four
 yeare, and obliged to purchase his freedom
 by  the cession  of several provinces and the
 payment of 3,000,000 crowns of gold. (See
 Frojssart, liv. i, ch. 158—174, and ch.212.)
   Poitiers, Diana  of.   (See Diana of
 Poitiers.)
   Poitou, or Poictou; before the revo-
 lution, one of the provinces of France, in
the western part of the kingdom, between
Brittany anil Anjou  on the north, Berry
on  the east, the Atlantic on the west,  and
Angotunois  aud Saintonge on the south.
The departments of die Vienne, the Deux-
Sevres and the Vendee have been formed
out of this province.  (See Department.)
Henry  II (q.  v.) of England acquired
possession of Poitou  by his marriage with
EJcauor, heiress of the last duke of Aqui-
 taine.  Philip Augustus conquered it  It
 was ceded to the English by the peace of
 Bretigny (1360),  but  was  recovered  by
 Charles V.
   Pola (Pietas Julia); a town of Istria,
 belonging to the circle of Trieste, in the
 Austrian kingdom of Illyria. (q. v.)  It is
 a bishop's see, and, although reduced to a
 population of 8—900, contains traces of
 its  flourishing condition  under the Ro-
 mans.  Within its ancient walls are seen
 the ruins of an  amphitheatre, which is
 estimated to  have been large enough to
 accommodate 18,000 persons.  Spon firet
 directed  the  attention of the  public  to
 Pola, and Cassa's excellent sketches of its
 ruins  have  increased  the interest   (See
 his Voyage pittoresque de I'Istrie et de la
. Dalmatic)   The amphitheatre is equal to
 any thing of the sort that has come down
 to us.   It  differs from the others  with
 which we are acquainted, in having four
 buttresses at the four corners of a quad-
 rangle.  According to Cassa, it is not built
 of the Istrian stone,  which is so much
 esteemed by architects.  It consists of
 three stories, each of which contains sev-
 enty-two arcades.  There  are  no stairs
 remaining, but the exterior  walls are al-
 most entire.  The two temples, one of
 which is in good preservation, belong to a
 period  of pure  taste.   Pola  was  most
 flourishing in the reign of Severus, when
 it assumed  the proud title of Respublica
 Polensis.  A  triumphal arch, erected by
 Salvia Posthuma iu honor of her husband,
 Sergius Lepidus, is  in a pretty good  con-
 dition, and, under the name of porta aurea,
 is used as a gate of the town.
   Polacca,  Alla.  (See Polonaise.)
   PoLANo(in Polish, Polska; in German,
 Polen; in French, Pologne); an extensive
 country iu the northern part of Europe,
 extending from the foot of the Carpathian
 mountains,  and the fertile  plains of the
 Ukraine (lat. 47°), to the shores of the Bal-
 tic (56° lat), and from  the 15th  to the 32d
 degree of east longitude.  It derives its
 name, which signifies, in the  Sclavonic
 dialect, a plain, from  the level character
 of its surface.  Although  it  has ceased to
 constitute an independent and single state,
 still the country is distinctly separated  from
 those which surround  it by national char-
 acter,  language and manners; it  is still
 the  land of the Poles, although its detach-
 ed fragments have become Austrian, Prus-
 sian  or Russian  provinces, containing
 about  20,000,000  Poles.    (See  Galicia,
 Cracow, Posen, Lithuania,  &c, and the
 following article.)   After  the annexation
 of Lithuania in the end of the 14th century. 
202
POLAND, GEOGRAPHY  AND  STATISTICS OF.
 the whole Polish territory  comprised an
 extent of 284,000 square miles, and  was
 divided into Great  and Little  Poland on
 the west,  Mazovia and Podlachia in the
 centre,  with Volhynia, Podolia  and the
 Ukraine towards  the east, and Lithuania
 in the north-east  The inferior divisions
 were 31  palatinates and starostys.  The
 face of the country is almost every where
 low and level, and in many places marshy.
 All the great rivers, except the Niemen, run
 in shallow channels, and overflow their
 banks.  After a rainy season, whole prov-
 inces appear- inundated, and the waters of
 distant streams flow into each other.  The
 Carpathian  mountains  form the south-
 western boundary of  the  country,  and
 another low ridge penetrates it  from Sile-
 sia.   In the rest of the country, the ground
 is highest along a curved line extending
 throughout the middle of the  (old) king-
 dom  from Hungary to  Lithuania, and in-
 dicated not by conspicuous elevations, but
 by the course of the waters.; the rivers on
 the west side flowing into the Baltic,  and
 those on the east into the Euxine.  Of the
 former, the principal are the Vistula, the
 Bug, the Niemen, the Pregel, the Dwina ;
 of the latter, the Przypiec, the  Dnieper
 and the Dniester.  The east winds from
 the frozen plains of Russia,  and the south
 winds from the Carpathians, render the
 winters as severe in Poland as in Sweden,
 although there  is a  difference of 10° of
 latitude.   Vegetation  is a month  later
 than in  the same latitudes on the western
 shore oftthe continent  The humidity
 and cold of the climate, joined to the exha-
 lations from the marshes aud vast forests,
 render the  Polish  countries unhealthy.
 (See Plica Polonica.)   The  most pleasant
 and  fertile part is  the south?east   (See
 Ukraine.)  The country abounds in iron,
 but of indifferent quality ; lead, gold and
 silver are also  found.   There are  very
 rich salt mines at Bochnia and Wieliczka,
 both  situated in  Galicia.  The state of
 cultivation is extremely  wretched; yet the
 climate is so regular, and the soil so pro-
 ductive, that the average annual export of
 corn has been estimated at 4,000,000 Eng-
 lish quarters.  The export of cattle is also
 of considerable extent  Poland is poor in
fruits; flax and hemp are raised, and in
some  of the provinces  there  is  a  great
abundance of wood.  The peasantry are in
a wretched condition, dirty, improvident,
indolent, addicted to intoxication, and of
course poor.  The general  aspect of the
country is rude and backward; theroads are
bad, and the inns miserable.  The Russian
kingdom of Poland, which, before the ces-
sions at Andrussow  in  1667, contained
16,000,000 inhabitants, now contains, on a
surface of 48,600 square miles, in 482
towns (viz. 211  immediate and  271 me-
diate towns), and 22,694 villages, 3,850,000
inhabitants  (in  1818, the number was
2,734,000), among  which are  212,944
Jews.   The capital, Warsaw (q. v.), con-
tained, previous  to  the  late insurrection,
135,000 inhabitants.  Poland was divided,
in 1816, into eight waywodeships—Maso-
via (capital, Warsaw,)  Kalisch, Cracow
(chief town, Miechow),  Sandomir  (cap-
ital Radom),  Lublin, Podlachia (capital
Siedlce), Plock, and  Augustow  (capital
Suwalki).
   Constitution.  The  state  received  a
constitution  from the  emperor  Alexan-
der,  signed by him at Warsaw,  Nov. 27,
1815.  According  to  this, the executive
power was vested in the king, but the ex-
ercise of it intrusted to a council of state,
the governor  and five  ministers.   The
diet, which the king was to convene every
other year, and  whose  session  lasted 30
days,consisted, 1. of the chamber of the sen-
ate (30 members, viz. 10 bishops,.10 way-
wodes and 10 castellans); 2. of the cham-
ber of nuncios, in which 77 nuncios, ap-
pointed by the 77 assemblies of the nobles
of the 77 districts, and 51 deputies (from
8 assemblies for  the city of Warsaw, and
43 for the rest of the country), as well  as
the members of  the council of state, had
a seat and vote.  But in this chamber, the
five  ministers, and  the members of the
three committees, appointed by the cham-
ber for  financial, civil and criminal laws
(the  firet  of five members), could alone
speak ; the other nuncios voted  by ballot
The diet examined  the projects  of laws,
framed  in the council of state.   By this
constitution,  all  Christian denominations
enjoyed equal  religious and political privi-
leges;  the freedom  of  the  press was
acknowledged, and all public officers, the
members of the council of state,  the min-
isters, &c, were  made responsible.  The
archbishop of Warsaw was primate of the
kingdom.  The Polish diet was convened,
for the first time for 23 years, in 1818, and
again in 1820,  1825 and 1830.
  History.   This country, for   a  thou-
sand years, has  been remarkable for its
miserable  condition.   Prior to 1772, this
country, the  most extensive plain in Eu-
rope, contained,  with  Lithuania, 284,000
square miles, supporting a population of
at most 11,500,000 (according to Busching,
8,000,000 or 9,000,000) inhabitants, who,
under 100,000 petty masters, derived as
little benefit from the freedom of the re- 
POLAND, HISTORY OF.                       203
 public  as  from the fertility of the soil.
 Corn and  wheat,  flax,  wood, honey and
 wax, excellent horses, large herds of fine
 cattle, and an inexhaustible supply of salt,
 constituted the natural  and commercial
 wealth of the country,  which was  easily
 conveyed to the Baltic and Black seas, by
 rivers abounding in fish ; but, excepting in
 Warsaw, Bromberg, Posen,  and  some
 towns of the  Silesian  frontier, industiy
 was torpid ; the whip  of  the noble was
 the only stimulus of agriculture, and the
 Jew drowned in  brandy  all  activity of
 mind; for the sentiment of the Polish serf
 is, "Only  what I drink is mine."   The
 least of the evils of the country  was le-
 gions of wolves and other rapacious ani-
 mals.  In the great convulsions produced
 by the incursions of the Goths aud Huns,
 and  still more in  its 200 years' struggles
 with  the Germans, and in its internal
 troubles, this people (a branch of the Sar-
 matians  of the Borysthenes)  acquired a
 wonderful  elasticity of character,  com-
 pounded  of  pliancy and obstinacy, of
 submission and defiance, of servility and
 patriotic pride.  The firet Sclavonic tribes,
 who, in the sixth centuiy, expelled the old
 Finuish tribes, marched up the Dnieper,
 and followed down the  course of the Vis-
 tula.   Here they settled on one side, un-
 der the name of Lithuanians, and, on the
 other, around  the  shores  of the Baltic,
 under those of Prussians and Lettiaus;
 they were followed, in the seventh centu-
 ry, by the  Leches,  another Sclavonic
 tribe.  These last,  more civilized than the
 other wild  hordes, received Christianity
 about  960, and, at the same time, the art
 of writing,  and, towards the end of the
 tenth  century, were called Poles  (i. e.
 Sclavonians of the plain).  It was the fate
 of this new people  to  be  continually at
 variance  with its neighbors.   In  840,
 those  between the  Vistula and  Warta
 had been united under  Piast, a prince of
 their own  choice;  but  they were after-
 wards again divided intc smaller princi-
 palities among his male heirs, so that there
 remained no other bond of union  than
 affinity of  origin,  a common reigning
 family (the Piasts), and  a common name.
 This  unity, rather the  result of opinion
 and  feeling than of legal  arrangements,
 had, however, a powerful influence on
 the imagination of  the Poles, and in-
spired  them  with the most heroic patri-
otism.   But, like all men destitute of legal
order and freedom, and governed by their
feelings,  they abandoned themselves to
every political excess, with equal thought-
lessness and passion. So far die body of
 the people may be called fickle and with-
 out character;  yet there has not been any
 want of distinguished men among them,
 who  would have done honor to any  re-
 public.   With  youthful enthusiasm they
 combined manly energy and  republican
 elevation.  In  the histoiy of Poland, the
 names of Tarnoffski, Zamoyski, Zolkieff-
 ski, besides those of heroes and statesmen
 of later days, are immortal.   Others, how-
 ever,  driven  abroad by  internal  dissen-
 sions, betrayed their country to the enemy
 through blind  party  rage.  Thus Poland,
 as a state, struggled with the fundamental
 evils of its constitution, till it fell  under
 them.  In this republic there  existed  no
 unity, although it received the name of
 one  kingdom  in 1025, under Boleslaua
 Chrobry.  The tree of liberty stood with-
 out roots, till overthrown by the tempest.
 The elective franchise was, unquestion-
 ably, the cause of the turbulence of party.
 Legal order and civil liberty  could  not
 thrive because of the prevailing inequality
 of condition.   The nobleman was  the
 only  citizen.   To this rude,  thousand-
 headed  sovereign, its policy was  by  no
 means clear; still less did  the Poles  un-
 derstand how to  unite individual liberty
 with  public power.   The  nation,  there-
 fore, lost one  safeguard  of its indepen-
 dence after another; firet Silesia and the
 Oder, then the Baltic, the  Dnieper, and
 finally the  Carpathians.   But  a state
 which has no fixed boundaries, which is
 cut off from the  sea, and which has not
 the strength of internal unity, will always
 be the prey of the ambitious policy of its
 neighbors.  The  misfortunes of Poland
 began when the Piasts divided the coun-
 try among their sons.  Boleslaus III,
 indeed, in  1138,  conferred on the eldest,
 as the possessor of Cracow, a kind of
 superiority  over the other  princes; but
 this only increased the confusion.  The
 arrogance of the hierarchy, and the  invet-
 erate hatred nourished between the Ger-
 mans  and Poles  by 200  years of war,
 prevented even Christianity, which was
 introduced  into Poland at the end of the
 tenth  century,  from  having a beneficial
influence on  the state of the country.
 When, at a subsequent period, Conrad of
 Masovia called in the Teutonic  knights
against the Prussians, they conquered the
 Baltic seaboard,  from the  Oder to  the
gulf of  Finland, between 1230—1404,
and Poland  lost its northern line of de-
fence and maritime commerce.  Ladislaus
Lokietek, who  was crowned in 1305  as
king of Cracow, had indeed united Great
Poland, on the Warta, with  Little Poland, 
204
POLAND, HISTORY  OF.
on the Upper Vistula, into one whole; but
it was too late.  The Germans were too
powerful  for the Polish state.   His son
Casimir, who, on account of his  wisdom
as a legislator, and  his exertions  in civil-
izing the interior, was surnamed the Great,
was compelled formally to cede the Oder
and Lower Vistula, in the peace of Kalisch,
in 1343.  This wise prince was more suc-
cessful in establishing  social order.  He
fortified the towns, and freed them from
the oppressions of the nobility,  but,  on
account of his love ofa Jewess, conferred
favors on her nation,  which subsequently
monopolized  all  trade, and impeded the
national  prosperity.  With Casimir  (in
1370), the male line of the Piasts became
extinct.   The nobility now began to bar-
ter their votes with the candidates for the
throne,  in exchange  for  personal priv-
ileges, which could be granted them only
at the expense of the whole.  The union
of Poland  with  Hungary, under  Louis
(1370—82), was not, therefore, sufficient to
confirm the  monarchy.   More  natural,
and therefore more permanent,  was the
union with Lithuania, in 1386 ; the Lithu-
anian grand-duke  Jagellon  having  ob-
tained the Polish crown  by marriage and
election.   But difference of language and
manners  kept the Lithuanians  separate
from  the Poles.  Christianity, which the
former now  firet embraced, was  not a
political bond, that could unite  the two
nations into one people; they were, how-
ever,  now  more powerful against  their
common  enemy, the Teutonic  knights.
Poland  seemed  to recover its  natural
boundaries when, by the treaty of Thorn,
in 1466, the knights ceded Culm and the
Vistula, as far as  Elbingen, to Poland, and
acknowledged the  suzerainty of the  re-
public over the possessions of the order.
Livonia, also, was  annexed to  Lithuania
in 1558, and in 1561  Courland became a
Polish fief; thus  Poland, especially after
1569,  when the Lithuanian nobility, with
that of Great and Little Poland, consti-
tuted  one diet, became the most powerful
state  in the  north.  But by the traffic
which they carried on in the succession
to the throne, the  hereditary  right  to
which they often contested with the Jag-
ellons, the nobles  acquired  the entire
representation of the nation, to the exclu-
sion of the rest of the people.  They  ap-
peared at the diets by nuncios,  without
whose consent (from  1505) no  change
could be made in the constitution of the
state.  From  the native nobility alone the
king could name the archbishops, bish-
ops, waywodes, castellans and ministers,
who formed the  first estate of the realm,
or the senate in  the diet.  But the state
still wanted a firm hand to keep the wholo
together.   Smolensk, the bulwark of Po-
land on  the Dnieper, was conquered,  in
1514, by the Russians, and religious ani-
mosity raged in the country ; but the dis-
sidents (q. v.),  or the Protestants, with the
non-united Greeks (see Greek Church), ob-
tained, at the diet  of Wilna, in 1563, equal
rights with the Catholics.  The extinction
of  the  Jagellon  dynasty,  however,  in
1572, prevented this  religious peace from
being a blessing to the Poles.  From this
time, Poland continued an elective mon-
archy, till the adoption of the constitution
of May  3,  1791.   Heniy of Anjou, the
king-elect,  swore to the firet pacta conventa,
as a sort of charter of privileges of the no-
bility.  Thenceforward  party  hatred di-
vided the  leaders of the  nobility,  and
family feuds called foreign arms into the
country.    Thus  the  Zamoiski  party,
which, by  the  election of the Swedish
prince Sigismund, attempted to unite the
two first crowns of the north, gave rise not
only to domestic dissension, which was in
a manner legitimated by the right of con-
federation and insurrection (belonging to
the nobles since 1607), but also to bloody
wars with Sweden, which finally gained a
superiority over Poland, by the peace of
Oliva (q. v.), in 1660.  Sweden obtained
Livonia, and the great elector of Branden-
burg (in 1657) the sovereignty of Prussia.
(See Frederic William.)  At home, all po-
litical connexion  was dissolved in anar-
chy, when, in  the reign of John Casimir
(1648—69), the liberum veto was estab-
lished  by  law, by which the vote of a
single deputy could negative the resolution
of all the rest.   From the confederation
there was  but a step to  political treason.
Faction  favored the revolt of the Cos-
sacks, who, in 1654, put themselves under
Russian protection, after which Smolensk,
Kiev, the Dnieper, and the part  of the
Ukraine beyond it, were ceded to  Russia,
in 1667, by the 13 years' truce of Andrus-
sow.  King John  Casimir at that time
foretold with truth, in his speech to the
diet (July 4, 1661), how, by whom,  and
why, Poland would one day be partitioned.
The  brave Sobieski ratified those cessions
in the perpetual peace of 1686;  on die
other hand, Russia engaged to assist him
in conquering Moldavia and  Walachia.
After his death, in 1696, the throne  was
sold to the highest bidder.  (See Polignac.)
When the elector of  Saxony (see Augus-
tus  II)  maintained  a  resistance to  the
French  party,  and attached himself te 
POLAND; HISTORY OF.
206
Peter of Russia, the republic, unable to
defend itself, and considering the presence
of the Saxon  army dangerous to its free-
dom, was involved,  by the unsteadiness
and  ambition  of cardinal Radziecowski,
in the northern war,  which  made Russia
the first power in the north.  (See North-
ern War.)  The fate of Poland was now
decided.  Swedish arms accomplished, in
1704, what  the Russians achieved at a
Inter period (1733—95).  They disposed
of the  Polish  throne.   Corruption  and
luxury now made equal progress among
the  Polish  nobility,  and  paralyzed  and
annihilated  the strength of the  nation.
To fill up the measure of confusion, en-
croachments were made, in 1717, on the
constitutional  rights  of the  dissidents,
which had been established for 150 years.
The Jesuits blew up the flames, and their
inquisitorial tribunal, established at Tho-
ren in 1724, became the signal for mortal
hatred.   Finally, at the diets of 1733 and
1736, the dissidents were excluded from
the office of deputy, from  access to the
courts of justice, and, in general, from all
public offices; they were to be treated
merely  as the privileged  Jews.   In  its
moral  tone, too, which aimed at uniting
French wit and frivolousness with excess
and  rudeness, Poland  went back many
steps towards the times of violence.  Thus
eveiy  passion was  thrown into a fatal
ferment, when Catharine II placed her
favorite, the count Poniatowski (q. v.), on
the  Polish throne.   Too weak to check
the  rebellious pride of  the nobility, he
wavered between Russian  protection and
the  diguity of an independent republic,
till he finally lost the respect of all.  The
fanaticism with which Soltyk, bishop of
Cracow, and Massalski, bishop of Wilua,
opposed the restoration of religious free-
dom, was the main cause of the civil war,
 which plunged Poland into the wildest dis-
order, and accelerated the final ruin of the
 state.   Russia embraced the cause  of the
 dissidents,  a  general  confederation  was
 formed, but the diet was altogether under
 Russian influence.  On the other hand,
 the  confederacy of Bar was supported by
 France, and the war broke out with Rus-
 sia.   Foreign troops laid waste the coun-
 try, and the lawless conduct of some of
 the  Polish party chiefs excited, among the
 neighboring powers, such a contempt of
 the  natural  rights of the Poles, that, to use
 the  expression of Catharine, they deemed
 Poland  a country in which it was only
 necessary to stoop to pick up something.
 Such being the internal condition of the
 country, it  seemed to  the  Austrian court
   vol. x.             18
a favorable opportunity to take possession
of the towns  of Zips, which had been
mortgaged  to  Poland  by  Hungary,  in
1402; and the dexterity of Kaunitz, the
Austrian minister of state, finally induced
the Petersburg, and this the Prussian cabi-
net, to meditate  the partition  of Poland.
Von Dohm  has  shown, in  his  Memoirs
(vol. i, p. 433 et seq.), in what  manner the
plan originated.  This project has been,
by some,  ascribed to Prussia.   Whoever
must bear the guilt of starting  this infa-
mous scheme, the ignominy of all  the
three accomplices is sufficiently  great.
Sept. 2, 1772, the Russian minister made
known the resolution of the three powers,
and  Sept.- 18,  1773, the republic of  Po-
land confirmed the treaty of partition, by
which Poland lost 84,000 square  miles.
Austria obtained the county of  Zips, the
half of the  Palatinate  (waywodeship of
Cracow), a part of the  palatinate of San-
domir, the palatinate  of Red  Russia, the
greater part of Belz, Pokutia,  and a part
of Podolia, countries which had formerly
constituted the kingdoms of Galicia  and
Lodomeria, belonging to Hungary (27,000
square miles).  Prussia received all Polish
Prussia, with  the exception  of Dantzic
and Thorn, and,  in Great Poland, the dis-
trict of Netz, which had formerly belonged
to Pomerania, under the name of Pome-
relia  (13,375 square miies).  Russia re-
ceived Polish Livonia, half the palatinate
of  Polotzk, the palatinates of Vitepsk,
Mscislav,  and a part  of Minsk (42,000
square miles).   Russia now  decided the
constitution  of  the  unhappy  republic.
The Poles at last  became aware of their
true policy, and of their  past folly.  To
secure their independence, encouraged by
the promise of protection from Frederic
William  of Prussia, they undertook  the
formation of a  new  constitution.   The
elective monarchy was to  be abolished,
and the third  estate to be  received into
the  national representation.  This was
the  basis  of the constitution of May 3,
1791, to which Prussia gave its  approba-
tion.  But Russia rejected it  by the dec-
laration of May 18,  1791, and  espoused
the  cause  of  its  opponents,  who had
concluded at Targowicz a  confederation
against the constitution which had been
adopted by  the  diet  Prussia abandoned
the cause of the republic,  in the  king's
answer to the Poles, given  June 8, 1792,
through Lucchesini: the Polish republic,
he said, had done wrong to adopt, without
his knowledge and cooperation, a consti-
tution which  he had  never  intended to
support.   Prussia consented to  a second 
206
POLAND, HISTORY  OF.
partition, in 1793, by which Russia re-
ceived 96,500 square miles, with 3,000,000
inhabitants (the remainder of the palati-
nates of Polotzk  and Minsk,  half  the
palatinates of Novgorod  and Brzesk, the
crown domains of Polish Ukraine, Podolia,
and the eastern half of Volhynia); Prussia
22,500 square miles, with 1,136,000 inhab-
itants (the  palatinates of  Posen,  Gnesen,
Kalisch, Sieradc, Lenczic, and half Rawa,
besides Dantzic and Thorn, half the palati-
nate Brzese and of the district of Dobrzyn,
together with the fortress of Czenstochow).
Russian bayonets compelled the indignant
members of the diet to acquiesce in this
dismemberment  of their country*   The
remnant of Poland was  now under Rus-
sian guardianship.  The heroic Kosciusko
(q. v.), in this situation of affaire, became
the head of the confederates of Cracow,
in March, 1794, and, in the  holy contest
for their country,  Warsaw aud Wilna
were liberated.  The battle of Raclawice,
April 4, 17:i4, and the relief of Warsaw,
which was besieged by the Prussian  army,
Sept. 5 and 6, 1794, are the most glorious
days  in the history of the Polish nation.
But  it was  too late:  without  fortresses,
discipline, allies, or even arms ; surrounded
by Itussians, Prussians and Austrians—the
convulsive  efforts of national  despair
must have been unavailing, after the battle
of Macziewice, October 10,  and after the
full of Praga (q. v.), November 4, even if
the Poles had acted with more unity, and
had had more heroes like  Kosciusko.   In
October, 1795, the whole  country was
divided  between  Russia  (43,000 square
miles, with 1,200,000 inhabitants), Prussia
(21,000 square  miles, with  1,000,000 in-
habitants),  and  Austria  (17,600 square
miles,  with 1,000,000 inhabitants).   The
last king lived at Petersburg, with a pen-
sion,  and died there in  1798.   To  the
Pol. s  no'hing  remained  but wounded
feelings of national  pride,  a bitter hate
against Russians and Germans, and fruit-
less  appeals  to French  aid and public
sympathy.   Russia had robbed Poland of
upwards of  180,000  square miles, and
4,(J00,000 inhabitants; Austria  of  about
45,000 square  miles, with  5,000,000 in-
habitants; Prussia of 57,000 square  miles,
widi 2,550,000 inhabitants.  The dismem-
bered country, which now  firet received
internal order from foreign hands, contin-
ued  in this condition till November, 1806,
when  Napoleon's  victories  led  the emi-
grant Poles, under Dombrowski, to Posen
and  Warsaw.  By the terms of the  peace
of Tilsit (July 9, 1807), the greater part of
die Prussian Polish provinces was formed
into the dftchy of Warsaw, which received
a  German ruler in the king of Saxony,
and, at the same time with the French
code, a constitution similar to the French,
by which bondage was abolished.  Dant-
zic was to have been a republic, under the
protection of Prussia and Saxony, but re-
mained a French place of arms.   The
dotations (q. v.) bestowed on the French
officers, anil still more the continental sys-
tem (q. v.), which destroyed  all trade, ex-
hausted the public revenues, so that Po-
land, amid all its natural wealth, experi-
enced the fate of Tantalus.   The neces-
sity of furnishing  troops for the French
service, was also a check on the prosperity
of the new state, and annihilated all that
Prussia had  effected  at  great sacrifices.
Yet the woollen  and cotton manufactures,
that had grown up in Posen and Brom-
berg, sustained themselves.   The govern-
ment of the duchy did every thing prac-
ticable under  such unfavorable circum-
stances.  The war between France  and
Austria, iu 1809, augmented, indeed, the
sufferings of the country, but developed,
to  an  extraordinary degree,  the  military
energies of the people.  Under the com-
mand of Poniatowski and French officers,
the Polish troops  rivalled the best troops
of  France in valor.   They  advanced to
Cracow, and the peace of Vienna  (Oct. 14,
1809)  annexed  Western Galicia to the
duchy of Warsaw, which  had  hitherto
contained  39,000 square   miles,  with
2,200,000  inhabitants ;  so  that  it  now
comprised  60,000 square   miles,  with
3,780,000  inhabitants,  and  furnished  a
well-equipped army of 60,000 men, which
fought in Spain with great bravery.   Un-
der these  circumstances, the old  national
pride revived ; their former boundaries, a
native  king, and  the restoration of the
name of  Poland, were  the unanimous
wish of the nation. On this wish, which
he artfully encouraged, Napoleon founded
hisplanofattackuponRussiajinlSl^which
he styled the second Polish war.   He con-
trived that a general Polish confederation,
in  Warsaw (June 28, 1812), should  sol-
emnly proclaim the restoration of Poland ;
but the ardor  was not universal.  The
exertions of the  duchy, which raised up-
wards of 80,000 men, were, for the most
part,  rendered  useless  by Napoleon's
method  of waging  war.  Tormassoff
kept the Lithuanians  in  check,  and, in-
stead  of die  " 16,000,000 Poles," whom
Napoleon boasted that he should find on
horseback at his Command, only a  few
battalions  of volunteers  assembled.   A
brave resistance was, nevertheless, offered 
POLAND, HISTORY OF.                      207
by the fortresses Zamosc, Modlin and
Thorn, which,  however, were partially
garrisoned by French and German troops.
The  sufferings of Poland, in this war of
restoration, and the  manner  iu  which
Napoleon  counterworked his  own plans,
may  be. learned from De  Pradt  (rp v.),
archbishop of Malines, who was his am-
bassador in Warsaw (Hi.itoirc de I'Ambas-
sade dans le Grand Duche de i'arsovie, en
1812; Paris, 1815, 8th edit).  The Polish
bands followed the  defeated emperor to
France ; a part even to Elba.  Meanwhile
Russia assumed the administration  of the
whole duchy.  Dantzic, with its territory,
reverted to Prussia, and the congress at
Vienna (in May, 1^15) decided the fate of
the country.  1. The city of Cracow, with
its territory (46V5 square miles, 9(>,0(/0 in-
habitants, and a revenue of 250,000 dollars
[dialers]), was to be governed by its own
laws, as a free aud independent republic ;
2. the country on the right bunk of the
Vistula,  with the  circle  of Tarnopola,
which had been ceded to Russia by the
peace of Vienna, was restored to Austria;
3. the circles of Culm and Michelau, the
city of Thorn and its territory, the depart-
ment of Posen, with the exception of the
circles of Powitz and Peysern, and part
of the department of Kalisch, as fir as the
Prozna, excluding the city and  circle of
that name (these limits were more exactly
defined by the  boundary-treaty between
Russia and  Prussia  of Nov.  11,  1817),
were ceded  to  the king of Prussia, who
united Dantzic, Thorn,Culm and Michelau
with West Prussia, and from the remainder
(11,400 square  miles, with 847,000 in-
habitants) formed the grand-duchy of Po-
sen, and appointed  prince Radziwill gov-
ernor; 4. all the rest was  united with the
Russian empire, under the  name of the
kingdom of Poland, but with  a separate
administration, and such a territorial ex-
tent as the Russian emperor should see
fit   The emperor  Alexander,  therefore,
assumed the title of czar and king of Po-
land, and  received  homage in Warsaw.
Poland, though thus divided, preserved its
name and language,  as the treaties of Vi-
enna secured to all Poles,  who were sub-
jects of either of the  three powers, such
an organization  as  tended  to maintain
their national existence.  A Polish charter
was accordingly promulgated (Nov. 27,
1815), consisting of one hundred and sixty-
five articles, which, if faithfully executed,
would have promoted the welfare of Po-
land.   The  government  of the  country
was to be vested in a native Pole, as lieu-
tenant of the kingdom, unless one of the
 imperial  princes  should be  appointed
 viceroy.  This was rendered nugatory by
 the presence of the tyrannical Constaniine,
 as commander-in-chief.   Equality of reli-
 gious sects, personal security, liberty of the
 press, tin.' entire possession of all employ-
 ments, civil and military, in the country,
 by Pules, were among the promises of the
 charter; and these rights were to be se-
 cured by a national diet, composed of two
 chambers.  But these promises were kept
 only to the  car ; restrictions on the press,
 arbitrary imprisonment,arbitrary  and cro-
 el punishments, insults  added to injuries,
 a solemn mockery of a  diet, which was
 not allowed to exercise any real authority;
 the violation of eveiy article of the charter
 by  a Russian barbarian; peculation and
 extortion practised  by the inferior officers;
 —these were some of the features of the
 Russian  government of Poland.  The
 first diet was assembled  in 1818,  and the
 liberty of the press was  abolished by an
 act of 1819.  Another diet  was  held in
 1820, but these meetings were rendered
 mere ceremouies; they  had no  freedom
 of debate, for those members who dared
 to express opinions unpalatable to the gov-
 ernment were banished to their estates,
 and  made to pay the troops that  guarded
 them ; it could not refuse supplies; and,
 in 1825, an ordinance was issued by the
 government, abolishing publicity of debate.
 The resources were squandered  to main-
 tain a Russian and Polish army, and  Rus-
 sian governors practised  all sons of extor-
 tion ; state prisoners were sent into Russia,
 and imprisoned without trial; respectable
 citizens were flogged or made to work in
 the highways without any charge being
 specified against them.  On the death of
 Alexander (December, 1825) and the ac-
 cession  of Nicholas, a conspiracy broke
 out in Russia,  and, on  pretence that it
 extended  to  Warsaw, several  hundred
 persons were  arrested in Poland, and a
 commission  constituted,  contrary to the
 provisions of the charter, to inquire into
 the affair.  The only discovery of this in-
 quisitorial tribunal was, that secret socie-
 ties had existed in Poland since 1821.  Iu
May, 1829, Nicholas was crowned at Warr
saw.  In 1828, however, a secret society
had been instituted, for die purpose of
gaining  over the officers of the army to
the cause of independence; and  to their
agency is the insurrection of 1830 to be
attributed.  It appears, nevertheless, that
it was immediately occasioned by a sham
conspiracy got up by the Russian police,
who had thus induced a number of young
men  to  betray themselves, and crowded 
208
POLAND, HISTORY  OF.
the prisons with the  victims.   Not only
the Polish officers, the youth of the mili-
tary school, and the  students,  had been
gained over to the cause of the patriots ;
but the greater  part of the citizens, and
the chief noliles, were ready to encourage
an  effort to save themselves from  what
they now foresaw—the occupation of Po-
land by a Russian army, and the marching
of the Polish  troops to the south of Eu-
rope.   Such was the state of things when
the insurrection at Warsaw  broke out,
Nov. 19, 1830.   A young officer  entered
the military school, on the evening of that
day, and called the youth to arms.  They
immediately proceeded  to Belvidere, the
residence of Constaiitine, about two miles
from  the city, for the purpose of seizing
his person. They  were joined,  on the
way, by the students of the university, and
forced their way into  the palace ;  but the
prince was concealed in a clothes-press,
by a servant,  until he  could make his
escape by a secret  door.  Another party
of cadets and students paraded the streets,
Calling the citizens to arms, and they were
joined by the Polish troops.  The arsenal
was seized, with 40,000 stand of arms,
mid the iusun-ection now became general.
On the next morning, 40,000 troops and
citizens were  in anus, and the Russians
were  expelled from Warsaw.  The ad-
ministrative council  was  summoned  to
preserve order, and, to  give more influence
to its measures, several of the most distin-
guished Poles were invited to sit with it.
Measures were taken for the organization
of a national guard, and of a new jiolice
and municipal  government   December 3,
the prince was allowed to leave the neigh-
borhood of Warsaw, with three regiments
of Russian cavalry, and two regiments of
infantry, without opposition.  On  the 5th,
general Clopicki was proclaimed dictator
till the  meeting of the diet, which was
convoked for the 18th.   Meanwhile Nich-
olas issued a proclamation (December 17),
in which he declared that no concessions
could be made to the rebels,  and, on the
24th, another, addressed to the Russians,
telling them that the Poles  had dared  to
propose conditions to their legitimate mas-
ter : " God," he  adds,  " is with us, and, in
a single battle, we shall be able to reduce
to  submission  these   disturbers  of the
peace."  January 24,  the  Polish diet,
which had bten opened on  the  18th of
December,  declared  the  absolute inde-
pen.i .:c of Poland, and the termination
of the Russian dominion, and, on the 25th,
that the Polish throne was vacant. The
account of the war which followed, and
of the disposition made of Poland, will
fall .under the article Russia. An excel-
lent work respecting Poland, though writ-
ten with an evident hatred  of Catharine
and Poniatowski, is Rulhiere's Histoire de
VAnarchie de Pologne et du Dimembrement
de cdte Ripublique (4 vols.,  Paris, 1807\.
Respecting the first partition  of Poland,
see Von Dohm's Denkumrdigkeiten (I vol.),
and Lettres du Baron de Viome'nil (Paris,
1808),  and Make Brim's Tableau de la
Pologne ancienne et moderne, of which a
new edition has recently  been  published.
Consult, also, Jekel's historical und statis-
tical works on Poland and Galicia  (Vien-
na, 1804—9);  Flatt's  Topographs  des
Herzogthums  Warscliau (Leipsic,  1810);
and Von Holsche's Geographic und Slatis-
tik  von  West- Sud- und Neuostprcussen
(Berlin, 1807).  Three  works in the Po-
lish language are deserving of recommen-
dation—Y.  S. Bandtke's Affaire  of  the
Polish Natiou (Breslau, 1826), Ad. Narus-
cewitsch's Histoiy of the Poles, and Jul.
Ure. Niemcewicz's Reminiscences  of an-
cient Poland (Warsaw, 1822).  To these
may be  added  Alex. v. Bronikowski's
Histoiy of Poland (4 vols., Dresden, 1827);
Salvandy's Hist, de Pologne, avanl  et sous
J. Sobieski (Paris, 1829);  Fletcher's His-
tory of Poland (8vo., London, 1831).  Much
information,especiallyrespectingtheperiod
of 1794—98, is contained in Mich. Ogin-
ski's Mimoires sur la Pologne et les Polo-
naisdepuis\788—1815 (Paris, 1826,4 vols.);
and the  same author's Observations  sur
la Pologne et les Polonais pour servir cTIn-
troduction aux Memoires, etc. (Paris, 1827).
  Polish Language.  The uncertainty of
the earliest Polish history spreads a deep
obscurity over the rise and progress of the
language. It is of Sclavonic origin, as its
whole   structure  proves,  but  borrowed,
from the people who had previously in-
habited the country, such a multitude of
hard consonants, that it differs  very much
in this respect from its eastern sister,  the
Russian language.  The cultivation of the
language early met with a great obstacle
on account of the adoption of Christianity,
according to  the  Latin ritual in 965; for
the clergy, being the most cultivated order,
took possession of the places of honor and
the public offices, so that the Latin language
became the language ofjhe state, and after-
wards, on account of thd kings and queens
being  foreigners, the  language  of  the
court and of all the educated classes also.
The language ofthe country first recover-
ed its rights in the reign of Sigismund, in
the sixteenth century, and became, in the
middle  of that century, the language of 
POLAND, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF.          209
books; it then declined in the seventeenth,
but flourished agaiu during the reign of
Stanislaus Augustus, and ripened to a ma-
turity of which even the  sulisequent po-
litical changes could not entirely deprive
it  In 1801, a society for the preservation
of the purity  of the  Polish language  was
formed at Warsaw, under the direction of
the bishop Abbertrandi, and, in 1802, pub-
lished  the  firet volume of their transac-
tions. The language can appear hareh and
rough only to those who are unacquainted
with it;  notwithstanding the multiplicity
of consonants, it is superior in harmony
and flexibility to the other Sclavonic dia-
lects.  Of the grammars, after that by the
Piarist Copczynski, the following may be
recommnided ; that  by Mongrovius (3d
edition, Dantzic, 1827), and Vatcr (Halle,
1807), particularly that by George Bandtke
(a new edition, Breslau, 1824), and  the
Firet Principles of the Polish  Language,
by Meozinski  (Warsaw, 1822).  Of  dic-
tionaries, that by Bandtke  (Breslau, 1806),
and the great one by Linde,are the most val-
uable.  The latter is in six quarto volumes.
  Polish Literature.   Although the mar-
riage of Miccislaw with Dotnbrowka, the
daughter of the king of Bohemia, led to
the  introduction  of  Christianity into Po-
land, iu 965, the  continual domestic and
foreign  wars prevented this event from
producing any favorable effect on the civ-
ilization  of the  country.   The political
literature  begins, in  the twelfth century,
with the chronicles of the country, written
in  Latin,  by Mart  Gallus (about 1109),
Nicholas  Kudlubek  (died in  1223), and
Boguphalus (died 1255), and the chronicle
of the popes and German emperors by
Mart.  Strzempski,  or Polonius (died in
1279).  A new edition of Vincent Kadju-
beck's Res gestai Principum  ac  Regum
Pohniai appeared at Warsaw, iu 1824, to-
gether with Dzierswau's Chronicon Polo-
norum (of the thirteenth century).  After
a long cessation, Casimir III, or the Great,
who reigned  from 1333 to 1370, improved
the  state  of  things.   He not only built
many cities, but, in 1347, drew up a code
of laws,  first held the  diets, encouraged
i.griculture and manufactures, and found-
ed,  in 1347,  the  university  of Cracow,
which was revived in 1400, but  was not
in a flourishing condition till the sixteenth
century.   The seed sown by him ripened
slowly and silently,  and the  progress of
cultivation firet became apparent  in Joh.
Dlugosa's (bishop of Lemberg) Polish his-
tory (he died in 1480), which was rich in
materials  and in  documents. The  firet
Polish printing-press was established at
Cracow,  in 1488.  (See Bentkowskj, On
tiie oldest printed Works in Poland,W nrssixv,
1812, and Bandtke's History ofthe Cracow
Printing-presses.)  Under the prosperous
reigns of the  two Sigismuuds, from 1507
to 1572, the proper national literature be-
gan, which, in a remarkably  short time,
made a wonderful  progress.  The  refor-
mation, which met with the silent favor of
government, and found so many adherents,
that even the Socinians were  tolerated,
contribute to increase freedom of thought.
Under the vigorous reign of Stephen Ba-
thory, from 1576 to 1586, the literary ac-
tivity did not  cease, and in  the  following
reigns  the royal general, Joh. Zamoyski,
effected much by the establishment of in-
stitutions, and by his  own example.   But
he  was the  last active promoter of the
national culture, and it was owing to him
that it  did not decline under the feeble
reign of the Swedish Sigismund, and the
injurious  influence which the zealous and
ambitious Jesuits exerted on freedom  of
thought and of the press.  That it did not
rise  higher, is to be  attributed to the un-
happy  fate of the country, distracted by
party violences, so  that  even its national
existence  was   frequently  endangered.
Under  the Saxon  princes, literature was
not in a more promising condition ; but it
flourished more under the wise adminis-
tration of the  accomplished Stanislaus Po-
niatowski, and attained, during his  reign,
such a vigor, that even the  subsequent
storms, in the course of which Poland was
erased from the list of states, were not able
to destroy it.  The Polish literature is not
very valuable in a scientific point of view,
though it has  produced many excellent
works iu this  department;  but its greatest
interest is owing to its pure nationality, of
which  the literature  of few nations  can
boast in  the same  degree.  At  no period
did the bold and aspiring national spirit of
this active people fail, however full of for-
eign usurpation the history of Poland may
be.  The literature always continued to ad-
vance with the state of society, and turned
mostly on those points whichareofthehigh-
est interest in the relations ofa state. Hence
the  almost total absence of philosophers
and mathematicians (the astronomers Co-
pernicus, and Pockzobut, Job. Sniadeckj,
and  the  natural philosophers, Rogalinski
and Jos.  Sosinski, excepted); hence also,
on the other side, the abundance of nation-
al historians  and of lofty  poets praising
the  exploits of their ancestors, or lament-
ing  the present state of their country.   In
works  of mere fiction they met with less
success:  still  the Poles  successfully trans- 
210
POLAND, LITERATURE OF.
ferred to their own language the produc-
tions of other nations.  The ex-Jesuit Ign.
Nagurczweski translated the Iliad, Virgil's
Eclogues, and other writings of antiquity ;
the excellent critic Francis Dmochowski
translated, in noble flowing language and
easy  versification, the  Iliad  (Wareaw,
1800, 3 vols.); and there is another trans-
lation of this  poem,  together  with  the
Odyssey, by Przybvlski; Pet Kochanow-
ski translated Tasso's Jerusalem (Cracow,
1687 ; edited by  Czayowski, professor  of
Polish literature at the university of Cra-
cow, Breslau, 1825); Krasicki, Tymien-
iecki and Brodzinski  translated Ossian;
Joh. Kochanowski, and afterwards Na-
ruscewicz, Horace.  The latter, in a mas-
terly manner,  and perfectly in  the spirit
of the  original,  translated Tacitus; and
Kai pinski,  the Jardins  of Delille.  The
historians who  deserve  mention  are,
Stryikowski (author  of the  Lithuanian
Chronicle, from the best sources), Stanis-
laus  Orzechowski, Mart.  Cromer, Joh.
Deinetr.  Sulikowski,  Stanislaus  Kobier-
zycki (who wrote a history of Wladislaus
IV, in classical Latin), the spirited Piasecki,
die impartial Vespasian  Kochowski, and,
above all, the celebrated Jesuit  Narusze-
wicz (q. v.), distinguished alike for deep re-
8earch,criticalacuteness, and the excellence
of his manner.  The latter began the general
history of the Poles, the continuation  of
which several members ofthe royal War-
saw society of sciences undertook in the
name of the society.   Niemcewicz (q. v.),
esteemed as a statesman, a warrior and a
poet,  has published   national  historical
songs (with engravings and music,  1815),
with historical illustrations.   Count Po-
tocki has  distinguished himself by  his
histoiy  of  the fine  arts  in  his Polish
Winckelmann (Warsaw, 1816,  4 vols.),  by
his Rhetoric, and by his  Political and Oc-
casional Speeches (Warsaw, 1815,5 vols.).
Count Seb. Sierakowski has published a
splendid work on architecture ; Braty-
mowicz, well known  for his  services  in
draining the marshes in  the vicinity  of
Pinsk, and for his plan  for the union  of
the navigable rivers of Poland, a work  on
agriculture.   Barth.   Paprocki, Okolski,
and Casp. Niesiecki, who is not sufficient-
ly valued by many, have  published im-
portant works on genealogy and heraldry.
Stanislaus Konarski is distinguished as a
writer  on  politics  and education, and
Andr. Zamoyski (1777),  as the author of
a Polish code of laws, which was unwisely
rejected  by the  diet, that  had caused it
to be drawn up.  Kluk,  Ladowski and
Jundzill wrote on natural history.  The
oldest and finest  monument  of Polish
poetry is the works of Job. Kochanowski
(born in  1550, and died in 1584), which
are distinguished for their pure and noble
style, beauty  of  versification,  delicacy
and feeling.  They consist of a translation
of the Psalms, a didactic poem  on chess,
songs, elegies and epigrams.  Sim. Simo-
nowicz  is still a model in the idyl, and
Stanislaus Grochowski in sentimental lyric
poetry.   Vespasian Kochowski and Joh.
Twardowski, in the seventeenth century,
are not remarkable for taste, but the latter
is distinguished for his fire.  Ofthe mod-
erns, Stanislaus Trembecki, Francis Kni-
aznin,Francis Zablocki, Kajetan Wengier-
ski, Valer. Gorski, Francis Wenzyk, Dysma
Tomaszewski, the  animated Kajet Koz-
mian, Tymowski,  Louis Osinski, Rek-
lewski, the fiery Kasim. Brodzinski, the
tasteful Joh. Kruszynski, the epigrammatic
and flowing, but incorrect Ant. Gorecki,
the correct Alois Felinski, Francis Ma-
rawski,  the national  and  Pindaric Joh.
Woronicz, deserve  to  be  mentioned.
Franzisczek Karpinski is esteemed for his
noble and pure language and  deep  and
tender feeling  (Lyric and Elegiac Poems,
Warsaw,  1790, 2  vols.).   The  great, but
unhappy king Stanislaus  Leczynski also
composed with success.   But the prince-
bishop Ignatius Krasicki  (q. v.), who died
in 1802, is the only writer who  is classic
both as a poet and  prose writer: he is also
a witty satirist, the only original epic poet
(Woyna Chocimska) of the Poles, and the
translator of Ossian.  In  1817, Dyrma
Tomascewski published a heroic poem in
12 cantos, under the title Jagellonida (the
Union of Lithuania with  Poland).  (See
Bo wring's Specimens ofthe Polish Poets.)
The literature  of Poland is rich in popu-
lar songs (Salanki Polske, Warsaw, 1778),
and also in dramatic works, of which the
most celebrated are those  of Jos. Bielaw-
ski, Francis Zablocki, Jos. Kossakowski,
Niemcewicz,  Drozdowski, Louis  Dmus-
cewski, Francis Wenzyk, Felinski, Louis
Osinski, Alb. Boguslawski, Ant  Hoffman,
&c.   The dramatic works written  be-
tween 1770 and 1794 are mostly contain-
ed m a collection (Teatr Polski', Warsaw,
1778,  seq., 56 vols.).  As pulpit orators,
Lachowski and Wyrwicz are known even
in foreign countries by translations.   In
general, the old Polish  authors, particu-
larly of the time of Sigismund  Augustus
and Stephen Bathory,are still the classical
models of the Polish style, although great
changes took place in the Polish language
in the eighteenth century.  Joh. Kocha-
nowski, Skarga, Wuiek, Bialobrzeski, Gor- 
POLAND, LITERATURE OF.                    211
nicki, Stanislaus Grochowski, Seb. Petry-
qy, Joh. Januszowski, Cyprian  Bazylik,
Mart. Blazowski, Mart. Bielski, and oth-
ers,  are yet esteemed as  classics.   Of
the  modern classical  prose  writers  of
Poland  may be mentioned Ignatius Kra-
sicki, a model  of ease and  nature, Joh.
Sniadecki, Naruszewic%, Skrzetuski, Jod-
lowski,  Czacki, Louis Osinski, Stanislaus
Potocki,  Albertraudi,  Karpiiiski,  Dmo-
chowski,  Alb.  Sweykowski, and others.
The work which appeared at Wareaw, in
several  volumes, entitled Wybor Pisar' zow
Polskich,  contains  a selection  from the
classical authors of  Poland  The  royal
society  of the Friends of Science at War-
saw has  rendered important services to
Polish  literature.  It has  published sev-
eral volumes of transactions.    In  1815,
three literary journals in the Polish lan-
guage were  published at Warsaw, Wilna
and Lemberg.   In 1818, there were six.
—See Letters, Literary and Political,  on
Poland  (Edinb^ 1823).  The  Polish no-
bility were  never strangers  to literature;
and of late years the spirit has spread to
the other citizens, and both within the
limits of what now constitutes the king-
dom, and in all the countries  formerly
belonging to it, a literary activity has pre-
vailed since the  general peace  in Europe,
in 1815, assisted by learned  societies, and
periodical publications and journals,whose
wings, indeed, have been  clipped  by an
arbitrary  censorship.   Wareaw, WHna,
Cracow,  Lemberg, Posen  and  Breslau
have been  the  central points of intelli-
gence.  Learned inquirers  have, in the
most recent periods, labored to  develope
the Polish language, and to purify it from
the foreign  terms with which it  has been
overloaded.  A literary histoiy of all the
Sclavonic nations  was undertaken, some
years since, by  Linde, at Wareaw, assisted
by  many scholars of  distinction.  En-
deavors have been made  to collect the
historical documents  of  former  times,
which are still in existence, and  to obtain
better editions of the old original authors.
A  new  edition, in   two   volumes,  of
Bandtke's Histoiy of Poland, in the Polish
language, appeared at Cracow and War-
saw in  1822.  Surowiecki,  who died in
1827, distinguished himself byhis historical
and statistical writings, as well as Michael
Oginski, by  his Memoirs of Poland, in the
French  language.   Efforts  have  been
made also to collect works of art illustra-
tive of  Polish histoiy, and the  episcopal
palace at Cracow has been converted into
a museum  for  such  monuments. ^ The
Monumenta  Regum Polonin  Cracoviensia
has been published in  numbers, at War-
saw, commencing in 1822, and consisting
of  engravings, illustrated  by a text  in
Polish,  Latin  and French.  The Polish
nation  has erected to the hero Koscius-
ko, at Cracow, a monument  of stupendous
proportions, and after the old  Sarmatian
fashion, consisting ofa hill 120 feet high,
and about 280 in diameter at base. The rich
nobles of Poland have never been deficient
in a love for  making collections.  Count
Stanislaus Potocki, while he superintended
the department of public instmction, from
1803 to  1821, set the example of throwing
open these collections to  the public use;
and a library, which owes its present con-
sequence  principally to Linde, who col-
lected, in 1819, from the suppressed mon-
asteries, 40,000 volumes,  including many
very valuable works, offers  important
means of study, which have been diligent-
ly improved  by  the people.   Among the
authors  who  are  the favorites of the na-
tion, and  have gained the  most decided
influence, are Fz. Karpinski (who died in
1820);  Trembccki (who died in 1812), dis-
tinguished as  a lyric poet,  fabulist, di lactic
poet and  epistolary writer;  Stanislaus
Zachowitsch,  for his Fables  and Tales
(2d edit 1826, at Wareaw).  Still higher
stands Julius  Niemcewicz  (q.  v.), whose
patriotic historical songs have become the
possession ofthe people  (Wareaw,  1816
and 1821). A dramatic work  of general
Boguslawski, Krakowiani i  Ctrali (War-
saw, 1823),   is interesting for the num-
ber  of  its  patriotic  songs.   The  dra-
matic works of count F. Wezyk (National
Historical Tragedies, Cracow,  1823), and
the nine Comedies of Count Alex. Fred-
ro (in Polish, Vienna, 1826,  2  vols.),  de-
serve mention.   There  are  Polish  ro-
mances   by  count  Frederic  Skarbeck.
J.  U.   Niemcewicz  has  imitated  sir
Walter  Scott  in  his historical romance
Jan. Y.  Tenczyna  (Wareaw,  1827,  3
vols.).   The   exact  and  experimental
sciences,  also, have not been  neglect-
ed  of  late years.  Arnold, at Wareaw,
is devoted to  the  literature  of  natural
history.   Botany appears  not to  have at-
tracted,  as yet, the interest which the un-
explored treasures of the vegetable king-
dom of Poland deserve.   Of medical u-ea-
tises there are not a few, though the in-
fluence of foreign models is generally ap-
parent in them.  Societies are  active for
the advancement of agriculture.  Garden-
ing has  received the  attention of men
of high  standing; and  the  president of
the senate of Cracow, Stan.  Wodzicki,
has written a  treatise to make his country- 
212    POLAND, LITERATURE OF—POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.
men acquainted with the trees and shrubs
which will  endure the  climate  of  the
country.  Works upon jurisprudence have
been  written  by  Macieiowski,  Budny
and  Sanwicki.   The present university
of Wareaw arose from  the law school
founded  by count Lubieuski.   With re-
spect to the historical literature of Poland,
we refer particularly to the Revue Ency-
clopidique (Oct., 1827).
   Polar Bear.  (See Bear.)
   Polar  Expeditions.    (See North
Pole, Expeditions to.)
   Polarity.  (See Electricity, and Mag-
netism.)
   Polarization of Light; a new branch
of optical science, that has sprung from
tin observation of Mahis, who noticed that
when a  beam of light is reflected from
the surface of a transparent  body,  at a
certain angle, it acquires  the same singu-
lar property which  is impressed upon  it
in the act of double refraction.  (See Re-
fraction,  Double.)  If a solar ray fall on
the anterior surface of an unsilvered  mir-
ror plate, making an angle with it of 35°
25', the ray will be reflected  in  a right
line, so that the angle of reflection  will
be equal to the angle of incidence.  If, in
any point of its reflected path, we receive
it on another plane of similar glass, it will
suffer, in general, a second general re-
flection.  But this reflection will vanish,
if the second plate of glass form an angle
of 35° 25' With the first reflected ray, and
at the same time  be turned so that the
second reflection is made in a plane  per-
pendicular to that in which the first re-
flection takes  place.   For  the sake of
illustration, suppose  that  the plane of
incidence ofthe ray on the first glass, co-
incides with the  plane of  the  meridian,
and that the reflected ray is vertical: then,
if we make the second inclined plate re-
volve, it will turn round the reflected ray,
forming  always with  it the same angle;
and the  plane in which the second re-
flection  takes place will  necessarily be
directed towards the different points of
the horizon in different azimuths.  This
being arranged, the  following phenome-
na will be observed:—When the second
plane of reflection is directed in the me-
ridian, aud  consequently coincides with
the  first, the  intensity  of the light re-
flected by the second glass is at its maxi-
mum: in proportion as the second plane,
in its revolution, deviates from its paral-
lelism with  the first, the intensity of the
reflected  light  will  diminish ;  finally,
when the  second plane  of reflection  is
placed iu the  prime vertical, that is, east
and west, and consequently perpendicular
to the first, the  intensity of the reflection
of light is absolutely null  on the two sur-
faces of the second glass, tuul the ray is
entirely transmitted.  Preserving the sec-
ond plate  at the same  inclination to the
horizon, if we continue to make it revolve
beyond  the quadn.nt now described, the
phenomena will be reproduced in the in-
verse order ;  that is, the intensity of light
will  increase precisely as it  diminished,
and it will become  equal at equal  dis-
tances from east and west  Hence, when
the second plane of  reflection returns
once  more to  the meridian, a  second
maximum  of intensity, equal to the first,
recurs.  From  these experiments  it ap-
pears, that the  ray reflected  by the  fii-st
glass  is not reflected by  the  second, un-
der  this  incidence, when  it  is  pre-
sented to  it by its east and  west  sides;
but that it is reflected, at least in  part,
when it is  presented to the glass,  by any
two  others of  its  opposite sides.   Now,
if we regard the ray as an infinitely rapid
succession of a series of luminous parti-
cles, the faces of the ray are  merely the
successive  faces of these  particles.   We
must hence conclude that these particles
possess faces  endowed   with  different
physical properties, and that,  in the pres-
ent circumstance,  the first reflection has
turned  towards the  same sides of space
similar faces, or faces  equally endowed,
at least, with the property under consid-
eration.   It is  this  arrangement  of its
molecules  which is  called the polariza-
tion of light, assimilating the effect of the
first glass to that of a magnetic  bar,
which would turn a series of magnetic
needles all in the same direction.  Similar
phenomena may be produced, by substi-
tuting for the  mirror  glasses polished
plates, formed,  for the greater part, of
transparent bodies.  The two planes of
reflection  must always remain rectangu-
lar, but they must be presented to the
luminous  ray at different aDgles, accord-
ing to their nature.   Generally, all  pol-
ished surfaces have the property of  thus
polarizing light, more or less  completely;
bill there is for each of them a particular
incidence  in which the polarization that
it impresses is  most complete.  When a
ray of light has received polarization in
a certain  direction,  by the process just
described,  it  carries with it this property
into  space, preserving  it without  per-
ceptible  alteration,  when we make  it
traverse perpendicularly  a considerable
mass of air, water, or any substance  pos-
sessed of  single refraction. But the  sub- 
                 POLARIZATION OF

stances which possess double refraction,
in general, alter the polarization of light,
and apparently in a sudden manner, com-
municating  to the polarized ray  a  new
polarization of the  same nature,  but in
another direction. Among the most in-
teresting phenomena connected with this
subject, are the colore produced  by the
action of  crystallized  bodies upon polar-
ized light.  When  thin  plates of glass,
selenite, mica, agate, quartz-crystal, tour-
maline, &c, are exposed in  a  beam of
polarized light, die most beautiful  and
vivid colors, resembling those  observed
by Newton iu thin films of air or  liquids,
only infinitely more strikiug, make  their
appearance.   The attentive  examination
of these colors has led to a  theory both
of polarization  and  double refraction,
which, says Herschel, in his Discourse
on the Study of Natural Philosophy, is so
happy in  its adaptation to facts,  and in
the  coincidence  with experience of re-
sults deduced from it by the most intri-
cate analysis, that it  is difficult  to con-
ceive it unfounded.   Our limits  do not
permit us to go  farther into this interest-
ing subject; for a more complete elucida-
tion of which, we must refer the reader
to the  article Polarization  of  Light, in
the Library of Usefid Knowledge.
   Pole,  Reginald, cardinal, an eminent
 statesman and ecclesiastic, born in 1500,
 was  the  son of sir Richard Pole,  lord
 Montacute,  cousin  to Hemy VII, by
 Margaret, daughter of the duke of Clar-
 ence, brother to  Edward IV.  He enter-
 ed into deacon's orders  at  an  early age,
 and  bad several benefices  conferred on
 him by Henry VIII, with whom  he was
 a great  favorite.  In  1519, he visited
 Italy, and returned to England in  1525,
 but,  in consequence  of the  affair of the
 divorce  from Catharine of Arragon, with-
 drew to Paris.  Henry desired to obtain
 the concurrence of his kinsman  in that
 measure ;  but  Pole, imbued  with  the
 maxims ofthe church of Rome, drew up
 a treatise  De  Unitate Ecclesiastica, in
 which  he  excited the emperor  Charles
 V to revenge the injury of his aunt.  The
 consequence of this conduct was the
 loss of all his preferment in England, in
 return for which, he  endeavored  to  form
 a party against  Henry, which design ter-
 minated  in the destruction of his  brother,
 lord Montacute,  and  of his  aged  mother,
 then countess of  Salisbury, whom the
 vindictive  Henry  sent  to  the scaffold.
 But the countenance  of  the court of
 Rome was extended  to Pole, and, besides
 being raised to die dignity of cardinal, he
LIGHT—POLENDA.             213

was  employed  in  various  negotiations.
He was also appointed one of the three
papal legates to the  council of Trent.
On the accession of Mary I, his attainder
was reversed, and he was invited to Eng-
land, where he endeavored to moderate
the rigor of Gardiner  and others against
the reformers, and  was an advocate lor
lenient measures, and such a correction
of clerical  abuses  as would  conciliate
them.  On the death of Cranmer, Pole,
then,  for the firet  time, ordained priest,
became archbishop of Canterbury,  and
was, at the same time, elected chancellor
of both the  universities; and, while he act-
ed with much severity in the  extirpation
of heresy, he made several salutary regu-
lations for  the advancement of learning.
He died in 1558.   Cardinal Pole seems
not to have been a  man of commanding
talents, either political or literary; but he
merited  great esteem for his mildness,
generosity, and comparative moderation,
in an age when persecution was deemed
lawful on all sides.
   Pole, in magnetism.  Two points ofa
loadstone, corresponding to the poles of
the equator, the one pointing to the north,
the other to the south, are called poles.
(See Magnetism.)
   Pole  or Polar  Star is a star of the
second magnitude,  the last in the tail of
Ursa Minor.
   Pole, Perch, or Rod, in surveying, is a
measure containing sixteen feet and a half.
   Pole-Axe; a  sort  of hatchet nearly
resembling a battle-axe, having a handle
about fifteen inches long, and being fur-
nished with a .sharp point, bending down-
wards from  the back of its head.  It is
principally used on board of ships, to cut
uway the  rigging  of an adversary who
endeavors  to board.   They  have also
been sometimes employed in  boarding
an enemy whose hull was more lofty than
that ofthe boarders, by driving the points
into her side,  one above  another, and
thereby forming a kind of scaling-ladder;
whence they are sometimes called board-
ing-axes.
   Poles of the Ecliptic ;  two points
 on the surface of the sphere,  23° 307 dis-
tant from the poles of the equator, and 90°
distant from every part ofthe ecliptic.
   Polemburg.  (See Poelemburg.)
   Polenda, or Polenta ; a national dish
 in Italy, particularly in the northern part
 of the  country, but very common  in all
 the Mediterranean seaports.  It is a kind
 of soft  pudding made of the flour of
 chestnuts or maize, generally with  small
 pieces of meat in it 
314
POLICE.
  Police, in the common acceptation of
the word, in the U. States and England,
is applied to the municipal rules, institu-
tions and officers provided for maintain-
ing order, cleanliness, &c.; but in all the
great  countries of the European conti-
nent, there  is, besides this police, a mili-
tary police  extending  over  the whole
state,  and what is called  the high police,
which is occupied in watching the politi-
cal  tendency of the people,  and every
thing  connected with it   It is  evident
that a police of this sort, as a regular in-
strument of the government, is  incom-
patible with English or American liberty.
This high police generally forms a  de-
partment under  a  minister ;  several
branches ofthe lower police are general-
ly connected with it, sometimes all  ex-
cept the lowest street police.  The end
of the high  police is obtained chiefly by
means of the secret  police—that cancer
which eats  iuto the vitals of society, and
the  pollution of which Great Britain may
be  proud of having escaped, notwith-
standing the violent political  changes
which  she  has  undergone, The secret
police consists of a body of people of all
classes, needy men and women of rank,
mistresses,  &c, down to the waiters of
coffoe-houses, and the lowest visitors of
taverns  and houses  of ill-fame, who re-
port whatever they hear against the gov-
ernment  How often do they not invent
stories to render themselves important!
The deplorable  consequences of an insti-
tution so destructive to all confidence and
sense of security, are obvious, especially
when  it is considered that its  instru-
ments are the most worthless part of  the
community.  On  the  reports of  such
miscreants  men's lives and liberties de-
pend ; and the charges being kept secret,
no means are afforded of refuting them.
These agents are not unlike the familiars
of the inquisition.  This institution origi-
nated in France, if we do not consider
the  informers, whom every tyrant proba-
bly  has  had, as  a  secret police.  The
marquis d'Argenson, under Louis XIV,
was the inventor of it  He was  lieuten-
ant-giniral de la police from 1697 to 1718
(since 1667 this  had  been a  separate
office).   The prevailing  licentiousness
had occasioned innumerable  outrages,
and D'Argenson, called by his contempo-
raries  Rhadamanlhus, hunted out crime in
its  deepest  recesses, and  brought  it  to
light, whatever was  the rank of the  of-
fender.  Sartines, director of the police
of Paris, with the  same power, but not
the  same rank, conducted  the secret po-
 lice from 1762 to 1774, and extended it
 very much ; he was equally active with
 D'Argenson, but not so honest.  He had
 agents in all the  countries  of Europe.
 Many stories are  told of his  skill in de-
 tecting crime, while others exist of a less
 creditable character, such as his sending
 a pheasant dressed with diamonds to his
 mistress; aud  when another refused to
 take a costly brilliant  ring,  he  had the
 stone pounded to dust, and strewed the
 powder on the ink ofa note addressed to
 her.  Louis XVI took the charge of the
 police from him, and made him minister
 of the marine, in which office his total
 inexperience made him ridiculous. (Mad.
 de Stael, Considerations sur la Revolution
 Franc, i. chap. 8.)   Lcnoire  followed
 (1774—1784),  an  honest  man,  who im-
 proved many departments  of the police
 in Paris.  The empress Maria Theresa
 requested him to write a work for her on
 the subject of police regulations, and the
 Ddail sur  quelquts Etablissemens  djs la
 Ville  de Paris, demawii par  S. M.  I. la
 Reine de  Hongrie (Paris, 1780), was the
 result.  He died poor, in 1807.  Le Cros-
 na followed  him.   He was unimportant.
 Never was the department of the police
 in the hands of a more active and saga-
 cious politician thanFonche; never was
 a secret  police so  thoroughly organized
 over, we might almost say, all Europe;
 and when the charge of the public police
 was taken from him, he  had a police of
 his  own,  to watch the movements of Sa-
 vary, as  Napoleon had had  his  contre-
pHice against Fouche, in which the em-
 peror, however, was  always inferior to
 the minister.  The most glaring instance
 of the abuse to which the secret police
 is  always  liable,  is the  death  of the
 duke  d'Enghien, who perished in conse-
 quence  of  the reports  of  the  secret
 police.   Perhaps,  however,  there  are
 cases in which  its employment is justifi-
 able.  When a fundamental  change has
 taken place in the government ofa coun-
 try  (like  the  late  one in France), and a
 numerous party exists, not constituting
 what  is called, in free  governments,  an
 opposition, but  actually striving to over-
 throw the established order,—as,  for in-
 stance, the Carlists, who  exist at present
 in France,—under such circumstances, a
 secret police may, perhaps, be admissible,
 as poisons are prescribed  in some dread-
 ful  diseases, producing bad  effects un-
 doubtedly, but preventing worse.  Such
 a department should never be intrusted
 but to a man  of unquestionable honor
 and  integrity.  After  the  war of 1815, 
POLICE—POLIGNAC
215
Prussia declared that the secret police—
a necessary evil in times such as had just
terminated—was abolished for the future.
Whether it actually was abolished for a
moment, we do not know; but we know
that it  existed not long after,  and flour-
ishes at present in  that  country, as in all
other important governments on the Eu-
ropean continent  One  duty ofthe secret
police always is to open  suspected letters;
and this was done even under Louis XIV.
The  more absolute a government is, and
the more it strives to be  the sole moving
and regulating principle of the society, to
the destruction of individual freedom, the
more will the police be developed ; whilst,
on the  other hand, the freer a  country is,
and the more it follows the principle, that
every thing which can be possibly left to
take care of itself,should be so left, the more
strictly is the police confined to  mere mat-
ters of municipal regulation. The scientific
spirit of the Germans, connected with the
character of their governments, has given
rise, in that country, to the police  sciences, so
called,  which are systematically develop-
ed and thoroughly cultivated.  It is true,
that, from the arbitrary nature of the gov-
ernments, diis branch of administration is
extended to many subjects which, in freer
states, would be left to general law or in-
dividual discretion ; but, as it is obviously
much easier to perfect some branches of
the police in  absolute governments  than
in free countries, particularly the medical
police,  valuable  hints  may be  derived
from the German system.  Iu  no country
has the medical police been so much de-
veloped  (frequently, it is true, to the  an-
noyance of the people) as in Prussia, be-
cause  no country ever  combined  more
scientific men  with  an absolute govern-
ment   Without, then,  taking  the Prus-
sian  medical police  as  a model in  every
particular, it has many points which it
would be wise in other  nations to imitate.
In free countries, the place ofa secret po-
lice is, in a  great  measure, supplied by
public opinion and the liberty ofthe press;
and it is curious to observe how the most
secret  transactions,  or  coiTespondeuce,
will by degrees come to light; iu fact, in
some free countries, a politician needs to
be quite as much  on his guard against
making statements in writing,  as in abso-
lute governments, since the danger of their
reaching the press  is as great  as that of
their detection by  a secret police.   The
first  police  regulations  are met  with in
Egypt (q. v.)  The Mosaic code, partly
founded on the Egyptian, contains  many
rules of this sort   The police  of the
Greeks  was  excellent.   With  them, as
with their imitators the  Romans, the po-
lice formed a separate branch of the ad-
ministration.   The  capitularies of  the
Frankish  kings  contain  the next police
regulations.   In  1548 and 1577, the Ger-
man empire became subject to such regu-
lations.   Some account  of the  police of
London  is contained in the article Lon-
don.  The king of England, in his speech
from  the  throne in  the winter of J£-31,
recommends  an  improvement of tin  po-
lice ofthe kingdom.  (See Politics.;
  Policinello.   (See Punchinello.)
  Policy of Insurance. (See Insurance.)
  Polignac, Melchior de, abbe, and sub-
sequently cardinal, a French diplomatist,
born 1661, died 1741, was descended from
a distinguished family of Languedoc.   In
1689, he rendered himself conspicuous by
his address in the negotiations with  pope
Alexander VIII, relative to the articles
adopted by the French clergy in U>2. In
1693, the abbe de Polignac was  nrmed
ambassador extraordinary to Poland,  for
the purpose of detaching John Sohieski
from  the  league with Austria, and  draw-
ing him over  to an alliance with Fiance.
On the death of Sobieski (1696), he was
employed  in endeavoring  to  iffett the
election  of the  prince  of Conti  to die
Polish throne.  His intrigues, though sec-
onded by large bribes, were, however, un-
successful.  On  his return to France, in
1698, he  was banished  the court on  ac-
count of the  failure of this mission.  In
1710, he  was  sent to take part in the nego-
tiations  at Gertruydenberg, and, in  1712,
was appointed plenipotentiary to the con-
gress of*Utrecht,  and was afterwards min-
ister to the court of Rome.  As a writer,
Polignac is known by his didactic  poem,
in eight books, against the Epicurean sys-
tem, entitled Anti-Lucretius, seu de  Deo et
Natura  (Paris,  1747), which  has  been
translated into English, French and Ger-
man.  He died  in  1741. (See the His-
toire du Cardinal de Polignac.)
  Polignac,  Auguste Jules Armand  Ma-
rie, prince de, ex-minister of France,  was
boru  in 1780.  His mother, the favorite of
Marie Antoinette,  and governess in  the
royal family,  was married, in 1767,  to  the
count de Polignac, who was  descended
from the same  illustrious family as  the
cardinal.  (See the preceding article.)  In
1780, her husband was created duke, and,
soon  after, the duchess became  gcv< rness
to the young  dauphin.   In 1789, in conse-
quence of some  manifestations of p- pillar
hatred, she and  her husband left France
with  the count d'Artois (since Cha  es X), 
216
POLIGNAC—POLISH  LEGIONS.
the prince of Conde, &c.  She died soon
after (1793), at Vienna.  The duke de  Po-
lignac  died at St  Petersburg  in 1817.
The subject of this article emigrated from
France with his parents, and  his elder
brother Armand (born 1771), and  resided
first in Russia and then in England, in
which  country he was  aid to the count
d'Artois. The two brothers were engaged
in the  plots of Georges and Pichegni, the
elder having landed iu France with  the
former (December, 1803), and the younger
with Pichegru, in the following January.
On the detection of the conspiracy,  Ar-
mand was condemned to death, and Jules
to two years' imprisonment.  At the time
of this trial, the two brothers gave a re-
markable proof of fraternal affection:  Ar-
mand pleaded that mercy ought to be ex-
tended  to  his  brother, who was  young,
and whom  he had led into the danger.
Jules,  on  the  other  hand, entreated  the
judges to spare the life of his brother, and
to accept his own instead: " I," said  he,
"am a single man, without fortune or  sta-
tion ; my brother is married: do not drive
a virtuous woman to despair; and, if you
will not spare him, at least let me share
his fate."  Napoleon, yielding to the tears
and prayers of Mad.  de Polignac, who,
encouraged  by Josephine  and Hortenso,
threw herself at the feet of the  emperor,
commuted  the sentence of Armand to
imprisonment, and he  remained in con-
finement at Ham, in the Temple,  and at
Vincennes, several years.   The brothers
still, however, continued to engage in  the
intrigues against the emperor, and took
part iu the conspiracy of Mallet.   In
1814, they escaped, and joined Monsieur
(Charles X), who sent them with  full
powers to Paris, where  (March 31) they
planted the white colors.  Jules  was soon
after sent by the king on an embassy to
Rome, and, in 31ay, 1815, he followed the
court to Ghent (see Louis XVIII), whence
he was despatched to Savoy, to  rally  the
emigrant royalists.   On this latter mission
he rendered important services, and, after
the second restoration, was created  (Aug.
17,1815) peer of France.   He was one of
the peers who at first refused to take  the
oath of admission, principally on  the
ground that it was contrary to the interests
of religion, but, after the delivery of the
king's speech, on the opening of the cham-
bers in 1816, professed himself satisfied by
the declarations therein  contained, and
took the oath in the form prescribed.   In
1816, he married Miss Campbell, the heir-
ess ofa rich Scotch family.  He was sub-
sequently appointed ambassador to Lou-
don, and, in August, 1829, was recalled to
take the place of president of the ministry.
(See France, History of)  From the firet,
prince Polignac was regarded with suspi-
cion by the friends of constitutional liberty
in  France.   His  known disposition, the
character of his associates, the bigotry of
the king, and the open menaces of the
royalist faction,  prevented the possibility
of any cordial cooperation between the
ministry  and  the chambers,  and finally
precipitated Charles  X from his  throne.
The histoiy of this eleven months  will be
found  in the article  above  referred to.
The  prince was arrested  at Granville
(Aug. 15}, in the disguise ofa valet, and
conveyed to Paris to  await his trial.  He
was defended before  the peers  by his
predecessor in office, Martignac, declared
guilty of treason, and  sentenced  to civil
death.  Dec. 29, he was transferred, with
his colleagues, to Ham.  (See Prodis des
Ex-Ministres; 2 vols., 8vo., Paris, 1831.)
  Polis ; a Greek word (itAis) for  city,
which  appears  in  many  geographical
names, as  Nicopolis.   In Russian, it is
pol, as Stavropol  (city  of the cross).  In
some names, it has become pie, as in Con-
stantinople ;  and, in some F rench  names,
ble, as  Grenoble, from Gratianopolis.
  Polish History, Language and Lit-
erature.  (See Poland.)
  Polish Legions.   The unfortunate re-
sult of the glorious  revolution in  Poland
in 1794, and the third partition of that un-
happy country, in 1795, filled Europe with
Polish refugees, who eagerly joined the
armies of republican France.  In October,
1796, general Dombrowski laid before the
directoiy a  plan for raising a legion of
Polish  patriots, to serve under the  French
general against the common  enemies of
France and Poland.   The directory  rec-
ommended him to lay his plan before the
Cisalpine republic, and, with the approba-
tion of general Bonaparte, the government
of that republic agreed (Jan. 7, 1797) to
take a body of Poles into pay, who were
to be allowed to retain their national cos-
tume, but adopted the  French cockade.
By April, the number under Dombrowski
amounted to 5000.  They served in Italy
against the  Austrians and Russians, and
distinguished themselves on various occa-
sions.  After Bonaparte  became  consul,
two legions were taken  into  French  ser-
vice,—that of  Italy, under  Dombrowski,
and that of Germany, under Kniaziewicz.
The latter  was  mainly  instrumental in
gaining the victory of Hohenlinden.  Af-
ter  the peace  of Luneville, both  legions
were sent to Italy, and amounted to 15,000 
POLISH  LEGIONS^POLITICAL ECONOMY.            217
 men.   Their  services being no  longer
 needed, and the situation of France, in
 regard to the powers that had swallowed
 up Poland, being changed, all the prom-
 ises which had been made to the Polish
 patriots were forgotten : they were obliged
 to serve in St. Domingo, Spain, &c.  Tho
 Polish legions  had,  however, contributed
 to keep up a national existence for Poland,
 after the Polish state had ceased.  A civil
 committee, the shadow ofthe Polish gov-
 ernment, was kept sitting tidier at Paris or
 in  Italy,  strictly  observing the  minutest
 rules of the diet, in order that the constitu-
 tional character of their acts might not be
 questioned. They literally, therefore, form-
 ed a nation sans patrie, constantly looking
 forward  to the recompense  which  they
 had been  encouraged by France to hope
 for—the reestablishment of Poland; and
 it is an interesting fact, that, whenever the
 thanks of the  French nation were voted
 to the gallant legion, Dombrowski invari-
 ably, in his answer, reminded the French
 government of its engagements towards
 Poland.   Their expectations were at last,
 in some degree, realized in 1807 and 1808,
 when  Napoleon  constituted  the grand-
 duchy of Warsaw (with 4,000,000 inhab-
 itants), composed of Polish provinces, torn
 from the clutches of Austria and Prussia.
 Frederic Augustus, king of Saxony, was
 named grand-duke.  (See the article Po-
 land;  see, also,  Chodzko's Histoire des
 Legions Polonaises en Ilalie; 2 vols., Paris,
 1829.)
   Politianus, Angelus; a learned and ele-
 gant scholar ofthe fifteenth century, born
 in 1454, at Monte Pulciano, in the Floren-
 tine territories,  whence he derived the ap-
 pellation  by which  he is more usually
 known than by that of Cinis, his family
 name.  The firet production which brought
 him into notice was a Latin poem on the
 tournament of  Giuliano de' Medici.   He
 assumed  the ecclesiastical habit, and ac-
 quired by his accomplishments  the favor
 of  Lorenzo the Magnificent, who made
 him tutor to his children, and presented
 him with  a canonry in die cathedral of
 Florence, which he held with the profes-
 sorship of the Greek and Latin languages.
 Among the most esteemed of his writings
 are un  Account of the Conspiracy of the
 Pazzi;  a Latin translation of Herodian;
 und a Collection of Greek Epigrams;  be-
 sides some miscellaneous works  iu prose
 and  verse, und  a drama on the  story of
 Oipheus,  printed  in 1475.   This  latter
 piece was set to music, of which science
lie was so iiassionately fond, that his death
is said to  have been accelerated by his
  vol. x.         19
 propensity.   An  unfortunate attaenment
 to a lady of distinguished rank had brought
 on a severe  illness,  which was so much
 increased by his starting out of  bed, in a
 fit  of enthusiasm, to celebrate  her beau-
 ties on  his lute, that his  death  was the
 consequence, in 1494.
   Political  Economy  is  the science
 which treats of the general causes affect-
 ing the production, distribution  and con-
 sumption of things having an  exchange-
 able value, in reference to the  effects of
 such  production,  distribution  and  con-
 sumption, upon  the  national wealth aud
 welfare.   The definition of this science
 has been a subject  of some discussion.
 That of Mr.  Malthus  gives it  a  wider
 rauge  than  is  conceded to it by  Mr.
 M'Culloch, extending  it   to the investi-
 gation ofthe production and consumption
 of  all  that  man desires,  as useful  and
 agreeable, according to which  definition
 Mr. M'Culloch says it  would include all
 other sciences, so that  " the best encyclo-
 paedia would really be the  best treatise on
 political economy."  But Mr. M'Culloch's
 definition is liable to the same objection,
 if taken in its full literal sense; for he calls
 it "the science ofthe laws which regulate
 the production, distribution and consump-
 tion of those material products which
 have  an exchangeable  value, and which
 are either necessary,  useful or agreeable."
 This definition would  evidently, if taken
 iu  its full breadth,  comprehend a very
 large portion of the encyclopaedia.   But
 though  Mr.  Malthus considered the  sci-
 ence as comprehending all  those things
 which men  desire as useful or agreeable,
 yet he undoubtedly intends to limit it to
 certain views of  this great  variety of sub-
jects. But the  definitions,  both of Mr.
 Malthus and Mr. M'Culloch, seem to be
 too broad.  Political economy refers only
 to the general causes  affecting the pro-
 ductive  faculties and means of a nation,
 meaning by productive faculties and means
 the capacity and resources for producing
 things that have an  exchangeable value,
 Thus the constitution of government, the
 laws, the judicial, social and economical
 institutions, the schools, the religion, mor-
 als, soil, geographical position, climate, arts,
 indeed all the circumstances in the char-
 acter and condition of  a people, as far as
 they have a general effect on the public
 wealth; in other words, the production,
 distribution  and  consumption  of  com-
 modities, are  subjects of this science.  It
 is,  accordingly, a  science of a  lofty  and
 liberal character, not identified with that
 of  politics, but  very nearly allied to it, 
218
POLITICAL  ECONORiY.
and, indeed, one of its branches;  for a man
would be but ill qualified to legislate for a
state,  who should be ignorant of the gen-
eral laws affecting its productive capacity.
'Phis being the character ofthe science, it
is not a little remarkable that it has not
I) 'en  more honored and more  generally
studied, as a distinct  field  of inquiry;
for it  has  necessarily  been  studied  and
practically  applied  by  all statesmen  and
rulers, from the beginning of time, since
the effect of all measures of the govern-
ment, and  ali causes, upon the  condition
of a community,  must  hawe  been objects
of consideration, from the dawn of human
reflection, though the notions of men may
have  been very crude,  and often errone-
ous, upon  this as upon all other sciences.
Men   very  early  studied  the  human
body, and even formed something like a
science to  account  for its functions; but
correct notions  of anatomy  are of com-
paratively recent origin.  The science of
chemistry is still  more recent.  That of
political economy, like others, has had its
stages of progress, and some of its profes-
sors consider it now to  be placed upon as
firm a basis, and  reduced to a system of
rules as completely demonstrated, as  that
of astronomy since the time of Newton ;
while others consider the present state of
political economy as far  below a full de-
velopernent and demonstration of its prin-
ciples, as the system ofthe nine  mundane
spheres, or perhaps  the theory of Tycho
Brahe, as compared to modern astronomy.
It certainly seems to be singular, if the
rules whereby a nation  may  be  made to
flourish or decay,  are as well  defined, and
as satisfactorily demonstrated, as the theo-
rems of geometry, that they  should be so
rarely and so imperfectly  reduced to prac-
tice.  Some of the fundamental doctrines
of those writers,  who  have occupied the
greatest space in  the written expositions
of this science, are not adopted by  any
nation whatever occupying a respectable
rank in the civilized world.   This might
be accounted for,  if the doctrines iu ques-
tion were professedly proposed for simul-
taneous adoption by all nations, like those
of the peace societies;  for then the  doc-
trines might be theoretically true, but yet
fundamentally inapplicable in the actual
condition of the world.  But these  doc-
trines are not proposed  as being  subject to
this condition ;  they are pressed upon
every single people, without regard to the
conduct of others, and independently of
the policy  that  may be pursued by  for-
eigners.  It is not one of the conditions
on  which  they  arc recommended,  that
nations must be  prepared for their recep-
tion  by an entire  revolution in national
relations- and policy,  and  that  they  can
have  place  only hi  the train  of events
attending a political  millennium;  their
advocates profess their adaptation to the
present state of national rivals!lips and col-
lisions of interest   It  follows that the
practical  truth  of these doctrines is not so
demonstratively proved as their  advocates
suppose,  or  that the legislators are not so
wise as they should be.  In this state of
the case,  admitting a great deal of corrup-
tion, ignorance and error, on the part of
those who control the measures ofthe
different  cirilized nations of Christendom,
yet their  general  concun-ence in rejecting
these doctrines, even in those two or three
countries where  they are most confidently
asserted  and most learnedly inculcated,
presents  un authority  against their practi-
cal utility quite as imposing as that of the
professors by whom they are  so strenu-
ously advocated.  This science, like other
speculative sciences, commenced in theo-
ries ; and the discussion and refutation of
them still occupies a great share in the re-
cent  treatises—a  circumstance which, of
itself, shows that it is in rather a rude
state ; since, in those sciences which have
reached an advanced state, the visionary sys-
tems ofthe first speculators are now men-
tioned as matters of mere historical  curi-
osity, a formal confutation of which would
be superfluous.   Another  circumstance
indicates the rude state of this science:  it
is matter of common observation that the
early explorers of the arcana of science
assume a certain oracular, mysterious air,
the-infallible badge of empiricism, which
always disappears on the establishment of
real  knowledge.   And the  mystical,  sol-
emn, and somewhat pompous air of many
of the doctors of political economy affords
some ground   for  suspicion   that  this
science has  not yet  reached perfection.
Unless we should  consider the notion of
some ancient  nations, that  plunder  was
the great source  of national  wealth, as a
theory in this science, the  first step in
political economy was the theory of the
commercial or mercantile system, which
taught that a nation could grow rich only
by trade, and that its growing rich in this
way  depended on the  balance received in
the precious metals,  on adjusting its ac-
counts with other nations.   Neither of
these views is  entirely visionary ; for
a nation  may   gain  wealth by carry-
ing on  either war or trade, upon very
advantageous terms.   It is assumed, in-
deed, that all commercial exchanges are 
POLITICAL ECONOMY.                       219
only those of equivalent values.  But, not-
withstanding  this axiom,  an individual
hierchaut or  speculator will sometimes
make his fortune  by exchanging, or, in
other words, by buying and selling.  And
so a nation, if it possesses some very great
commercial advantage—like  those of th»:
early Spanish traders with the  native
Americans, who could exchange iron and
bits of tin for a  much greater weight of
gold—may  grow  wealthy by trade 5  for
•the nation may in this way get, for what
costs them only a day's labor, what would
cost them, or what may be wortii;to them,
five, six or twenty days' labor. The mer-
cantile system  had therefore some foun-
dation  in fact ami experience ; for every
one will probably admit, that any particu-
lar branch of  trade may  be  more or less
advantageous  to  those engaged in it, and
to the countries to which they belong, and
that one branch  may be more advanta-
geous  than another.   It is  said, indeed,
that a  disadvantageous trade will cease;
and it  is  thence inferred that all those
which continue to be carried on are profit-
able and useful.  This is, at least, admit-
ting that, there'may be a disadvantageous
ltrade, and tfiat^some branches may'be ad-
vantageous will  hot be disputed.   The
 mercantile system, then, had some founda-
 tion ; but, like 6ome other theories of polit-
 ical economy, it was  carried too far.  The
 science of national wealth, as applied to
 nations generally, is  reduced  to very  nar-
 row limits, if we  suppose it to rest wholly
 upon the bargains made in foreign barter.
 They  mistook, then,  in magnifying  the
 relative importance of foreign trade  as a
 part ofthe causes of national industry and
 resources, since  the annual profit derived
 thence, even in a very commercial coun-
 try, does not  usually exceed some very
 inconsiderable per centage  of the whole
 annual production and consumption.  But
 11 still more objectionable part of this the-
 ory was the supposition that the gain thus
 derived depended wholly  upon the bal-
 ance received iu gold and silver,—accord-
 ing to which notion such a country as
 Mexico, a great portion of the exports of
 which  are necessarily  gold and silver,
 could never grow rich.  The more it pro-
 duced of the  very articles the gaiuing  of
 which  alone  could  make  other nations
 rich, the more demonstrably impossible it
 was that it should  grow  wealthy itself.
 So  far, therefore, as the theory referred
 national growth in wealth exclusively to
 the receipt of such a balance of trade, and
 made the growth in  wealth proportional
 to the amount of this balance, it was en-
tirely fanciful  This theory was support
ed, in the latter part  ofthe seventeenth
and early pniv<df the eighteenth century
in England, by Mr. Mini, sir Josiah Chili;.
doctor Davenrint,  and sir James Stuart :
but it was called in question, at the shiih
period, by sir William Petty, sir  Dudley
North, Mr. Barlow, and  later by sir Mat-
thew Decker and  Mr. Harris.  Sir Mat-
thew Decker's Essay  on the  Decline of
Foreign Trade was published in 1744, and
Mr. Harris's <Essay upon Money and Coins
in 1757.  Mr. fHu me treated  ofthe same
subject in bis political essays published in
1757.  So far, then, as this theory rested
upon the notion of a  money  balance, as
being the only source of national  growtl
in wealth, it Was ably discussed before tii«
publication of Smith's Wealth of Natior ..
But  the practical  question at the bottom
of the theory—namely, the  national ad-
vantages and disadvantages of particular
branches of trade,  and the effect upon a
nation ofa trade which keeps it always in
debt to another—has  not been  settled to
this  day;  the   economists  of the  neic
school, as it is termed, maintaining that all
foreign trade is advantageous to a  country
^precisely to the degree to which it is profit-
able to those engaged in it, and therefore
that the immediate interest of the mer-
chant, under the actual circumstances, is
the infallible criterion of the national  in-
terest ; while others, on the contrary,  and
with them most legislators, practically act
upon the doctrine that the immediate in-
terest of the merchant is not in all cases
a criterion of the permanent national  in-
terest.  The doctrine resolves  itself into
this maxim, namely, that the interest of a
nation that was to  exist only for two or
three years, and then to be swept away by
a pestilence or-swallowed up by an earth-
quake, and of a similar one that was to
exist for as many centuries, would lead to
precisely the same policy for  the  present
year in respect  to foreign trade; so  that
no regard is to be had, in commercial reg-
ulations, to the vicissitudes of war  and
peace, and other changes incident to a na-
tion.  In a question, then, of vital impor-
tance, which has now  been agitated for
more than two  centuries, the theoretical
economists are divided.  We think  we
may say, then, that the real question which
gave rise to the mercantile system is still
involved  in much obscurity.   (See ar-
ticles Mercantile System, and  Balance of
Trade.)
   The manufacturing system  has been
ranked as another economical theory; but
it can  hardly be regarded in this light  It 
220                       POLITICAL ECONOMY.
supposes that a nation promotes its wealth
and productive capacity by manufacturing
for itself all those commodities, for the
manufacture of which it is adapted by its
climate, agricultural pursuits, and the hab-
its and character of its  people.   It is not
now disputed that manufacturing will con-
tribute to the aggregate value of annual
products as well  as  agriculture  or com-
merce.   The only questions are, 1. what
descriptions of manufacturing  industiy
will increase the productive resources of
a particular country; and, 2.  whether it
should be an object of legislation to foster
and promote these branches of industry.
Those opposed  to any such legislative in-
terference,  namely, the advocates of free
trade, assume that the  national industry,
left entirely free, and open to a competi-
tion  with that of other nations,  will infalli-
bly take those channels by which its ag-
gregate results will be the greutest  The
foundation  of the doctrine  of the let us
alone policy was laid  by Adam Smith,
since whose time  its advocates have  as-
sumed it upon the principles by which it
is supported  in the Wealth of Nations.
Smith rests the  doctrine upon two propo-
sitions :—1. " that every  individual can
judge,  better than any  statesman or law-
giver can do for him, what is the species
of industry on which he can best employ
his capital;" and, 2. " the study of his own
advantage naturally, or, rather, necessarily,
leads every individual to  prefer that  em-
ployment of capital which is most advan-
tageous to society."  The doctrine of free
trade rests  wholly upon these two propo-
sitions.  Our limits will not allow us to
consider the arguments in favor or against
their soundness  as  the guides of legis-
lation in all cases. For these the reader is
referred to  the works mentioned at the end
of this article, also to Mr. Phillips's Manual
of Political Economy, to Mr. Madison's
letter  on the  subject  of the  protecting
policy, and sundry articles of the  North
American Review.   It is sufficient to re-
mark here  that the doctrine  of free trade
must be, as yet, considered merely a theory.
   Another theory, in relation  to national
wealth, was that of Qnesnay, denominated
the  agricultural system (see Physiocratie
System), namely, that  agricultural is the
only productive sort of labor, since this
affords a surplus (to wit, rent), after pay-
ing the laborer;  whereas all other kinds
only replace the  value of the  stock, and
pay the wages.   This theory is, however,
entirely exploded ; and, besides, it is of a
kind not calculated to do any practical in-
 jury ; for no nation would think of legisla-
ting upon the assumption that, because the
raising of cattle, and thus producing bides,
was, according to this doctrine, a produc-
tive labor, and that  of tanning the hides
and making the leather into shoes, was not
productive, or left no net gain,—therefore
the two latter branches might as well be
discontinued.
  These doctrines go to the  general na-
tional  industry and  growth  in wealth;
others  arc partial in their application, of
which  we  will  notice a  few that are
adopted  by  those writers  who are the
most disposed to consider political econo-
my a  science.  One of  these doctrines,
stated by Adam Smith, is, that the wages
of common  day  labor finally fix  at the
point at which they  barely afford the la-
borer the means of subsistence and  of
continuing the race of laborers.  This is
called  by the followers of Adam  Smith
the " natural  rate of wages."  It is usu-
ally  assumed in  their writings as set-
tled.   But  it is not pretended  that the
wages of labor are the same in the differ-
ent countries of Europe and the U. States;
on the contrary, it is every  where taken
for  granted, that  they are  higher  in
some countries than  in others.  It would
follow from  this  doctrine,  that in those
countries the necessary expense of sup-
porting and reproducing the laborere, is in
proportion to the wages paid in them re-
spectively ; whereas  the fact is quite oth-
erwise.  And what entirely confutes the
notion  of any such " natural rate" of
wages, is, that the rate varies in different
kinds of labor, in which the expense of
supporting,  instructing and  reproducing
the  laborere  is apparently equal.  The
very statement of this  doctrine presup-
poses  a  natural  rate of expenditure  for
shelter, clothing and  food for the laboring
classes, a supposition which has no plau-
sibility in theory and no support in  fact.
Tho doctrine of a natural rate of wages
ofthe  laboring classes is, indeed, entirely
fanciful. It is very true that the present
pecuniary interest  of those who hire and
those  who are hired,  is at  variance,  as
well as that  of those who buy and those
who sell; and the party having the great-
est advantage in either case, will, general-
ly  speaking, use it;  and,  accordingly,
where the laborers are poor, thriftless and
improvident, saving nothing, and  being
obliged to depend upon  the  earnings  of
the day for their food, they put themselves
very much in the power of their employ-
ers.   If to this be added a superfluity of
laborere and a want of employment for
all, the advantage of the employers U in- 
POLITICAL ECONOMY.                       221
creased, and the laborere will accordingly
be reduced  to a lower and lower com-
pensation, until,  perhaps, at length,  the
wages  paid  will  not more than  supply
them with the poorest fare and the mean-
est  clothing and accommodations.  But
the degree to which they may be reduced
by the  operation of these causes, will evi-
dently  depend upon the  situation of the
country, the demand at successive times
for labor, in comparison with the  supply
of laborers,  and, most  of all,  upon  the
character ofthe laborere themselves.  To
say that there is some point at which these
circumstances are naturally balanced, in
all countries and  all stages of economical
improvement at which the "natural rate"
of  wages is graduated,  seems to be  a
proposition too fanciful and vague to  de-
serve die name of a theory.  But such is
the doctrine of the economists.
  Another   leading  doctrine  of  Adam
Smith  and his followers grows out of the
state ofthe English poor-laws.   It is, that
all provision by law for die support of the
poor is useless and injurious.  This doe-
trine is fortified  by Mr. Malthus's theory
of the  fatal necessity of starvation.  He
maintains that human fecundity tends to
get the start of the means of subsistence,
since the former moves with a geometri-
cally increasing rapidity, and soon leaves
behind the  latter, which can only pro-
ceed at a uniform arithmetical  pace. The
inference which he makes from this is, that
the human race has been and will be kept
down  to its actual numbers by starvation.
The consequence drawn from  this propo-
sition,  which is stated  with all the air of
a demonstration, is, that poor-laws, or any
efforts of charity, are only a childish  and
useless indulgence  of feeling;  for, since
there  will  be superfluous numbers, who
must at all  events be starved, if the life
of one is saved by charity, whether public
or private, it is only  that  another may be
starved in his stead.  A more heart-hard-
ening  doctrine could not be broached.   It
is a conclusion  at which  humanity re-
volts,  and  to which  no one will consent
without  compulsion.  How, then, is the
fact ?  The  theorem requires  that some
millions should  perish of want annually.
It does not, however, appear that they
do so  perish. And  yet  this  doctrine  is
reiterated,  and very complacently incul-
cated,  as a part of the science  of political
economy.   (See Pauperism.)
   A proposition,  dwelt  upon, at some
length, by Mr.  Say, and  carefully incul-
cated  in many other writers on the  sci-
ence of economy, is, that production  is
                  19*
not creation; that a farmer cannot make
corn, nor a weaver cloth, out of nothing.
Mr. M'Culloch says labor  is " the only
source of wealth."  This is one  of  the
doctrines of the  economists, from which
consequences of some weight are deduced.
Now all  will, without doubt, agree that,
without any materials, or, in other words,
without the earth, men  would not pro-
duce wealth ; and it may be conceded also,
for the purpose of the argument, that  the
earth, without inhabitants, would have no
Wealth. But men, being placed upon earth,
may produce wealth by working upon the
materials supplied by it; and the earth is it'
self sold in portions as a  part of the com-
mon stock of wealth, and the men are also
sometimes  themselves bought  and sold,
as being a part of the same stock.  In gen-
eral, two things must concur in order to
the production of value, namely, the thing
to be  wrought or used,  and a person to
work  or use it.   To insist that one or the
other  is  the exclusive  source  of  value,
seems to savor more ofthe obsolete meta-
physics of the schools, than of practical
speculation.  The  utmost  that  can be
made out of it, is a merely verbal distinc-
tion.  And one  would hardly  expect so
trivial a subtilty to occupy much space in
a  branch of knowledge  holding the rank
ofa science.
   All writers agree in the doctrine  that
security of property is essential to the ac-
cumulation of the products of labor,  that
is, wealth, for  no one will  save what he
has no reasonable assurance that he shall
enjoy; and it  is also agreed by all,  that
accumulation, that is, a  stock on hand, is
necessary to the productiveness of labor,
   Adam Smith lays great stress upon the
division  of labor as one of the causes of
the great productiveness  of industry.  His
remarks  upon this subject are just, with
the qualification, perhaps, that he over esti-
mates the importance of  the principle,
since  he  attributes to it the  improvements
made  in various processes of industry,
whereas many of the improvements are
themselves  the  causes,  or,  rather, afford
the means of a separation of employments.
Any machine is  an illustration of this re-
mark.
   It is asserted by some ofthe writers on
this science, that there are no limits to the
beneficial effects of the  accumulation of
capital upon the  productiveness  of the
industry  of a nation; or, in other words,
that a given number of  people, However
small, can  advantageously employ  any
amount of capital, however  great.   But if
we assume a certain number of employ-. 
222
POLITICAL  ECONOMY.
ments and  professions, there is certainly a
limit beyond which no additional stock and
materials could be employed.  The prop-
osition may mean that  the ingenuity of
men can, or will, find out modes of em-
ploying advantageously  any  amount  of
capital that can lie accumulated by them.
The proposition thus stated is, at least,
a theoretical one, but the  inquiries and
investigations to which it leads, are cer-
tainly not sterile of useful results.
  All the products of industry are divided
among the  pereons by whom the taxes are
received  and consumed, the  holders  of
sinecures, the capitalists, and the laborere,
including in this latter class  all the indus-
trious iu all professions and pursuits.  A
great problem in political economy is to
determine the  mode  of distribution most
advantageous  to  the nation ;  und  this
problem, which is very general  and very
complicated in its details, has not yet been
fully solved.  It is generally agreed, that
all absolute sinecures, whether under the
government or otherwise constituted, are
prejudicial.   What distribution among the
usefully employed, or what comparative
remuneration for the  labor or  services  of
the respective classes and professions, is
the most advantageous, is a subject veiy
little discussed  by the writers on econo-
my.  But the question as to the distribu-,
tion between the capitalists, who are en-
titled to j.rofits, and those who labor upon
or with the capital,  who are entitled to
wages,  is a subject of considerable specu-
lation in the books.   One doctrine is, that,
where  profits are highest,  accumulation
will be most rapid ; that is, the greater the
mass of the annual  products that  go to
those whose capital supplies the  materials
and instruments of labor, the more  rapid
will be die growth in  wealth.  This is as-
suming that nothing  will be saved by the
laborere, or not so much  in  proportion as
will be saved out ofthe profits.  The first
assumption cannot be made, and the sec-
ond is questionable ;  for example, a great
proportion of the agricultural laborers by
the month,  in the U. States,  are  young
men who save their wages in  order to
purchase a farm  for  themselves.  There
is no mode  of saving that could be devised
which would so rapidly promote the in-
crease ofthe national stock,  and  a change
whereby the farmers, by paying less wages,
should themselves make greater profits,
instead of augmenting the national  accu-
mulation, would very materially  check it
Other  instances might  be  given  to  the
same  effect   The  doctrine,  therefore,
seems  to be  unsound.  Taking the two
divisions in the above distribution, it  is
evid.ent that one cannot be  increased but
at the expense ofthe other.  But there  ia
one species of capital distinguished  from
all others, namely, that in land.   The low-
er die rents are that are paid for the mere
use of laud, in exclusion of buildings and
fixtures,  the  greater amount  of  annual
products will  be  left to divide between
those who supply  the stock  and those
who perform the labor. It may, we think,
be laid down as a sound maxim, that  low
rents, which leave a proportionally large
amount ofthe annual income to be divid-
ed, as wages aud profits, will very  materi-
ally  promote  the  national growth, by
giving greater stimulus to labor and the
employment of stock. This mode of dis-
tribution explains, in part, the fact  that
both the wages and  profits  are higher in
the U. States than in Europe.  By higher
wages, we mean  not merely the  money
price, but the greater quantity of similar
articles  that  can  be purchased  for the
wages  of the same  labor.   So far,  high
profits and high  wages are compatible;
but, when the question  is between wages
and profits, as it is put by the economical
writers, the preference of high profits at
the expense  of wages, seems not to be
well founded as a  general doctrine, though
it may be true of Great Britain.
  After disposing  ofthe question, whether
agricultural, manufacturing or commercial
industry is most advantageous to a nation,
and concluding, as all now agree, that they
are equally conducive to national  wealth,
contrary to the opinion of Adam  Smith,
who gave the preference  to agriculture,
the writers on economy then go into the
inquiry how far any one of these branches
is objectionable on account of its effect on
the character of the population.   In  this
respect, foreign commerce is undoubtedly
the most injurious  of the three.  As to
manufacturing, its varieties are almost in-
finite, and no general remark is applicable
to the effects of all upon the  persons em-
ployed.   It seems,  indeed, to be  now
pretty well agreed, in the  U. States,  that
the mode of conducting  any  branch of
manufacture, and the system of educating
and employing the  operatives, determine
the effects of the  employment upon the
character and habits of the population;
and that  it is not the necessary effect of
this or that  branch  of manufacturing, to
degrade and corrupt the pereons employ-
ed m it  In this opinion  the writers on
economy generally agree.
  The same writers agree generally in the
definition of value, as being determined by 
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
223
the amount  of marketable  things,  for
which an article can be exchanged.   It is
also well settled that demand determines
the market value; but they assert, again,
or at least seem to imply, that value and
cost are synonymous. They also generally
imply, by the mode of using the term cost,
that  it  is some definite,  fixed quantity.
This use of language throws great obscu-
rity on their speculations on this subject,
since  the cost of producing an  article va-
ries from week to week, by the variation
of the  price of the materials, and the
wages;  arid  the same kind and  quality
of articles will, at the same time, cost one
producer more than another.  The prop-
osition  that cost regulates value, is laid
down hy the writers with great solemnity,
and inculcated at great length.   It  is a
subject on which there certainly is a great
deal of unprofitable prolixity in the books;
for what  argument  or  illustration  is
necessary to establish the proposition, that
men will not continue long to produce an
article by which they lose money ?   The
proposition seems to stand in quite as
great  need of an apology  for stating it, as
ofa disquisition to explain or support it.
  Mr. Ricardo's theoiy of rent is an ingre-
dient  in recent treatises on political econ-
omy.   The result of his theory  is, that, if
there was no difference in the  productive
qualities of all  the  parts of  the  whole
territory of a nation, there would be no
such  thing as  rent  The conclusion of
his theoiy is, that every additional bushel
of corn raised in  a country costs  more
than  the  preceding.  Very  few pereons
will  probably assent to the firet of these
two propositions, and the last is absurd as
applied to the  U. States and many other
countries.  He doubtless had England in
his view in framing his theory; but Mr.
Lowe denies  its accuracy in  respect to
England,  as a matter of fact,  upon the
statement of cultivators  themselves.  Mr.
M'Culloch  goes  into  a  consideration
of  the   effect  of  the  fluctuations  of
wages  upon  the  cost  of commodities,
in  order  to   establish  the  proposition
that  if the  cost of the  production of
two articles depends upon the use of ma-
chinery, and the machinery for one is of
short duration, and that for the other of
long, then a rise in  wages v/ill  affect the
cost of  the products of the transient ma-
chinery, more than that of  the other.
He discusses this proposition quite elabo-
rately,  for  the purpose,  apparently, of
showing that an increase of wages will, in
effect, result in a comparative enhance-
ment of the profits of the producer who
uses the  durable machinery; for he has
only to pay die advanced wages for work-
ing his machine, whereas the other  must
pay  both for replacing  and for working
his.  This is rather an obscure and nice
distinction, and, to be just, requires that the
price ofthe durable machine shall not have
risen in value, in consequence of the in-
crease ofthe expenseof building a new one,
by reason of the rise of wages;  whereas
it is according to common experience to
suppose that it would rise in value,in which
case Mr. M'Culloch's theory vanishes.
  Passing over what relates to consump-
tion  (q. v.),  the above  are some of the
leading doctrines and theories of what is
called the science of political economy, as
taught by recent writers in France and
England ; a science of which Adam Smith
is said, by its professors, to  be the founder.
Perhaps no study ofthe day, which bears
the name of science, presents more vague
theoiy, grave, mysterious empiricism, dull
prolixity, inconsequential arguments, gra-
tuitous assumptions,  jejune discussions,
and  elaborate triviality.  There are many
useful truths, which pass under the name
of political economy; but a large proportion
ofthe treatises, from that of Adam Smith
downwards, by the disciples of his school,
seem to  hear the same  relation to an in-
telligible  practical  developernent of the
causes and phenomena of national growth,
wealth and  decline, that alchemy  does to
modem chemistry.—For other branches
of  political  economy,  see  the  articles
Banlis,  Bounties,  Circulating  Medium,
Commerce,   Consumption,   Corn  Laws,
Credit, Debtor and Creditor, Direct  Tax,
Laborers,  Labor-saving Machines,  Lot-
teries, Mercantile System, Money, Monopo-
ly, Literaiy Property, Patent, Physiocratical
System.   The following are some of the
principal writers on  political  economy:
1.  On  the  mercantile system  :  Stuart's
Inquiry into the  Principles of  Political
Economy (3 vols., London, 1767); Geno-
vesi, Lezioni di Commcrcio ossia d'Econo-
mia civile (2 vols., Bassano, 1769); Biisch,
Abhandlung von dem Geldumlavf (2 vols.;
new edition, Hamburg,  1800).   2. On
the  physiocratie or agricultural  system:
Quesuay,  Tableau iconomique avec son
Explication  (Versailles, 1758);  this work
was printed, with  several  others on the
same system, in  a collection  edited by
Dupont de  Nemours, entitled La Physio-
cratie (6 vols., Yverdun, 1768);  Turgot,
Recherches sur la Richessc et VOrigine des
Richesses nationales  (Paris, 1774);  Le
Trosne,  De I'Ordre  social (Paris, 1777);
Theodore Schmalz, Staatswirthschaflslehre 
224       POLITICAL ECONOMY—POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.
(2 vols., Berlin, 1818).  3. Adam Smith's
system, as set forth by himself, and devel-
oped by his followers:  Adam Smith's In-
quiry into  the  Nature and Causes  of the
Wealth of Nations (2 vols., Loudon, 1776;
4 vols., Edinburgh, 1814); Sartorius, Von
den  Elementen des  Nationalreichihums
und von der Staatswiithschaft (Gottingen,
1806); Liider, Ueber Nationalindustrie und
Staatsioirthschofl (3 vols., Berlin,  1800) ;
Say's Traite d'Kconomiepolitique; Ganilh's
Des Systemes d' Economic politique (2 vols.,
Paris, 1809 and 1822); Storch, Cours d'Kco-
nomie politique (6 vols., Petersburg, 1815);
and his Betrachtungen iiber die Natur des
Nationaleinkommens  (Halle, 1825);  Sis-
mondi's Nouveaux Principes d'Economie
politique (2  vols., Paris,  ISIS);  Ricardo,
On the Principles of Political Economy and
Taxation (new edition, London,  1819) ;
Maltbus's Principles of Political Economy
(London,  1820);  Jakob, Grundsatze der
Nationaliikonomie (Halle, 1805  and  1825);
Soden, Nationalokonomie (9 vols., Leipsic,
Arau and Nuremberg, 1805—24); Whate-
ly's Introd. Lect ou  Polit. Econ. (1831);
Senior's Lectures on Population (1S31);
Sadler,  Law of Population (anti-Malthu-
sian) (vols, i and ii, 1830); Cooper's Lec-
tures on the Elements of Polit. Econ. (Co-
lumbia, 182G);  Cardozo's Notes on Polit
Econ.( Charleston,1826); Thoughts onPolit
Econ. by D. Raymond (Baltimore,  1820).
  Political Institutions.   The origin
of political  societies and institutions has
been  a frequent subject of disquisition.
Like  many other things, they  are  sup-
ported from an  instinctive feeling of their
necessity,, though  their  origin and  true
principles may  not  be correctly  under-
stood.   The universal  feeling  of their
necessity  has induced  some  pereons  to
compare political institutions to languages;
both, tbey say, are essential to die existence
of mankind ; both exist from time imme-
morial, and  neither can  be elianged  at
will ;—a comparison which  tends, like
otiier partial analogies, to lead the inquirer
into error.   The theories of the  origin of
the state  may  be comprised  under two
heads—those which make  authority the
starting point, and those whi*h seek it in
equality.  Those who support the  former
principle are again divided; some recur
ut once to God, and say, that he united all
power  in the hands of the father of the
family, who, therefore,  at first, had the
priestly and princely, as well as the pater-
nal authority;  and  it  was  only in  later
times  that these  functions became sepa-
rated ; but it is idle, in scientific speculation,
to refer positive  institutions to God.  He
implanted the principles  of every  thing
good, but we are not to take for  granted
a direct interference, on his  part,  iu then'
application.   Other advocates of authority
place the origin of political institutions in
force.  Mr. von  Haller started this  idea
anew.  (See  the article Haller,  Charles
Louis von.)   We have already spoken of
the mistake of laying much stress  upon
the supposed origin of bodies  politic,  in
the article Estates (vol. iv, note on p. 585).
What did Mozart, in composing  his Re-
quiem, care  for the origin of  music ?
or Ariosto,or Milton, for the origin of lan-
guages?   Political institutions  may have
originated in a variety of ways, from force,
compact, reverence, &c.;, and they actually
have, as history shows u».   But their acci-
dental origin does not show the principle
which lies at  their foundation, holds them
together,  and is  understood  more clearly
with the improvement ofthe social order.
The accidental  origin of  the hut of the
savage does  not teach us the  principles
of architecture.  These are gradually un-
fokled, in proportion as the art advances.
The principle which lies at cite basis of all
political union we hold to be the idea of
the just,  as that of the good is the foun-
dation of morals, and that of the beautiful
of the  fine arts.   The idea of the  just,
again, in  politics is but a modification of
die idea of equality.   This is the  ani-
mating principle of all political societies,
whatever may have been their origin, and
is invariably developed in  the progress of
society, as the flower is the product of the
perfect plant.  The idea of force declines
as this principle  is unfolded.  We might
add, that the idea of the just is at least as
ancient as that of paternal authority ; be-
cause,  as soon  as  two individuals are
placed together, the idea  of equal rights
arises, the idea of "doing as  one would be
done by."  Still  more is this the case in a
family, because as soon as there are seve-
ral children,  parents as well as children
feel that it is not right to iwohibit to one
of the children  what, in  the same  case,
would be allowed to another.   That chil-
dren obey their pareuts originally from a
mere feeling of inferiority, may be allowed;
but states consist of men, and little would
the  remembrance of former  inferiority
avail for the maintenance  of social order.
The idea ofthe  state and of law (for both
go hand in hand, and the essence of law
is equality, even where it establishes dif-
ferences and privileges) has a much surer
foundation in the idea of the just, which
is as primitive an idea as that ofthe good.
Whether, therefore, all bodies politic were 
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS—POLITICS.              223
originally founded upon the social com-
pact or not, this social compact is the fun-
damental idea of all, and that to which all
strive in the progress of their develope-
rnent.  (Sec bur article Estates for the va-
rious sfiges of political government; see,
also, Constitution, and Sovereignty.)
  Politics, in its  widest extent, is  both
the science and the art of government, or
the science whose subject is the regulation
of man, in all his relations as the member
t/1* a state, and the application of this sci-
ence.  In other words, it is the theory and
the practice of obtaining the ends of civil
society as perfectly as possible.  Iu com-
mon parlance, we understand by the poli-
tics of a country the course of its govern-
ment, more particularly as respects its re-
lations with foreign nations; and the more
important these relations are (as, for in-
stance, iu European states, which exert so
powerful an influence on each other), the
more prominent is  the place which  they
hold in the ideas conveyed by the word ;
whilst  in a country  like the U.  States,
whose relations  to  foreign countries are
comparatively unimportant, the word, in
common usage, is naturally more confined
to the principles and operation of the in-
ternal government  Politics, therefore, ex-
tends to every thing which is the subject
of positive laws; for it is by means of these
that the purposes of a state or civil  union
ore  effected.  The politicul  relations of
men have therefore always been the en
grossing subject of history. (See the defi-
nition  of history, at the beginning of the
article on it)  As the idea of politics de-
pends upon diat of state, a definition of
the latter will easily mark  out the whole
province  of  the political  sciences.  By
stale we understand a society formed by
men, with the view of better obtaining the
ends of life by a union of powers and mu-
tual assistance.  This idea of state is the
basis ofa class of sciences, and gives them
us distinct a character as belougs to the va-
rious classes  of historical, philosophical,
theological, medical, &c, sciences.  The
political sciences are divisible into the ab-
stract, or  purely philosophical, and the
historical and practical.  This, however, is
not the best order for studying them. The
following order may,  perhaps, be adapted
to the  wants of the scientific student:—1,
Natural law, which treats ofthe rights and
duties of men in the absence of all posW
live regulations.  As the idea of law and
the mutual obligations of men is closely
connected with that  of the  state or gov-
ernment, the  philosophy of government
enters, jn some degree, into this science, so
that the various views ofthe origin of gov-
ernments,wliether they are to be considered
as founded essentially on compact or force,
or as having a divine origin, &c, fill under
natural law.  The subject of natural law
is treated at considerable length in the ar-
ticle on that subject,  in our ninth volume,
to which we refer the reader; also to the
article Haller,  as he gives a peculiar turn
to the old notion of divine right.—For
the various theories of natural law, see the
vvorks of Hugo Grotius,  De Jure Belli et
Paris (Paris, 1625}, which  belong*, how-
ever, more properly to the practical law of
nations ; Puffendorf, Elementa  Jurispru-
dential universalis  ;  Wolf,  Jus  Natural,
Methodo scientificd pertractatum  (8 vols.,
Halle, 1740—49, 4to.); Montesquieu's Es-
prit des Lois; Rutheiforth's Institutes of
Natural Law;  Ferguson on Civil Society ;
also the works on government by Filmer,
Locke,  Mackenzie,  Algernon   Sidney,
Hume,  Milton,  and  a host of  modern
writers.—2. Though the theory of govern-
ment falls, iu some degree, under natural
law, yet the full treatment of so extended
a subject gives rise to  a separate branch
of science, which we might call  abstract
or  theoretical politics.   This department
treats of the object  of the state,  and the
relation between the state and the individ-
ual ; of the right to prescribe laws, and to
punish ; of fundamental laws and com-
pacts ; of the various forms of govern-
ments—monarchies and republics, aristoc-
racies, democracies, representative  sys-
tems, &c.; of the  division of  powers,
legislative, judiciary, executive  ; of  the
means of obtaining  the  true ends of the
state; of the relations between  different
political societies, &c.; and of the whole
subject of criminal law (q. v.), philosophi-
cally  considered.  Among the most im-
portant audiors on these subjects are  Pla-
to, Aristotle, Cicero, among the ancients;
Macchiavelli, // Principe, with Frederic the
Great's Antimacchiavelli (1741), and that by
Jakob (1794); Hubert Languet (under tho
assumed name of Stephanus Junius Bru-
tus), Vindicia contra Tyrannos (Soleure,
1577); Mariana, De Rege  et Regit Insti-
tutione (see Mariana); Hobbes, De Cive,
and Leviathan,  seu de Materia, Forma et
Polestate  Civitatis (see Hobbes); Locke,
Two Treatises of Government (see Locke);
Rousseau, Contrat Social; Chr. von Wolf,
De Jure  Civitatis  (Halle,   1748);  Aug.
Schlozer,  Allgemeines  Staatstrecht  und
Staatsverfassungslehre  (Gottingen, 1793);
Von  Haller  (q. v.) ;  Zacharia,  Vierzig
Bilchcr vom Staate (Tubingen, 1820, et
gcq.);  Salmasius,  Defenm pro  Carolo I 
226
POLITICS.
and Milton's answer to him, Defensio pro
Populo Anglicano; and Milton's Tenure
of Kings and Magistrates, his Ready  and
Easy Way to establish a  Free Common-
wealth.   Among  the  writers who have
treated criminal law philosophically  are
Beccaria, Dei Dditti e delle Pene (Naples,
1764); Feuerbach, Revision derGrundsatze
und Grundbegriffe des positiven peinlichen
Rechts (2 vols., Erfurth, 1799), and his
Lehrbuch des peinlichen  Rechts (9di  ed.,
Giessen, 1820); Grolman (q. v.), Tittman,
Henke.—3. Political economy, which treats
of the resources of national  wealth,  and
the circumstances which affect it advan-
tageously  and  disadvantageous^.   (See
Political  Economy.)  The Germans  give
the name of national economy to what  is
generally comprised, with us, under polit-
ical economy.   Under state economy they
include the management of the finances,
and the regulations by which the govern-
ment  influences the  wealth of the state.
Under this latter branch, they treat of taxes,
monopolies,  loans, imports, exports,  &c.
—4  Science  of police.   (See  Police.)—5.
Practical politics, or the art of administer-
ing the government of states,  both in re-
gard to  their internal  and  external rela-
tions.   This branch  tests the principles
of political institutions, whether liberal  or
despotic,  whether advocated  by the  holy
alliance or by the friends of freedom.—6.
History of politics.  This traces the variety
of civil governments; the causes of their rise
and decay; how one grew out of the other;
how they underwent fundamental changes,
from the patriarchal form, in which  reli-
gious  institutions,  civil government and
family relations were  rudely mixed,  to
the theocratic,  in which the two former
were blended; to military monarchies, after
the separation of the military power from
the priesthood ; to democracies or aristo-
cratic republics; to feudalism; to aristocrat-
ic constitutional monarchies; to representa-
tive uristocratipo-democratic governments;
and, at last,  to  democratic  representative
governments.   The enumeration  of tho
works  necessary  to  the student of this
branch, would  far exceed our limits.—7.
Histonf ofthe European and American sys-
tems of states, as forming each a family of
members under constant and intimate mu-
tual influence.  In as far as the relations
of the  members of these families can be
learned from treaties of peace, &c, there
exist very valuable materials—collections
of documents by Du Mont, Rousset, Wenk,
Von Martens, Kooh, Scholl, Isambert, &c.
The first attempt  to treat this branch sys-
tematically was by J, Jac. Schmauss, in his
Introduction to Politics  (in German), and
commentaries on the Corpus Juris Gentium
Academici (2 vols., Leipsic, 1741), edited by
him.  Koch wrote an Abrigi de VHisloire
des Trailis de Paix entre les Puissances ck
VEurope depuis la  Paix de Westphalie J4
vols.,  Basil, 1796;  a new edition in 15
vols., by Fr. Scholl, Paris, 1817).  George
Fr. von Martens  wrote  a Sketch of a
Diplomatic History of the European  Po-
litical Negotiations and Treaties, from  the
End ofthe fifteenth Century to the Peace
of  Amiens (in  German, Berlin,  1807),
Heeren wrote a Manual of the Histoiy of
the European  System  of States (fourth
edition, Gottingen, 1822); and Politz,  Po-
litical Sciences (3d vol.); both in German.
—8. Statistics, or a knowledge ofthe actu-
al condition, resources, &c. of states. The
term was  first  used by  the Germans.—9,
Positive, public and constitutional law.
This branch gives a scientific representa-
tion of the fundamental laws and consti-
tutions  of the  various  European   and
American states.  Materials for this branch
are found in  Lacroix, Constitutions  des
principaux Etats de VEurope et  des Etats--
Unis  de I'Amerique (thte«d 'edition, Paris,
1802); George Fr. von Marten's Collec-
tion of the most Important Fundamental
Laws (in  German); Politz, the Constitu-
tions  of the European  States, during  the
twenty-five last Years  (4 vols.,  Leipsic,
1817—1825, in German); Liider's Diplo-
matic Archives for Europe (3 vols., Leip-
sic, 1819—1823,  in German); Archives
Diplomatiques pour I'Histoire du  Temps
et des Etats (6 vols.,  Stuttgard, 1821—
1825);  and  its  continuation—Neueste
Staatsaden und Urkunden (11 vols., Stuttg.,
1825  seq.); Dufau, Duvergier  and Gua-
det, Collection  des  Constitutions, Chartes
et Lois fondamentales des Peuples de PEu-
rope et des deux Atmbriques (6 vols.,  Paris,
1821—23); Alb. Frttot, Science du Publi-
ciste (1J  vols.,  Paris, 1820^-1823).—10.
Practical  law  of nations,  containing  the
scientific   exposition of the  principles
adopted by modern civilized nations for
the regulation  of their mutual relations in
peace and in  war.   To this belong  the
rights and duties of neutrals and bellige-
rents,  the  rules  relating  to prizes  (see
Prize), prisoners, blockade, conquest (q. v.),
&c.  The rules of national  law are  not
drawn up in  a code, but are merely the
principles  which have  developed them-
selves within the  last  300  years.  (See
Natums, Law of.)   J. Jac. Moser was the
first who treated the  practical  law of na-
tions separately from the theoretical, in his
Attempt at a Sketch ofthe modern Euro- 
POLITICS—POLO.                         227
pean Law of Nations in Times of Peace
and War (in German, 10 vols., Frankfort
on  the  Maine, 1777).   See,  also, Vattel,
Le Droit des Gens (3 vols., recent edition,
Paris,  1820);  George  Fr.  von  Martens,
Pricis du Droit des Gens moderne de l'Eu-
rope; and Charles Martens, Causes die-
bres du Droit des Gens.  The Germans
have  numerous  recent works  in  this
branch of science.—11. Diplomacy. (See
Diplomacy.)—12.  Political practice em-
braces whatever is necessary  for the con-
duct of public affaire.  In some European
governments, in which all business is trans-
acted by means of writings drawn up with
various formalities, the wording, &c. of
these writings forms  a subject of study,
and various works have been written on
the chancery  style, so called ;  and  in  all
governments, the study of a diplomatic
style, and ofthe mode of transacting diplo-
matic business, belongs to it  See Cours
de  Style Diplomatique  (2 vols.,  Dresden,
1823).   The knowledge of parliamentary
rules, the duties of committees, aud all the
forms usual in the administration of pub-
lic business, fall under the head of political
practice in representative governments.
   Politz, Charles Henry Louis, a distin-
guished German  writer, professor of poli-
tics in the university of Leipsic,  was born
at  Ernsthal,  in  1772,  and  educated  at
Chemnitz. In 1791, he studied at Leipsic,
in  1794, obtained the  right  of  lecturing
there, and, in 1803, was appointed extra-
ordinary  professor of  philosophy.  His
numerous works on education,  criticism,
history, politics, and the German  language,
are much esteemed in Germany. Among
them  are  his  Weltgeschichte (Universal
Histoiy, 5th  ed., 1825, 4 vols.);  Kleine
 Wdtgeschichte (5th ed., 1825); Die Slaat-
ensysteme Europas uiut Amerikas seit 1783
(1827); Die Slaatswissenschaflen  im Lichte
unserer Zeit (5 vols., 1824; 2d ed. 1827 seq.;
also, as an academical text-book, in 1825);
Das Gesammtgcbiet der deutschen Spracfie
(4 vols., 1825), with histories of several Ger-
man states, &c.  His Manuals of German
Prose and of German Poetry also deserve
notice.   Since 1828, Politz has edited the
Jahrbiicher der Geschichte und Staatskunst.
   Poll-Tax.  (See Tax.)
   Pollux.  (See Castor.)
   Pollux, Julius, was born in Egypt, in
the latter part of the second century.  He
devoted himself early to letters, and set-
tled at Athens, where he read lectures on
ethics and eloquence.  He became precep-
tor to the emperor Cominodus, for whose
use he drew up the catalogue  of Greek
synonymes in ten books, under  the name
of Onomasticon, the best edition of which
is  that  of  Amsterdam (1706, folio), by
Welstein.   He died A. D. 238.
  Polnitz, Charles  Louis,  baron  von,
born in 1692, early displayed marks of tal-
ent, and travelled  through  Europe.   Of
his travels he gave an amusing account in
his Lettres et Memoires (ostensibly at Am-
sterdam, 1727).   He was also  the author
of L'Etat de Saxe sous Auguste III (1734),
and of the  well-known Saxe Galante ; the
Histoire de la Duchesse d'Hanovre (wife of
George I) is attributed  to him.  After his
death (1775), appeared his Memoires sur
les Quatre derniers Souverains  de la  Mai-
son de Brandenbourg (1791).
  Polo, Giles (commonly called Gil Polo);
a Spanish poet, born at Valencia in  1517.
His inclination for poetry led him to aban-
don the profession of law, and  his  first
works placed him  among  the  best Span-
ish poets of his time.  His reputation was
established by his  Diana Enamorata, a
pastoral romance, partly in prose and part-
ly in verse, intended as a continuation of
the Diana of Montemayor.  (q. v.)  In in-
vention, Gil Polo is not inferior to his pred-
ecessor, whom he surpasses in purity of
style, and in the harmony and brilliancy
of his verse. He died in 1572.  Cervan-
tes excepts the Diana of Gil Polo from
his list of works condemned to be burnt
   PoLor Marco, a celebrated traveller of
the  thirteenth century, was  the  son of
Nicolas Polo, a Venetian  merchant,  who,
accompanied by his brother Matthew, had
penetrated to the court  of Kublai, the
great khan of the  Tartars.  This prince,
being highly entertained  with their ac-
count of Europe, made them  his ambas-
sadors to the pope ; on which they travel-
led back to Rome, and, with two mission-
aries, once more visited Tartary,  accom-
panied by the young Marco, who became
a great favorite  with  the  khan.   Having
acquired the different dialects of Tartary,
he was employed  on  various  embassies;
and,  after a residence of seventeen years,
all die three Venetians returned to their
own  country  in  1295,  with immense
wealth.   Marco afterwards   served  his
country at sea against  the  Genoese, and,
being taken  prisoner, remained many
years in confinement, the tedium of which
he beguiled by composing the  history of
the travels of his father and himself, under
the title of Delle Maraviglie del Mondo da
lui vedute, &c, the first edition of which
appeared at Venice in 1496 (8vo.).   It has
beeti translated into various languages, the
best versions of which are one in  Latin
(Cologne, 1671), and  another in French, 
228
POLO—POLYBIUS.
published at the Hague in 1675, in two
volumes.  Polo  relates  many  incredible
things, but the greater part of his narrative
has been verified by succeeding travellers,
and it in thought that what he wrote from
his own knowledge is  both  curious and
true.  He not only gave a better account
of China than any previously  afforded,
but likewise furnished an account of Ja-
l>ai), of several islands in the East Indies,
of Madagascar, anil of the coast of Afri-
ca.  He  ultimately  regained his liberty;
but of his subsequent history nothing is
known.
  Polonaise is a Polish national dance,
which has beeii imitated, but with much
variation, by other nations ; also the tune
to which it is danced.—The Polonaise,  in
music, is a  movement of three crotchets
in a bar,  characterized by having every
rhythmical caesura not on the firet, but the
last crotchet of the bar.  The Polonaise is
generally written in two strains, and  its
movement, though majestic, is smooth and
fluent
  Poltava ; celebrated for the defeat  of
Charles XII.  (See Pultawa.)
  Poly^nus; a Greek writer,who flourish-
ed in the second century.  He appears  to
have been by birth a Macedonian, and  is
principally known as the author of a work
on military tactics entitled Stratagemata.
Isaac Casaubon  published an edition of it,
which  was reprinted at Leyden in 1690,
with improvements.  There is an English
translation of it by Shepherd  (4to., 1793).
  Polyandria  (from troXuf,  many,  and
am?, a man)  denotes the custom of one
woman having several husbands,—a cus-
tom found with  some uncivilized tribes.
(For the meaning of the term in botany,
see Plants.)
  Polyarchy  (from  no\vs,  many,  and
a?Xii government) is sometimes used  to
denote any form of government in which
many rule, whether it be an aristocracy or
a democracy, in contradistinction to nwn-
archy, in which one rules.
  Polybius, a Greek historian,  was born
at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about 203  B.
C.  His father, Lycortas, was one of the
leaders  of the Achaean league, and the
confidential friend of Philopcemen.  Ed-
ucated for arms and political  life, he  was
sent, at the age of twenty-four years, as a
member of an embassy to Ptolemy Epiph-
anes.   When the war between Perseus,
king  of Macedonia,  and the  Romans,
broke out, Polybius was sent to the Ro-
man consul Marcius to inform him of the
resolution of the Achaeans to join  him
with their forces.   He  remained some
time in the Roman camp,  and then re-
turned with a commission from  Marcius
to oppose the  demand  made by the com-
mander Appius for more auxiliaiy troops
to be sent to Epirus.  About this time, the
design of the Romans to make all the free
states of Greece dependent became evi-
dent,  and  Polybius took part in  all the
measures for die preservation of their in-
dependence.   When, therefore, after the
subjugation of Perseus,  the Romans used
less  disguise,  Polybius  found  himself
among tiie 1000 hostages whom the Achsc-
ans were obliged to deliver up to the Ro-
mans.  His learning, virtues and talents
soon gained him the favor of some of the
most distinguished senators, especially the
two sons of Paulus ^Emilius.  The hos-
tages were not dismissed until  seventeen
years  had elapsed, when Polybius, who
did not  wish  to see again  his degraded
country, remained in Rome, and entered
into  the  service  of Scipio  iEmilianus.
He accompanied him on his expedition to
Africa, and proved a very useful counsel-
lor to him.  When the  Achaeans became
involved  in a  war with the Romans, he
hastened to the army of the consul Mum-
mius to mitigate  the fate of his country-
men.   He was a witness ofthe destruc-
tion of Corinth, and of the change of
Achaia into a Roman  province.   Amid
these melancholy occurrences he preserv-
ed his patriotism  and  disinterestedness.
He executed,  to  the satisfaction of both
parties, the Romans and Greeks, the diffi-
cult commission  of introducing the new
form of government in the cities of Greece.
The people of Achaia erected  statues  to
him, one of which has this inscription :—
" To the memory of  Polybius,  whose
counsel, had it been followed, would have
saved Achaia, and who consoled it in its
adversity."  He attended Scipio  to the
siege of Numantia, but, after the death of
his great  friend and benefactor, he  return-
ed to his native land, where he died  in
consequence of a fall from a horse, B. C.
121, aged eighty-two years.  Polybius is
the author of a historical work from the
beginning of the second Punic  war to the
overthrow  of the  Macedonian   empire
(fifty-three years).   It consists of thirty-
eight  books,  besides  two introductory
books, containing a sketch of the Roman
history from the  taking  of Rome  by the
Gauls.   Although the affairs of Rome are
the chief subject, contemporary  occur-
rences  in other countries are also related,
on which account Polybius gave it the title
ofa universal histoiy (\aropm KaQoXixri). We
have of this great work only the five first 
POLYBIUS—POLYGAMY.
229
books entire, and valuable fragments ofthe
twelve following, together with the poli-
tics of Polybius, taken from the histoiy of
Constantino Porphyrogenitui, and  exam-
ples of virtues and vices.  The loss ofthe
rest is very much to be regretted, as, in ac-
curacy and fidelity of narration, and iu ex-
tent of political and  military knowledge,
Polybius is surpassed by no historian of
antiquity.  To him is also attributed the
introduction of didactic politics into histo-
ry—that is, of that manner of writing his-
tory which, by intermingling views ofthe
causi s, occasions and effects of events, is
a Useful introduction tO politics (rrpnyfiaru).
On the other hand, his style is destitute of
beauty, and can be read only for the mat-
ter.  Livy has  sometimes copied  him.
Cicero mentions  a particular work of his
on the Numantian war. The most valuable
editions of Polybius are those of  Casau-
bon (Paris, 1609), of Jac. Gronovius (Am-
sterdam,  1670, 3 vols.), republished by J.
A. Ernesti, with Casaubon's Latin transla-
tion and a commentary (1764), and that of
Schweighauser (Leipsic, 1789 to 1793, 9
vols.).  The history of Polybius has been
well translated into English by Hampton.
  Polycarp, according  to tradition, a
disciple of the apostle John, and one of
the earliest bishops of Smyrna, finally de-
fended the  Christian faith, in  the year
169, under  torture,  in  being  put  to
death during the persecution ofthe Chris-
tians under Marcus Aurelius.  The peo-
ple destined  him to  the wild beasts, but
the judges condemned him to the  flames.
These, however, according to the legend,
played harmlessly around him,in the shape
of a swelling sail, and emitting a sweet
fragrance.  Seeing his body to be  proof
against the flames, the judges ordered one
of the executioners to run him through
with a sword.  A white pigeon suddenly
flew up, and the  flames were extinguished
by the blood that flowed from the wound.
Thus Christianity had changed  the hea-
then eagle which bore the soul of the Ro-
man emperors to their kindred  gods into
an innocent dove ; and a miracle was then
performed, which was afterwards repeat-
ed at the funeral  pile of the maid  of Or-
leans.  The Roman  church consecrates
the twenty-sixth  of January to  the mem-
ory of Polycarp.  His Epistle to the Phi-
lippians is the only one of his pieces which
has been preserved.
  Polycletus of Sicyon,about430 B.C.,
one ofthe most celebrated Grecian sculp-
tors, was a scholar of Ageladcs, and a rival
of Phidias, to whom, however, he was
inferior in fire and nobleness of concep-
  vol. x.          20
tion. He was an architect, as well as Phid-
ias, but excelled chiefly as a statuary in
bronze. Hisprincipalmeritiselegance. He
devoted  himself principally  to  youthful
gymnastic figures and figures of females.
Polycletus created the ideal of a youdiful
figure.   (Sec Sculpture, and Sculptors ofthe
Ancients.)  He  executed all  tho graceful
attitudes of the gymnastics of youth.   In
the Doryphorus, he seems to  have intend-
ed to exhibit a model or a canon.   (See
Winckelmann's works, 6th  vol.)   He is
also said to have written a work on pro-
portions.  He  made the Argive Juno  of
a colossal form, as if for a  counterpart
to Phidias's  Jupiter,  in  ivory and  gold,
unveiled, with  a  crown of  gold on  her
head, and a large arched  eye, holding a
sceptre, with a cuckoo in  her left  hand,
and in her right, which was extended, a
pomegranate.  Polycletus also made small
bronze figures, beautiful vessels and lamps.
There are other artists ofthe  same name.
  Polycrates ; ruler  of  Samos during
the time ofthe elder Cyrus and Pythago-
ras.  The Samians had till then been free,
but he  made himself master of the gov-
ernment by violence, and  endeavored to
secure his power by every means, even by
an alliance with the Egyptian king  Ama-
sis.  His extraordinary success in all his
undertakings induced Aniasis, as Herodo-
tus says, to admonish him to  avert greater
calamities by  some  voluntary  sacrifice.
Polycrates followed this advice, and cast
his most valued jewel, a precious signet
ring, into the  sea, which  was, however,
found a few days after in the maw of a
fish that had been sent to him as a present,
on account of its  remarkable size.  This
induced Amasis to renounce  his alliance.
Iu fact, to use the language of the  an-
cients,  Nemesis at last punished the arro-
gance of Polycrates in a dreadful manner.
When  he was on the point of making
himself lord of all  Ionia and the neighbor-
ing islands, the Persian satrap Orontes, who
considered himself injured  by him, treach-
erously invited him to his palace, and cru-
cified him, B. C. 522.  Polycrates seems
to have  had much  taste for learning and
the arts, and greatly promoted the refine-
ment  of the  Samians.   Anacreon,  hia
favorite, and the celebrator  of his  fame,
lived at his court.
  Polydectes.  (See Perseus.)
  Polygamy consists  in a man's having
more than one wife, or a woman's having
more than one husband, at the same time.
It was common among the barbarous na-
tions of antiquity, with the exception  of
the Germans,  who, as Tacitus  observes, 
230
POLYGAMY—POLYGLOT.
prope soli  barbarorum singulis uxoribus
contenti sunt.  Among the ancient Britons,
there was a singular kind of polygamy.
Any number of men joined iu a society
together, as was perhaps requisite for mu-
tual defence.  In order to link this society
closer, they took  an equal  number of
wives in common, and whatever children
were born  were reputed to belong to all
of them, and  were accordingly  pro\ ided
for by the  whole community.   The an-
cient Medes compelled the citizens of one
province to take each seven wives, and
the women in another to have each five
husbands, according as war had made ex-
traordinary havoc in one quarter of their
country among  the men, or the women
had been carried away by an enemy from
another.   Polygamy was also  permitted
among the ancient Greeks, when necessi-
ty seemed to require it, as in the case of
the detachment of young men from the
army of Lacedmuon, mentioned by Plu-
tarch.  It was also allowed among the
Tuscans (12.4lA.en. 3).  It was also de-
fended by Euripides and by Plato, whose
doctrine  was  rather a  community of
wives thau  a plurality.  The ancient Ro-
mans never practised polygamy, though it
was not forbidden  among  them ; and
Mark Antony is mentioned as the first
who took the liberty of having two wives.
From that time  it became frequent in the
Roman empire, till die reigns of Theodo-
sius, Honorius and  Arcadius, who prohib-
ited it A. D. 393.  After this, Valentinian
permitted all his subjects to marry several
wives, if they pleased ; nor does it appear,
from the ecclesiastical history of the times,
that the bishops made any opposition  to
the introduction of polygamy.   It did not,
however, continue  long.  Polygamy pre-
vailed among the Jewish patriarchs, both
before and  under'the Mosaic law, though
it has been  doubted whether that law per-
mitted  simultaneous  plurality  of  wives
(Deut. c. xxi, v. 15). But  the state of
manners had probably become reformed
in this respect before the time  of Christ;
for, in the  New Testament, we meet no
trace of its practice.  In the  Christian
code, there is no  express law upon the
subject  The words of Christ, however,
in Alatthew, c. xix,  v. 9, may be construed,
by au  easy implication, to prohibit poly-
gamy ; for  if " Whoever putteth away his
wife, and  marrieth another, committeth
adultery,"  he  who  marrieth another,
without putting away the firet, is no less
guilty of adultery;  because the adultery
does not consist in  the repudiation of the
first wife, but in entering into a  second
marriage during the legal existence of the
firet.  The passages in St. Paul's Writings
which speak of marriage always suppose
it to signify the uuion of one  man  with
one woman.   But, however this may be,
polygamy has been  as  entirely ^disused,
and universally prohibited in all Christian
countries, as if Christianity had expressly
forbidden it.   Polygamy has Leen allowed
under all the religions which  have lire-
vailed in Asia.  By the laws of Moham-
med,  every  Mussulman is permitted to
have  a  plurality  of  wives.  The  Arabs,
however, seldom avail themselves  of this
privilege.   In  England,  originally, the
offence of polygamy was considered as of
ecclesiastical  cognizance only; and,  al-
though a statute of Edward I treated it as
a capital  crime, it. appears still to  have
been of doubtful temporal cognizance un-
til the statute of James I, c. 11, enacted
that persons  guilty of polygamy  should
suffer death, as in cases of felony ; but the
benefit of clergy was not thereby  taken
away.   By the "statute 33 George III, c.
67,  polygamy is  punishable with  trans-
portation for seven years, or imprisonment
Iu the U. States, the  punishment is gen-
erally imprisonment for a longer or short-
er period, fine, &c.  By a constitution of
Charles V it  was a capital crime, and, by
the laws of ancient and modern Sweden,
it is punished with death.   By the Prus-
sian code of 1794, polygamy is  punishable
by confinement in a house of correction
or fort, for at least one and not  more than
two years. The practice of polygamy has
been defended by several authors in mod-
ern times.  Montesquieu affirms that it is
physically conformable to  the  climate of
Asia.   He has also suggested that the ir-
regularity in the comparative  number of
each sex bom in Asia, which is represent-
ed  to be  greatly superior on the part of
the female side,  is also an argument in
favor of this practice; but there is  good
reason for denying the reality of this sup-
posed inequality.   In the year 1780, the
reverend  Mr. Madan published his  Thc-
lypthora, in which he attempted to  vindi-
cate polygamy, and  proposed the intro-
duction of licensed polygamy, in case of
female seduction, as  a remedy for prosti-
tution.   He  was  ably answered  by a
writer in the Monthly  Review, vol.  63,
p. 328.
  Polyglot (from no\vs, many, and yXiarra,
language); a work  which contains  the
same matter in several languages.  It is
more particularly used to denote  a copy
of  the  Holy Scriptures,  in which two,
three or more translations are given, with 
POLYGLOT—POLYHEDRON.                    231
or without the original.   Polyglots are of
great service for  the understanding die
Scriptures, and were early undertaken by
theologians.  The firet great work of the
sort is the Complutensian Polyglot, pre-
pared by several  learned men, under the
patronage  of cardinal  Ximenes.  Great
care and  pains were taken in procuring
early manuscripts of the text and of the
translations.  It  was splendidly  printed
fl5J4—17), in six folio volumes, at Alcala
«le  Henares (q. v.), in Latin, Complutum,
whence its name.  It contains the Hebrew
text ofthe  Old Testament, with the Vul-
gate, the Septuagint, a literal Latin trans-
lation, a Chaldee paraphrase (which  is
also accompanied  by a Latin translation).
Another celebrated  polyglot is  that of
Antwerp,  called the Royal Bible,  because
Philip II of Spain bore part ofthe cost of
publication.  It  was conducted  by the
learned  Spanish  theologian,  Benedict
Arias Montanus, who was assisted by oth-
er scholars.  It appeared at Antwerp,  in
eight folio volumes  (1569—72), and, be-
sides the Hebrew text, contains the Latin
Vulgate, the Septuagint (with a literal
Latin translation), several Chaldaic para-
phrases (Targums), also  accompanied by
a Latin translation,  aiid the New Testa-
ment in the original Greek, with the Latin
Vulgate, and a Syriac translation in  Hebrew
and Syriac letters (also with a Latin trans-
lation).  Still more celebrated is the Paris
polyglot,  executed principally under the
direction of Gui Michael le Jay (an advo-
cate to the parliament, who expended his
whole fortune  on the object), by several
distinguished Orientalists and critics.  It
appeared  in 1645, in ten  folio volumes,
and contains, in addition to the  contents
of the  Antwerp polyglot, a Syriac and
an Arabic translation (with Latin), and also
the Samaritan pentateuch (a Samaritan
text, with  a  translation), and likewise an
Arabic translation ofthe New Testament,
with a Latin  translation  of the same.
Filially, the London or Walton's polyglot,
in ten languages, appeared in six volumes
folio, with two  supplementary  volumes
(London,   1654—57). It  was conducted
under the care of Bryan  Walton (q. v.),
afterwards bishop of Chester, and contains
all that is  in  the  Paris polyglot, but with
many additions  and improvements.   It
contains the original text according to sev-
eral  copies, with  an   Ethiopic  and a
Persian translation, and the Latin versions
of each.   Cromwell patronised the under-
taking.  Besides these  four great poly-
glots,  there  are  several of parts of the
Bible, particularly ofthe Psalms.
   Polycnotus of  Thasus,  one of the
 most distinguished Greek painters, flour-
 ished from 450 to 410 B. C.,  embellished
 Athens with his pencil,  and was reward-
 ed with the citizenship.  Cimon, the dem-
 agogue, and  rival of Pericles, employed
 him to decorate the Pcecile,   lie was also
 the favored lover of the beautiful Elpinice,
 sister of  Cimon.   Micon and Pananus-
 assisted him in painting die Pcecile.  His-
 two principal pictures there represented
 the Greeks before  Troy; the subject of
 one of them  was  the  assembly of the
 chiefs after the rape of Cassandra;  of the
 other,  the captive Trojan females,  in the
 midst  of  whom was Cassandra.  In the
 Lesche  (hall), at  Delphi,  he  painted the
•Conquest of Troy and the Regions of the
 Dead,  which  are described by Pausanias.
 In a  portico  of  the  Parthenon there
 were also several easel-pieces, relating to
 the Trojan war.  In the temple of Castor
 and Pollux was  a  painting representing
 the abduction and marriage ofthe daugh-
 ters cf Leucippns,  and in the propylaea
 were several  pictures.  His  works were
 probably on wood.   Polygnotus  is  repre-
 sented as  being the  first who made paint-
 ing independent  of sculpture, and gave
 life, motion,  character  and  expression
 (whence  his surname hBoypcnpos) to the
 countenance,  skilful disposition to the
 drapery, and  proportion to the figures, and
 he is  said to  have been the first who
 painted letrachromes (pictures with  four
 colors).   With him began the grand and
 lofty style in  Greek painting.
   Polyhalite;  the name of a mineral
 species, bestowed in allusion  to the many
 salts  which  it  contains.  It occurs in
 coarsely fibrous masses of a reddish white
 color, and a  pearly lustre ; specific gravi-
 ty 2.77; hardness not much  above  that
 of gypsum.  Its  constituents are as fol-
 lows :—

 Hydrous sulphate of lime  .....28.25
 Anhydrous        do.     .....22.42
 Anhydrous sulphate of magnesia. . 20.03
 Sulphate  of potash   .........27.07
 Muriate of soda.............19<
 Red oxide of iron..........    .34
 It occurs  in the salt mines  of Ischel, in
 Upper Austria.
   Polyhedron, or Polyedron; a body
 or solid  contained  by  many rectilinear
 planes or sides.  When  the  sides  of the
 polyhedron are regular polygons, all simi-
 lar and equal, then the polyhedron be-
 comes a  regular body,  and  may be  in-
 scribed in a sphere; that is, a sphere may
 be described about it, so that its surface 
282
POLYHEDRON -POLYPI.
shall  touch all the angles or corners of
the solid.  There  are  but  five of  these
regular bodies,  viz. the tetrahedron, the
hexaliedron or cube, the octahedron, the
dodecahedron, and the icosahedron.
   Polyhistor (from  ituXuj, much,  and
'is™?,  knowing);  a  scholar who is ac-
quainted with all  the chief branches of
science.  Formerly it was possible to be
well  versed, at  the same  time, in law,
theology, mediciue, &c.  (as in the case
of Leibnitz, and several  scholars  of em-
inence  before   him.)   In  the  present
advanced state of science,  it is  impos-
sible  to be a  polyhistor   without  the
sacrifice  of thoroughness.   Polyhistor  is
also used for  a  scholar,  who, besides his
peculiar branch,  has a general knowledge
of most others. (See Morhof.)
   Polyhymnia, or Polymnia ; according
to the later poets,  the muse  of lyric song
or of  music, to whom is attributed the in-
vention of  mimes and pantomimes.  The
Grecian artists represented her covered with
a veil, and  in a meditating posture.  Her
attributes are the  lyre  and the plectrum.
She   places the forefinger  of  her  right
hand  on her mouth, or holds a scroll.
   Polymignite ;  the name  of a mineral
recently  found in  Norway.  It is black,
brilliant, and crystallized  in small prisms,
long,  thin,  with  rectangular bases, the
edges of whieh are  commonly replaced
by one or several planes.  Specific gravi-
ty, 4.806.  It scratches glass.  Fracture
conchoidal, without indications  of cleav-
age ;  lustre semi-metallic.   Alone,  be-
fore the blow-pipe, it undergoes no change,
but melts easily with borax.   Its compo-
sition  is as follows:—

Titanic acid..............46.3
Zirconia.................14.4
Oxide of iron  .............12.2
Lime..................  4.2
Oxide of manganese.........  2.7
Oxide of cerium............  5.
Yttria..................11.5
Traces of magnesia, potash, silex and
   oxide of tin..............96.3

It  is found in the zircon sienite at Fred-
cricksvoern.
   Polynesia (from rroXvs,  many, and  vwos,
island); the name  given  by  geographers
to  the great body of islands scattered over
die Pacific  ocean, between Australasia
and the  Philippines, and the  American
continent  It extends from  lat. 35° N. to
50° S.; and from lon. 170° to 230° E., an
extent of 5000 miles from north to south,
and of 3600 from  west  to  east  It in-
cludes, therefore, the Sandwich islands,
tin' Marquesas, Navigator':', Society, Mul-
grave,  Friendly,  Ladrone,  and  Pelew
isles, the Carolines, Pitcairn's island, &c.
(See tluse articles, and also Australia, Oce-
anica, and Pacific Ocean.)
  Polynices.  (See Eleocles, and Thebes.)
  Polyphemus, son of Neptune, the most
famous of the Sicilian Cyclops (q. v.), is
described  by Ulysses (Odyssey, ix),  as a
giant, living  by himself iu  a cave, and
feeding bis flocks.  Ulysses (q. v.) and his
companions,  having unwarily taken ref-
uge in  his cave, were  found there by
Polyphemus, when he returned home at
night, and shut up the mouth of the cav-
ern with a large  stone.  Having seized
two of the strangers, he ate them for sup-
per, and the next morning made a break-
fast of two more of them, after which he
drove out his flocks  to pasture, and shut
up  the  unhappy  captives by closing the
entrance of his cave.   Ulysses then con-
trived a plan for their escape.   Having
sharpened the club of the Cyclops, he in-
toxicated the monster with wine, and, as
soon as he  fell  asleep, bored  out his eye.
He then tied  himself and his companions
under the bellies  of the sheep, in which
manner they passed safely out in the morn-
ing.  Polyphemus was the  lover of the
nymph  Galatea, but the nymph despi:>cd
his offers, and  preferred Acis, who  was
killed by his jealous rival.  (See Galatea.)
  Polypi, in  natural history ;  a numerous
order of animals of the class of zoophytes,
or animal plants, forming  the transition
from the animal  to  the vegetable king-
dom.   (See the article Animal, in which
the five zoophyte orders are described un-
der the head Radiated.)  These singular
animals were  first described by Trembley,
in his Memoires sur les Polypes (printed at
Leyden, 1744).   The unpractised  eye ea-
sily overlooks these animalcules, as they
consist merely of a semitransparent jelly,
and, when disturbed, contract themselves
into a shapeless lump.  They are to be
found from the beginning  of the warm
weather, tiirough  summer, in pools, aud
slowly running  waters, attached to plants,
snails, &c.  When the sun is very warm,
little,  transparent, gelatinous lumps, of
about the size ofa pea, may be discovered
in the situations above described.   These
are  polypi in  a state of rest, and apparent-
ly without  life.   But  they are capable of
stretching both  their body and their arms
(six to ten  in number) in an astonishing
manner, and they are then seen to be com-
posed ofa stomach furnished  with instru-
ments of prehension.  By these arms the
polypus seizes  any  insect  which  ap- 
POLYPI—POLYPUS.
233
  proaches it, and  conveys it to an orifice
  by which it passes into the  stomach, and
  through which the undigested part is also
  voided.   There is a great number of spe-
  cies of these little animals ; the green, the
  brown and the  orange-colored  are  the
  most common, and  all the species have
  at the least six, or at the most twelve to
  thirteen arms. The  latter are generally
  not longer than  the  body,  but they  are
  often one, and even eight inches in length.
  When, however, the polypi  are taken out
  ofthe water,  they look like a  little mass
  of jelly, which frequently is hardly of the
  size of u grain of sand.  They can extend
  one or several of their arms at the  same
  time, and contract them  in one or several
  parts, and thus  are  enabled  to  change
  their position, by  applying them to a par-
  ticular point,  and drawing  themselves to
  it.   On  examining the  polypus  with a
  microscope, the  external surface resem-
  bles  shagreen, and is covered widi  little
  grains, which are more or  less close  in
  proportion as  the animal contracts or ex-
  pands itself.   On cutting  the animal into
  pieces, the skin  will be found to consist
  entirely of such grains, united by a  kind
  of gummy substanc.  The color of these
  grains determines the color  ofthe animal.
  The brown polypus has the longest arms,
  aud employs  the greatest variety of move-
  ments to  seize its prey.  All the species
  have not eyes, yet they  have some meth-
  od  of discovering  the approach  of their
  prey to their  arms, and show the greatest
  attention to it  When full,  the polypus is
  torpid and motionless, but as it digests its
  food, it resumes its activity.  As the whole
  animal is one entire  stomach, the cavity
  of which is  continued  even to  the ex-
% tremities  of  the arms, the food  may be
  seen  to pass  from the stomach  through
  the latter, and from  these back again to
  the stomach.   To try this experiment, it is
  only  necessary  to  give  the  polypus a
  worm of a red color.  If it is constantly
  fed with insects of one color,  the polypus
  takes the same color.  It sometimes hap-
  pens that two polypi lay hold  ofthe same
  worm; in this case they continue eating
  till they  break it asunder in  the middle;
  and  sometimes  one also  swallows the
  other; but they are incapable of digesting
  each other, and,  alh r an  hour or two, the
  one which has been swallowed issues out
  The manner  in which these animals prop-
  agate is not less remarkable than the rest
  of  their  organization.  There   appear
  small tubercles on the  sides,  which in a
  few days have the figure of small polypi.
  The  connexion  still  remains; what the
                   20*
young one seizes, goes to the nourishment
of the  parent, and  vice versa.  But  the
end by which they  are joined gradually
becomes thinner, and finally they choose;
different  points to attach  themselves to,
and are thus torn apart.  The polypus
produces young  in  this way, in all parts
ofthe body, and often  bears live or six at
a time.   Trembley, who  kept  them  iu
glasses above a year, never observed any
act of copulation among them ; but some
modern observers have thought that they
propagate by eggs.  Sometimes a poly-
pus, not yet detached from its parent,  be-
comes a parent and  grand parent, all  the
individuals forming one whole.  The  in-
destructibility of their life is most aston-
ishing, and their  power, when  mutilated,
of supplying the  lost parts anew;  and if
cut to pieces  in any direction, each part
forms a new animal.  They may also  be
turned inside out and even grafted togeth-
er.  This remarkable power of reproduc-
tion gave them the scientific  name hydra,
in allusion to the  fabulous monster  of
that name.   How far the stories of simi-
lar animals, but of enormous size,  inhab-
iting the bottom of the sea, are true or
fabulous, is yet uncertain.
   Polypus, in medicine;  a name given
to swellings, which form chiefly in  the
mucous membranes, and were considered
to resemble the animal ofthe same name.
These tumors are most  common  in  the
nostrils, the throat,  the  uterus, and  are
more rarely  found  in the stomach,  the
intestines, the bladder, or the external pas-
sage of the ear.  Polypuses  differ much
in size, number, mode of adhesion, and
nature.   One species  is  called mucous,
soft, or vesicular  polypuses, because their
substance  is soft, spongy, vesicular, and,
as it were, filled with white juices;  an-
other is called the hard polypus, and  has
been  distinguished  into   the  fibrous or
fleshy, and  the  scirrhous or cancerous.
The fibrous polypuses  are of a  dense,
close  texture, and  of a  whitish color;
they contain  few vessels, and do not de-
generate into cancers.   The scirrhous or
carcinomatous polypuses are really can-
cerous,  painful tumors,  which discharge
blood,  and  exhibit  all  the pathological
changes of cancerous affections.  Differ-
ent modes of treatment must be adopted,
according to the particular nature of tho
disease.  Among the methods of cure are
exsiccation, which consists in subjecting
the polypus  to the action of astringent
powders or solutions, to effect the reso-
lution of the tumor; cauterization, or the
application of fire and caustics; excision, 
234
POLYPUS—POLYTHEISM.
 or  the  removal of  the  polypus by the
 knife;  extraction, or its removal  by the
 fingers, or by pincers;  the sdon, which
 consists  in the  application of a wire or
 thread,  for the purpose of destroying the
 psdicle, or by ligature, which consists in
 tying up the base ofthe tumor, and caus-
 ing it to fall  off by the destruction of the
 vascular pedicle which nourishes it.
   Polytechnics ;  used on the European
 continent, particularly in Germany, for
 the  science of  all  mechanical  arts and
 skill, aided or unaided by machinery.
   Polytechnic School (Ecole  Polytech-
 nique) ;  an  establishment  which  ranks
 among the first in  the history of educa-
 tion.  This school was  established by a
 decree of the   national  convention   of
 March 11,1794, which was passed by the
 influence of  Monge,  Carnot,  Fourcroy,
 &c.  The committee of public safety had
 seen the  necessity of providing for the ed-
 ucation of engineers.  The  school was
 firet called hole centrale des travaux pub-
 lics, which name was changed a year af-
 ter.  Men like  Lagrange, Laplace, Ber-
 thollet, Fourcroy, and many other distin-
 guished individuals, were its professors.
 It is now established in the buildings  of
 the aucient college of Navarre. Napoleon
 did  much for  it, and under him it re-
 ceived considerable modifications.  The
 pupils were obliged to live in the building,
 and wear a uniform.   It3 object is to dif-
 fuse the knowledge  of the mathematical,
 physical  and chemical  sciences,  and to
 prepare the pupils for the artillery service
 and the various departments of engineer-
 ing, military, naval and civil.  The num-
 ber of pupils is limited to 300. The terms
 for the  students not supported on  the
 foundation are  1000 francs a year, inde-
 pendent  of the expense of uniform and
 books.  The  pupil, at the time of admis-
 sion, must be more than  sixteen and less
 tiian  tweuty  years old.   The-course  of
 studies lasts two years, in  certain  cases
 three.  A rigorous examination  precedes
admission, and another examination takes
 place before  the pupils  leave the institu-
tion, and it is invariably attended by  the
 greater number of the marshals of France,
 together  with many of the most distin-
 guished scholars ; "and," says an English
 write/, ll the  replies of the pupils might
 well astonish a  senior  wrangler  of Cam-
 bridge, or a medallist of Dublin."  The
origin of this  establishment, and the high
 character of the course of instruction, has
always inspired the students with a warm
love of their country.  March 30,  1814,
 they fought bravely against the allies.  In
April, 1816, the school was abolished, the
students appearing not sufficiently devoted
to the Bourbons, who,  however,  were
obliged to reestablish  it, in September of
the same year.  In the revolution of July,
1830, the students immediately took p;trt
with the people, and  were of the greatest
use, as well  by their military knowledge
as by their heroic enthusiasm ; and  seve-
ral of the  most  important attacks during
those memorable days were conducted by
these youths.  The icolepolytechnique is a
favorite institution with die whole nation.
(See France, vol. v, p.  237.  See the work
of M. Fourcy on this  school, and La Cor-
respondance de I'Ecole Polytechnique, by M.
Hachette.)
  Polytheism ;  worship of  several or
many gods, opposed to monotheism (q. v.),
(from iroXvi, many, and Ow, god).  The ori-
gin of polytheism may be different.   We
find tribes whose polytheism can be ascrib-
ed, almost beyond doubt, to the deification
of the powers and phenomena of nature ;
but  with  others  it cannot  be so clearly
traced.  As to the views of the  polythe-
ism  of antiquity, they may,  perhaps, be
classified under the following heads:—1.
Monotheism was the pure religion reveal-
ed to the progenitors of the  human race,
handed down through the patriarchs, and,
after its decline, revived  iu its purity by
Moses, and taught to the children of Israel,
whilst all  nations except this chosen one
deviated  more  and more from the true
revelation,  and created  a host  of gods,
good and evil. (See Monotheism.) 2. Man,
beginning with the savage state, proceeded
in every thing from the concrete to the ab-
stract ;  from the observation of nature, he
rose to the  natural sciences ; from the
measurement of  space  to mathematics;
from the idea of just dealing, so natural in
families,  to that  of politics and ethics;
from the observation  of beautiful things
to ideal beauty; and from the knowledge
of effects, only ascribable to  higher  pow-
ers, to the veneration ofthe powers of na-
ture, to polytheism, and from this to  mon-
otheism.   The chief objections to this
view are that there are numerous nations
which refined their polytheism more and
more, but never arrived  at  monotheism.
the two most civilized  nations of antiquity
not excepted, and that we meet with mon-
otheism in the very records where, accord-
ing to this view, we should expect it least,
—those of the most ancient races, as given
in the Bible.  3. Another view is taken of
polytheism by Creuzer (q. v.), in his Sym-
bolics and Mythology  of the Ancient Na-
tions, particularly  ofthe  Greeks (partly 
POLYTHEISM—POMBAL.
235
translated, partly re wrought by Guigniaut,
in his Religions de I'Antiquite',  considerees
principalement dans leurs Formes symbo-
liques et mythologiques, Paris, 1824 et seq.).
He considers Greek polytheism as presup-
posing a whole system of ancient Asiatic
poetry, philosophy and theology, the sym-
bols of which gradually  lost their hidden
meaning, but still continued long in use as
forms.   4. Others  have considered  the
polytheism of the  Greeks as  the mere
forms under  which  natural science  had
been preserved  and  taught in  previous
ages. 5.  Some  consider polytheism as
having  originated from a  corruption of
monotheism ;  others regard it as a deifica-
tion of the powers of nature.   Even the
Greek polytheism is considered by many
as indicating  strongly the preexisteuce of
monotheism.   (See Mythology.)  The two
extremes of polytheism may be consider-
ed to be dualism (q. v.), and pantheism
(q. v.).  The  former is  the belief in  two
original beings, a good and an  evil spirit
It forms the basis of several Oriental re-
ligions,  and  is considered by  many as
merely a misconception of the primitive
monotheism.  Pantheism originates from
polytheism.  It  makes  the world itself
God, and God the world, the One and the
Whole.  (See Pantheism.)
   Polyxena ; daughter of Priam and of
Hecuba, whose fate is related by the post-
Homeric epic poets.  Achilles loved  her,
and advantage was taken  of his passion
for her to effect his death.  According lo
some accounts, she returned his affection,
and killed herself on his tomb.  But ac-
cording to the most common story, she
was sacrificed to  his Mimes, either in
Thrace or at his tomb.
   Pombal, Sebastian Joseph  Carvalho,
count of Oeyras, more known  as marquis
of  Pombal,  a  celebrated  Portuguese
statesman, was born in 1699, at the castle
of Soura, near Coimbra, and died in 1782.
His father was a captain  of  the poorer
class of the  nobility ; but  his  mother, a
Mendoza,  and  his  uncle,  a respectable
ecclesiastic, opened to the youugCarvalho,
who, after having studied  law at  Coim-
bra, entered  the  army, the prospect of
promotion.   Nature had given him all the
qualities which indicate a person destined
for rule ; a tall and  strong frame, a  vig-
orous constitution,  a daring eye, a fiery
temperament, strong passions,  a penetrat-
ing judgment, and the most  captivating
address.  In every thing which he under-
took, he led the way.  Having been  ban-
ished  from Lisbou  on  account of some
youthful imprudences,  the offspring of
his ardent temperament, he passed several
years at Soura devoted to  study.   While
there, he gained the affections of Theresa
de Noronha Almada, a rich widow, whose
proud relations rejected with disdain  his
advances.  He eloped, however, with the
object of his passion, and his courage and
resolution wived him from  the daggers of
assassins.  At  the  same time, the con-
tempt with which the family of his wife,
the counts of Arcos, treated him, kindled
hjs ambition to  rise.  He returned to
court, where his address  acquired  him
such high favor, that in 1739 he was ap-
pointed ambassador to London.  Here he
became acquainted with the relations be-
tween England and Portugal, and formed
the plan of  delivering his country from
the fetters of  the English  commercial
system.  The  new  minister, Peter di
Motta, his enemy, recalled him in 1745 ;
but the queen, who was  his  patroness,
sent him to Vienna to act as mediator be-
tween  the pope and  the  empress Maria
Theresa.  Carvalho here  gained general
esteem, and,  his firet wife being dead,  ob-
tained the hand of the  youthful countess
of Daun.  He was obliged, however, to
refute the calumnies which a Portuguese
of rank had  circulated against him in Vi-
enna, and to  prove his claims to nobility.
The queen now procured  his nomination
as ambassador to the Spanish  court;  but
the king and his minister hated him ; he
was recalled, and even the influence of
the queen was  insufficient to overcome
the aversion of  the  king  (John V).   It
was  in vain  that Pombal insinuated him-
self into the  favor of the Jesuits, and, by
his entire devotion  to the  order, imposed
upon them to  such a degree as to obtain
an intimate  acquaintance  with their or-
ganization, of which he afterwards made
use when he  was minister.   The high
nobility persecuted him with irreconcilable
hatred ; but Carvalho concealed his desire
of revenge, and passed for  the  most amia-
ble, modest and pious courtier  in the  ser-
vice of the queen.  John V died in 1750,
and, through the influence of the queen
dowager, Carvalho finally  obtained from
his successor, Joseph I, the long coveted
post of secretary of state for foreign affaire.
The  confessor of the king,  Moreira, a
Jesuit, was  his  friend;   and Carvalho
courted the order with such zeal, that he
was  called  the  great Jesuit.   He soon
rendered the feeble and sensual king (par-
ticularly after the death ofthe queen moth-
er, 1754) entirely subject to his influence.
Joseph I, from  fear of his brother  dom
Pedro, to whom Carvalho's enemies at- 
236
POMBAL.
 tached themselves, fell in with the most
 daring projects of his minister; and the
 latter now proceeded to  the accomplish-
 ment  of  Ins four  favorite objects;—the
 expulsion of the Jesuits-, the humiliation
 ofthe high  nobility;  the restoration of
 the prosperity of Portugal, and the abso-
 lute command ofthe state, in the name of
 the monarch. The kingdom was reduced
 to  the lowest condition.   England, the
 Jesuits, and the high nobility, monopolized
 the  wealth of  the  country,  which  was
 without an army or a fleet, without com-
 merce or agriculture.  The minister acted
 on the principles of the mercantile system,
 and although obliged to abandon many of
 his designs, succeeded  in  some of them.
 It required a man of his character to with-
 stand  the  attacks to which he was ex-
 posed, from  the inquisition, to which he
 prohibited its autos da Je; from the Jesu-
 its,  whom he expelled from their missions
 in Paraguay;  from the  high  nobility,
 whom he deprived of their princely pos-
 sessions in the colonies; and from the prel-
 acy, whose powers  he abridged.  Then
 came the earthquake of Nov. 1,1755,which
 buried 30,000 human beings, and destroyed
 property to the  value of 400,000,000 dol-
 lars.  Carvalho left the care  of his own
 family and property, and  appeared  in the
 midst of the general despair, as a savior,
 displaying a vigor and  resolution, which,
 alone, ought to have conciliated his ene-
 mies.  He  was  to be seen for a whole
 week after this calamity, uninterruptedly
 employed  iu  every place  where aid was
 needed, in contriving means of relief,  and
 restoring order ;  and, under the most dis-
 astrous circumstances and  greatest diffi-
 culties, displayed the most active benevo-
 lence  and most extraordinary energy.
 The king looked upon  him as a favorite
 of Heaven, and submitted  implicitly to his
direction.   Carvalho  was  now created
count of Oeyras, and, in 1750,  firet minis-
 ter.   He then removed  every one who
 ventured to obstruct his  plans.  It was
necessary to proceed with the  most un-
yielding rigor, since the profligate nobility
perpetrated assassinations without hesita-
tion, and plundered  the  people without
 mercy.  But,  with the pride of the great,
whom  he humbled, and the avarice, which
 his  commercial  regulations exasperated,
was now connected  the discontent of the
country people, excited by his  establish-
 ment of monopolies, which, however, was
 done only  to  counteract the actual mo-
 nopoly ofthe  English.  The discontented
 vine-dressers committed excesses in Opor-
 to;  but Pombal suppressed the riots by
 the most comprehensive laws against trea-
 son,  which  made  the  will of the  king
 valid  against all constitutions and privi-
 leges. He also exposed, to the astonishment
 of Europe,  the  conduct  of  the  Jesuits
 (who endeavored to persuade  the public
 that he was  Antichrist), in their govern-
 ment in Paraguay.   In his expose  of this
 matter, there are,  certainly,  many exag-
 gerations ; and there is no  doubt that the
 fiithers ruled these  provinces much better
 than the government of Spain or Portugal
 would  have  done.   Carvalho finally* de-
 termined to  remove the Jesuits entirely
 from the person of  the king.   They were
 deprived of  the place  of confessors,, and
 were ordered (September 16, 1757) to re-
 tire to their colleges.  Several Portuguese
 grandees, who  had joined  in intrigues
 against the  minister, were  banished from
 Lisbon.  Pombal now pushed his meas-
 ures  with  vigor; as his attempts to  en-
 courage agriculture had been unsuccess-
 ful, he proceeded  to extirpate  the vine,
 and was, finally,  completely  victorious.
 A conspiracy against the life of the king,
 who was wounded  on  the  night of Sep-
 tember 3d, 1758, by  assassins, whose blows
 he escaped  only through  the fidelity of
 his attendant, or the" fright  of his  mules,
 delivered the minister's mortal enemies
 into his hands.  Three months after  the
 attempt, Pombal, on the night ofthe cele-
 bration  of  his  daughter's marriage, at
 which the principal nobility were present,
 arrested the  marquis of Tavora and  bis
 family, the  Jesuit  Malagrida,  and, the
 next clay, the duke  of Aveiro and others.
 The minister and a member  of the su-
 preme judicial  tribunal conducted  the
 examination,  and,  after a  hasty trial, a
 dreadful sentence  was  passed, and exe-
 cuted before the castle ofBelem (January
 13th,  1759).  The  duke of Aveiro  and
 the marquis  of Tavora were  broken  on
 the wheel, as the principals of the con-
 spiracy; the sons and the son-in-law, with
 the servants of the former, were strangled,
 as accomplices; the wife ofthe marquis
 was beheaded, and a servant of the duke
 burnt, as were also the dead bodies of the
 others.  The Jesuits were  suspected of
 being the authors ofthe [dot; but the mar-
 quis of Tavora, who had thrown-out some
 accusations against  them,  had  retracted
 them  in  writing.   Still the minister de-
 nounced them to the pope,  as the contri-
vers of the scheme,  and not being able to
procure immediately  a bull,  permitting
the secular tribunals to proceed against
them, he caused  some of them to be exe-
cuted in prison.    Malagrida, who  had 
POMBAL—POMERANIA.
237
prophesied the  death  of the king, was
condemued to the flames  by the inquisi-
tion, and burnt  in 1761.  Pombal  had al-
ready banished the whole order from the
kingdom, as  rebels and enemies of the
king, by a royal decree, of September 3d,
1759, and, as they did not  comply with
the mandate, caused them  to be seized by
soldiers,  and  transported, to the  number
of 1854, to the States ofthe Church. These
proceedings gave rise to a protracted dis-
pute with the  pope;  in  1760,  Pombal
transported the papal nuncio beyond the
frontiere, and  was on the point of dissolv-
ing all connexion with Rome, when Clem-
ent XIII died,  and Clement XIV, his
successor, abolished  the order in 1773.
Portugal  was  soon after  involved  in  a
short war with Spain, and, at a subsequent
period, in a second war, on account ofthe
minister's haughty conduct towards that
government   The Portuguese army re-
ceived an entirely new organization, and
the fortifications on the frontiere were put
in a better condition.   Pombal  was no
less  active in his  efforts to improve the
country  in every relation, and paid par-
ticular attention to the schools; he also
rendered the censorship less strict, and, by
a law of 1773, established the ta'cration
of converts  to Christianity, who  had be-
fore been treated as secret Jews, and de-
nied many civil  privileges.  Projects of
ambition and of vengeance on his enemies,
who repeatedly attempted his life, and his
plan of placing  on the throne the prince
of Beira, the grandson of the queen, oc-
cupied  the rest of his public life.  Jo-
seph I,  whose  daughter  was the bitter
enemy of Pombal, died February 24,1777,
and the  minister was dismissed.   The
stats prisoners, whom he had incarcerated,
9800 in number, were released, and all
bis  regulations  were  abolished, so that
Portugal sunk back into its former state
of imbecility.   Pombal transferred to the
3'oung  queen  a  treasure of 78,000,000
crusados, and  a  well organized state.
But the  hate of his  enemies was more
powerful than  his services.   The Portu-
guese  nobility left no  means untried to
bring  him to  the scaffold.  The queen
caused  an examination to be made  into
the trial  of the assassins of the king, and
Pombal saved himself only by exhibiting
the  original  proofs  of the conspiracy,
which had not  been made  public.  The
hated  and persecuted  Pombal  retained
his titles and his estates, and, retiring into
the  village of Pombal, occupied himself
in reading and  in  works of charity.  He
died there,  May 8, 1782, in the  eighty-
fourth  yar  of his age.   His history has
been misrepresented by his Italian biog-
rapher, au ex-Jesuit, aud in theAncc!>i(ts
du Ministere de Pombal  (Warsaw, 1784).
Sec L'Administration du Marquis de Pom-
bal (Amsterdam,  1788, 4 vols.).
  Pomegranate (punkagranatum).  In
its wild state, this is  a dense  spiny shrub,
eight or ten feet high, but, when cultivated
with care, and in a  favorable climate, it
attains  double these dimensions.   It is
supposed to have originated in the north
of Africa, and thence to have been intro-
duced into Italy.   By the Romans it was
called  malum Punicum,  or Carthaginian
apple, and the country adjacent to  Car-
thage was then celebrated for its produc-
tion.  The leaves are opposite, lanceolate,
entire and smooth; the  flowers are of a
brilliant red, large, and almost sessile; the
fruit, when cultivated, attains the size ofa
large apple,  and has a thick coriaceous
rind, crowned at the summit with the
teeth of the  persistent calyx.  It is filled
with a  multitude of  small red seeds, aud
the pulp is more  or less acid, and slightly
astringent   The pomegranate is now nat-
uralized as well  as  extensively cultivated
throughout a great  part of the south of
Europe, for the sake of the fruit; and,
even in those climates where this does not
attain perfection, the beauty of the flowers
renders it a favorite  ornamental  shrub.
Numerous remarkable varieties have  been
produced, differing in the beauty of  their
flowers, and in the taste and quality ofthe
fruit   The pomegranate, in warm  cli-
mates,  sometimes  attains an  enormous
size.  A cooling and agreeable beverage
is made of  the juice mixed  with water
and sugar  or honey.   Another  species
(P. nana) inhabits the West Indies and
Guiana, where it is  sometimes used  as a
hedge  plant.  The  flowers and fruit are
very small.  These  two  plants, by them-
selves,  constitute a distinct natural  family.
  Pomerania (in German, Pommern); a
duchy belonging to Prussia, having Meck-
lenburg on the west, Brandenburg on the
south, West Prussia on the east, and the
Baltic on the north.   It is divided by the
Oder into Anterior  or Hither Pomerania
(Vorpommern), and   Hinder  or  Farther
Pomerania (Hinlerpommern).  It contain-
ed, in 1828,  a population of 877,555,  prin-
cipally Protestants, on 12,000square miles.
It is a low and almost level country.  The
Oder (q. v.) is the  principal river.  The
soil is  in general sandy and indifferent.
The mineral productions are unimportant,
and the manufactures inconsiderable. The
commerce, of which Stettin  (q. v.) is the 
238
POMERANIA—POMPEII.
 centre, is  of more  consequence.   The
 principal productions are corn, flax, hemp,
 tobacco and wood : besides these articles,
 cattle, butter,  wool,  &c,  are  exported.
 Pomerania is divided  into three govern-
 ments, Stettin,  Koslin  and  Stralsund.
 The duchy was claimed  by the house of
 Brandenburg in 1637, on the extinction of
 its ducal  house, but it was occupied by
 Sweden during the thirty years' war, and
 Farther Pomerania was  retained by that
 power at the peace of Westphalia.  Prus-
 sia acquired a large part of Farther Pom-
 erania by the peace of Stockholm (1720),
 and, in 1815, obtained the remainder from
 Denmark (to whom it had been ceded by
 Sweden) in exchange for Lauenburg, and
 a sum of  money. Since 1823, Pomera-
 nia has provincial estates, and the present
 king  of Prussia has  abolished slavery.
 The Pomeranians are partly Germans and
 partly Cassubians, or descendants  of the
 old Vandals, with a peculiar dialect (See
 Prussia.)
   Pomfret, John, an  English  poet, was
 born  in Bedfordshire in  1667, studied at
 Queen's college, Cambridge, and took or-
 ders.   He died in 1703.  His Choice has
 been  highly  popular.  His  poems  were
 published in 1699, and  some additional
 pieces appeared after his  death.
   Pomology ; a word much  in  use in
 France and Germany for that branch of
 gardening which embraces the cultivation
 of fruit trees, shrubs, &c. (pomacea, dru-
 pacea, baccifcree), and, of course, the culti-
 vation of the  fruits  themselves.  There
 exist  many pomological  societies,  much
 the same  as  the English and American
 horticultural societies, though the former,
 as the name implies, direct their attention
 chiefly to the cultivation of fruits.
   Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson,
 marchioness de; the mistress of Louis XV,
 iu whose affections she  succeeded Mad.
 de Chateauroux.  She was bom in 1720,
 and was the daughter of a kept mistress
 by a  farmer of Ferte-sous-Jouare, who
 had  made a  tolerable  fortune  in the
 com trade,and was accused of some frauds.
 In 1741, she was married  to a sous-fermier
 d'Etiol. s. She was well educated, sensible,
 amiable, rich in graces and accomplish-
 ments, and gifted by nature with a good
 heart and a good understanding.  '; I know
 her well," said Voltaire : " I was the  confi-
 dent of her  love.  She declared to tne that
 she had always had a secret presentiment
 that she should be loved by the king, and
 that,without well knowing why, she had felt
a violent inclination in  his favor."  This
 notion, which, in her circumstances, was
 somewhat wild, seems to have been raised
 by her often  seeing the king at the chase
 in the forest of Seiiart.  Tournehem,  her
 mother's lover, had a  country seat iu  the
 vicinity. Mad. d'Etioles made her appear-
 ance in a sort of a calash, and  attracted
 the notice ofthe king, who frequently sent
 her game.  She was  finally  presented to
 the king, whose favor she soon  entirely
 engrossed.   In 1745,  she  appeared at
 court under  the  title of marchioness of
 Pompadour.   Here she enjoyed the high-
 est consideration, but did not  at firet inter-
 fere in  political affaire, satisfied with  ap-
 pearing as the patroness of learning and
 the arts.  She collected books,  pictures
 and curiosities, and encouraged the  insti-
 tution of the military school, of which
 Paris du  Verney was the founder.   But,
 when her charms began to fade, and .-she
 could only maintaiu  her influence with
 the king by furnishing him other objects
 for the gratification  of his passions,  she
 turned her attention to state affairs.   She
 filled the most important offices with  her
 favorites,  and  contributed to  produce
 those evils which afterwards pressed so
 heavily on  France.  It is said to  hare
 been principally owing to her that France
 became involved in the war against Fred-
 eric II.   The empress Maria Theresa had
 propitiated her favor by writing to  her
 with her  Own  hand.   The burdens  and
 sufferings which  this war  brought upon
 France  must be  laid at her door, since
 she removed  Bemis, who was in favor of
 peace, and supplied bis place  by Choiseul,
 effected the recall of marshal  d'Estrees at
 the moment  of triumph, .and promoted
 incapable generals  to the command.  She
 died  in 1764,  at  the  age of forty-four
 years, little  regretted by the king (see
 Louis XV), and hated aud  reviled by the
 nation.  The memoirs and letters which
 appeared under her name  are not genu-
 ine, but are attributed to the younger Cre-
 billon.  (See  the Memoires of Mad. Cam-
 pan, and those of Du Hausset.)
  Pompeii ; an ancient city of Campania,
 formerly celebrated  for its  commerce,
 which was partly destroyed by an earth-
 quake, A. D. 63, and, together with Ilercu-
 laneiim, was  buried by a stream of lava,
or rather by a shower of ashes, A. D. 79,
and first discovered in 1748.   It lies about
twelve  miles  south-east  from   Naples.
Pompeii is said to have been  founded by
the Opici, and, at a later period,  was in
the possession ofthe Samnites, who, hav-
ing revolted,  were  replaced  by  Roman
colonists.  Although  a less considerable
city than Herculancum, it contained many 
POMPEII—POMPEY.                        239
fine  works  of art, a large theatre,  and
many handsome buildings.  (For an ac-
count of the excavations, see Herculane-
um.)  The excavations are still continued.
The bed of ashes was about eighteen  feet
in depth.  Although  two thirds are  still
covered, it is estimated that the town  was
three quarters  of a  mile iu length  by
nearly half a mile in  breadth.   The walls
are  from  eighteen to twenty feet high,
and  twelve  thick,  and contained several
main gates,  of which six have been un-
covered.  Twenty  streets,  fifteen  feet
wide, paved with  lava, and having foot-
ways of three feet broad, have also been
excavated.  The houses are  joined  to-
gether, aud are generally only two stories,
with  terraces for roofs.  The fronts are
often shops,  with inscriptions, frescoes and
ornaments of every kind.  The principal
rooms are in the rear: in the  centre  is a
court, which  often  contains  a  marble
fountain.   In some  of  the  houses the
rooms have  been found very richly orna-
mented.  A forum, surroufided with hand-
some buildings, two  theatres, an  arena,
temples,  baths,  fountains,  statues,  urns,
utensils of all sorts,  &c, have been  dis-
covered.  Most of the objects of  curiosity
have been deposited  in the museums of
Naples  and Portici:  among  them are a
great number of manuscripts.   It is prob-
able that most ofthe inhabitants  escaped,
as few  skeletons have been found.—For
further information, see Gell and Gaudy's
Pompeiana  (London, 1817—19), and the
new series, conducted by the former, Pom-
peiana (part x, London, 1831);  Wilkins's
 Views  of Pompeii;  Cooke's Delineations
(London,  1827,  2  vols., folio, 90 [dates);
the account of P. in the Lib. of Entertain.
Knowl.;  Bibent's Plan of Pompeii (Paris,
1826), showing the progress of the excava-
tions from 1763 to 1825; and Goro's li'an-
derungen durch Pompeji (Vienna, 1825).
   Pompey (Cneus Pompeius), surnamed
the Great (Magnus),  born B. C.  107, was
the  son of Cneus Pompeius Strabo, an
able general, but hated for his severity and
avarice.  The young Pompey had receiv-
ed from nature a pleasing person, and a
graceful dignity, and early displayed tal-
ents which promised him equal success iu
the  field  and the  forum.  He firet serv-
ed under  his father, who commanded an
army against Ciuna,  in the neighborhood
of Rome  during the Marian war.  Here
he narrowly escaped  being  assassinated
by his comrade Terontius, who had  been
hired by China to  murder father and  son.
Having received information  of the  plot,
lie abandoned his tent in the eveuing, and
secured his father's life, by stationing a
guard  round  the pnetorium.  Soon af-
ter a mutiny broke out in the army, and
the soldiers had formed the resolution  to
desert  their obnoxious  commander; but
Pompey, then a youth of nineteen } ears
of age, presented himself among the  riot-
ers, and, after trying remonstrances and
prayers without effect, threw himself lie-
fore  the  gate of the camp, and declared
that  they should go out  only  over  his
body.  This firmness had the desired ef-
fect   By his gracious words anil manner,
he reconciled  the soldiers  to his father,
who soon  after  perished   by  lightning.
The  party  of Marius and  China  gained
the ascendency, and deluged Rome with
blood.   Pompey,  who had  retired to the
neighborhood of Picenum, where  his es-
tates lay, raised a body of troops on his
own account,  on the approach of Sylla,
and  compelled the  neighboring cities  to
declare themselves for this  general.  Ilis
popularity enabled  him  to raise three
legions, with which he joined Sylla  in
Campania.   Three leaders ofthe opposite
party had attempted to obstruct  his march,
but he defeated them  successively, and
was  received  by Sylla with the  highest
marks of esteem, and saluted  by  him  as
imperator, although he bad not  yet attain-
ed the senatorial age, being but twenty-
three years old.  A series  of sanguinary
engagements ensued, by which the Marian
faction was annihilated  in Italy, and Sylla
became the absolute master of Rome.  To
bind Pompey more closely to his interists,
Sylla persuaded  him to divorce his wife
Antistia, and to marry his own step-daugh-
ter ./Emilia.  It was fortunate for Pom-
pey's fame that he was employed, while
Sylla was perpetrating his atrocities iu the
capital, in Sicily against the Marian gen-
eral Perpenna.   He drove Perpenna from
the island, and won the affection of the
Sicilians by his clemency. The  Marian
[tarty had, meanwhile,  collected  in force
in Africa, under Domitius Ahenobarbus,
aud received aid from the king of Numid-
ia.   Sylla obtained a decree ofthe senate,
intrusting the command in that province
to Pompey.   Making a sudden attack  on
Domitius, at  the  head of five legions,  he
dispersed the greater part of  his forces,
stormed his  camp, killed  Domitius, took
the Numidian king captive, and gave his
dominions  to one of his  own  partisans.
This rapid and  decisive success, which
occupied only fourteen days, excited the
jealousy of Sylla,  who commanded him to
dismiss  his  forces  and  return to Rome.
But  the soldiers, who saw their hopes  of 
240
POMPEY.
plunder disappointed,  broke out into a
mutiny, and were  reduced  to obedience
only by Pompey's threat to kill himself, if
they persisted in their  designs.  On  his
return, Pompey was received  by  Sylla
with every mark of favor.  According to
Plutarch, it was from Sylla, but, according
to Livy, from his flatterers, that Pompey re-
ceived the surname of Magnus, which he
thenceforward continued to bear.  The
jealousy of the dictator was, however, re-
vived, when the  former demanded  a  tri-
umph.  Syila declared to  him that  he
should oppose this claim with all his pow-
er ; but Pompey did not hesitate to  reply,
that the people were more ready to wor-
ship the rising than the setting sun, and
Sylla yielded.  Pompey therefore obtain-
ed  the honor of a triumph, although he
was the firet Roman who had been admit-
ted to it without  possessing  a higher dig-
nity than that of knighthood, and was  not
yet ofthe legal age to be received into the
senate.  Sylla soon after abdicated  the
dictatorship, and, at the consular election,
had the mortification to feel his rival's as-
cendency.  He revenged himself by pass-
ing him over in his will; but Pompey was
magnanimous enough to respect the dead,
and us. d  his influence to have  his body
buried at die public  expense,  with  the
greatest pomp.   New troubles soon  broke
out, occasioned  principally  by the  ambi-
tious projects of the consul  Lepidus, who
aimed  at supreme power.  Lepidus  left
Rome, and placed himself at the head of
an  army, but was  defeated  by the united
forces of the consul Catulus and Pompey.
The latter was then commanded to march
against M. Junius Brutus (father of the
celebrated M. Brutus), who commanded a
body of troops  in  Cisalpine Gaul in  the
interest of Lepidus.  Pompey compelled
him to surrender, and  put  him to  death,
notwithstanding that  he  had  promised
him a safe conduct  A period of quiet
now followed, and Catulus endeavored to
oblige Pompey to dismiss his troops.
This the latter evaded, under various pre-
tences, until the progress of Sertorius,  for-
merly a general  in the  service of Marius,
in Spain, induced the senate to send Pom-
pey, now thirty years of age, to the sup-
port of Metellus, who was unequal to cope
with so able an adversary.  He was in-
vested with proconsular power.  The  two
commanders, who  acted independently of
each other, though with a mutual good
understanding, were both defeated through
the superior activity and skill of Sertorius.
Pompey lost two battles, and was person-
ally in danger;  aud, as long as Sertorius
was alive, the war was  continued with
little success.   But Sertorius having been
murdered by his  own  officers, and  suc-
ceeded  in the  command by Perpenna.
Pompey soon brought the straggle to an
end.  On his  return to Italy, the servile
war  was  raging:  Crassus had  already
gained a decisive  victory over Spartacus,
the leader of the rebels, and nothing was
left for  Pompey but to complete the de-
struction of the remnants of the servile
forces;  yet he assumed the merit of this
triumph, and  displayed so little modera-
tion in his success, that he was suspected
of wishing to tread in the steps  of Sylla.
He triumphed  a  second time, and  was
chosen consul B. C. 70, although he had
yet held none of those civil offices through
which it  was customary to pass to the
consulship.  His  colleague was  Crassus,
and  both of them courted the  people—
Crassus by his profuse largesses, and Pom-
pey by the restoration of the tribuneship,
and  other popular institutions.   In the
course ofthe year, when the censors were,
according to custom, engaged in granting
release  from  service to such knights as
had served the time required, Pompey ap-
peared before them, in his consular robes,
and leading his horse by  his bridle.  The
censor asked him—" Pompey the Great,
have  you served  the  time  required by
law ?" " Yes," answered he, " and all un-
der  my own  command."  This  answer
was received with a general shout of ap-
plause: the censors rose  from their seats,
and accompanied him, amidst the accla-
mations of the  multitude, to his house.
Two years after the expiration of his con-
sulship, the pirates, encouraged  by the
Mithridatic war, had  become so powerful
in the Mediterranean that they carried on
a regular warfare along a great extent of
coast, and were masters of 1000 galleys and
400 towns.  The tribune Gabinius, a man
devoted to the  interests of Pompey, pro-
posed that an individual  (whose name he
did not mention) should be invested with
extraordinary powers by  sea and land for
three years, to put an end to the outrages
of the pirates.   Several friends of the con-
stitution spoke with warmth against this
proposition ; but it was earned by a large
majority, and the power was confened on
Pompey, with the title of proconsul.  In
four months he  cleared the sea of the
ships ofthe pirates, got possession of their
fortresses and towns, set  free  a  great
number of prisoners,  and took  captive
20,000 pirates, to whom, no less prudently
than humanely, he assigned die insular
towns  of Cilicia and  other provinces, 
POMPEY                             241
which had been  abandoued by their in-
habitants, and thus deprived them  of any
opportunity of returning to their  former
course.   Meanwhile, the  war   against
Mithridates had been carried on with va-
rious fortune, and, although Lucullus had
pushed the enemy hard, yet the latter still
found new means to continue the contest.
The tribune Manilius then proposed that
Pompey should he placed over  Lucullus
in the conduct ofthe war against Mithrida-
tes and Tigranes, and likewise over all the
other Roman generals in the Asiatic jirov-
inces, and that all  the armies in that quar-
ter  should  be under his control, at the
same time that he retained the supreme
command by sea.   This was a greater ac-
cumulation of power than had ever  been
intrusted to any Roman citizen,  and sev-
eral  distinguished men were resolved to
oppose a proposition so dangerous to free-
dom  with  their  whole   influence:  but
Pompey  was  so  high  in the  popular
favor that, on the day appointed for the
consideration   of  the proposition,  only
Hortensius and  Catulus had  the cour-
age  to  speak against  it, while  Cicero,
who  hoped  to  obtain   the  consulship
through  the  support of  the Pompeian
party, advocated it with all his eloquence,
und  Caesar, to whom such deviations from
the constitution were acceptable, used  all
his influence in favor of it.  Cicero's ora-
tion pro lege Manilia contains a sketch of
Pompey's public life, with the most splen-
did eulogy that, perhaps, was ever made on
any individual. The law was adopted by
all the tribes, and  Pompey, with assumed
reluctance, yielded to the wishes of his
fellow-citizens. He arrived in Asia B. C.
67, received the command from Lucullus,
who was the less able to conceal his cha-
grin as Pompey industriously abolished all
his regulations. (See Mithridates.)  The
king was driven from his strongholds, de-
feated with the loss of his camp, and com-
pelled to flee into  the country beyond the
Caspian. • Pompey, who had, at die same
time, detached Tigranes from his alliance
with Mithridates,  and placed his kingdom
at the disposition  of the Romans, follow-
ed Mithridates to  Scythia, and waged war
for two years with the warlike inhabitants
of that region.  He then returned to Pon-
tus, completed the conquest of that king-
dom, and converted Syria into a Roman
province. At the invitation of the two
brodiers Aristobulus and  Hyrcanus, who
claimed the throne of Judaea, lie appeared
in that country to  settle the dispute.  Af-
ter a three months' siege,  he took Jerusa-
lem  by storm, and  conferred on  Hyrcarus
  VOL. X.         21
the dignity of high-priest.  In the mean
time, Mithridates, reduced to despair, had
poisoned himself) and thus ended the war.
After Pompey had  settled the affaire of
Asia,  he visited Greece, where he heard
the orators and poets, and displayed his
respect  for philosophy by making a valu-
able gift to die city of Athens.  He then
returned to Italy, dismissed his army, to
quiet  the apprehensions of the citizens,
as soon  as he  landed at Brundusium (B.
C. 61), and entered Rome as a private man.
The whole city came out to  meet him,
and received him with acclamation.  His
claim of a triumph was admitted without
opposition ; and never had Rome yet wit-
nessed such a splendid display as on  the
two days of his triumphal  procession.
Captive kings and  nobles  walked  before
his chariot,  and the  spoils which were
poured iu to the public treasury amounted
to au enormous sum.  After the triumph,
Pompey allowed all the captives to  return
to their  country except Tigranes and Aris-
tobulus.  His plan now was, under the ap-
pearance ofa private individual, to maintain
the first place in the state ; but he  found
obstacles on several sides.  Lucullus aud
Crassus were superior to him in wealth;
the zealous republicans looked upon him
with suspicion ; Caesar was  laying  the
foundations of his future greatness. Pom-
pey was therefore driven to artifices of all
sorts, and attached the profligate Clodius
to his interest.   Caesar, on his return from
Spain, aspired to the consulship.  To ef-
fect his  purpose, he  reconciled Pompey
and Crassus with each other,  and  united
with them in forming the coalition  which
is known under the  name  of thefirsl tri-
umvirate.  He  was  chosen consul (B. C.
59), and, by the mamage of his daughter
Julia with Pompey, seemed to have  se-
cured his union with that general.  From
this time Pompey countenanced measures
which, as a good citizen, he should have
opposed as subversive of freedom.   He
allowed bis  own eulogist,  Cicero, to be
driven into banishment by the tribune Clo-
dius; but, having afterwards himself quar-
relled with Clodius, he had the former re-
called.   He supported the illegal nomina-
tion of Caesar to a five  years'  command
in Gaul; die fatal consequences of this
compliance  afterwards  appeared.   To
maintain their  power,  Pompey and Cras-
sus were a second time candidates for tho
consulship, which they  obtained, though
not without violence  (B. C. 55).  After
the expiration of then- year, Crassus went
to his government in Asia, while Pompey,
to whom Spain was assigned, remained at 
242
POMPEY.
Rome, and exhibited shows to the people.
Yet he did  not entirely trust to the popu-
lar favor, but maintained au army to keep
the citizens in awe.  The fall of Crassus
in Parthia left but two masters to the Ro-
man world : and. on the death of Julia in
childbed,  these  friends  became  rivals.
Pompey, liowever, still retained so much
good will towards CVsar, that he sent him
two legions to supply his losses.   As the
troubles increased in the capital, it was the
wish  of some  that Pompey should be
named dictator; hue Cato proposed, as a
more regular mode of proceeding, to name
him  sole consul,  which  was done B. C.
52.  As Caesar's reputation  as a  general
and  his favor with  the people  contin-
ually increased, Pompey  endeavored to
strengthen  his influence  by a union with
the  principal families.  With this view,
be married Cornelia, widow of the young
Crassus, and daughter of Metellus Scipio,
whom be made  his colleague in the con-
sulship; and he  procured a  rejection by
the senate  of Caesar's request for a con-
tinuation of his  command in Gaul.   The
most important offices were filled, by his
influence, with the enemies of Caesar, and
be recalled  the two legions which he had
lent  him.  It was now proposed that both
should  lay down  their  commands ; but
Pompey's adherents objected that Caesar's
time had already expired, while Pompey's
had not. It was soon evident that they
were suspicious of each other,  and that
neither  was inclined to return to a private
station.   Lucan,  who in his sentiments
was a Pompeian, says that Pompey could
not  bear an equal nor Caesar a  superior.
The former had certainly the forms of the
law  on  his side,  since the senate had re-
called Caesar, and confirmed Pompey in
his  command.   In- actual  strength, the
two  rivals were  very unequal.  Pompey
had  never  been equal in ability to Caesar,
and  was now but the shadow of a great
name.  He himsel." was not conscious of
this  decline of  his influence; and  when
Cicero, who found him deaf to all propo-
sals of accommodation, asked him how he
thought to oppose  Caesar, he- replied, " I
have only to stamp with  my foot, and an
army will arise out of the ground."  Cae-
sar had already  (B. C. 49) laid siege to Ra-
venna,  and was declared an enemy to his
country by  the  senate, which,  but too
late  for the activity of his rival, committed
to Pompey the defence of the state.  Cae-
sar passed  the  Rubicon (q. v.), and ap-
proached the city,  in sixty days he sub-
dued all Italy.   Pompey,  besieged in
Brundusiiun, fled to Greece  where he col-
lected a numerous army.  Caesar followed*
him, first offering terms of accommoda-
tion, then battle.  Pompey declined both,
and encamped before Dyrrachium.  Cae-
sar surrounded him, but he broke through
the enemy and escaped, though  with  a
heavy loss.   They finally met near Phar-
salus, in  Macedonia (B. C. 48).  Pom [icy
had been forced by his officers to engage,
and showed himself unworthy of his tame.
When he saw his troops thrown into dis-
order, he retired to his tent, and remained
in a state of stupefaction till the approach
of the conquerors aroused him to attend
to his safety,  lie fled through Larissa to
the sea, and  sailed  to Lesbos.  Here he
found his  faithful Cornelia, with whom
and  some  friends he coasted along the
shores of Asia.  At Cyprus a council was
held iu regard to his future course. Pom-
pey  wished to  go to Parthia, but, on the
proposition of the Greek Theophnnes, he
proceeded towards Egypt, where he might
expect a favorable reception  from  the-
young Ptolemy, whose father had  receiv-
ed benefits  from his hands.  As soon as
his approach to Egypt  was known, the
base ministers of the youthful king deter-
mined to possess themselves of his per-
son, and put him to death.  On his arrival,
a boat was accordingly sent, with  Achil-
las, the Egyptian general, and some Ro-
man  fugitives,  inviting  him  to land.
Pompey feared treachery, but it was now
too late to recede.  After tenderly taking
leave of his wife and his son, he stepped
into the boat.  A numerous  multitude on
the shore awaited his approach; but before
he had landed, the murderers struck him
down.  Covering his  head with his toga,
he expired without a groan.  His head
was separated  from  his body, and the
trunk was  left naked on  the shore.  A
faithful freedman and  a Roman  soldier,
who had served under Pompey, collected
some wood, and burned the sad remains
of him who had once been the master of
Rome.   When Caesar arrived in  Egypt,
the head of his enemy was shown to him ;
but he turned away from  the sight with
tears, punished his murderers, caused the
head to be solemnly interred, and over his
grave erected a temple to Nemesis. Pom-
pey  was fifty-nine years old at the time of
his death;  his name is  among  the  most
celebrated of antiquity (clarum et venerabi-
le nomen gentibus).  He was moderate in
pleasure,  free  from extravagant  luxury,
and,  in the  highest pitch of his fortune,
kind, mild  and  humane, when not earned
away by party spirit.  His genius was va-
rious, and his mind was cultivated by phi- 
POMPEY—PONIATOWSKI.
243
losopby and letters.   If he was not a true
patriot, his ambition was not to be the de-
stroyer of freedom, but the chief of a free
commonwealth ; or, as Lucan says of him,
rectorsenatus, sed rcgnantis.   Incapable of
sustaining himself at the height which he
had reached, he till rapidly, and lost some
of his fume by the manner of his fall.
Pompey left two sous, Cneus and Sextus.
The former lost his life  in  the  battle  of
Miiuda  ; the latter,  after Caesar's death,
made himself formidable to the new  tri-
umvirs  by sea,  and was finally (B. C.  35)
put to deuth, by tho command of Antony,
iu Armenia, whither he had  fled.
   Pompey's Pillar.  (See Column.)
   Pompomus Mela. (See  Mela.)
   Ponce de Leon, Juan, one ofthe early
Spanish discoverers iu America, was sent
by Ovando to conquer the island of Porto
Rico;  and  having there  amassed  great
wealth,  and received information of an
island situated to the north, in winch there
was a miraculous fountain  possessing the
power of restoring youth to the aged, he
sailed, in 1512, iu quest of these  happy
shores.   Although he was  unable to find
the fountain of youth, he discovered  the
country to  which he gave the name of
 Florida, (q. v.)  Ponce returned to Spain,
and received from  Ferdinand permission
 to colonize  the  island of Florida,  as he
called it, but soon after returned to Porto
 Rico (q. v.) without  making any attempts
 at colonization.  (See living's Discoveries
 of the Companions of Columbus.)
   Pondicherrv; since 1672, the capital
 ofa French colony in the East lndies,on the
 Coromandel coast, in the Carnatic, lying
 in u sandy anil dry plain, at the mouth of
 the Ariancupan, which here empties  into
 the sea of  Bengal;  lat. 11° 55/N.;  lon.
 79° 23 E.  It was first built, at a compar-
 atively  recent  period, by some  fugitives
 from Yerapatam, and gradually  increas-
 ed to such  a degree, that in 1761 it con-
 tained 70,000 inhabitants ; but it has since
 declined, and  at present has not  above
 25,000 inhabitants, who occupy different
 quarters of the town, according to national
 distinctions  (Europeans, Mohammedans,
 Hindoos, Sec). Very delicate cotton fabrics,
 which  employ about 5000 hands, are made
 in the town and territory.  The houses
 of the  town, formerly an  important  for-
 tress, are handsomely built in the  Euro-
 pean style; and there are here several  Ro-
 man Catholic  churches, Hindoo  temples,
 mosques, and some European institutions
 for  education.   The roadstead  is very
 good, but there is no port.   The territory,
 about 85 square  miles, contains a popula-
tion of 8000 natives.  Pondicherry, on ac-
count of its favorable situation, is, in time
of peace, the emporium of the French
commerce wkli India.   It was taken and
■destroyed by the English in 1761, restored
iin 1763, again taken in  1778, again restor-
ed by the peace of Versailles, in 1783 ; in
179b", it  was  taken possession of by the
nabob of 'the  Carnatic, in connexion with
the Engnsh,  and the fortificiit'ious  were
destroyed.   By  the peace  of Amiens
(1802), the town and territory were again
restored  to  France, but again captured by
the English,   and  retained  until   1814.
Since that lime  it  has belonged to the
French,  who are bound, by the peace of"
Pans, not to  restore the fortifications, and
not to keep n larger number of troops than
is required for purposes of police.
   Pongo.  (See Ape.)
   Poniatowski; the name of an illustri-
ous Polish family, descended from an Ital-
ian stock. Joseph Salinguerra (born 1612),
belonging to  the old Italian family Torelli,
having settled in Poland, after the murder
of all his  house by Rauuzio I, duke of
Parma,  took the name of Eziolck, and
afterwards that of Poniatowski, from art
estate Poniatow of his  wife,  the  daughter
of Albert Poniatowski  and Anna Leczin-
ska.  His descendants received the title of
prince in 1764, and the family still  forms
one .of the thirty-six Roman  ducal and
 princely families, but baa not the  same
 privileges with the thirty-five others.—Sta-
nislaus,  count Poniatowski  (born   1678,
 died  1702) is known  for his  connexion
 with Charles XII (q. v.), whom, after  the
 battle of Pultawa, he followed into Tur-
 key,  and as  whose ambassador at Con-
 siwitinople he had the address to involve
 the  Porte  in a  war  with  Russia.  He
 wrote Remarques d'un Seigneur Polonais
 sur I'Hiatoire de Charles XII par Voltaire
 (Hague, 1741).—His eldest son, Stanislaus
 II Augustus (born 1732), the  favorite of
 Catharine  II (q. v.), was elected king of
 Poland, under the  influence  of Russian
 bayonets,  in  1764.  He was  an elegant
 and  accomplished  gentleman, with good
 intentions, but widiout  the energy and
 firmness of purpose necessary to sustain
 a tottering throne, and bridle a licentious
 nobility.  The Czartoryski  family, with
 which he was connected, had sent him to
 Petersburg,  to promote the election of
 prince  Adam Czartoryski  to  the Polish
 throne,  on which, however, the handsome
 ambassador was himself seated by Catha-
 rine's favor, and the Czartoryskis, finding
 they could  not  even  rule  in  his  name,
 began  to  intrigue  against him.  His at- 
244                PONIATOWSKI—PONTCHARTRAIN.
tempts to remove the civil disabilities of the
dissidents  (q. v.), and to introduce some
modifications into the Polish constitution,
raised a powerful party against him.  A
confederation  was  accordingly  formed,
which was put down  by Russian  troops,
and Poland was obliged to submit to a dis-
advantageous treaty (1767); but new con-
federations,  at Bar (see Poland), Halicz
and Lublin, involved  the country in the
Horrors ofa civil war (1768).  The Cath-
olic confederates declared the throne va-
cant, and  a body of conspirators, under
count Pulaski (q.v.)seized the person ofthe
king on the night of Nov. 3, 1771. Being
left alone with a person by the name of
Kocziuski,the king persuaded him to allow
him to write to Warsaw, whence a guard
was s<'iitto conduct him home.   Austrian
and Prussian troops now filled  the coun-
try, and most of  the  nobles,  therefore,
abandoned  Stanislaus, and,  in 1772,  in
spite ofthe remonstrances ofthe king and
the smate, the first partition  of Poland
was made  by the three great robbers, Rus-
sia, Prussia und Austria.  The king was
now become  totally  dependent on  the
standing council, which was governed by
the Russian ambassador.  The  Polish no-
bles at  length discerned the true means
of securing the independence of Poland.
(See Potocki.)  They obtained from Fred-
eric William II  of Prussia a promise to
stand by th'j republic, iu case it should be
attacked on account of its amendments
of the constitution, and Prussia gave her
consent  to tin  constitution of May 3,1791,
which  had  been accepted by Stanislaus.
In this situation, Stanislaus conducted with
so much wisdom and dignity, as to re-
cover the esteem and  love of the nation.
He also seemed determined to brave the
resentment of Catharine; but,  the  con-
nexion with Prussia having been broken,
and the  minority of the diet, which was
opposed to the constitution, having pro-
cured  a  reversal of the  proceedings,
through Potocki and Rzewuski, from Vi-
enna and Petersburg, the feeble Stanislaus
gave way.  The Polish army, notwith-
standing the valor of Kosciusko (q. v.),
was not suited for a long  resistance, anil
Stanislaus, who had sworn to perish with
his people, rather than submit, acceded, at
ihn request of Russia, to the confederation
of Targowitz.   He thus  alienated  the
minds  of the  nation, without  disarming
Catharine.   Prussia and Russia now pro-
ceeded  to a second  partition  (1793), for
the purpose, as they declared,  of setting
limits   to  Jacobinism in Poland.  The
king's opposition only served to expose
him to personal abuse from the Russian
general Rautenfeld, and the Russian am-
bassador, count Sievers. Catharine obliged
him (1794) to sign  the  act  of partition.
which completed the political annihilation
of the Polish state,  and to abdicate  the
throne (Nov. 25,1795) on the anniversary of
his coronation.   He went  to  Petersburg,
where he  received a pension,  living as u
private individual, mid died in  1798.—Jo-
seph, the nephew of Stanislaus, born in
1763,   served  with  courage against  the
Russians in 1792, and, on the accession
of his uncle to the confederation of Tar-
gowitz, left the service, with most of the
best officers.  When the Poles attempted,
in 1794, to drive the  Russians out of the
country, he again joined the Polish camp,
as a volunteer.   Kosciusko gave him the
command   of a division, at the head  of
which he distinguished himself at the two
sieges  of  Wareaw.   After the surrender
ofthe city, he went to Vienna, and, reject-
ing the offers of Catharine and  Paul, lived
in retirement, on his return to Poland, at
his estates near Warsaw.   The creation
of the duchy of Warsaw rekindled  the
hopes  of the Polish  patriots, and Ponia-
towski accepted the place  of minister of
war in the new state.  In 1809, he com-
manded the Polish  army against the su-
perior Austrian force, which was sent to
occupy the duchy, compelled it to retire,
rather by skilful manoeuvres than by force
of arms, and penetrated  into Galicia.   In
the war of 1812, against Russia (see Rus-
sian-German War),  he was  again  at the
head  ofthe Polish forces, and distinguish-
ed  himself iu all the principal affairs of
this chequered campaign.  After the battle
of Leipsic (q. v.), during which  Napoleon
created him  marshal of France, he was
ordered (October 19) to  cover the retreat
of the French  army.  The  enemy were
already in possession of the suburbs of
Leipsic, and had thrown light troops over
the Elster, when the prince  arrived, with
a few followere,  at  the  river,  the bridge
over  which had  been blown up by the
French.   Poniatowski, already  wounded,
plunged, with his horse, into the stream,
which swallowed  up  horse  and  rider.
His body  was firet found on the 24th, and
buried with all the honors  of his rank, on
the 26th.   It was afterwards removed to
Warsaw,  and, in 1816, was  deposited in
the cathedral at Cracow.  Thorwaldsen
has executed an equestrian statue of Po-
niatowski, for the city of Warsaw.
   Ponta  Delgada.   (See Michael's, St.)
   Pontchartrain; a lake of Louisiana,
about 25 miles long from east to west, and 
PONTCHARTRAIN—PONTINE MARSHES.            245
*iearly the same in breadth.  The water is
generally from twelve  to  fourteen  feet
deep.  It communicates with lake Borgne
on  the east, with  lake Maurepas on the
west, and with New Orleans on the south,
by bayou St John and a canal, and also by
a rail-road.  It is surrounded by marshes,
and the landing is generally difficult
  Ponte-Corvo ; a town in the States of
the Church,  60 miles  couth-east  from
Rome, from which Bemadotte received
the title  of Prince of Ponte-Corvo.   (See
Charles XIV.)
  Ponte-Corvo, Prince of. (See Charles
XIV.)
  Pontifex ;  a  priest, who  served no
particular divinity.   Under  Numa, who
regulated the sacred rites of the Romans,
there was only one pontifex.  This num-
ber was afterwards increased to four, then
to  eight, and,  under  Sylla,  to fifteen.
The pontifices formed a particular college
of priests, which superintended the  affairs
of religion, at the  head of which was the
pontifex  niaximus,  the chief priest, whose
duty was the inauguration of the priests,
and, in earlier times, the care of the  public
records (annales maximi).  He also  super-
intended the sacred rites of Vesta.  He
lield his office for life, and could not leave
Italy.  The emperors afterwards assumed
this title.  The pontifices had the supreme
superintendence of the religious worship,
and its ministers   directed  the religious
solemnities, had the care of the calendar,
and decided lawsuits  which  were con-
nected with religion (hence the ju3 pontifi-
cum).  The external badge of the pontifex,
at least  on solemn occasions, and while
engaged in the duties of his office,  was  a
dress bordered with purple (togaprattexta),
and a. tapering hat in the form of a cone,
which was made ofthe skins of sacrificed
animals  (tutulus or galerus).   The dresses
ofthe superior clergy in the Roman Cath-
olic church, which they wear particularly
on festivals, are called  pontificalia.—Pon-
tificate is  the  dignity  of the pontifex;
likewise the  papal dignity,  as the  pope
himself  is  Called,  in Latin, pontifex max-
imus.
   Pontifical ; the book containing the
prayers and rites  to be used by the pope
and bishops in the exercise of their func-
tions, as confirming,  conferring orders,
consecrating bishops and churches,  &c.
The  Catholics think that pope Gelasius, a
century  before Gregory the Great, had al-
ready done  something towards forming
this collection.
   Pontificalibus.  (See  In Pontifical-
  Pontificate.  The  pope being called
pontiff, the time of his government is called
his pontificate.
  Pontine Marshes ;  that tract of land
in the  papal dominions, south of Rome,
which  extends from Nettuno to Terraci-
na: it is about forty-five miles long,and from
four to eleven broad.  The origin of these
marshes, which must not be confounded
with the Maremmas (q„ v.), is lost in the
most remote antiquity.  Homer describes
the abode of Circe (the promontory Monte
Circello, near  Tereacina) as  an  island;
and it is not improbable, that all these low
grounds were once covered with the sea,
as was  the  territory of Ravenna, on  the
eastern  coast.  In  the early times of the
Roman republic, there were, according to
Pliny, on.the testimony of former histori-
ans, thirty-three cities, situated in this re-
gion, all of  which, either by ware, or per-
haps by the  increasing influence of the
miasma, disappeared  at a very early pe-
riod.  The  principal city,  Pometia, gave
its name to the  marshes, which are formed
by great quantities of water, received from
innumerable streams, which, rising in the
neighboring mountains, run into the plain,
where, for want of a sufficient declivity
towards the sea, they pass off very slowly,
become stagnant, and at length lose them-
selves in the sand.  The loss of so great a
portion of fertile land, and  the unwhole-
some vapors, which the south wind often
earned even to Rome, early  attracted the
attention of the Romans (who thought no
undertaking too difficult) to the means of
remedying  this evil.   Appius Claudius
(312 B.  C.) probably made  the firet at-
tempts at draining  them, when he carried
the  celebrated Appian  way  through the
marshes.  He  was succeeded in  this at-
tempt  by the  consul Cethegus.   Julius
Caesar  formed the gigantic  plan  of con-
ducting the Tiber through  the marshes ;
but  he was prevented by death from its
execution.  Augustus contented himself
with undertaking  several canals.   Under
the succeeding emperors, these attempts to
improve this  part of the  country were
abandoned; and the water  overflowed,
till Nero renewed the work.  Trajan con-
tinued  it, during ten years, with so much
spirit, that the whole tract  from Treponti
to Terracina was drained, and the Appian
way was completely restored. During the
political storms, which destroyed the Ro
man empire, the marshes also reverted to
their former dreary condition.  Under the
Gothic king  Theodoric,  attempts were
once more  made to drain them, and, as it
appears, not  without success.  But  the 
246                   PONTINE MARSHES—PONTUS.
operations  were not long persevered  in,
and hostile nature soon resumed her rights.
Among the  popes, Boniface VIII (who
died in 1303) was the firet who occupied
himself with the draining ofthe marehesj
and he caused a large canal to be dug, by
means of which the country around Sez-
ze and  ScrmOnetta remains  dry even to
this  day.  Martin V, in  1417, likewise
caused a great canal, the Rio Martino, to bs
dug, for the extension of which to the sea
hardly a  mile was wanting, when this un-
dertaking, which Would have supplied an
outlet for all the streams, was interrupted
by his death. Leo X conferred the whole
country upon Giuliano de' Medici, on con-
dition that he would cause it to be drained.
Yet during the 69 years of its continuance
in the hands of the Medici, little or noth-
ing was done towards this object.  Sixtus
V, who died in 1590, applied  himself with
zeal  to this undertaking, and visited the
country in  person*   He also  caused  a
great canal, the Fiume Sisto, to be  dug,
and enclosed with dams, which, however,
being too slightly built,  shortly after his
death gave way, so that the whole country
Iiccame again as marshy as  ever.  After
him, no pope had the courage, for a long
time, to set  about this work with earnest-
ness.   Pius VI turned his attention again
to the Pontine marshes.   The levelling
was performed with the greatest accuracy,
the depths of the various canals and out-
lets were measured, the degree of decliv-
ity  in the  bed of the rivers ascertained,
and, in 1778, the work was  commenced.
For  ten years, it  was continued at the
greatest expense, till,  in 1788, it was com-
pleted,  But, notwithstanding every exer-
tion, it  was found impracticable to  raise
the low lands, aud  give them a proper
slope for the numerous  streams;  yet the
judiciously  conducted canals, the  cleans-
ing of the beds of the different streams,
whose slime filled  the air with unwhole-
some 'vapors, the laying out  of an excel-
lent  highway (Linea  Pia), bore witness to
tho services rendered by Pius VI to this
country. During the French government
these labors were ateo continued; yet  it
seoins as if the old  marshes would not
submit to the restraint of cultivation.  This
country is not as frightful as it is  usually
represented ; but it is  very  monotonous,
aud the predatory  habits of the inhabit*
ants, which  the vigorous  measures of the
French government in some degree kept
under restraint, have in later times re-
sumed  all  their former  lawlessness.  It
may further be ol)6ervod, that this district
contains a  considerable  extent of culti-
vated land, and immense pastures, where
horses, cattle, and herds of buffaloes, graze,
and water-fowls  (folaghe) start up with
a rustling noise ; towards the sea arc great
forests.   The air, however, particularly in
some seasons of the year, is yet very un-
wholesome ;  and hence the pale,  sallow
countenances ofthe few inhabitants, who
are occupied mostly with hunting and fish-
ing, and occasionally with highway  robbe-
ries, when the fever to which they are sub-
ject permits them. The chief work on this
subject  is Prony's Discription  hydrogra-
phique et historique des Marais Pontins (ac-
cording to their condition in the year 1811
to  1812)} (Paris, 1823> 4to., with an atlas,
folio.)
  Ponton, or Pontoon, in war, denotes
a little floating bridge made of  boats and
planks.   The ponton is a machine consist-
ing of two vessels at a little distance, join-
ed by l>eams, with planks laid  across for
the passage  of the cavalry, the cannon,
infantry, &c, over a river, or an arm of
the sea, &,c.
  Pontofpioan, Eric, the  younger, bom
ai Aarhuis, in  1698, died  in  1764, was
bishop of Bergen, and wrote many histori-
cal  and theological works,  and also some
Essays  upon the Norwegian  Language,
and an Essay ori the Natural History of
Norway (transl. into English, Lond., 1755).
  Pontus, in Asia Minor (so called from
the sea on which it lay); the country from
the Halys to Colchis, or the Pontic Cap-
padocia, as  it was formerly joined with
Cappadocia.  The whole  of Cappadocia
was divided by the Persians into two sat-
rapies, whence  there  arose, under the
Macedonians,   two   distinct  kingdoms.
The oldest  inhabitants were  'Fibarenes
and Chalybees, not Chaldseans.  Ritter (in
his Vorhalle) thinks they were natives of
India, and particularly descendants ofthe
Buddhists at a  period  previous to  the
Brah mans.   A  son of the  Persian king
Darius,  Artabazes, held  these satrapies as
a vassal, with the right  to  transmit them
as an inheritance to his posterity. One of
his successors, Mithridates, assisted the
younger Cyrus, and refused to pay tribute
to Artaxerxes.  His  son, Ariobarzanes I,
made himself  independent  during the
general  insurrection  of  the governors of
Asia Minor against Artaxerxes II.  Mith-
ridates II, who reigned B. C.  337, trans-
ferred his kingdom voluntarily to Alexan-
der.  Afterwards,  in the  division  of his
empire, in 322, it fell to Antigonus, who-
having attempted the death of Mithridates,
the latter fled to  Paphlagonia,  where he
found adherents,  and successfully main- 
PONTUS—POPE,  ALEXANDER.                   347
tained himself.  His successor, Mithridates
IIL enlarged his paternal kingdom by con-
quests.   His son,  Mithridates  IV, drove
back the Gauls,  but  was obliged to con-
clude the war against Sinope, bed.'.se the
Rhodians rendered assistance to this city.
Pharnaces  I at length took possession of
Sinope, and made it his residence.  Mith-
ridates Euergetes, father of the  celebrated
Mithridates, aided the Romans in the third
Punic and in  the Perganiian war, and rc-
eeived  from  them Phrygia Major.   He
was murdered in 124.   His son, Mithri-
dates (q. v.)  the Great, succeeded  him,
and carried on  bloody  wars with Rome
until his death ; at last he submitted to
Pompey, and killed  himself, 64 years  B.
C, from despair.  His son Pharnaces ob-
tained only the  Bosphorus, aud, when  he
attempted to  conquer ugain his paternal
kingdom, was vanquished by Csesar, and
put to death by Asander, who  bad  made
himself king of Bosphorus.  Still his son
Darius received through Antony apart of
Pontus.  Polemo, who  at the  same  time
possessed the Bosphorus, Asia Minor and
Colchis,  was his  successor.   After the
death of his  widow, rythodoris,  Polemo
II succeeded, as king  of Pontus,  A. D.
39.  Nero took  Bosphorus from him, and
Pontus  became, after Polemo's death, a
Roman province.  When the  Lathis, in
1204,  again  conquered  Constantinople,
Alexius Comnenus founded a  new king-
dom in Pontus, which remained until Mo-
hammed II united it,  in 1461, with his
great conquests.
   Pontus; son of Earth, and elder broth-
er of Oceanus.   (See Oceanus, and Nep-
tune.)   By his mother, he  had Phorcys,
Thaumas,  Nereus, &c.
   Pontus  Euxinus : the ancientname for
the Black sea. (q.v.)  According to some,
its Greek  name, Evfavos r.ovros  (signifying
hospitable sea), was given it on account of
its beautiful  scenery and fruitful  coasts;
according  to others, it was at  firet called
Axenus (afrios, inhospitable), on  account of
the barbarous character of the inhabitants
along its shores; but, as these were soften-
ed by commercial intercourse, its name
was changed to Eurinus.
   Pooh ; an  Egyptian  god.  (See Hiero-
glyphics, vol. vi, p. 321.)
   Poolo (from the modern Greek for Ut-
ile, from the ancient  nav\o<) is often found
in geographical names, as Poolo Samo
(Little Samosj.  Poolo is often used as a
diminutive ;  for instance, Mariapoola (lit-
tle Mary).—In the Malay languages,poolo
signifies an island.
   Poor, Poora (city,  in Sanscrit); the
termination  of numerous  geographical
names in  India east of the Ganges, as
Rajapoor (royal city).
  Poor's Rate is die name given in Eng-
land to the taxes raised for the aid or sup-
port of those who cannot  support them-
selves.  In the  year 1830, the  sums ex-
pended in England and Wales for the sup-
port of the poor out of the moneys levied
in the counties, amounted to 6,553,433
pounds.  (See Pauperism.)
  Pootra (in Sanscrit, son); a  word ap-
pearing in many  geographical names, as
Brahmapootra (son of Brainah).
  Popayan ; a city of New Grenada, sit-
uated in a large and fertile plain, watered
by the Cauca, and lying at the foot of the
volcanic Purace. It is about eighty leagues
south-west   of  Bogota,  and  eighty-five
north-east of Quito; lat. 2° 26 north ; lon.
76° 39' west.   It is prettily built, and its ele-
vation above the sea (5750 feet) renders the
climate mild. Populatioii,25,000. It suffer-
ed much during the  war of Colombian in-
dependence, and, in 1827, was almost en-
tirely overthrown by an earthquake, which
was accompanied by an  emption of the
Purace and an overflow of the Cauca.
  Pofe, Alexander, a celebrated English
poet,  was born May  22, 1688, in Lombard
street, London, where his father, a linen-
draper,  acquired a  considerable fortune.
Both  his parents were Roman Catholics.
Soon after the birth of his son, who was
of very  delicate  constitution, small, and
much deformed, the father of Pope retir-
ed from business to a small house at Bin-
field, near Windsor Forest; and,  on ac-
count of his attachment to the exiled king,
not choosing to vest his  property in the
public securities, he lived frugally on the
capital.   The  young poet was taught to
read and write at home, and, at the age of
eight, was  placed under  the  care  of a
Catholic priest, named  Taveruer,  from
whom he learned the rudiments of Latin
and  Greek.  Being fond  of reading, he
liecame acquainted, at this early period,
with Ogilhy's version of Homer, and San-
dys' translation  of Ovid's Metamorphoses,
which books first turned  his attention to
poetry.   He was successively placed  at
two other schools, the firet at  Twyford,
and the second at Hyde-park-corner, where
he formed a play taken from Ogilby's Ho-
mer,  intermixed with verses of his own,
and  had it  acted by his  school-fellows.
About his  twelfth  year,   he  was  taken
home, and privately instructed by another
priest; and to  this period  is assigned  his
earliest  printed poem, the Ode on Soli-
tude.  He subsequently  appears  to have 
248                        POPE, ALEXANDER.
been  the director of his own studies, in
which the cultivation  of poetry occupied
his chief attention.  He particularly exer-
cised himself in imitation and translation,
of which his versions of die firet book of
the Thebais and of the Sappho to  Phaon,
made at the age of fourteen, afford a re-
markable  testimony.   He  was  sixteen
when he wrote his pastorals, which  pro-
cured  him the notice of several eminent
persons.   His Ode for St.  Cecilia's  Day
and Essay on Criticism were his next per-
formances of note, the latter of which was
written in 1709, and published in 1711, in
which year, also, appeared  his Elegy on
an Unfortunate Lady.   He became  em-
broiled with  Ambrose  Philips in  conse-
quence of an ironical comparison  of that
writer's pastorals with  his own  in  the
Guardian, and  with the irascible critic
John Dennis, owing to a humorous allu-
sion to him under the name of Appius, in
the Essay  on Criticism.  The  Elegy on
au Unfortunate  Lady was followed by the
Rape of the Lock, grounded on a  trifling
incident in fashionable life.  In  this  pro-
duction the poet displays admirable  vivaci-
ty and the most polished wit,  but  its im-
aginative power is chiefly conspicuous in
the exquisite  machinery  of the  sylphs,
wrought into it as an afterthought; for the
poem first appeared without it.   This  ad-
dition was opposed by Addison—a piece
of advice which Pope  subsequently, upon
no very direct evidence, attributed  to lite-
rary jealousy.  He next published  the
Temple of Fame, altered and modernized
from  Chaucer,  which  was followed,  in
1713, by his Windsor Forest, commenced
at sixteen.   In the same year, he publish-
ed proposals for a translation of  the Iliad,
by suliscription, which were received with
great encouragement; and  the  firet  vol-
ume, containing four books, appeared in
1715 (in 4to.).   An open breach with Ad-
dison preceded this publication, owing to
an alleged jealousy on the part of the lat-
ter, to whom a rival translation of Homer,
published under the name of Tickell, was
attributed by  Pope.  Whether  by Addi-
son or Tickell, the rival version soon sank
before that of Pope, who was enabled, by
the great success of his subscription, to
take a handsome house  at Twickenham,
to which he removed with his  father and
mother.  About this time,  he  wrote  his
impassioned Epistle from Elo'isa to Abe-
lard, one ofthe  most vivid and impressive
of all amatory poems.   In  1717,  he  re-
published  his poetry  in a quarto volume,
to which he  prefixed  an elegant preface,
and in 1720, completed the Iliad. In 1721,
 he undertook  the editorship of  Shak-
 speare's works—a task for which he was
 wholly unfit; and a severe castigation from
 Theobald laid the foundation of a lasting
 enmity between them.  With die  assist-
 ance of Broome and Fenton, he also ac-
 complished a translation of the Odyssey,
 the subscription to which brought  him a
 considerable sum.  In the mean time,  he
 had formed a friendship with  Martha
 Blount, the daughter  of a Catholic gen-
 tleman near Reading,  who became his in-
 timate  confidante and companion  through
 life. A sort of literary flirtation also com-
 menced with  the celebrated lady Mary
 Wortley Montagu, which, after much in-
 tercourse and correspondence, terminated
 (see Montagu, lady Mary Wortley) in the
 bitterest enmity.   In  1727, he  joined
 Swift in a publication of Miscellanies, in
 which  he inserted a treatise  Of the Ba-
 thos, or Art of Sinking, illustrated by ex-
 amples from the inferior poets ofthe day.
 In 1728, he sent out the three firet books
 of his Dunciad, a mock-heroic poem, the
 object of which was to overwhelm his an-
 tagonists with  ridicule.  It is a finished
 example of diction and versification, but
 displays much irritability, illiberality and
 injustice. Personal satin;, to which he was
 first encouraged  by  bishop Atterbury,
 appeare in most of his subsequent produc-
 tions.  Being particularly connected with
 the tory party,  he had become intimate
 with lord Bolingbroke, to whose sugges-
 tion the world is indebted  for the Essay
 on Man, firet published  anonymously in
 1733,  and the next year completed, and
avowed by the author.  This work stands
 in the first class of ethical poems.  It was
 followed by Imitations of Horace, accom-
 panied  by a Prologue and Epilogue to the
 Satires, and by Moral Epistles or Essays,
 which  exhibit  him as a  satirist of the
school of Boileau, with  more spirit and
poetry, and  equal causticity.  The per-
son? whom, in these works, he treats with
most severity are lady  Mary W. Montagu
and lord Hervey.   Curll, the bookseller,
having published some letters written by
Pope, the latter affocted great anger; yet
there is some evidence to countenance the
 notion  that he contrived the plot  himself,
in order to form an excuse for the publi-
cation of a quarto volume of letters, in his
own name, for which he took subscrip-
tions.   They are elegant and sprightly, al-
though studied and artificial; but, as ma-
ny characteristic epistles are given from
those of his coirespondeuts, the collection
is interesting and  valuaPe.  In 1742, at
 the suggestion of  War^urton, he added  a 
POPE.                                249
 fourth book to his  Dunciad, intended to
 ridicule useless and frivolous studies, in
 which  he attacked Colley Cibber,  then
 poet-laureate.   Cibber  retaliated  by  a
 pamphlet, which told some ludicrous sto-
 ries of his antagonist, and so irritated the
 latter, that, in a new edition of the  Dun-
 ciud, he  deposed Theobald,  its original
 hero, and promoted  Cibber in his place,
 who, although  a great coxcomb,  could
 scarcely be deemed a dunce.—An oppres-
 sive asthma began now to indicate a com-
 mencing decline ; and, in this state of de-
 bility, he was consoled by the affectionate
 attention  of his friends,  and particularly
 of lord Bolingbroke.  When the last scene
 was approaching, he allowed  one of his
 intimates, the historian Hooke, himself a
 Catholic, to send for a priest, not asessen-
 tiul, but becoming; and, soon after, quietly
 expired, May 30, 1744, at the age of fifty-
 six.  He  was  interred at  Twickenham,
 where a monument was erected to him by
 bishop Warburton, his legatee.  Both the
 moral and poetical character of Pope has,
 within these last few years, been  assailed
 and defended  with  peculiar  animation.
 Vain and  irascible, he seems to have  been
 equally open  to flattery and prone to re-
 sentment; but one of  his greatest weak-
 nesses was a disposition to artifice, in or-
 der  to acquire reputation  and applause,
 which is justly deemed indicative of little-
 ness of mind.  He was not, however, in-
 capable of generous and elevated senti-
 ments, and was as firm in his attachments
 as implacable in his dislikes.  He had al-
 ways a dignified regard to his indepen-
 dence, which,  in one  to whom  money,
 high connexions, and the superfluities of
 life, more especially the  luxuries of the
 table, were by no means indifferent, is the
 more remarkable.  He has been accused
 of meanness  towards his literary  coadju-
 tors ; but  certain stories, ofa nature to im-
 peach his integrity, are now no longer be-
 lieved, especially as something like an in-
 disposition to do him justice, either as a
 poet or a man, has been manifest in those
 who related them.  As a poet, while bis
 claim to invention is bounded, the endeav-
 or to set him aside altogether,  in compli-
 ment to certain metaphysical distinctions
 in regard to the primary sources of poetic
 feeling, is factitious and futile.   No Eng-
 lish writer has carried further correctness
 of versification, splendor of diction, and
 the truly poetical art of vivifying and adorn-
 ing every  subject that  he  touched.   His
 Rape of the Lock, and Epistle from Elol-
 sa to Abelard, are alone sufficient to  im-
peach the exclusive theory which would
 deny him the rank and powers of a poet,
 leaving his wit, his brilliancy and his sat-
 ire to be ranked as they may  be   Of the
 various editions of Pope's works, it is only
 necessary to mention  that of Warburton
 (excluding the  Homer, 9 vols., 8 vs>.), and
 those  of Johnson,  Warton and Bowles
 (the last in ten  vols., 8 vo., 180(3).
   Pope (from the Greek *.,*<!$, father; see
 Papas) was the  title  of the bishop of
 Rome, long before he possessed the  au-
 thority which is  now connected with  the
 name.  From the end of the  fourth cen-
 tury, he  was  the  first  among the five
 patriarchs or superior bishops of Christen-
 dom ;  for the  circumstance  that Rome
 was the  ancient  capital of the kingdom,
 and, according to tradition,  the last dwell-
 ing-place of the apostle Peter, had long
 since given  to him, as pretended successor
 of Peter (q.  v.), an extensive authority, but
 no peculiar  jurisdiction over foreign dio-
 ceses.  This, however, the popes obtain-
 ed by the wealth of the Roman church,
 which had  property iu  most other dio-
 ceses, by arbitration  in ecclesiastical con-
 tentions, and by availing themselves  of
 many opportunities favorable  to the ex-
 tension of their influence.  A provincial
 synod  at  Sardica, in the year 344, and a
 decree of the emperor Valentinian III, in
 445,  had,  indeed, acknowledged the
 bishop of Rome as primate, and as the
 last tribunal of  appeal  from the  othei
 bishops;  but  even  in  the West, where
 alone these  edicts had the force of law
 the measures ofthe popes, until the eighth
 century, often met with violent opposition.
 About this  time, several  circumstances
 contributed  to open  to them  the way to
 supreme control over all  churches.  (See
 Hierarchy.)  Among these were the estab-
 lishing new  churches in Germany, which,
 like those of Britain  at an  earlier period,
being founded by their  missionaries, were
 at firet subject  to their power; the politi-
 cal confusion, and the  change of govern
 ment in Italy and France; the decretals
 ofthe pretended Isidore (q. v.), forged be-
 tween 830 and 850, probably by Benedict,
 a deacon of  Mentz (which, in  those times
 of ignorance, contributed much to sup-
 port the claims of the Roman church to
 exercise supreme power, by  supposititious
 letters and statutes of  former  bishops of
 Rome, dated back to the firet centuries);
 the schism between the  Eastern and West-
 ern churches, which bound  the latter still
 more closely to the popes, as their leaders;
 the gradations of ecclesiastical rank, eve-
 ry  where introduced by  the ambition of
 the popes, all derived and  gradually defc 
250
POPE.
scending from them, who had usurped the
highest place; and, finally, the personal su-
periority of some popes over their contem-
poraries. Thus Leo the Great (q. v.), in the
fifth century ; Gregory I, called the Great,
a  zealous,  good, and able  man, in the
sixth century; and Leo III, who crowned
Charlemagne, in the eighth century, had
obtained for the papal title an  authority
which the  patriarchs of the East could
not attain,  and against which the power
of princes  availed  little.  The  story of
the female  pope, Johanna or Joan, an
English woman, educated at Mentz and
Athens, who, concealing her sex,  rose
by her  learning and talent  from the
office of a notary at Rome  to  the pa-
pal chair, but, after a reign of two years
and  a  half, was detected  by becoming
a mother, is a fable and satire.   There
were, indeed, unworthy popes during the
middle ages; but, after the brilliant  vic-
tory which Nicholas I  (who was  first
solemnly crowned) obtained over Lothaire,
king  of Lorraine,  in the  affair  of  n
divorce in  865, and over the bishops of
Treves and Cologne, whom he deposed
by his papal authority; and after the ex-
ample which John VIII had given, in 875,
ofa disposal ofthe imperial crown, which
he conferred on Charles the Bald,—the
power of the popes  could receive but
little injury from the violence and corrup-
tion  which prevailed in  the papal see
above a hundred years, beginning  from
the influence  of the  Tuscan  counts at
Rome, under Sergius III, in 904, and con-
tinued by the  wicked and  licentious fa-
vorites and  relations  of the infamous
princesses Theodora and Marozia (one of
whom, John XII, in 956, while but eigh-
teen years old, and another, Benedict IX,
in  1033, a  boy of twelve years,  obtained
the dignity  of pope), and even from the
scandalous  circumstance that,  in 1045,
three popes, chosen  by means of bribery,
were living together in Rome.  The rude-
ness ofthe  age concealed the scandal of
such things.   In the midst  of all  this
darkness, a  ray of light appears in the reign
ofthe excellent Sylvester II (q. v.), between
999 and 1003, who  was one of the  most
learned  men of his  time, and whom the
world regarded as a magician. The trou-
bles arising during the decline ofthe  Car-
lovingian dynasty in France and Germany
offered an  extensive and continually en-
larging field of action  to the ambition of
the popes;  and their dignity and inde-
pendence of the nobles  and people of
Rome, which they had often lost  during
the contentions of factions, were regained
 by them by the constitution  of Nicholas
 II, in 1059, placing the right of election
 to the papal chair in the hands ofthe car-
 dinals (see Conclave), to the exclusion of
 the laity.   After this, a succession of good
 rulers, of great talents and excellent char-
 acter, sat upon  what was then the  first
 throne  in Christendom;—Gregory  VII "
 (q. v.), who surpassed  them  all in spirit
 and  in  power, and who  began to cam-
 through, with wonderful perseverance, the
 project  of universal dominion;  Urban II,
 who wae several times driven  from Rome
 by the  antipope Clement III,  but who,
 from 1088 to 1099, ruled  with  extensive
 influence  and extraordinary vigor; Alex-
 ander III, who, during his reign, between
 1160 and 1181,  survived  two rivals, and
 overcame a third, who brought  the kings
 of England and Scotland to unconditional
 obedience in religious matters, who made
 the emperor Frederic I Hold  his stirrup,
 and confirmed the  system of  the election
 of popes; and Innocent III, whose reign,
 between 1198 and  1216,  raised the papal
 see to the highest degree of power  and
 dignity.  What the popes  in earlier times
 had  only attempted in peculiar circum-
 stances, these great men, so  superior to
 their age, made the settled usage, by  a
 regular  series of  bold, usurpations  and
 persevering efforts.   They  united  the
 clergy  of  western  and  central Europe
 closely to the papal see, by die  introduc-
 tion ofa new form of oath, by the law of
 celibacy, and by the  law  of investiture
 (q. v.), which broke the union of bishops
 with their  temporal princes,  and,  under
 Innocent III,  was extended  to a  power
of disposing, at pleasure, of all the dignities
and benefices of the church.   By  means
of their legates and nuncios  (q. v.), they
obtained the bishop's right of deciding in
ecclesiastical and matrimonial  affairs, and
the exclusive right of canonization ;  and
they thus  made the popes the sole foun-
tain of ecclesiastical dignity and power in
western Christendom.  By eventually as-
suming  the sole right of convening coun-
cils and national synods  (whose decrees
became valid  only by being  ratified by
the pope), and by maintaining, with more
and more boldness, their claims to infalli-
bility, they at  length obtained  complete
dominion  over  the church.  Of the or-
ders  of monks, especially of  the mendi-
cant orders, they created a spiritual army,
who, having in their hands the inquisition,
the right of hearing confessions, and of
preaching, together with the public  super-
intendence of  schools and  universities,
became the most  useful  instrument of 
POPE.
251
their policy, and one of the strongest sup-
ports of their power.  The success of these
advances  towards unlimited spiritual do-
minion, gave them courage to strive also
after temporal power.  But the claims of
the popes to  worldly dominion  are  of
much later origin than the historians of
the court of Rome have maintained. Con-
stantine the. Great gave them merely some
buildings and  estates  in and near Rome.
By the  gift of Pepin  (see Church, States
of the) the pope  obtained merely  the do-
minium utile, that is,  the  use of lands  in-
trusted to him.   In  this way he became,
in a manner, a  vassal of the  Frankish
kings, and afterwards of the German em-
perors, who exercised, without opposition,
the right of sovereignty  over  the papal
dominions, and, until the  twelfth century,
suffered no election of pope to take place
without  their ratification.  Innocent  III
first established, the rule  that Rome, the
Marches, and  the hereditary possessions
of Matilda (q. v.), should do him homage,
as lord paramount, in  1198 ; and thus van-
ished the last shadow ofthe power of the
emperors over Rome and the pope.  Fa-
vorable  circumstances  had  already made
several kingdoms  tributary to the papal
see.  England, from  the time of its con-
version to Christianity, was thus depend-
ent upon  them ; in like manner,  Poland
aud Hungary, from the eleventh century,
Bulgaria and Aragon, from the beginning
ofthe thirteenth, and the kingdom of the
Two  Sicilies (whose Norman  kings had
been vassals ofthe pope), from 1265, when
Clement IV gave it to the house of Anjou
through hatred towards the  house  of Ho-
Irnstaufen.  Even the East would have
fallen under  the  power of Rome, if the
success  of the crusades (which had given
rise in the West to much confusion in re-
gard to the rights of citizens and  private
property,  and  thereby  promoted  the in-
fluence  of the pope)  had been less transi-
tory.  Innocent III dared to depose and
proclaim kings, as, for instance, John  of
England, and to threaten the whole world
with  excommunication.   The emperor
Otho IV called himself such by the grace
of God and of the  pope.  Kings were
called sons ofthe pope; and the fear ofthe
terrible  consequences of the  interdict,
which  they  pronounced, as  vicars  of
Christ,  upon  disobedient  princes and
their kingdoms, the rebellious spirit of the
barons,  the  ill regulated  constitution  of
states, aud the great want of laws, sub-
jected the rulers of those times to  the au-
thority of a lord, whose court was  the
cradle  of modern  politics, and  whose
power and influence were irresistible, be-
cause supported by public opinion and by
superstition.  It  was  with  reason, then,
that popery, at that time, was called a uni-
versal monarchy;  the cardinals being couu-
sellors;  the legates  in the different king-
doms of Europe, viceroys; the archbishops
and bishops,  governore  and lieutenant-
governors ; the priests, ministers of police
and of the finances; and the religions or-
ders,  the standing armies of the Roman
pastor;  who thus had at his beck 300,000
servants of  different   ranks,   scattered
among the different nations, entirely de-
voted to his interest, and powerful by the
arms of religion and fanaticism.  In fact,
this priestly government did  good by ac-
customing the rude princes and  people to
laws and Christian  manners; and,  at a
time when  rights were first beginning to
be understood, its inconsistency  with true
independence was not felt. France alone,
which  had  acquired more consistency
and power than the  other monarchies of
Europe, by the subjugation  of the great
vassals, and the reduction of their territo-
ries under the royal government, first suc-
cessfully resisted the popes.   In Philip die
Fair,  Boniface VIII (q. v.), one  of the
boldest  and most able  popes,  found a
master, and his successors, during their res-
idence at Avignon, between 1306 and 1376,
remained under  French influence.  The
independence  of the popes visibly suffer-
ed from the circumstance that they were
now bound to a particular political party,
though  they continued  to exercise, over
all  the  Christian  countries of the West,
the power which their arts and perse-
verance  had  obtained.   Their dignity
sunk still lower when, in 1378, two rival
popesappeared—the Italian Urban VI, and
a count  of Geneva, chosen by the French
cardinals, who took the  name of Clement
VII.  Europe  was divided by their quar-
rel, the Italian being supported  by Italy,
Germany, England and the northern king-
doms, the French pope by France, Spain,
Savoy, Lorraine  and Scotland ; and the
schism long remained.  The public sale
of offices, the shameful extortions and the
low artifices, which most of these rival
popes used  against each  other,  gave  rise,
in England and  Bohemia (see  Huss),  to
much complaint,  and  to demands for a
reform in the state of the church.  The
council  of  Constance  had, indeed,  suc-
ceeded  in putting an  end  to  the great
schism,  by deposing both of the rivals;
but pope Martin V (q. vA who was chosen,
in 1417, in their place, did not correct the
abuses which  had grown up under his
predecessors, and even  the most express
decrees   for   reform,   passed   by   the 
252
POPE.
council of Basle, were rendered nugatory
by the artifices and  the perseverance of
Eugene IV,  of the house of Ursini, who
was pope between 1431  and J 477.  He
had gained the friendship of France, hi
1438,  by the pragmatic sanction,  which
laid the foundation of the freedom of the
Gallican church ; and the negotiations of
^Eneas Sylvius, ambassador of Frederic
III, with him and his successor, the ex-
cellent Nicholas  V,  a friend to  ancient
literature, and the  protector ofthe learned
exiles from Greece,  effected the concor-
dats of Vienna,  in 1448.   Why the griev-
ances of the  German nation were so little
remedied by this instrument, while the
interest of the pope was carefully attend-
ed to, the German princes, whom the elo-
quence of the cunning negotiator iEneas
Sylvius had  induced to  accept it,  firet
perceived when he was chosen  cardinal,
and, in  1458, pope,   under  the name of
Pius  II.  In  this concordate, the popes
obtained the confirmation of the annates,
of the right of ratifying  the  election of
prelates, and, among many other privi-
leges,  that of the pope's months, so  called,
or the right of conferring benefices (which
they exercised alternately  with the found-
ers), not on the occurrence of vacancies, but
on particular months, of which six in ev-
ery year were reserved to the pope.  By
a general extension  of this privilege, to
which,  under  different  pretences,  the
other  Christian kingdoms were obliged to
submit, the popes, in the fifteenth century,
had gone so  far, that full half of the eccle-
siastical revenues ofthe West flowed into
their  coffers,  under  various  pretences.
Assistance  against  the  Turks  was the
most  common pretext;  but rarely were
any of the immense  sums thus collected
so employed.  It  was necessaiy to  buy
the favor of  the parties in Rome,  among
which the old families of Colonna and Ur-
sini had long been rivals ; and so much
was spent on their relations (see Nepotism),
that very little remained for the common
good  of Christendom.   In care  for his
family, no pope ever surpassed Alexander
VI (q. v.), between 1492  and 1503, whose
policy and whose private life were equally
strangers to morality and religion. His suc-
cessor, Julius II, between 1503 and 1513,
employed all his powers in politics, and in a
war with France, in which he commanded
his own army, but was obliged to fly be-
fore  Bayard.   Fortunately for him and
for his successor, Leo X (q. v.), Maximili-
an  I  was prevented by circumstances,
and finally by death, from  uniting upon
his own head  the  papal  and imperial
crowns.  The circumstance that Austria,
France and Spain were fighting for Lom-
bardy and  Naples, and, therefore, sought
alternately the tilvorof the pope, had caus-
ed the latter to rise anew iu political im-
portance towards the end of the fifteenth
century; but the spirit ofthe times was ac-
quiring  an  irresistible  strength, and  the
policy of Leo X was of no avail against it.
Luther,  Zuinglius  and  Calvin were  the
heralds  of  an opposition which  tore al-
most half of the  West  from  the popes,
while the policy of Charles V was at the
same time diminishing their power. What
the ages of ignorance had allowed to  the
pope, the council  of Trent, indeed, now
ratified ; and  the  society of the  Jesuits
came forward as the guards of his throne,
striving  to erase all traces of the reforma-
tion in  the states  which had remained
Catholic, and to regain by missions among
the heathen what had been lost in Europe:
yet neither this new support, nor the poli-
cy of artful popes, such as  Clement VII,
between 1523 and 1534 (whom  Charles
of Bourbon, the general of the emperor,
drove, in 1527, into the castle of St. Ange-
lo), and  Paul  III, between 1534 and 1549,
wlio gained for his family Parma and Pia-
cenza ;  nor the monkish devotion of Paul
IV, between 1555 and 1559; nor the mod-
eration  of Pius  IV, between 1559 and
1566, who condescended to grant the cup
to the Bohemian Hussites; nor the severi-
ty of Pius V, between 1566 and 1572 (who
offended both princes and  people by his
bull In cana Domini, worthy of his previ-
ous character as a proud Dominican, and
furious  persecutor of heretics, although
his severe austerity obtained him the hon-
or of canonization); still less  the useful
activity  of Gregory XIII, between 1572
and  1585,  who gave  to the  world  the
amended calendar (Gregorian); the mag-
nanimity and wisdom of Sixtus V (q. v.),
between 1585 and 1590; the good fortune
of Clement VIII (Aldobrandini), between
1592 and 1605, who, in 1597,  added Fer-
rara to the States ofthe Church ; the learn-
ing of  Urban VIII, between 1623 and
1644, who added  Urbino to  his domin-
ions,  and  obliged Galileo  to  abjure  his
doctrine of the motion of the earth round
the sun,—could restore the old author-
ity of the papal throne.   In vain did the
court of Rome employ  the language  of
Gregory VII and Innocent III; even in
Catholic states, the distinction between
ecclesiastical and political affairs had been
perceived so clearly, that the influence of
the popes  upon the latter was now very
limited.  Since the  middle of the six-
teenth century, no German emperor had
been  crowned by a pope.  The princes, 
POPE.
393
who had learned his policy,  withdrew
themselves from  his authority.  The na-
tional churches obtained their freedom, in
spite of all opposition, and  the peace of
Westphalia, which the papal see never
acknowledged, gave public legality, guar-
antied by nil the  powers of Europe, to a
system of toleration which was in direct
contradiction  to  the papal   doctrines.
Under such circumstances,  the question
no  longer was, how to extend  the papal
authority, but  how to  prevent its utter de-
struction ; and the vicar of Christ, who,
when he began to call himself servant of
servants, was  lord of lords, was  obliged
to play the part ofa suppliant, who claims
compassion  and  toleration,  rather than
obedience.   Jansenism, also,  took from
the popes a considerable part ofthe Neth-
erlands;  their bulls were no  longer  of
avail, beyond  the States of the Church,
without  the consent  of the sovereigns,
and the revenues from foreign kingdoms
grew smaller  and smaller.   In France,
and soon after in Germany,  they became
the objects of  ridicule; and  the excellent
men who occupied the pontifical chair in
the eighteenth century, the learned Lam-
bertini, from 1740 to  1758 (sec Benedict
XIV),  and  the  enlightened  Ganganelli,
from 1769 to  1774 (see Clement  XIV),
were forced  to  expiate  the  guilt  of
their predecessors, and sought to  obtain
by  patience, condescension and personal
merit, the esteem which the others had
haughtily claimed.  Still greater  misfor-
tunes fell  upon  their  successors,  Pius
VI, from 1775 to 1798, and  Pius VII,
1800 to 1823.  The firet, after a bitter ex-
perience of the  progress  of knowledge,
just when the  death of Joseph II had in-
spired him with  new hopes (see Nuncio),
was witness of the revolution, which tore
from him the French church, and de-
prived him of his dominions.  The other
was forced  to buy his personal freedom,
and the  possession  of his diminished
states, by an equivocal concordate with
Bonaparte, in 1801, and by much personal
humiliation, and lost them both again in
1809.  He owed his  restoration, in 1814,
not to the  excommunication  which  he
had pronounced against Napoleon, but to
a coalition of temporal  princes, among
whom were two heretics (the English
and Prussian)  and a schismatic (the Rus-
sian).  Nevertheless, he not only restored
the inquisition, the order ofthe Jesuits, and
other religious orders, but advanced claims
sind principles entirely opposed  to the
ideas and  resolutions of his  liberators.
The return of this pope to the spirit of the
  vol. x.          22
eleventh and twelfth centuries agreed with
what was always the principal maxim of
the Roman court, " never to give up the
slightest of its  claims, but to  wait only
for opportunities."   When  the  archives
of  the  popes  were  carried  to  Paris,
in 1809, among other surprising things,
a practice came to light  which the popes
had, of declaring  null and  void, by se-
cret mental  reservation,  the   contracts
which were made in public.  Thus Alex-
ander  VII,  February  18,  1664, made
such a  reservation with  regard to  the
treaty of Pisa, of the 12th  of the same
month,  and Clement XIII, September 3,
1764 (see Clement XIII), with regard to
the banishment of the Jesuits from France.
Pius VII  openly declared against  the
tolerance of the philosophic sects, against
Bible societies, and translations of the Bi-
ble.  (See Pius VII.) In the mean time,
there appeared in the French and German
Catholic churches,  a spirit  of freedom,
and an increasing wish for an  independ-
ent national church, which is very visible
in the negotiations that preceded  the con-
clusion of the last concordate.  (Respect-
ing the temporal dominions of the pope,
see Church, States of the.)
  Pope  (by  a Catholic).  [Having given
in the  preceding article the  Protestant
views ofthe papal  histoiy, we  shall now
give the views of a German Catholic on
the origin  and character  of the  papal
power.]  The  pope  is  the  head of the
Catholic hierarchy.  It was necessary that
the power of the  church should be con-
centrated in some one, whose  especial
care it should be to provide for the main-
tenance of the Christian faith, and what-
ever is connected with it Christ ordained
this  unity  of power  on  that  occasion
when one of the apostles, firet of all, ac-
knowledged the divinity of his Master.
When walking with his apostles,  he turn-
ed and said: " But whom say ye that I am ?
And Simon Peter  answered  and  said,
Thou art Christ, the Son ofthe living God.
And Jesus answered and said to him, Bless-
ed art thou, Simon Bar-jona; for flesh and
blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my
Father, which is in heaven.  And I say also
unto thee, that thou art Peter (which means
a rock);  and upon this rock will I build my
church ; and  the gates of hell shall not
prevail  against  it.  And I will give unto
thee the keys of the  kingdom of heaven;
and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth,
shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever
thou shalt loose on earth, shall be loosed
in heaven." (Matthew xvi, 13—19.)  How-
ever clear this passage may be, it has not 
254
POPE.
been without mistaken interpreters,  who
have perverted  the sense, saying  that at
the words " on  this rock," Christ pointed
with his finger  to himself.  The learned
Michaelis rejects this explanation of some
of his Protestant brethren, saying that the
finger is not the  finger of Christ, but that
ofthe contentious interpreter.  The power
to bind  and  to loose, and the office of
preaching Christianity, were  afterwiu-ds,
indeed,given to all t|ie other apostles; but
no other  one  is declared  to be  the  rock
upon which the church  should be built
This rock was  one only, Simon, son of
Jonas,  called  Peter.  After his resurrec-
tion, Christ appeared for the third  time to
his disciples assembled at  the sea of Tibe-
rias. " So  when  they had dined, Jesus
saith to Simon Peter, Simon, son of Jonas,
lovest thou me more than  these ? He saith
unto him, Yea,  Lord; thou knowest that
I love thee.  He saith unto him, Feed my
lambs.   He saith unto him  again the sec?
ond  time, Simon, son of  Jonas, lovest
thou me? He saith unto him,  Yea, Lord;
thou knowest that I love  thee.  He  saith
unto him, Feed my sheep.   He saith unto
him the third  time, Simon, son of Jonas,
lovest thou me  ?  Peter was grieved, be-
cause he  said  unto  him  the third  time,
Lovest thou me?  And he said unto him,
Lord, thou knowest all things ;  thou know-
est that I love thee.  Jesus saith unto him,
Feed my sheep.  Verily, verily, I say unto
thee, when  thou wast young, thou girdedst
thyself, and walkedst whither thou would-
est;  but when thou shalt lie old, thou shalt
stretch forth thy hands, and another  shall
gird thee, and  carry  thee whither  thou
wouldestnot  This spake  he, signifying
by what  death  he should glorify  God.
And when he had  spoken this, he said
unto him, Follow me," (John xxi.  1—19.)
That these repeated  assurances of  love,
and these repeated commands to feed the
sheep,  had  some peculiar signification,
and  that, together with  the  passage in
Matthew xvi, 13—19, they were intended
to show the supremacy of Peter,  was al-
ways taught by  the fathers of  the church.
In other passages of holy writ, this prefer-
ence of Peter is  also shown.  Passages
like this,  " Simon, and those with him"
(Mark i,  36); " Peter, standing  with the
eleven" (Acts ii, 14);  " Peter, arising in
the midst ofthe brethren"  (Acts i, 15), ob-
viously refer to the precedence granted to
him in other places.  In the first synod
of the apostles at Jerusalem, the superior
rank of Peter cannot  be mistaken. (Acts
xv. 17.)   This precedence was not merely
an honor, but had for its  object the unity
of  the  church;  it was a  true  official
power.  The power which Christ gave to
his  apostles did not cease with their death,
but was transmitted to their successors.
This is what all Christian  antiquity has
taught, and this was needed by the church,
which  was a permanent institution, requir-
ing continual direction.  This power of
the  firet ofthe apostles was also exercised
by his successor.  This successor was, as
all antiquity tells us, the bishop of Rome.
This supremacy ofthe Roman bishop has,
with the  lapse of time, unfolded  itself
more and  more, and sometimes taken a
wrong direction; but it was first exercised
by Peter;  it is as old as Christianity, and
did  not originate in subsequent times.  As
far  back as the first century, we find traces
of the power exercised by Clement, bish-
op of Rome,  as successor of Peter.  He
appeased the contentions of the restless
Corinthians, part of whom requested his
assistance.  Recourse  was had  to  him,
although other churches  were situated
nearer, as those of Smyrna, Ephesus, &c„
which  were  likewise  superintended  by
disciples of the apostles, and, in all proba-
bility, while the apostle John was yet liv-
ing. Clement not only sharply reproved
the Corinthians, but declared to them that
if they did not submit to his commands,
they should  be regarded  as disobedient
This epistle  was read in  many churches
until the time  of Eusebins.  (Eusebius,
Historia Ecclesia, 1. iii. c.  12.)  At the
end of the first centuiy, a  certain Dionys-
ius  was sent by Clement on a  mission" to
Gaul, and  in fact undertook the mission
at his order.   In the second century, Mar-
cion travelled  from  dietant Pontus to
Rome, that he  might  there  be again ad-
mitted  into the society ofthe church, from
which  he had been excluded by his bish-
op.   Cerdo  was restored  to his place, in
Rome.  St. Irenaeus said,  " It is necessa-
ry that the whole church, that is, believers
-very where, should hold  to this church
(the Roman), on account  of its great su-
periority, for the apostolic  tradition has
been preserved in this church."  In an-
other place he says that he should regard
as  heretics,  schismatics,  and  obstinate
persons, all those, wherever they might be,
who should deny the  supremacy of the
successors of Peter over the church.  In
the  third  centuiy, Origen, Cyprian, and
many others, appealed  to Romer^Thus
many things in the time of primitive Chris-
tianity concur to prove  the supremacy of
Rome.   The church, in its constitution, is
hke  an association of states, at whose
head stands  the pope; his government 
POPE.                                255
cannot be called, however, a  monarchy,
but resembles morfe the imperial  form.
As  is  commonly the case in such united
governments, so  iri  the spiritual constitu-
tion, the power of him who should control
all,  is sometimes  too great, and  sometimes
too  feeble.  The power  of the  pope, at
first lawful, afterwards  increased with the
lapse of time; and the principle was gen-
erally  adopted,  that the bishops of the
church were merely his assistants—a prin-
ciple from which proceeded the forged de-
crees  of Isidore, belonging  to the ninth
century, where it is not firet advanced, but
taken   for granted as  a  well  established
fact The splendor and power Of* the pitfial
see  was greatly increased  also by its union
with the  emperors,  in the middle ages.
This union was both favorable to the civil-
ization and the peace  of Europe, and
lieneficial to the  spiritual  Authority of the
pope;  and at last gave to the pope su-
premacy  over the Western world.  The
quarrels ofthe popes with temporal rulers
not only  caused  the downfall of the tem-
poral  [lower  of the  holy see over the
European states, but, in the reaction which
they [iroduced,  even gave to  the  rulers
great  influence  over the church.  The
spiritual  power  of the  popes was now
brought back to  its former limits. Abuses,
which the possession of power renders so
easy,  had  caused  a general  desire of a
reformation, both in  the  head  and mem-
bers of the church.   The council of Con-
stance, in 1414,  declared  itself competent1
to undertake this reform, and actually de-
posed  two rival popes;  and  the decrees
of  the council  at Basle  were still1 more
energetic.  The discovery of the forgery
of the decretals of Isidore-^a natural con-
sequence of a more attentive study of his-
tory in modern times—by the centuriatores
of  Magdeburg—and the ideas which the
reformation introduced—contributed tocir-
cuinscribe, within just limits, the spiritual
power of the pope.   In the eighteenth
century, the  investigations of Febronius
(the suffragan  bishop of Treves) mainly
contributed to shake the foundation of ma-
ny  of the adventitious rights ofthe pope.
This is the place to explain the system of
the Catholic  canonists with regard to the
[lower ofthe pope.   First, of his influence
in temporal concerns. The canonists ofthe
middle ages derived from the  example of
Gregory VII, and others, a right ofthe pope
to  immediate interference iu worldly mat-
ters.   Their argument was a very simple
one:  The churcii is the highest of all insti-
tutions for the good of men, and all other
merely  temporal  institutions  should be
subject  to it} the head of this institution
is the vicar tif Christ, made such by di-
vine appointment.  Peter was the  firet,
and  his successors have  inherited his
power.  Like Peter, the popes have  held
the double sword (the symbol of temporal
and  spiritual power), and with this, the
right of subjecting every thing to the ob-
jects of the churcii, as  the  highest moral
institution, and of riding, either in  con-
currence with the temporal power, or in
preference to it, since the eternal is supe-
rior to the temporal, afid the objects of the
firet  are more exalted  than those of the
last.   Bellarmin  afterwards varied  from
this opinion, asserting an indirect power of
the pope over  temporal affaire, as, for in-
stance, the right Of reducing within proper
limits, for the salvation of his soul, any
one  who made  a  bad use of temporal
power.  The  present age, however, be-
lieves neither in the direct nor the indirect
power of the pope over temporal affairs,
find no one any longer  defends that  opin-
ion.   As to the spiritual power of the
pope, all the true Catholic canonists agree
that tne supremacy  of  Peter and his suc-
cessors (and not only the dignity, but also
the jurisdiction) are of divine  appoint-
ifient   That the seat of supreme power is
how at ROme, is accidental;  we do not
affirm, however, that it can be transferred
from Rome without the  consent of tho
whole church.  This power is of divine
appointment, and certain rights are essen-
tial  to  it  ;  those,  for instance, without
which its object, uiiity in the church, could
not be  attained.  Other rights have been
accidentally acquired in the course of time;
they have a historical foundation, but they
are not necessary to the existence of the
supreme power.  The former, therefore,
ar6 called essential; the latter, adventitious.
The essential  rights are,  I. The right of
sUperiritendence over the whole church.
To this belong,  1.  the right of requiring
from all bishops an account of the state
of their churches (jus relationum); both
in the Eastern and Western  churches, wc
see  a continual acknowledgment of this
right in the earliest times; the church
ordained in the council of Trent, that the
bishops should,  every  five years, send  to
the pope an account of the state of their
dioceses (relatio de statu); 2. another right
is that of sending legates into the different
countries  of Christendom; in cases  for
which the requiring of reports was insuf-
ficient, it became necessary that informa-
tion should be obtained by means of le-
gates in the country and on the spot; 3.
the  right of convoking general councils, 
256
POPE—POPISH PLOT.
of holding the presidency there, and of
ratifying the decrees; 5. the right of pro-
nouncing provisional sentences,  in  dis-
putes on matters of  faith.  Another class
Of essential rights was, II. The right of
superintending the observance ofthe laws
of  the  church.   To this belong, 1. the
right of pissing new laws, and of enforcing
the  observation of those  which  already
exist; the  bishops have a just  right to
protest against new laws, and they do not
become  binding until the whole church
has  accepted them ;  2. the right of dis-
pensing with existing laws—a right which,
as history tells us,  was exercised  beyond
what was necessary, but which in general
was indispensable, as the laws  could not
extend to every case  ; 3. the right of an-
nulling  unjust grants of episcopal digni-
ties  (jus devolutionis)—an essential right,
and  one without which the right of super-
intendence would  be of little avail.   In
reality, this right was  also carried too far,
and  was not properly limited until mod-
ern times.  The adventitious rights  are
the following: 1. The right of censorship
over all  writings relating to the doctrines
of die Catholic church ; 2.  the  right of
regulating  the general  liturgy ;  3.  the
right of canonization,  and  of deciding
upon the authenticity of the  relics of the
saints, and the degree of honor due to
them; 4. the right of  appointing and abol-
ishing festivals; 5. the right of appoint-
ing fasts, and days of humiliation for the
whole church ; 6. the right of dispensing
from vows (see Vows), and  of  declaring
the invalidity of oaths obtained by fraud or
violence, or of setting them  aside, where
other circumstances seemed imperiously to
require it; 7.  the right of being  consulted
in regard to the alienation of the property
of the  church; 8. the right  of  imposiug
taxes upon  the clergy, or of exacting from
them other contributions (jus decimandi);
9. the right of raising certain taxes (an-
nates) for the support of the  pope and his
court (it lias produced but a small  in-
come in modern times);  10. the right  of
reserving to themselves  the  appointment
to the benefices ofthe church (hymandata
de providendo,  by expedativm, or by reser-
vationes) ;  11. the right of establishing
and suppressing religious orders ; 12.  the
right of confirming bishops (and coadju-
tors) and of deposing them  (in a lawful
way); 13. the right of granting  dispensa-
tions; 14. the right of conferring the pal-
lium. These are the  adventitious rights ;
they  can  pass away  by  time (and many
have passed away), as they grew with the
lapse of time.  We do not mean to  say
 that they can be arbitrarily denied to the
 pope by  individuals.  Among the rights
 of the popes, which were  formerly  the
 subject of dispute, were  their infallibility
 and  supremacy over the  councils,—rights
 which the German canonists  no. longer
 maintain.  (See Infallibility.)   The pope
 is likewise a  temporal monarch,  as  the
 bishops of Germany formerly were.  The
 States ofthe Church, like all the states of
 the middle ages, grew up  gradually.  A
 temporal  sovereignty  was necessary  for
 the pope, as he was to be the organ of the
 church, the  opponent of thrones, and in-
 dependent of  them.  As man is still hu-
 man, though he wear the tiara, we  cannot
 wonder,  nor is it  a cause of reproach
 against the  church, that it has produced
 vicious popes.   But no dynasty of Europe
 can show that  it has had, during the last
 few centuries, such  a long series of excel-
 lent men.  By  the  institutions connected
 with the  papal power, care is taken that it
 shall  be  less arbitrary than that of any
 other ruler in Europe.
  Popish Plot; a  contrivance got up by
 Oates (q. v.) in 1678, for the purpose of
 bringing himself into notice, and adopted
 by some political leaders to promote their
 own party schemes.  Oates pretended to
 have discovered a conspiracy, formed by
 the  Jesuits  and Roman Catholics,  for
 murdering the king (Charles II), and sub-
 verting the Protestant religion ; and, after
 some preliminary  steps, he went to sir
 Edmondbury  Godfrey, a justice of peace,
 and gave  evidence  before him  of  all the
 articles   of  the  pretended  conspiracy.
 Among the persons accused was Cole-
 man, secretary to the  duchess of York,
 among whose  papers was found a  cone-
 spondence with some Catholics abroad,
 which contained expressions of great vio-
 lence and indiscretion,  but  nothing to
 countenance the notion of such a plot   In
 the  midst of the alarm  created by  this
 pretended revelation, Godfrey wus  found
dead in a ditch (October 17), having, prob-
ably,  committed suicide; but the ory  was
immediately raised that he had been mur-
dered by  the papists on  account  of his
taking Oates's evidence.  Parliament met
soon  after this event, and the two houses
immediately began  to occupy themselves
with  examinations in regard to the plot.
The  excitement was encouraged in par-
liament by artful party  leaders, und the
two  houses voted,  "that there  had been
and still was a  damnable and hellish plot,
contrived  and  carried on  by the papist
recusants, for assassinating the king, sub-
verting the government,  and rooting out 
POPISH PLOT—POPLAR.
257
the Protestant religion."  The encourage-
ment held out to  Oates, who received a
pension of £1200, brought forward Bedloe,
a noted thief and impostor, who confirm-
ed  Oates's statements, with  some addi-
tions of  his  own.  He  accused  several
noblemen by  name of a design to raise
forces in different  parts of the kingdom,
with which they were to  join an army of
20,000 or 30,000 crusaders to be landed
from Spain.  Although no arms, after the
most rigorous  search, no  ammunition, no
money, no commissions, no papers, no let-
ters, were discovered to confirm the evi-
dence of these men, yet the story obtained
general belief,  and excited a general panic.
To increase the excitement, Bedloe pub-
lished  a  pamphlet, entitled, A Discovery
of the horrid Popish  Plot, for burning
London and Westminster, &c, in which
all the fires that had happened for several
years were ascribed to the Jesuits.  Mean-
while  the pretended  conspirators were
brought to trial.  Coleman, father Ireland,
a Jesuit, and GrOve and  Pickering, who,
it was pretended, were  engaged to shoot
die king, were condemned to death, on the
testimony of Oates and Bedloe, and exe-
cuted.  The pretended murderers of God-
frey next suffered  the same fate,  on the
sole testimony of Bedloe, and one Prance,
whom he had  accused of being an accom-
plice in the murder, and who, after many
promises and threats, finally confessed his
guilt.   Further  prosecutions took place
in the following year, when several  per-
sons were executed, and a new plot, called
the meal tub plot, from the place where the
papers relating to it were found, was got
up by one Dangerfield, a convicted  felon.
In 1680, viscount Stafford was impeached
by the commons, condemned by the lords,
and executed December 29, as an accom-
plice in  the  plot, on the testimony of
Oates  and two of his associates, Bedloe
having died not long before.  This  was
the  last instance  of bloodshed in  this
strange affair.   Soon after the  accession
of James II (1685), Oates was tried  and
convicted on two indictments for jierjury,
and  was  sentenced to be whipped, on  two
different  days, from Aldgate to Newgate,
and  from thence to  Tyburn, to be  im-
prisoned for life, and pilloried five times
every year.  (See  Hume's, and particu-
larly Lingard's, History of England.)
  Poplar (populus);  a genus  of plants
belonging to  the amentacea  and to the
dixtcia octandria of Linnaeus.  The species
are trees often  of large dimensions, having
their buds usually covered  with an aro-
matic and viscous  substance; their flow-
                 22 *
 ere disposed in aments, and always  ap-
 pearing before the developernent of the
 leaves; and these last alternate, rounded
 or triangular, serrate or dentate, and sup-
 ported  on long petioles, which are more
 or less compressed, particularly towards
 their summits.  This conformation occa-
 sions a peculiar vibratory motion  in  the
 leaves when they are acted  upon  by  the
 wind, especially  remarkable  in   certain
 species called aspens, which  appear to be
 perpetually agitated.  About twenty spe-
 cies are known, all confined  to the north-
 ern and temperate  regions  of the globe.
 They are  soft-wooded trees,  of rapid
 growth.  The  following species  inhabit
 the  U. States:   The  Carolinian  poplar
 (populus angulata) is remarkable  for  the
 acutely  angular  form  of  the   young
 branches, and for having its buds destitute
 of the viscous coating.  It is a southern
 species, and, in the Atlantic states, is hard-
 ly found north of latitude 37°, but is abun-
 dant along the marshy banks of the large
 rivers of Carolina and Georgia, and espe-
 cially ofthe Lower Mississippi, and is even
 found on the Missouri for 100 miles above
 its mouth.  It sometimes attains the height
 of eighty feet, with a proportional diame-
 ter, and a  wide-spreading summit, cloth-
 ed with beautiful foliage.   The wood is
 white, soft, and is not applied to any use-
 ful purposes.  The cotton-wood (populus
 canadensis) inhabits  more northern  dis-
 tricts, and is chiefly abundant along the
 Upper Mississippi, the Missouri, and other
 western rivers, and often is  the only tree
 which lines their banks in the vast naked
 regions of the north-west.  In the  Atlan-
 tic states, this tree is rare, and almost  un-
 known.  It grows to the height of eighty
 feet, with a trunk three or four in  diame-
 ter: the branches are angular, though less
 remarkably so than in the preceding spe-
 cies, from which it  is, besides, easily dis-
 tinguished by the viscous buds:  both are,
 however, frequently confounded under the
 term cotton-wood, and are found growing
 in company on the  banks of the  middle
 portion  of the Mississippi.   The Ameri-
 can black  poplar (poptuus  betulifolia) is
 rare, even in the northern parts of the  U.
 States, and  by Michaux was observed only
 on the banks ofthe Hudson above Albany:
 probably it will be found more abundant
 in Canada. It is  distinguished by  the
 hairiness ofthe young shoots and petioles
 in the spring, and by the  form  of  the
 leaves,  which are conspicuously acumi-
 nate.  The trunk is thirty or forty feel
 high, and about a foot in diameter. The
populus heterophylla is found in most parts 
358
POPLAR.
ofthe U. States, but is so rare as, in gen-
eral, to have received no specific denomi-
nation.  The trunk is sometimes seventy
or eighty feet high, and two or three in
diameter.  The young branches are cy-
lindrical ; the leaves, while very young, are
covered with a thick white down, which
gradually disappears as they attain  their
full size, when they are often six inches in
length and  the same in breadth, heart-
shaped, with the small lobes of the base
overlapping, so as to conceal the summit
ofthe petiole:  by this character it is most
easily  recognised.   The  tacamahac, or
balsam  poplar (populus balsamifera), is a
Canadian  species,  hardly venturing  even
into the coldest  regions of the U. States.
It is  abundant in  the country between
Quebec and Hudson's bay, especially on
the waters of the Saguenai, between lat.
47° and 49°, and extends westward beyond
Jake Superior.   Here it frequently rises to
the height of eighty feet, with a diameter
of three at base.  The leaves are oval and
lanceolate—an uncommon form  among
poplars.  The wood is white, soft, and is
applied to no useful purpose.  The heart-
leaved balsam poplar, commonly, but im-
properly calletl balm of Gilead (populus
candicans), is  frequently planted before
houses  in the New England  states, but
has not hitherto been found growing wild
in the  forests, and  its origin  is uncertain.
It attains the height of forty or fifty feet,
with  a diameter of eighteen  or  twenty
inches.  The bark is smooth and green-
ish ; and  the leaves are large, perfectly
heart-shaped, and  frequently have  hairy
petioles. This tree has dark-green foliage,
but   the  irregular  disposition of the
branches gives it an inelegant appearance;
and it,  besides,  renders the vicinity un-
pleasant at the time when the seeds are
ripening, by filling the air with little tufts
of light down.   The  American  aspen
(populus trepida) is a small tree, common
in the Northern and Middle States.  The
leaves are broad,  and somewhat  heart-
shaped.  It is one ofthe species most re-
markable for the perpetual agitation of the
leaves.   The  populus  grandidentata  is
chiefly found in the Northern and Middle
States, and rather exceeds the preceding
in dimensions.  It is readily distinguished
from  the  other American species by the
large  teeth of the margin  of  the leaves.
The narrow-leaved cotton-wood (popidus
angustifolia) grows in company with the
common cotton-wood, which it resembles
in size and habit, about the head waters
of the Missouri and its tributaries.  It is
remarkable  for  the form of  the leaves,
which are ovate-lanceolate, attenuate, and
acute at base.—Among the more remark-
able ofthe exotic species are, l.The great
white poplar, or albele (populus alba), one
ofthe largest European trees, often grow-
ing to the height of ninety or a hundred
feet, by five or six in diameter at base.  It
is common along the banks of rivers, and
in  moist places, throughout  the greater
part of Europe.  It forms a striking fea-
ture in the landscape, not only from the
majesty of its appearance, but from the
contrast ofthe two surfaces of the leaves,
the  green of  the  upper  with  the pure
white ofthe inferior. The growth is very
rapid, and it lives to a great age.  The
wood is white, light and soft, easily work-
ed, and  takes a  good polish, and is em-
ployed for a great variety of purposes  in
the arts.   It is superior to that of the other
species in fineness  and strength, gives a
firmer hold  to nails, and  is not liable  to
warp and split   In England, it is prefer-
red by turners for wooden bowls, &c, on
account of its peculiar whiteness, and the
ease with which it is worked in the lathe.
It is also useful for flooring-boards, and for
making laths and  packing-boxes.   This
tree  is recom mended  for cultivation  in
America by Michaux, especially to the
states east ofthe Hudson.  2. The asp, or
aspen (populus tremula), is a tree of mod-
erate size, the  wood of which is inferior,
but still is applied to many useful pur-
poses. 3. The black poplar (populus ni-
  fa) is a lofty tree, found in most parts of
  urope.   The bark is light, like cork, and
is sometimes used by fishermen for  float-
ing  their  nets.  The timber is light and
soft, but  is in general  little  in request,
though  used by the turners for flooring-
boards, &c.  4.  The Italian or Lombardy
poplar (populus dilatata) is  remarkable
among  trees for its peculiar  mode of
growth. The body of the  tree is perfectly
straight, and all the branches keep closely
pressed around  it,  and take an upright
direction.  This tree seems to differ from
the  preceding chiefly in this peculiarity,
and  is, perhaps, only a variety.  About
eighty years ago, it was introduced from
Italy into  the other parts of Europe, and
its cultivation spread with unprecedented
rapidity:  ornamental trees of  every de-
scription were rooted up to make way for
it  This peupleomanie extended even  to
this  country; and it is still but too com-
mon to see the noble productions of our
own forest, which have perhaps been cen-
turies in acquiring their growth, prostrated
to make room for the Lombardy poplar.
In  an economical point of view,  it has, 
POPLAR—POPULATION.
259
mdeed, one advantage—that of affording
little «hade and taking up little room; and,
whatever we may say, it has one peculiar
beauty; most trees, when  acted upon by
the wind, are only partially agitated; but
this waves in a single sweep from  top to
bottom, like an ostrich feather, oven with
the slightest blast  In many parts  of the
U. States, the term poplar is generally ap-
plied to the tulip tree.   (See Tulip Tree.)
  Popocatapetl ; a volcano in Mexico,
in the province of Puebla;  lor. 98° 33' W.;
lat J 8° 36' N. This volcano is constantly
in action, throwing out smoke, ashes  and
fire, but  no great eruption  has hitherto
taken place.  Its figure is that ofa trun-
cated cone, with a large crater.  It is 17,716
feet high, and is one ofthe highest moun-
tains between the  bay  of Panama  and
Beering's straits.
  Poppy (papaver).  The species of poppy
are herbaceous plants,  all bearing large,
brilliant, but fugacious flowers.  One of
them yields the opium of commerce,  and
the juice of all is lactescent  Most  of the
species are natives  of Europe, often oc-
curring as  weeds  in  fields  and  waste
places; but, in this country, we only see
them in gardens, cultivated for ornament.
One, indeed, the  papaver nudicaule,  is
found  in all the extreme northern regions
of  the globe. Their roots are annual or
perennial; the leaves alternate, and the
flowers terminal and drooping until  they
are expanded ; the calyx is composed of
two leaves, and the corolla of four  petals;
the stamens are veiy numerous, and the
capsule is one-celled, but is divided inter-
nally  by several longitudinal  partitions,
and contaitis a multitude of seeds.
   Population,  Policy of.  It was for-
merly  a  maxim  in politics, that a country
could  not be overpeopled,  since  it was
supposed  that the  means of  subsistence
increased  in proportion  to the increase
of population.   Industry would thus find
sufficient means of support, partly by in-
creasing the produce of the earth, partly
by procuring more from foreign countries,
so that the great population of a country
could never be the cause of its falling into
 want and misery, provided it consisted of
productive laborers.   On  this account,
some have even made population the firet
principle of policy, and recommended all
 measures  by which its  increase could be
promoted.  This system also  taught that
artificial means should be employed to aid
the increase of population ; and, as it was
considered desirable that all births should
take place in matrimony, so that the  chil-
dren should always be provided with nat-
ural guardians, it became au object to fur-
nish  motives for  the  encouragement of
matrimony.  The Romans passed several
laws for this purpose, and  endeavored to
render a life of celibacy disgraceful: thus,
for instance, he who had the most legiti-
mate  children, had the preference before
all the other candidates for public offices.
Whoever had three children  was exempt
from all personal taxes: free-born women
who had three, and freed women who
had four children, were released from the
continual  guardianship to  which they
were otherwise  subjected: unmamed fe-
males, at the age of forty-five, were  not
allowed to wear jewels, or to use a litter,
&c.   Louis XIV  gave pensions to those
who  had  ten  or more children, and in
other countries we find similar ordinances.
The  impolicy  and  injustice  of  these
measures could not escape  observation:
others, therefore, rejected die  principle
of population,  and maintained, on  the
contrary, that the policy of states should
be to check the  increase  of population.
No one has labored more to cany to its
greatest extent the principle of popula-
tion  than  Sonnenfels  (in bis Science of
Politics and Finance, and  in the Manual
ofthe internal Administration ofthe State,
in German): but Malthus has opposed  this
system, and  endeavored  to  lay  the
foundation of an opposite docnine (in his
Essay on  Population, 3d  ed.,  London,
1806).  Malthus concludes that no more
individuals  can subsist in any  country
than  the produce of human industry in
that country is able to support.   If, now,
it can be proved that, in all countries, with
a tolerably  good government, the increase
of population, as soon as it has arrived at
a certain degree, is in a far greater propor-
tion than the means of subsistence neces-
sary for the support  of  the inhabitants,
then it is evident that there will be a great
scarcity, which will augment eveiy year,
as the disproportion between the popula-
tion  and  the  means  of subsistence in-
creases. For, if the population has already
become so  numerous, that only the great-
est efforts of the  nation are able to pro-
vide it with the necessary means of sub-
sistence, then the increase of the following
year cannot be provided with the neces-
saries of life without  withdrawing them
from the already existing population.  He
further asserts that all  civilized countries
are either  at the point, or more or  less
near it, where as much food is produced
from the soil as in  any ppssible  way can
be  obtained from it;  and suppose more
could be  gained by  greater efforts  and 
260
POPULATION,
  more  industry,  it wiH  never be in  such
  proportion as the yearly increase of the
  population ;■ and thus want and misery are
  approaching  in  all  civilized  countries,
  against which there is  no other remedy
  than that the government either check the
  increase of population, or remove from the
  country the  yearly arising  surplus by
  means of colonies,  and  other  measures
  conformable to  this purpose.   If some
  consider  the  introduction of inoculation
  for  the small-pox, the diminution of the
  plague and of other  epidemic diseases, as
  great  benefits  for  the  human  race, we
  ought rather to regard them, according to
  the  system of  Malthus,  as  great evils,
  which only increase the want and  misery
  of men by the famine which  they ihevha-
  hly  produce.  A careful examination' will
  show that population may be the object of
  state policy, but that the promotion of thiff
  object must be  regulated by a  reference
  to other  more  important considerations.
  Many ofthe premises, and of couree the
  conclusions, of Malthus are either entirely
  false, or true only with great limitations.
  For, 1. although it is abstractly  true, that
  the  instinct of propagation hi men, if no
  impediments were put in  its way, would
  increase the  population in a geometrical
  progression, so that a single couple, in the
  course of a few centuries, would  people
  the  whole earth; yet we no where find
  any excess of population, and the earth
  has hitherto always been able to receive
  an almost innumerable accession of in-
  habitants.  Nature herself has provided a
  thousand ways to prevent the increase of
  the  human race beyond the means neces-
  sary for its subsistence.  She presents to
  man  the  means of subsistence  with  a
  sparing hand; she has made each genera-
  tion dependent upon the  love of parents,
  and [limited in  man a moral  sentiment
  which forbids him  to  produce children
  before he  is able to supply  their wants.
  The cultivation of this sentiment in a na-
  tion is the great rule to be observed in re-
  spect  to  population. If the government
  can sufficiently extend and strengthen this
  sentiment, it needs do but little more for
>t the  regulation of  population ;  for  then
  maniages will not be contracted without
  the  means of providing for children, and
  parents will endeavor so to educate  their
  children  as to qualify them to earn their
  own support.  Those who wish  to marry,
  and have no prospect of support  in the
  country of their residence, will  emigrate.
  The instinct of propagation is thus check-
  ed,  physically  and  morally, of itself,  so
  that it cannot be against  the intention of
nature to keep the human race within \>r&-
scribed limits.  Sismondi gives, as an in-
stance to illustrate this, the example of tho
family of Montmorency, which,  if  the
natural instinct had been allowed to act
freely, would have peopled  the whole
French empire ;and yet nothing approach-
ing to this result has taken place, although
no individual of this family has been  des-
titute ofthe necessary means of life. Oth-
er considerations have  restrained the  ope-
rations of this instinct, so that there are but
a smalL, number of individuals of this name
existing in France.  2. That the artificial
increase of food  in any  country cannot
keep pace with the yearly increasing pop-
ulation, is an assertion also contradicted by
experience, since, in fact, the increase of
population rather  accommodates itself to
the  means of subsistence, than the supply
to the population.-   Where industry, assist-
ed by nature, produces with ease whatev-
er the wants ofa numerous family require,
there population increases the most rapidly,
if other regulations  of society do not pre-
vent.   And if the greater number are em-
ployed in cultivating the soil, and few idle
and  unproductive consumers are to be
found, then the population increases in an
extraordinary  manner.   In such coun-
tries,   it  doubles,  according  to  Euler,
eveiy  twelve  or  thirteen years.   The
greatest  increase of   population  which
is known,  on  a  large scale, is  in   the
U. States of North America, where, hith-
erto,  it has  doubled  every twenty-five
years.  And even after all the good  land
has been brought  into cultivation, the rap-
id increase will continue a long time; for
the  division of labor will furnish  subsist-
ence to a great number who  do not wish
to occupy themselves  with the cultivation
of the land ; for  experience teaches us,
that a family  which has no other occupa-
tion than the cultivation of the  land is
able, with a capital and industry,  to  pro-
duce enough for four or  five families  be-
sides itself.  Since  these families  which
are  occupied  in  the  cultivation of  the
land are provided  with  manufactured arti-
cles, and are able  to dispose of their  own
produce, an opulent population will arise,
abundantly provided with the comforts of
life.   We may add that, even in the most
cultivated part of the  world (namely, in
Europe), there is no  extensive country
without a quantity of uncultivated  land
(in England alone seven million acres), and
which want nothing but hands, and the
removal of political impediments, to  sup-
ply the means of subsistence to a much
greater number of inhabitants.  It is im- 
                        POPULATION

possible, moreover,to determine how much
the means of support can be increased by
a more perfect cultivation  of the soil, by
the discovery and  introduction  of more
nutritious kinds  of vegetables, &c, since
experience shows that land which former-
ly hardly  yielded  four times the amount
ofthe seed, now yields, under a more per-
fect cultivation, ten or twenty times ; and
what  cannot be done by machines and
chemical arts, if necessity and the desire
of gain excite the genius  of men to  new
inventions?   Finally, the increase of pop-
ulation may  find a supply from the culti-
vation of countries not yet sufficiently peo-
pled to consume their own natural produc-
tions.   Such countries are always ready
to exchange  their surplus produce for the
manufactures of those countries which are
in want of it, since they cannot manufac-
ture so cheap and so well, but can supply
the produce  ofthe soil much cheaper than
it can be raised  in  manufacturing  coun-
tries.  This  exchange is advantageous for
both nations ; and we find that even those
nations which could easily produce more
(and there is no country where this could
not be done) leave a portion of  the  land
uncultivated, or do not cultivate it as much
as they might, because the produce  thus
obtained would be much dearer to them
than that which they  receive from other
countries.  As long as there are countries
where food  can be raised cheaper than  in
others, and  as long as it can  be bought
cheaper, including the cost of transporta-
tion, than it can be cultivated  in a given
country, the population of this latter coun-
try will always be enabled to increase, pro-
vided it can produce superfluous  manu-
factures  which  the  former will receive
for the  surplus  produce  of the  soil.   If
we consider the many uncultivated spots
which are capable of affording subsistence
to innumerable millions of men, and which
an; still to be found in the midst  of culti-
vated countries, then the policy  which
recommends checks to the increase of pop-
ulation, from fear of an inadequate supply,
must appear very absurd.   But,  with re-
gard to an excess of population iu  partic-
ular parts of the earth, it appears the dic-
tate of a sound policy, 1. not to favor nor
tolerate  any  institution  in the country
whereby useless, idle people are maintain-
ed.  Therefore beggars and other vaga-
bonds should never lie protected  in a state,
and sinecures  and  superfluous  offices
should not be allowed.  Every one ought
to gain his subsistence by some employ-
meut useful to  society.  If all those pro-
duce who are able, they will easily provide
-PORCELAIN.                    261

 for those who are employed in  public
 offices, &c.;  and with every generation as
 many productive individuals will arise as
 will be necessary to furnish  supplies for
 those whose services they require.  2. To
 give a free scope to industry, and to  use-
 ful labor of all kinds,  and to make them
 the  chief principle of the  division of
 goods.  It is  contrary to this  principle if
 money, and particularly land, is kept unit-
 ed in great masses, in few hands, by means
 of associations, and if the access  to them
 is rendered difficult, or is denied to indus-
 try, so that it cannot  obtain what a free
 competition would  have given it.  Such
 institutions operate directly against the
 production of  the  country,  and conse-
 quently against the  population, as well as
 the distribution of wealth.  But where the
 property is distributed according to the in-
 dustry of each individual, the increase of
 the national  wealth and its general distri-
 bution are best promoted, and the increase
 of population always follows the increase
 of the means of subsistence in a just pro-
 portion.   3. To give no occasion  to capi-
 talists or traders to  transfer their  capitals
 or  their business to another country, as
 long as their own offers them equal advan-
 tages.   4.  To give full liberty to those
 who wish to emigrate.  Where  such a
 policy is adopted, the natural instinct  may
 be permitted  to act  freely, without fear of
 an excess of  population.  On the contra-
 ry, all artificial  measures, which  govern-
 ments have  often employed to  increase
 the populatioiijought to be entirely rejected,
 because they do not also supply the means
 of preserving and educating the children.
 Since, further, the institution  of matrimo-
 ny is a  religious and moral institution,
 which promotes, in  the safest way, the
 moral  purpose of the  sexual appetite, a
 community ought to prevent, as much as
 possible, the  birth of illegitimate children.
 No one should enter into matrimony with-
 out the prospect of being able to educate
 his children in such a manner that  they
 shall  also  be able  to provide for them-
 selves, and afterwards for their children.
 Hence it follows that population, abstract-
 ly considered, is not an important subject
 of public policy, and that we ought not to
 fear,  in the common course of affaire, an
 excess of population  in civilized coun-
 tries.
   Porcelain.    The  Chinese porcelain
 excels other  kinds of ware in the delica-
 cy of its texture, and the partial transpar-
 ency which it exhibits when  held against
 the light  It has been long known and
 manufactured by the Chinese, but has nev 
262                     PORCELAIN—PORCUPINE.
er been successfully imitated in Europe
until within the last century.  In China,
porcelain  is  made  by the union of two
earths, to which  they give the name of
petuntze and kaolin, the former of which
is fusible  in  the furnace,  the  latter  not.
Both these earths are varieties of feldspar,
the kaolin being feldspar in a state of de-
composition,  and which is rendered infu-
sible by having lost the small quantity of
potass  which originally entered into its
composition.   The petuntze is  feldspar
undecomposed.  These earths are reduc-
ed to an impalpable powder by processes
described  in  the  article Pottery, and in-
timately blended together.   When expos-
ed to a strong heat, the petuntze partially
melts, and, enveloping the infusible kaolin,
communicates to it a fine semitransparen-
cy.  The glazing is produced by the pe-
tuntze  alone, applied in minute powder to
the ware after it is dry.—European porce-
lain.   Since  the  nature  of tne Chinese
earths has been understood, materials near-
ly of the same kind have been found in
different parts of Europe, and the manu-
facture of porcelain has been carried on in
several countries, but particularly at Se-
vres, in France, with great success.  The
European porcelains, in the elegance and
variety of their forms and  the beauty of
the designs  which are executed upon
them, excel the manufactures of the Chi-
nese.   But the Oriental porcelain has not
yet been equalled  in hardness, strength,
durability, and the permanency of its glaze.
Several of the processes which are suc-
cessfully practised by the Chinese, remain
still to  be learnt by  Europeans.   The
manufacturers in Saxony are said to have
approached most nearly, in their products,
to the character of the Asiatic porcelain.
The porcelain earths are found in various
parts of the U. States, and will doubtless,
hereafter, constitute the material of impor-
tant manufactures.  The finer  and more
costly kinds of porcelain derive their value,
not so much from the quality of their ma-
terial, as from the labor bestowed on their
external decoration.    When the  pieces
are separately painted  by hand, with de-
vices of different subjects, their value, as
specimens of art,  depends  upon  the  size
ofthe piece, the number and brilliancy of
the colors employed, and more especially
upon the skill and finish, exhibited by the
artist in the design.   The manual part of
the operation consists in mixing the color-
ing oxide with a fluid medium, commonly
an essential oil, and applying it with cam-
els' hair pencils. The colors used are the
same as those employed in other kinds of
enamelling.  When one color requires to
be laid over another, this is performed by
a second operation; and  it often happens
that a piece of porcelain has to go into the
enamel  kiln  four or five times, when a
great  variety of colore is contained in the
[tainting.   The magic porcdain of  the
Chinese has figures upon its surface, said
to be invisible when the vessels are  emp-
ty, but becoming apparent when they are
filled with water.
  PoacELAiN Clay.   (See Clay.)
  Porcia ; daughter of Gato of Utica, and
wife of Brutus, celebrated as a model of
connubial love and heroic patriotism.   She
preserved inviolate the secret of the  con-
spiracy  against  Caesar, with which  she
had been intrusted by her husband, and
put herself to death when she saw the
cause of the  republicans lost.   The story
of her swallowing live  coals is not true.
  Porcupine (hystrix); a genus of quad-
rupeds   belonging  to  the rodentia,  or
gnawers, characterized  by having the clav-
icles imperfect, two incisor teeth  in each
jaw, and four molars both above and be-
low, on each side;  these have flat crowns,
sun-ounded  by a line  of enamel, which
enters  into  both edges, and appears to
divide  the  tooth into two portions;  there
are also  small  lines of enamel  radiating
from the centre, which are worn down by
attrition;  the muzzle  is  thick  and  trun-
cated ; the  lip divided;  the tongue fur-
nished with  spiny scales;  the ears short
and rounded ; the anterior feet furnished
with four toes, and the  posterior with five,
all armed with  thick  nails.   Cuvier di-
vides this genus into hystrix, atlutura, ere-
tison and synethera ;   the  first including
the common porcupine; the second, the
fasciculated porcupine  ; the third, the Ca-
nadian  porcupine; and  the fourtli, the
porcupine  with a prehensile tail.   The
common porcupine (H. crisfata) is found
in the southern parts  of Europe aud in
Barbary.  When full grown, it measures
nearly two feet in length, and some of its
spines exceed a foot.   Its general color is
a grizzled, dusky black.   The upper part
of its  head and neck is furnished  With
long, light colored haire, capable of being
raised or depressed at pleasure;  most parts
of the  back and  sides  are  armed  with
spines, which are longest on the centre of
the back.   In their usual position they lie
nearly flat  upon the  body, with   their
points directed backwards \. but when the
animal  is excited,  they are capable  of
being  raised.  The  common porcupine,
though known from the earliest ages, has
given rise  to numberless- ftbles, among 
PORCUPINE—POROSITY.
263
which that most commonly received is,
that it possesses the power of ejecting its
quills to a considerable distance when
irritated or pursued.  The use of  this  ar-
mature does not appear to be well under-
stood ; the most probable supposition, how-
ever,  is, that, like that ofthe hedgehog, it is
merely for defence, as,  like that animal, it
has the power of rolling itself up in a ball,
and thus presenting a  phalanx of spears
on every side, that renders the attack of
most  animals fruitless.  The porcupine
Sgenerally sleeps during the day, and only
 eaves its burrow in the evening, in search
of its food, which  is almost entirely com-
posed of  vegetables.   In captivity it  is
quiet  and peaceable, but  shows no marks
of attachment or  familiarity.    Canada
porcupine (H. dorsata)  is  a very unsightly
and sluggish animal, and is  not provided
with the long quills so  remarkable in the
last-mentioned species, its armature con-
sisting of short, sharp spines, almost con-
cealed by  the hair with  which they are
intermingled.  It  is about two feet long,
of a brownish color mingled with white;
the spines are attached  in a very slight
manner to the animal, and, from being
barbed at  tip with numerous small  re-
versed points or prickles, they, by degrees,
 Iienetrate  very deeply  into the flesh after
 laving once pierced it   Small and insig-
nificant as these  defensive weapons may
appear, they are  capable of causing the
death of dogs, wolves, or indeed of any
animal that incautiously  attempts to seize
the porcupine.  These  spines  or quills
are  much used among  the Indians  to
 ornament different articles of dress; they
 dye them of various colore, in a very per-
 manent manner.   The Canada porcupine
 is principally found in the northern parts
 of the U,  States  and  in Canada,  They
 feed on the barks of various  trees, apples,
 corn, &c.  Their  flesh is said to be very
 unpalatable, resembling flabby pork. They
 pair  about the latter end of September,
 and the female brings forth two young  in
 April or May.
   Pordenone (so called from his birth-
 place, his  true name being Giovanni An-
 tonio Licinio), or Regillo da Pordenone,
 a painter of the Venetian school, and rival
 of Titian, was bom in  1584,  and executed
 many works for his native  place; some
 also for Mantua, Vicenza, Genoa; but his
 greatest  works for Venice.  For  this
 city  he painted the chapel of St. Roch,
 and the hall of the Pregadi, in conjunction
 with Titian,  with  whom he also painted
 in St John's church, whence a constant
 rivalry  existed between them.   He died
in FeiTara, whither he had been  invited
by the duke Ercole II, to prepare cartoons
for Flemish tapestry (arazzi).  His death
was attributed to poison.   He is distin-
guished for bold and lively coloring.
  Porosity, an  essential property  of
bodies, is best ascertained by the micro-
scope,  which  shows us  the  passage  of
fluids through solid bodies; or we may
discover this property in ihe transmission
of light, in all directions, through the in-
ternal structure of hard and solid  bodies.
The porosity of wood is very remarkable.
Air  may  be blown, by the mouth, in a
profuse stream,  through  a cylinder two
feet long of dried oak, beech, elm or birch ;
and if a piece of wood, or a piece of mar-
ble, be dipped in water, and submitted to
experiment under the receiver of a pneu-
matic machine, the air issuing through the
exterior cavities will appear in a torrent
of bubbles on the external surface.   In
like manner mercury is forced through a
piece of dry wood, and  made to fall in the
form of a fine divided shower.  If a few
ounces be tied in a bag of sheep  skin, it
may be squeezed through the leather  by
the pressure of the  hand, in  numerous
minute streamlets.  This  experiment  il-
lustrates  the porosity of the  human cu-
ticle.   From  microscopic observations,
it  has  been  computed that the  skin  is
perforated  by a  thousand holes  in the
length of an inch.  If we estimate the
whole  surface of the body of a  middle-
sized man to be sixteen  square  feet,  it
must contain no fewer than 2,304,000pores.
These  pores are the mouths of so many
excretory vessels, which perform  that im-
portant function  in the animal economy,
insensible perspiration.   The lungs dis-
charge, eveiy minute, six grains, and the
sin-face of the skin from three to twenty
grains, the average over the whole  body
being fifteen grains of lymph, consisting
of water, with a  very  minute admixture
of  salt, acetic acid, and  a trace of iron.
If we  suppose this perspirable matter to
consist of globules only ten times smaller
than the red particles of blood, or about
the 5000th part of an inch in diameter, it
would require a succession of 400 of them
to issue  from each orifice every  second.
The permeability of a  solid body to any
fluid, depends, however, on  its  peculiar
structure and  its  relation to the fluid.   A
compact substance will sometimes oppose
the entrance of diin fluid, while  it  gives
free passage to a gross  one.  Thus a cask,
which holds  water, will  permit oil  to
ooze through it; and a fresh, humid blad-
der, which is air-tight,  will yet, when 
264
POROSITY—PORPHYRY.
pressed under water, imbibe much of that
liquid.  If a cylindrical piece of oak, ash,
elm, or other hard wood, cut in the direc-
tion of its fibres, be cemented to the end
ofa long glass tube, water will pa*s freely
through it, in divided streamlets;  but a
soft cork, inserted into a similar tube, will
effectually prevent all escape of the liquid.
Mercury may be carried in a small cam-
bric bag, which could not retain water  for
a moment.  If a circular bottom of close-
grained wood, divided by a fine slit (from
the 30th to the 100th part of an inch wide),
be cemented to the end of a glass tube, it
will support  a column of mercury  from
one to three or more inches high, the ele-
vation being always  proportional to the
narrowness of the slit.  Hence a cistern
of box-wood is  frequently used for port-
able barometers, the fine joints admitting
the access and pressure ofthe air, but pre-
venting the escape of the mercury.  Yet
a sufficient force  would overcome this
obstruction ; and, in the same manner, the
air which is confined in the common bel-
lows  under a moderate  pressure, might,
by a more violent action, be made to trans-
pire copiously through the boards and the
leather.  The  transmission of  a  fluid
through a solid substance shows the ex-
istence of pores; but the resistance, in or-
dinary cases, to such a passage, is insuffi-
cient,  therefore, to  prove  the  contrary.
The  permeability  of translucent  sub-
stances to the rays of light, in all direc-
tions,  evinces the most extreme porosity.
But this inference is not  confined merely
to the bodies  usually termed diaphanous;
for  the gradation  towards opacity ad-
vances  by  insensible shades.  The thin
air  itself is not perfectly translucid, nor
will the densest  metal absolutely bar  all
passage of light.   The whole mass of our
atmosphere, equal to the weight of a col-
umn of thirty-four feet of water, transmits,
according to its comparative  clearness,
only from four fifths to  three fourths of
the  perpendicular light, and consequently
retains or absorbs from a fifth to a fourth
of the  whole.   But this  absoiption  is
greatly increased by the accumulation of
the  medium.   When the  sun has ap-
proached within a degree of the horizon,
and his rays  now traverse  a tract of air
equal  in weight to a column of 905 feet of
water, only the 212th part of them can
reach  the surface ofthe earth.  Even gold
itself is diaphanous: if a leaf of that metal,
either pure or with only an 80th part of
alloy,  and therefore of a fine yellow lustre,
but  scarcely exceeding the 300,000th part
of an inch  in thickness, and enclosed be-
 tween two thin  plates of mica, be held
 immediately before the eye, and opposite
 to a window, it will transmit a soft green
 light, like the color of the water of the
 sea, or of a clear lake  of moderate depth.
 The inferior ductility of the other metals
 will not allow that fine lamination, which
 would be requisite for showing, in ordi-
 nary cases, the transmission of light.  But
 their diaphanous quality might be inferred
 from the tints with which they affect the
 transmitted rays,  on being alloyed with
 gold.   Other  substances,  though  com-
 monly reckoned opaque,  yet admit,  in
 various degrees, the passage of light.   The
 window of a small apartment being closed
 by a deal board, if a person within shut
 his eyes  a few minutes to render them
 more acute, he  will,  on  opening  them
 again, easily discern a  faint glimmer issu-
 ing through the window.   In proportion
 as the board is planed thinner, more light
 will be admitted, till the furniture of the
 room becomes visible.   Writing paper
 transmits about a third part of the whole
 incident  light, and,  when  oiled, it  often
 supplies  the place of glass in the common
 workshops.  The addition of oil does not,
 however, materially augment the diapha-
 nous quality of the paper,  but renders its
 internal structure more regular, and more
 assimilated to that of a liquid.  The rays
 of light travel, without much obstruction,
 across  several folds of paper, and  even
 escape   copiously  through  pasteboard.
 Combining these  various facts,  it follows
 that all bodies are permeable, though in
 extremely  different degrees, to the afflux
 of light   They must, therefore, be widely
 perforated, and in  every  possible direc-
 tion.
  Porphyry is a  compound rock, having
 a basis in  which the other contempora-
 neous constituent parts are  imbedded.
 The base is  sometimes claystone, some-
 times hornstone, sometimes compact feld-
 spar, jade, pitchstone, pearlstone, and ob-
 sidian.    The imbedded parts are com-
 monly feldspar and quartz; the former in
 more or less distinct crystals.   There are
 porphyries of different ages.  One variety
 is found  graduating into granite and gne-
 iss ; but this does not possess the charac-
 teristics of the rock in the highest perfec-
 tion ; another is found in overlying strata,
 and unconformable to other rocks, which
 is the true porphyry.  Its color is often
 red or green, and, when polished, is valu-
able for ornamental work, being superior
to marble, on account  of its great hard-
ness.  This rock  abounds in Egypt, the
northern  parts of Europe, in Mexico and 
PORPHYRY—PORSENNA.
265
South America ; it also exists in  the  vi-
cinity of Boston, in Massachusetts. There
is still another variety found in connexion
with extinct volcanoes, which is some-
times distinguished by the name of  clay-
porphyry.   It  abounds in the  neighbor-
hood of the Mediterranean.
  Porphyry ; a celebrated philosopher,
of the school of the New Platonists.  (See
New Platonists.)
  Porpoise  (delphinus phoccena).  Seve-
ral  species  of the  genus  delphinus are
known by seamen under the name of por-
poise, but the D.phocana is that to which
this designation is generally applied.  The
term porpoise, porpesse, or porpus, is de-
rived from the Italian porcopesce, or hog-
fish, from the supposed resemblance  of
its projecting snout to that of the  hog;
the  French and German appellations for
it have a similar signification.   The por-
poise is distinguished from the dolphin by
the  superior thickness of its head  and its
smaller size.  The back is generally black,
and the belly white.  Both jaws are fur-
nished with teeth ; these are compressed,
sharp, black  above and white beneath.
The spout-hole is upon the crown of the
head, of a  semilunar  shape, and divided
internally by a cartilaginous  membrane.
The whole body is  covered  with a coat
of fat, nearly an inch in thickness, beneath
which the flesh appears red and muscular,
resembling  that of the hog.   They are
very  abundant on  the American  coast,
and, before a storm, may be seen gambol-
ling and tumbling, as it is termed, in  large
shoals.  The porpoise feeds on small fish,
such as the hen-ing and mackerel, of which
they destroy great numbers.   It  is said
that they act in conceit, when in pursuit
of their prey, urging them from one bay
or estuary to another, deterring them  from
the shallow water, and  driving them to-
wards each  other's ambush, with all the
art of an experienced dog.  The flesh was
fonnerly considered  as a great delicacy,
but is now  seldom eaten ;  the liver,  how-
ever, is still esteemed by seamen, and is
said to resemble that of the hog in taste.
  Porpora, Nicolo (called, by the Italians,
the patriarch of harmony), was bom at
Naples in 1685.  His firet opera, Ariana e
Teseo, was brought out at Vienna  (1717).
The operas which he composed for Rome,
Naples and Venice, before and after his
visit to  England, amount, according  to
doctor Burney,  to  more than  fifty.  In
1730, several cantatas by him were also
published.   In 1726, he brought forward
his  Siface, at Venice, at the same  time
that Vinci  had  his  Siroe  performed  on
  vol. x.        23
another stage  in the same city.   At first
he found it difficult to sustain the contest,
but, up to 1729, he  had brought out five
operas at Venice, which were received
with general applause.  In that year he
went to Dresden, where  the king of Po-
land appointed him his chapel-master. He
was treated with the greatest distinction
at court, and  Ilasse (q. v.) and Lis wife
could not conceal their jealousy of Por-
pora and  the  celebrated  Mingotti (q. v.),
whom  he had instructed.  In 1731, Por-
pora returned  to Naples, and established
a singing school,  which produced the
greatest singers ofthe eighteenth centuiy,
Farinelli (q. v.), Caffarelli (see Majorano),
Salimberti,  Uberti,  Gabrielli, &c.   In
1732,  he went with Farinelli to London,
whither he had  been invited on account
ofthe disputes between Handel (q. v.) and
the directors of  the opera.   His  twelve
cantatas for a single  voice procured him
this invitation.  But his theatre sustained
itself only while supported by  Handel's
adversaries, and, in 1736, it entirely fell
through.  He had exhibited only four ope-
ras in London.  During his stay there, he
published six trios for two violins and a
bass-viol (Sei Sinfonie di  Camera), which
show that he excelled much less in instru-
mental than in vocal music.  He appears,
however, to have been sensible of  his de-
fects ; he  studied the sonatas of Corelli,
and, in 1754, published twelve sonatas for
the violin, which belong to the first  class
in this department  At  about the same
time, he visited Germany again, and taught
singing in Vienna.   Haydn (q. v.),  who
was then emerging from poverty, accom-
panied him  on the  harpsichord, and was
in his service for three months.  Porpora
produced masterpieces for the church, the
chamber, and the theatre.  Selvaggi made
a complete collection of such of his works
as were at Rome : there are many others
at Naples. The prevailing character of
his music is serious and elevated.   In the
recitative he was considered, by all com-
posers, as a model.  After having been, a
long time, first teacher of the conservatorio
degli incurabili at Venice, where he com-
 Kosed many admirable masses and motets,
 e returned to  Naples, where  he died in
1767, in the greatest poverty.
  Porsenna, the king of the Etrurian city
Clusium, received the Tarquins when they
fled from Rome, and, after in vain endeav-
oring to effect their restoration by nego-
tiation, advanced with an army to  Rome.
He  would have entered the city with the
flying Romans, had not Horatius  Codes
(q. v.)  disputed  the passage  until  the 
266
PORSENNA—PORT.
 bridge was broken down.  Porecnna then
 besieged Rome, and a famine was produc-
 ed iu the city, when another Roman youth,
 Mucins Scavvola (q. v.), gave a striking
 proof of his patriotism  and  devoteducss,
 Porsennawas now inclined to negotiation.
 He  demanded that their property should
 be restored to the Tarquins, and  that the
 cities taken from the Veientes, in former
 ware, should be given up.  The second
 condition was granted;  the firet was re-
jected.   A  truce, however, was agreed
 upon, for the security of which the Romans
 sent ten young  men, and as  many  girls,
 as hostages, to the Etrurian camp.  The
 latter found an opportunity of escaping to
 Rome, by swimming over the Tiber.   But
 the consul Publicola conveyed them  back
 again to Porsenna, aud was, on this occa-
 sion, treated with the greatest indignity by
 the Tarquins.  Porsenna, on receiving in-
 telligence of it,  immediately despatched
 lws  son  A runs,  to protect the Romans.
 Indignant at the perfidy of the Tarquins,
and  respecting the magnanimity of the
Romans, the king separated himself  from
the  former,  and concluded  peace  with
the latter without taking away their hos-
tages.  To relieve the wants of the Ro-
 mans, without offending  their pride  by a
formal present, he left behind, at his de-
parture, his whole camp, with all its stores.
In remembrance of his  magnanimity, the
senate erected to him a monument, and
presented him with  an  ivoiy  chair and
sceptre, a golden crown, and a royal robe.
A subsequent proposition from Porsenna
to the Romans  to  admit the Tarquins
being declined, Porsenna  abandoned them,
lived in undisturbed  friendship with the
Romans, and restored to  them the territo-
ry of the Veientes, which they had ceded
at the conclusion of peace.
   Po/   >>, Richard; a  celebrated critic
and classical scholar, professor of Greek
in the university  of Cambridge.  He  was
born Dec. 25, 1759,  at  East  Ruston, in
Norfolk, where his father was clerk of the
parish, and to him he was indebted for the
firet rudiments of his education.  He re-
ceived some further instruction at the vil-
lage  school, and also from the vicar of
Ruston; after which he was sent to Eton,
through the patronage of some gentlemen
who witnessed and admired his early  pro-
ficiency and  inclination for the study of
classical literature.  In 1777, he became a
student  of Trinity college,  Cambridge,
where he gained a prize medal;  and, in
1781, he was chosen to a fellowship.  He
proceeded M. A. in 1785; and, not choos-
ing to take holy orders, on account of
 conscientious scruples  in  regard  to  the
 signing of die Thirty-nine Articles, he was
 obliged to relinquish his fellowship.  In
 1793, he was unanimously elected Greek
 professor, and, two years after, he began
 the  publication  of the  Tragedies of Eu-
 ripides, with  annotations,  but  continued
 his labors only through  four of these dra-
 mas—Hecuba,  Orestes, Phcenissre, and
 Medea.  He also  assisted  in  editing  the
 Grenville Homer,  published at Oxford
 (1800, 4 vols., 4to.), and  corrected the text
 ofthe tragedies of ^Eschylus for a splen-
 did  edition,  which  appeared  from  the
 Glasgow  press,  in folio, also printed in
 two volumes octavo.   He enjoyed  the
 reputation of being one of the best Greek
 scholars aud critics of the age in England,
 notwithstanding which,  he  experienced
 little pattonage—a circumstance partly at-
 tributable to'his intemperate habits. To-
 wards the latter part of his life, he was
 appointed librarian to the London institu-
 tion, with a salary of £200 a year; and  his
 death took  place  Sept. 25, 1808,  at  his
 apartmeuts, in the house then belonging
 to that  establishment in the Old Jewry.
 His decease was occasioned by apoplexy;
 and, his body having been subjected to
 anatomical examination, it was discovered
 that his skull was one of the thickest that
 had  ever been  observed.   He  was the
 author of Letters  to Archdeacon Travis,
 in Answer to his  Defence  of the  Three
 Heavenly Witnesses (1790,8vo.), in  which
 he is allowed  to have completely invali-
 dated the  contested text,  1 John, v,  7;
 and, after his death, professor Monk and
 Mr.  Blomfield, now bishop of  London,
 published his Adversaria, or Notes and
 Emendations of the Greek Poets; and his
 Tracts and Miscellanies were edited  by
 Mr. Kidd (1815).  .Many of these are sal-
 lies of irony and  humor  of the most racy
 and peculiar kind, which, with other arti-
 cles abounding with learning and critical
 acumen, appeared in various ofthe  litera-
 ry journals.  Acuteness of discernment,
 solidity of judgment, united  to intense ap-
 plication and a stupendous  memory, ren-
 dered professor Porsou a complete critic
 in the most honorable sense  of that appel-
 lation.   He married Mrs. Leman, sister to
 Mr.  Perry, proprietor  of  the  Morning
 Chronicle, in  which many of his fugitive
 pieces appeared.   (See the article Porson
m the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, written  by doctor Young.)
  Port.   The name of Port wines,  or
 Oporto toines, is given,  in commerce,  to
the produce of the vineyards along the
couree ofthe Douro, in Portugal. Although 
PORT-^PORT REPUBLICAIN.
267
there are, in reality, many  varieties of
wines produced in this district, yet such
is the degree to which the manipulations,
admixtures and  adulterations  of  these
wines have been carried,  that Port wine
has  come to be  considered as a peculiar
species of liquor, of nearly uniform flavor
and  strength, varying, indeed, in  quality,
but admitting few degrees of excellence;
whereas the  liquor sold under this name
is, in fact, a compound of a great number
of wines of very different  quality, with a
large admixture  of  brandy.  The  wine
eouutry  of the  Upper  Douro begins at
about fifty miles from Oporto, and is un-
der  the  superintendence  of  u  company
vested with great privileges.  The better
wines, under the name  of factory wines,
ere destined for  exportation ; those de-
signed for the English market are called
vinhos de embarque, or export wines,  and
those for other countries vinhos separados,
or assorted wines.  The wine is   firet
placed in large tuns, in which it  remains
till winter, when it is racked into pipes,
and conveyed to Oporto.  To that intend-
ed for exportation, brandy is added when
it is deposited in the stores, and an addi-
tional quantity when it  is shipped,  gen-
erally about a year after the vintage.   It is
then of a dark purple color, a full body,
with an astringent bitter-sweet taste, and a
strong flavor and odor of  brandy.  After
remaining some years in  the wood, the
sweetness, roughness, and astringency of
the flavor, abate ; but it is not until it has
been kept ten or  fifteen years in  bottle
that  die  odor of the brandy is subdued,
and the genuine aroma ofthe wine is de-
veloped.  When a very large portion of
the extractive and coloring mutter is  pre-
cipitated in the form of a crust, the  wine
becomes lawny, and loses its flavor and
aroma.   This is very apt to be the case in
the wines made from white  grapes, and
colored with elder berries or other materi-
als—a common practice  when there  is a
deficiency of the black  grapes.   Port
wines  of excellent quality are often so
highly adulterated with  brandy as to be
entirely deprived of their flavor and  aro-
ma ;  and the stronger kinds, which are not
irretrievably ruined by this admixture, on-
ly regain their flavor after being allowed
to mellow for many yeurs.   Port wine (if
the liquor thus described may be so called)
was  introduced into  very  general use in
England by  the Methuon treaty  (1703),
and the frequent aud protracted hostilities
between  England and France kept it in
vogue till the peace of 1815, sii.ee which
die'tarte  for light win«s has been revived
 there, so as materially to lessen the con-
 sumption ofthe strong wines of Portugal.
 The Port wines, abounding in  the astrin-
 gent  principle,  and deriving  additional
 potency from brandy, may be serviceable
 in disorders in which gentle tonics are re-
 quired ; but gallic acid renders  them unfit
 for weak stomachs,  and the excitement
 they produce is of rather a sluggish nature.
 —See  Wines;  see, also, Henderson, on
 wines (London, 1824).
   Port ; a  harbor or haven on the  sea-
 coast—Free Port is one  open and free for
 merchants  of all nations to load and  un-
 load their vessels in,  without paying  any
 duty or customs: such  are  the pons of
 Genoa and  Leghorn.—Free  Port  is  also
 used for  a  total exemption and franchise
 which  any  set of merchants  enjoy, for
 goods imported into a state, or those ofthe
 growth of the country exported by them.
   Port  is also  a  name given, on some
 occasions, to the larboard or left side of
 the ship, as Port the helm—the order to
 [Hit the helm over to the larboard side of
 the vessel, when going large.  This word
 appears intended to prevent any mistakes
 happening  from  the  similarity of sounds
 in the words starboard and larboard, par-
 ticularly when orders are given  relating to
 the helm.
   Port, or Port  Hole.    The embra-
 sures or openings in the side of a ship of
 war, wherein the'artillery is ranged in  bat-
 tery upon the decks, above and  below, are
 called ports, cr port holes.—Gun-room ports
 are situated  in the ship's counter, and are
 used for stern-chases, and also for passing
 a small  cable or a hawser out, either to
 moor, head am' stern, or to spring upon the
 cable, Sec.—Lower-deck ports are those on
 the lowest gun-deck.—Middle-deck ports
 are those on the second or  middle gun-
 deck of three-deckers.  The port holes
 are shut up in storms, to prevent the water
 from driving through them.—Port lids;
a sort of hanging doors, to shut  in  the
 ports at sea. Thty are fastened by hinges
 to the tipper edges ofthe ports, so as to let
 down when the cannon are drawn into the
ship, whereby the water is prevented enter-
 ing the lower decks.—Port Hooks; hooks
over the ports, to which the port hinges are
attached.
  Port-au-Prince.  (See Port Republi-
cain.)
  Port Jackson.  (See New South Males,
and Sydney.)
  Port Mahon.  (See Mahon.)
  Port Republican; ; formerly Port-au-
Prince, capital of the republic  of Hayti
(q. v.), on the western side of the  island, 
268
PORT REPUBLICAIN—PORTER.
at the south-east extremity of the bay of
the same name; lat 18°33'N.;  Ion. 72°
27' W.  It is built in a low and unhealthy
spot, with broad but un paved streets, and
contains the president's palace, several lit-
erary  institutions, a lazaretto, and  other
public buildings.    Besides the  military
school, the pupils of which are instructed
gratuitously, there are several monitorial
schools.  Commerce is the principal oc-
cupation ofthe inhabitants.  In 1824,131
American, 18 English, 6 German, and 33
French vessels entered the port, and the
value   of  the   imports   amounted to
10,500,000 francs.   The amount of ex-
ports—coffee, cotton, Campeacby wood,
iScc.—was much greater. The population,
which, in 1790, was 15,000  (of whom
12,000 were  blacks), is now estimated at
30,000.  The city was founded  in  1745,
and was completely  destroyed  by an
earthquake  in 1770.  In 1830,  it experi-
enced several shocks, some of which did
considerable damage.
  Port Royal ; a seaport ofthe island of
Jamaica,   (q. v.)
  Port Royal des Champs ; a Cister-
cian convent, founded in 1233, not far
from  Versailles, and  about  six  leagues
from  Paris, played  an important part in
the Jauseuistic controversy.   (See Ar-
nauld, and  Jansenius.)  The abbess An-
gelica, sister  of  Antony  Arnauld, had
brought it into closer connexion  with the
theologians of Paris by founding a new
convent in  the  suburb of St. Jacques in
Paris  (1626), which, in distinction from the
parent establishment, was called Port Roy-
al de  Paris.  She had also revived the
monastic austerity  in  the two  houses.
The nuns of Port Royal adhered,  under
tho influence of their protector, Jean do
Vergier du Havranne, abbot of St. Cyraii,
to tiie Jansenists, aud their house in the
country became the  sanctuary ofthe par-
ty,  when the most  eloquent theologians
and defenders of Jansenism—Nicole, the
brothers Arnauld and Lemaitre—took up
their residence at Port Royal des Champs,
in a separate building, called Les Granges.
Here  they  participated  in the penances
aud  labors of  the  nuns,  and set  up  a
school, in which, in opposition to the lax
system of the Jesuits, they  inculcated  a
purer morality, and  aimed at a more thor-
ough  couree of study,  widi  useful im-
provements in the method of instruction.
The celebrated  Anne of Bourbon, duchess
of Longucville, came into the neighbor-
hood, and became  their patroness; Boi-
leau  was their friend, and Racine their
grateful pupil. Tiie latter wrote a history of
Port Royal. This society presented a union
of great talents, profound learning and sin-
cere piety, which has rarely been equalled:
penitents of all conditions joined it, and the
fame of its sanctity spread  over the Cath-
olic world.   Trusting to  their reputation,
the nuns refused to subscribe the bull of
Alexander VII against the disputed doc-
trines of Jansenius, and sustained them-
selves, after their protectors had been ex-
pelled, through  numerous humiliations,
until the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury, when their continued adherence to
the Jansenist doctrines,  which had gone
out of vogue, resulted in the suppression
and complete destruction of the abbey by
the Paris  police (1709).  Its  ruins  still
form a place of pilgrimage for the more
devout Parisian, aud Gregoire has erect-
ed  a  monument to  its  memory  in  his
work  entitled Les  Ruines de Port Royal
(1809).
  Portage is used  in the U. States for a
carrying place over land  between naviga-
ble rivers.   In several instances this name
has been given to  settlements in  the vi-
cinity of such carrying places.
  Portamento ni  Voce (Italian, conduct
of the voice), in music, signifies the skill
of the singer to connect  one sound so
closely with  the others, that  no interrup-
tion is perceptible, and that all  seem to be
hut one long breathing.   The art of the
singer, in this respect, is to breathe at the
proper time.
   Portcullis, iu  fortification, is an as-
semblage of several large pieces of wood,
joined across one  another like a harrow,
and each pointed with iron at the bottom.
They are sometimes bung over the gate-
way of old fortified towns, ready to be let
down in case of surprise, when the gates
cannot be shut
   Porte, Ottoman, or  Sublime Porte ;
the court of the Turkish sultan, so called
from the gate (porta in Italian) of the im-
perial palace.  (See Ottoman Empire.)
   Porter, sir Robert Ker,  was born at
Durham.  His mother was left a widow
with five children,  and in  scanty circum-
stances.  Robert early manifested  an un-
common genius for drawing, many of his
sketches,  made  when  he was only six
years of age, being remarkable for their
spirit; and, in 1790, he  became a student
at the royal academy, under the auspices
of Mr. West.  Not  more than two years
had elapsed, since  his  commencing his
studies at the academy, when he was em-
ployed to paint the figures of Moses and
Aaron, for the communion-table of Shore-
ditch church. In  1794, he  presented to 
PORTER—PORTLAND.                       269
the Roman Catholic chapel, at Portsea,
an altar-piece representing Christ calming
the storm; and, in  1798, he gave  to St
John's college, Cambridge, an altar-piece,
the subject of which is St John preach-
ing  in the  wilderness.   He  was only
twenty-two when he began his large pic-
ture of the storming of Soringapatam.
Though  it contained nearly seven hun-
dred hgures as large as life, it was finish-
ed in ten weeks;  nor did  it bear any
marks of haste, it being, both in composi-
tion  and cobring, a work of high  merit
It was succeeded by two other pictures of
the same magnitude—the Siege of Acre,
and the Battle of Agincourt  In 1804, he
was  invited to  Russia by the  emperor,
Who made  him his  historical  painter.
lie consequently visited  St. Petersburg,
where he was received with distinction,
and employed to decorate the admiralty
hall, in the Russian capital.  While re*
siding  there, he  gained the affections of
the princess Scherbatoff,  and was on the
point of marrying her, when  a rupture
with England obliged him to leave Russia,
He passed into Sweden to join the British
forces  under  sir John Moore,  whom he
accompanied  to  Spain,  sharing  in the
hardships and  perils of the  campaign,
which ended  with the battle of Corunna.
After liaving remained for some time in
England, he  again  went to Russia, and
received  the hand of the  princess Scher-
batoff.  With her he revisited  his  native
country, where,  in 1813, he obtained the
honor of knighthood.  From 1817 to 1820
inclusive, he  was engaged in  travelling
through  the East; aud, in the course of
his travels, explored the  countries  from
the banks  of the Black sea to the Eu-
phrates, and  from the Euphrates to the
ihouth of the Persian gulf.  Among his
works are Travelling Sketches in Russia
and Sweden (2 vols., 4to., 1808); Letters
from  Portugal  and Spain (8vo.,  1809);
Narrative  of the Campaign in Russia
(1813); Travels in  Georgia, Persia and
Armenia (1822).
  Porter.   The  quantity of beer, ale
and porter imported into  the U. States in
the year ending  September 30,  1830, was
65,260 gallons, valued at 60,420 dollars;
the quantity exported was 3866 gallons,
valued at 3925  dollars.  (For the manu-
facture of porter, see Brewing,  vol. ii, p.
263.)
  Portici.  (See Naples, and Hercula-
newn.)
  Portico (Italian, from porticus,  Lat);
a continued range of columns, covered at
top, in order to serve as a shelter from the
                 23*
weather; also a commou name for build-
ings which had such covered walks sup-
ported by  pillars.  Among die ancients,
these were highly  ornamented, and of
great extent  The remains of the  portico
at Palmyra (q. v.) show it to have  been
full 4000 feet long.  There was a famous
portico  at  Athens,  called Pacile. (q. v.)
Among modern  porticoes, those  of the
grand fagade of the  Louvre and  of the
great court of the hospital of invalids  at
Paris, and that at Greenwich hospital, de-
serve mention.
  Portiuncula.  (See Franciscans.)
  Portland.   The  Bentinck family  is
Dutch, the founder of it in England hav-
ing been count  Bentinck,  created  earl of
Portland by  William III; his  son was
created  duke by George the First.  The
grandson  of the  latter, William  Henry
Cavendish Bentinck, third duke, was born
in 1738, and, after sitting for some time in
the house of commons, was called to the
upper house by the deadi of his father, in
1762, from which time he voted with the
marquis of Rockingham (q. v.), in whose
administration he was lord chamberlain.
During the American war, he acted  with
the opposition, and, in 1782, was appoint-
ed lord lieutenant of Ireland, where he
remained  only  three months, in  conse-
quence  of die death of the marquis of
Rockingham.   From  the accession of
Pitt, the duke acted widi the whig oppo-
sition until 1792, when he  was elected
chancellor  of Oxford, and, joining  with
Mr.  Burke in his alarm  at  the French
revolution, he supported  administration.
He was accordingly, in 1794, made secre-
tary of state  for the  home  department,
which  he held  until  the  resignation of
Mr. Pitt, in 1801, and was then appointed
president of the  council, which he  held
until 1805.  On  the  resignation of lord
Grenville, in 1807, he was appointed first
lord of the treasury, which office  he re-
signed soon after, and died in 1808.  The
present  duke of Portland (bom in 1768)
was lord privy seal in Canning's adminis-
tration, and lord  president of the council
in that of Goderich.
  Portland ; a post-town, port of entry
and commercial metropolis of the state of
Maine.  It stands on  a peninsula in^Cas-
co bay, and has a beautiful and healthy
situation, and one of  the best harbors in
America; north-north-east from Boston,
110  miles; from  Portsmouth, 54;  from
Washington,  542;  latitude of Observa-
tory hill, 43° 39' N.; lon. 70° 20' 30" W.;
population, in 1820,8581; in 1830,12,601.
The town  is well laid out, and is built 
270
PORTLAND—PORTSMOUTH;
in a very convenient  and elegant style.
There are very few towns iu America
which are so pleasant to the  eye of the
traveller.  It contains  fifteen  meeting-
houses, including two for Christians (q. v.),
one for Roman Catholics, one for  Afri-
cans and one for  mariners ; also a cus-
tom-house, a theatre, an atheneum con-
taining a library of 3000  volumes,  and
six banks, including the branch bank of
the U. States.  The harbor is very sufe
and capacious, and is never frozen, ex-
cept for a few days in the coldest winters.
On a head land on cape Elizabeth, near
the entrance ofthe harbor, there is a  stone
lighthouse, seventy feet  high, erected in
1790.   The  town  is defended  by forts
Preble and Scammel,  on opposite  sides
of the ship channel, one mile and a half
from the lighthouse.  The islands around
the harbor are very numerous and beau-
tiful, and protect it against the violence of
storms.   The shipping belonging to this
port, in 1821, amounted to 33,6l9 tons;
and on the 30th of Sept., 1831, it amount-
ed  to 42,992 tons,  and consisted of 25
ships, 98 brigs, 208 schooners, 33 sloops,
3 steam-boats, and 31  vessels under 20
tons.  The principal articles of export are
lumber and  fish.  Much attention is paid
to  education.  The town supports one
English high school for boys; two moni-
torial schools for boys,  and two for girls;
six primary schools, and one for colored
children.  One academy, two high schools
for females, and several other schools, are
supported at private expense.  Portland
was formerly a part of Falmouth, and, in
1775, the principal part of the town was
burned by the British.  It was incorporat-
ed by its present name in 1786.
   Portland  Stone  is  a dull, whitish
species,  much  used  in  buildings about
London.  It is composed of a coarse grit
cemented together by an earthy spar.
   Portland Vase (formerly called die
 Barberini Vase); one of the most beauti-
 ful relics of antiquity of the  kind.  It  is
 a funeral vase, and was • discovered near
 Rome,  during  the pontificate  "(1622—■
 1644) of Urban VIII  (Barberini), in a
 sarcophagus, which is supposed to have
 been that of Alexander Severus and Ju-
 lia Mammaea, bis mother.  It was bought
 of the  Barberini  family in  1786, by the
 late duke of Portland, for 1000 guineas.
  Its height is about ten inches, and its di-
  ameter, where broadest, six.  There are
  several  figures on it of exquisite work-
  manship, in basso  relievo, in white opaque
  glass, on a  ground of deep  blue  glass,
  which appears black  except when held
against the  light.   Vcltheim (Hist, und
Antiq. Abhandl., 1800) thinks that it rep-
resents the histoiy of Alceste, who is re-
stored to  Admetus by Hercules, but that
on the sarcophagus, which is still in the
Vatican,  is  represented the  quarrel of
Achilles and Agamemnon about Briseis.—
See Wedgwootl's  Description of the Port-
land Vase (London, 1790, 4to.).
  Porto.  (See Oporto.)
  PdRTO Bello (properly Puerto Velo);
a harbor and city of New Grenada, on the
isthmus of Panama, forty-five miles N. W.
of the city of Panama.  It is situated on
the Caribbean sea, and has a  large and
safe harbor; lat. 90° 24' N.; lon. 79° 43*
W.  It was  never veiy populous, even in
its most flourishing period, and its popula-
tion is now  much reduced; we have no
precise data relative to it  The Spanish
galleons formerly came here annually to
receive on board the  rich exports of Peru
and Chile, which were landed at Panama,
and transported across the isthmus; but it
was captured several times by the Eng-
lish ; and, in 1740, its fortifications were
destroyed by admiral Vernon, from which
period the articles above-mentioned were
carried round cape Horn.  (See Panama,
Isthmus of.)
   Porto Cabello, or Puerto Cabello ;
a town of Venezuela,  on  the  Caribbean
sea; lat  10° 28'  N.;  lon.  68° 17' W. _ It
is built partly  on a  small  island, which
communicates  with  the continent  by a
bridge.  It  has a capacious and safe har-
bor, and  a population of less than 5,000.
   Porto Rico.  (See Appendix,  end of
this volume.)
   Porto Santo.  (See Madeira.)
   Port  Royal.  (See page 268.)
   Ports, Cinque.   (See  Cinque Ports.)
   Portsmouth ; a noted  seaport  in the
 English  channel, being the principal ren-
 dezvous of the British navy.  It is situat-
 ed on the western side of the  island of
 Portsea,  at  the mouth  of  the  bay
 termed Portsmouth  harbor, and  consists
 of the old  town of Portsmouth, includ-
 ed  within  its  fortified walls,  and  the
 new  towns of  Portsea  and  Southsea,
 which were only  begun about a  cen-
 tury ago, on commons to the  north and
 south of the town,  but have already out-
 grown in size,  population  and importance
 the parent town  itself. • Portsmouth har-
 bor excels, decidedly, every other in Great
 Britain for  its capaciousness, depth and se-
 curity.  At its entrance, the harbor is very
 narrow,  but it soon expands to a great
  width.  Every where the anchorage is
 good, the  depth sufficient for ships of 
PORTSMOUTH-PORTUGAL                   271
any size, the shelter complete, and the ex-
tent sufficient to contain almost the whole
navy of England.  The famous roadstead
of Spithead, between Portsmouth and the
Isle of Wight, can contain 1000 sail of
vessels in the greatest security.  Ports-
mouth harbor is  well protected from as-
saults by the number and  strength  of its
batteries.  The fortifications were  begun
by Edward  IV.   The  dock-yard,  being
the grand  naval  arsenal of England and
the general rendezvous of the British fleet,
is by far the largest in the kingdom, in-
cluding an area of 100 acres.   In the na-
val college, the number of scholars is lim-
ited to 100 in time of war,  and  seventy in
time of peace, of whom thirty, the sons
of officers ofthe navy, are maintained and
educated free of expense. On the anchor-
wharf, hundreds of anchors are piled up
ready for immediate service.  The ropery
is three stories high, fifty-four feet broad,
and 1094 feet loug.  In the vast building
called  the smithery, anchors are wrought
weighing  from  seventy to ninety  cwts.
each.  The gun-wharf is an immense ar-
senal,  consisting of various  ranges of
buildings  for the reception of naval and
military stores, artillery, &c.  The  small
armory is capable of  containing  25,000
stand of arms.  Near Portsmouth is Has-
lar hospital, for  the  navy.  The church
of Portsmouth is a spacious structure, ded-
icated to  St.  Thomas a  Becket   The
tower, which  is  the most modern part,
forms a good mark to seamen.   There
are various charitable, literary  and  scien-
tific institutions.   The theatre is the prin-
cipal amusement.  The shore from  Ports-
mouth to  Southsea castle presents one of
the finest bathing places in the kingdom.
Portsmouth received its first charter from
Richard  Cceur  de Lion.   The earliest
mention of this place occurs in the  Saxon
Chronicle, A. D. 501.   Population of
Portsmouth, 7269; Portsea and  South-
sea, 34,785 ;  seventy-two miles   south-
west of London; lon. 1°  6' VV.; lat. 50°
47'N.
   Portsmouth, the largest town of New
Hampshire, is a port of  entiy, and the
only seaport in the state.   It is situated on
the  south side of Piscataqua  river, on a
beautiful  peninsula, three  miles from the
sea, fifty-six miles north by east from Bos-
ton, and 491 from Washington; lat. 43°4'
N.; lon. 70° 45' W.; population in 1810,
6934;  in 1820, 7327; in  1830,   8082.
Portsmouth is well supplied with  houses
of public worship, and contains a custom-
house, an insurance office, and five banks,
including a branch of the  U. States bank.
As a great portion of the  trade from the
interior of New Hampshire centres at Bos-
ton, and  a part at Portland, Portsmouth
has not a sufficient commerce with the in-
terior to make it extensive and flourishing.
Still it has considerable trade.  The ship-
ping owned in New Hampshire iu 1828
amounted to 26,253 tons, and nearly all
of it must have belonged to  Portsmouth.
The harbor is one ofthe best in the world.
It has forty-two feet of water, at low tide,
through the whole channel,  and the cur-
rent is sufficient to prevent its freezing.  It
is admirably defended against storms, and
is protected by fort Constitution, on  Great
island, and fort M'Clary, opposite to it,  in
Kittcry.  There are also three other forts
built for the defence of the harbor, which
are  not  garrisoned.  There is a  light-
house on  Great island.   Portsmouth has
suffered  much by fires.   In 1802, 120
buildings were destroyed ; in 1806,  twen-
ty,  including  the Episcopal church ;  in
1813,173. The parts which were destroy-
ed  have  been mostly  rebuilt  of  brick.
Portsmouth was settled under the auspices
of sir Ferdinando Gorges and captain John
Mason, in 1623, and was incorporated by
charter,  in 1633.  On Badger's island,  in
this harbor, during the revolution, the first
line-of-battle  ship was built in  the  U.
States; it was called the  North America.
On Navy island, in the Piscataqua,  oppo-
site to Portsmouth, is  a  navy-yard of the
U. States.  The island belongs to the gen-
eral government, and  is convenient for
building  ships of war, and is well furnish-
ed for this puipose.
  Portugal  ; a kingdom in the  south-
western corner of Europe, on the western
side of the Spanish peninsula, lying be-
tween latitude 36° 56' and 42° 7' N., and
between  longitude 7° 34' and  9° 30' W.,
with Spain on the north and east, and the
Atlantic ocean on the south and west  It
is nearly  in the form of a parallelogram;
its length from north to south is 350 miles;
its average breadth, about 115; its super-
ficial area, 41,500 square miles.  The pop-
ulation was estimated by Balbi, in 1822,
at 3,173,000 ;  in 1826, it was  stated  at
3,214,000.  The state is composed  of the
kingdom of Portugal, comprising the prov-
inces Entre Minho e Donro, Tras os Mon-
tes, Beira, Estremadura, and Alen Tejo,
and the  kingdom of Algarve.  In Asia,
Portugal possesses the city of Goa  (q. v.),
Diu on the coasts of Cambay, a part of the
island of Timor, and Macao (q. v.), with a
total population  of 576,000;  in  Africa,
the island of St. Thomas  and  Prince's
island on the coast of Guinea, the Azores, 
272                             PORTUGAL.
Cape  Verd  and Madeira islands in  the
north, some factories in Sencganibia, a
part  of Angola and  Benguela,  and  the
captain-generalcy of Mozambique, widi a
total population of 1,057,000.  In Ameri-
ca, it retains nothing of its former im-
mense possessions.   (See Brazil.)  The
lace of the country is, in general, moiui"-
tainous, and has but two plains of consid-
erable extent, that of Aleu Tejo and that
of Beira.  The principal mountain ridges
are merely spurs of the great Spanish sys-
tem (see Spain), from which descend the
ku-gest rivere of Portugal,  the  Tejo,  or
Tagus, the Guadiana, theDouro (in Span-
ish, Duero) and the Miiiho.  The valleys,
particularly in Minho and Tras  os  Mou-
tes, are remarkable for beauty and fertility.
Mineral springs abound.   Although  the
country lies in the warmer portion of the
temperate zone, the climate is by no means
so hot as in the central and southern parts
of Spain ; the sea breezes temper the heat
on the coasts, and the north winds refresh
the interior.  The air is remarkably mild
and healthy.  Iu January begins a most
delightful spring; from March the weath-
er is unsettled, sometimes rainy, and some-
times diy and hot The harvest is in June.
From the end  of July  to the beginning
of September,  vegetation is parched by
the glowing rays of the sun ; and although
the weather is, taking the year through,
very favorable to cultivation, yet agricul-
ture sometimes suffers from this drought.
Artificial irrigation is little practised except
in gardens.  Rain rarely falls in  summer;
but, though the days are hot, the evenings
and nights are cool.   When the first rain
falls in September, the earth is again cov-
ered with a fresh green, a second spring
begins,  and the fruit  trees are decked
anew with blossoms.   The winter sets in
towards  the close  of November,  and is
accompanied by violent showers of rain,
which are not, however, of long continu-
ance, but alternate with pleasant weather.
In the northern part of the country only
does the cold continue for any length of"
time ; in the south, snow is a rare phenom-
enon.  Thunder storms occur only in au-
tumn and winter.—Portugal is rich in nat-
ural productions, but wants the cultivation
of industrious  hands.   But the climate
and the fertility ofthe soil incline the Por-
tuguese, like most other southern nations,
to indolence ; and they engage more read-
ily in  commerce than  in  agriculture or
manufactures.  The rich mines of precious
metals are  now neglected on account of
the  want of hands and fuel.   The only
mines worked are some of iron  in Estre-
madura.  Copper, iron,  arsenic,- bismuth)
and  fine marbles,-  are found m several
provinces, but  precious stones  Are rare.
Salt-springs  are not numerous-?  salt is
chiefly  obtained  from  sea-water.  The
corn trade is also less productive than for-
merly ; for example, in the thirteenth cen-
tuiy, when Portugal exported corn.  The
discoveries  of new countries,  and their
consequences, emigration to the colonies,
and  increasing  commerce, withdrew so
many hands from agriculture,  that  this
branch of national industry began  to de-
cline in the fifteenth century.  Iu addition
to these causes,  the ignorance of the peas-
ant <y, the oppressions to which they were
exposed, the wealth of the clergy, the de-
ficiency of beasts of burden, and the ab-
sence of all  facilities of  transportation;
contributed to the decline of agriculture ;
and, notwithstanding  the  efforts of the
government,  since the  administration of
Pombal, to  revive it, the importation of
corn has continued to be necessary.  The
potato is not  so much cultivated as the
root of the less nourishing helianthus tube-
rosus (Jerusalem  artichoke).   Excellent
fruit is raised in abundance, and exported
in considerable quantities.   Oil is also
made, but in so unskilful a manner as to be
of inferior quality ; the best is from  Al-
garve.  Wines of several sorts,  both  dry
and  sweet, are produced ;  the  red Port
wine (q. v.) is exported, but in less quanti-
ties than formerly, chiefly to England.  In
1765, with a view to diminish the dispro-
portion between the cultivation of the vine
and of grain, all the vineyards on the Ta-
gus,  Mondego and Rouga (with the ex-
ception of some districts in Estremadura
producing excellent  wines), were, by order
of government,  converted into com lands.
About one third part of the vineyards was
thus destroyed ; but, after the fall of Pom-
bal, many proprietors planted vines  agab>,
as this mode  of employing the  land  was
more profitable  than tillage^  Hemp  and
flax are raised in the northern districts, but
by no means sufficient for the consump-
tion.  In many  parts of the country, wood
is scarce, on account of the little care paid
to the forests.  Although the country  af-
fords excellent  pastures, grazing is little
attended to, partly owing to summer
droughts, and partly to the want of artifi-
cial meadows, which are to be found only
in Minho.  It is also discouraged  by the
great number of holydays, which amount
to nearly one third  of the  year, and on
which abstinence from butcher's meat is
required.  It is most successfully practised
in Beira, Minho and Estremadura.  Oxen 
PORTUGAL.
273
are used for draft.   The horses are small,
light, and well formed, but not numerous.
Mules  are  in common use.  Sheep are
raised  in greatest numbers in Beira; the
wool resembles the  Spanish, but is not so
fine.  Cows are not much used for milk,
which is obtained chiefly from goats.  But-
ter and cheese are imported from England
and Holland.   The Portuguese swine re-
semble  the Chinese variety,  and are very
fat Turkies are raised in great numbere.
The bets do not yield wax enough for the
churches.  The culture of silk, which
was formerly extensively  carried  ou, has
been in some degree revived in recent
times, and, in 1804, yielded 61,700  pounds
of silk.   Deer,  rabbits, hares, and  wild
boars, are the only game. The birds are not
numerous,  except  red partridges.  The
rivers, lwrticufcirly the Tagus, abound in
fish ; hut the consumption is so great that
ttock fish and salt  fish are carried to the
country by the  English, Americans, and
the northern nations, although in the six-
teenth century the Portuguese were large-
ly engaged  in the Newfoundland  fishery.
To the prevalence of entails, and  the ac-
cumulation of  the  landed  property in a
few  hands  (with their consequence that
the cultivator is rarely the  proprietor  cf
the soil), is  to he attributed  the smallncss
ofthe population.  The nolility,now less
numerous than  formerly, is divided into
the  higher  and lower; the former, in
1805, consisted  of  35 families, many  of
which are opulent  The national  charac-
ter appears  to most advantage in the coun-
try and the small towns, particularly in
the northern provinces, where the Portu-
guese is friendly, polite, hospitable, frank,
mora},  temperate and sober.  They  have
inherited the old national hatred  against
the  Spaniards.   There are few public
amusements  except  bull-fights.   The
number of ecclesiastics is stated by Balhi
not to exceed 29,000.  The king appoints
the patriarch, who resides at Lisbon, and
has  under  him nine bishops, five Euro-
pean and four foreign : the ten other Por-
tuguese bishops are under the jurisdiction
of the   archbishops of Braga and Evora,
the former of whom is styled the  primate
of the kingdom.   All the bishops are nom-
inated by the king.  In  1821, according
to the same author, there were360convents
for men, with 5760 monks, and a revenue
of 007A million reis, and 138 convents for
women, with 5903 sisters, and a  revenue
of 363  million  reis.  The  university  of
Coimbru has 1600 students.  In the capi-
tal are  four  schools  for  the learned lan-
guages, and other useful institutions.  The
college for young  noblemen, established
in 176l, is one of the best institutions for
education.  Little has been done for pop-
ular education.  Of late years the useful
arts have made progress," but few of the
products of Portuguese industry can com-
pare with the  corresponding articles of
foreign manufacture ; the most important
are those of wool, silk, cotton, linen, hats
and glass.  The  most of the manufacto-
ries of woollen goods belong to the king,
who leases them for a certain Dumber of
years to particular  companies, with  the
right of exclusively carrying  on the busi-
ness.  The most important manufactories
of silk are in  Lisbon, Braganza, Oporto,
Beja, Mondim and Almerim, and, prior to
1808, employed 27,CC0 men.  The inter-
nal commerce  suffers from  the want of
good roads.  Canals there are none, and
the few navigable rivere are  not so at all
seasons.  The remains of the Portuguese
colonial possessions, and the empire of
Brazil, of which  the  independence, at
firet at least, was  rather an  advantage to
the mother country,, serve to maintain  the
commerce of Portugal.  The exports to
those countries amounted, before  the late
troubles, to $16,GC0,CC0, and the  imports
from them to 13,CCC,0C0;  the  imports
from other countries were  estimated at
$17,CC0,0CO, and the exports to them at
about 12,000,000,  As Portugal possesses
comparatively  few  commercial resources
in agriculture, the products  cf manufac-
turing industry must have formed a con-
siderable  item in the sums above-men-
tioned.  The foreign trade is  chiefly in
the  hands of the English, aud the direct
trade between Great Britain  aud Portugal
was formerly carried on chiefly in English
bottoms; but more recently about half the
ships engaged in it are Portuguese, and
the  trade  with Ireland is almost wholly
carried  en by Portuguese vessels.   The
revenue, in 1827, was $8,5C0,CC0; the ex-
penditure, $11,G00,C00; the public debt, in
1824, was $41,500,000.  The army, in
1827, consisted cf 50,638 men ; besides
27,110 of  militia.  The navy of Portugal,
in the fifteenth  and sixteenth centuries,
the  largest in the world, perished during
the Spanish domination ; and, although re-
vived under the first princes of the house
of Braganza, it again declined.  Pombal
created  a naval force of ten ships of the
line  and twenty frigates.  In  1823,  the
navy consisted of four ships of the line,
eleven frigates, and thirteen  smaller ves-
sels.  The best sailors are from Algarve
and the Azores;  the only naval station is
Lisbon, where there are  au  arsenal, dock, 
274
PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.
marine school,  &c.   Portugal  and Al-
garve had been divided into 44 comarcas;
but the civil, military and ecclesiastical,
financial  and judicial powers  ran  into
each other in such a manner  as to render
a uniform administration impossible. The
cortes, therefore,  divided  die  kingdom
into thirteen provinces, and simplified the
administration of all the departments.  In
1749, the king of Portugal received from
Benedict XIV the title of rexfideliisimus ;
and his most faitliful majesty styles him-
Belf,  " king of Portugal and  Algarve, of
both  sides  of the sea iu Africa,  lord of
Guinea and of the navigation, conquests,
and commerce of ^Ethiopia, Arabia, Per-
sia and India."  The heir to the throne is
styled prince-royal, his eldest son, prince
of Beira, the other royal children, infantes
and  infantas of Portugal.  There are
seven orders of knighthood ;  the  military
order of Christ; the order of San-Jago,
for civil merit; the order of Avis, for mili-
tary merit; the female order of S. Isabella;
the military order of the Tower and Sword
(founded  1459, revived 1805) ; the  order
of Villa Vicosa, or the immaculate con-
ception ; and the order of Malta.—Bragan-
za Line of Princes.  John IV, proclaimed
king 1640, died 1656.  Alphonso  VI died
1683.  Pedro II died 1706.  John V died
1750.  Joseph I died 1777.  Maria Fran-
cisca  Isabella died 1816.  John VI, em-
peror and king, died  1826.  Pedro, em-
peror and king, abdicated the throne in
favor of  his daughter dona Maria  (born
1819), 1827.   Miguel, second  son  of John
VI  (horn  1802),  usurped  the  crown,
1S28.
  History.  I. Earliest Period, before Por-
tugal formed a separate Kingdom, from the
Christian Era to A. D. 1139.  The Phoe-
nicians, Carthaginians and Greeks  early
traded to this part ofthe peninsula, which
was afterwards conquered by the Romans.
(See Lusitania,  and  Hispania.)   The lat-
ter introduced among the inhabitants, a
branch of  the  wide-spread  Celts (q. v.),
their own civilization; the country was,
several centuries later, inundated by the
Germanic tribes (see Alans, Suevi, Goths,
and also Vandals), and in the eighth cen-
tury (712) was conquered by the Saracens.
(See Moors.)  When the gallant Spaniards
ofthe Christian kingdoms of Castile and
Leon (see   Spain)  finally  wrested the
country between the Minho and the Dou-
ro from Moorish hands, they placed counts
or governors over this region.  Henry the
younger of Burgundy, whose grandfather
Robert I, duke of Burgundy, was- grand-
son of the  French  king, Hugh  Capet,
came into Spain, about 1090, to seek his
fortune with his sword, in the ware against
the Moors.  Alphonso VI, king of Castile
and Leon, gave to  the chivalric stranger
the hand  of his daughter in reward for
his services, and appointed him (1094)
count and governor ofthe conquered dis-
tricts, which  comprised the  provinces
Entre Minho e Duero, Tras os  Monies,
and a part of Beira, and the  harbors of
Oporto,  from which Portugal is said to
have derived  its name.  (See  Oporto.)
The  count resided  at Guimaraens, owed
feudal services to the Castilian kings, but
was  permitted to hokl, iu his own  right,
whatever conquests he should make from
the Moore beyond the  Tagus.   On  his
death (1109), Alphonso rendered the dig-
nity  of count hereditary in  Henry's fam-
ily, and fortune favored their arms.  Hen-
ry, and  still more his  son  Alphonso I,
were successful in their ware.  The  latter,
threatened by the Moors in 1139, advanced
to meet them, and gained the brilliant vic-
tory of Ourique.  He  was saluted on tho
field, king of Portugal.
  II. With  this event begins the Middle,
Age  in the  History of Portugal  (1139—
1495), which extends to the reign of Eman-
uel the Great, or the establishment of the
Portuguese colonial dominion.   The ele-
vation of Portugal  to naval and c©i»sner-
cial [lower was the result of its intern;.!
organization.   The  cortes  of Lamego
confirmed Alphonso  in  the  royal title
which he had received from the soldiers
in 1143, or, according  to some, 1145, and,
in 1181,  gave to the new kingdom, which
was acknowledged by the pope, Alexan-
der III, a code of laws and a constitution.
The  crown was made hereditary iu the
royal family, according to the rules of pri-
mogeniture,  but could  pass to the collate-
ral lines  only  with the consent of the
estates.  In the failure of male heirs, the
daughters were to inherit  the crown.
The  code of laws,  which Alphouso had
mused to be drawn up, was accepted, and
the independence of the newly established
throne solemnly declared.  The king him-
self renounced  for any of his successors,
who should consent to  become tributary
to a foreign power, the right to inherit the
crown.  The form of government, how-
ever, prepared by the  cortes of Lamego,
was by no means very definite, and  the
fundamental laws there promulgated were
far from being kept inviolate.  Alphonso
himself made his kingdom tributary to the
pope, but maintained his  regal dignity
against the kings of Castile and Leon, with
whom he was frecjuently at war.  He ex- 
PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.                     275
tended his dominions to the borders of Al-
garve,and tookSantarem in 1143. The cap-
ture of Lisbon (1147), which  was effected
by the aid of some English crusaders and
Hanseatics, who ascended the Tagus, was
one of the  most  brilliant events  of his
warlike life.  In 1162, he founded two
military orders, the order of Avis (a vil-
lage near Aleiitejo), and the order of S.
Miguel  del  Ala.   Alphonso I died 1185.
One of bis successors, Sancho II, lost the
throne (1245) in his disputes with the cler-
gy, by the decision of Innocent IV.  Al-
phonso III (reigned 1245—79) completed
the conquest of Algarve, which bail been
undertaken by Sancho I, and received the
surname of the Restorer (O Restaurador).
He defended  the  rights  of  the crown
against  the church.  Among the Portu-
guese monarchs, Dionysius (1279—1325)
is eminently conspicuous;  he deserved
the glorious epithets,  which  a grateful
posterity conferred on him, of the "just,"
the " husbandman" (labrador), the " father
of his country."  He opposed with pru-
dence and firmness the encroachments of
the clergy, who, uuder his predecessors,
had disturbed the public peace, and claim-
ed  an exemption  from  taxes.  He re-
mained on  terms of peace with Nicholas
IV, the most an'ogant of pontiffs, although
liis measures for preventing  the accumu-
lation of landed property in the hands of
the clergy, would not allow  him to con-
ciliate the good will of the  papal  court.
Himself a scholar and  a poet, he was the
most generous patron of learning among
the princes of the age : he left a monument
of  his  zeal for science,  in  the college
founded by  him at Lisbon, which, in 1308,
was transferred to Coimbra.   He was the
first to turn  the favorable position of the
country for  commerce to account, and, by
awakening the enterprise  of his subjects,
he  laid the foundation of the greatness of
Portugal in the succeeding  centuiy, al-
though he  was involved in   ware  with
Castile (1295—97), and, in 1299 and 1320,
in civil  feuds with some of his own fam-
ily.  The policy of this king had the most
happy influence on manufactures, com-
merce, agriculture and navigation, and the
prosperity ofthe towns placed the citizens
in  Portugal, as well as in Spain, by the
side of the feudal nobility and the clergy,
as  a  third  estate of the realm.  He in-
stituted the order of  Christ,  which, in
1319, obtained the estates of the Templars,
on  the abolition of that order.   He  was
succeeded by Alphonso IV, and the latter
by Pedro  I, husband of Ines de Castro
(q. v.), 1357.  With die death of Ferdi-
nand the Gentle, son of Pedro the Cruel,
the male line of the Burgundian princes
became extinct  in  1383.   His daughter
Beatrice,  wife  of the   king  of  Castile,
should regularly have succeeded him ; but
the Portuguese were so averse to a con-
nexion with Castile, that the brave John I,
natural son of Pedro, was saluted king by
the estates.  He maintained possession of
the throne, having,  with the assistance of
his general, Alvaro Nunes Pcreira, de-
feated the Castilians at Aljubarotta, in
1385.  With him  begins the native  line
of Portuguese kings.   After having con-
cluded a peace with Castile in 1411, this
excellent  prince turned his attention to
the improvement  of the  country.  He
ruled, with a wise moderation, a turbulent
people and  a  haughty nobility,  whose
power had been increased by the conces-
sions which he had  been obliged to make,
to secure  their concurrence in his  acces-
sion  to the throne.  He  transferred the
royal residence from Coimbra to Lisbon.
In  his reign began those  foreign con-
quests, which made the greatness of Por-
tugal. His able sons completed what had
been  commenced by the lather, who died
of the plague, in 1433.  After the conquest
of Ceuta, on the northern coast of Africa,
in 1415, where the brave princes Edward,
Henry, Pedro, received the honor of knight-
hood from the hand of their father, Hen-
ry  (q. v.)  the  Navigator firet set on foot
those enterprises of discovery and com-
merce,  which  raised Portugal above  all
her contemporaries.  He founded the first
Portuguese  colonies, Porto Santo (1418),
Madeira  (1420), the Azores  (1433), and
those on the Gold Coast of Guinea.  The
reigns of his son Edward (till 1438), and
his  grandson Alphonso V, were less bril-
liant  than that  of John I; but the latter
was surpassed  by   that of John II,  the
ablest king that has occupied the throne
of Portugal.  In his reign  began the vio-
lent struggle with  the nobility, whose
power had gained great accessions under
his  indulgent predecessors.  The grants
of the crown lands were revoked, and the
judicial privileges of the nobility were re-
stricted  by  the appointment  of  judges,
who were learned in the profession, and
not nobles.  The king caused the power-
ful  duke of Braganza, the chief of the tur-
bulent nobles, to be beheaded, and the new
leader of the malcontents,  the duke of
Viseo, was put to death by the king's own
hand, in 1483.  The expeditions of dis-
covery were conducted with  ardor, and
often with scientific method.  The rich
profits of the trade  with Guinea supplied 
276                    PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.
 resources for new enterprises.  The active
 spirit, which was now more and  more
 evidently  developed  among the  Portu-
 guese, was quickened by the Jews, 83,000
 of whom, driven from Castile, were receiv-
 ed into Portugal on the payment ofa cap-
 itation tax, and the  most learned of this
 nation were  then to be found in Portugal.
 In 1481, John sent two experienced men
 to attempt  to reach  the East Indies by
 land, the  commercial wealth  of which
 wa,  the great object of his enterprises.  In
 the same year, Diaz (q. v.) returned from a
 voyage in which he  had discovered the
 southern  cape of Africa,  to  which the
 king, foreseeing the great importance of
 the discoveiy, gave the name of the cape
 of Good Hope.  The success of these ex-
 peditions, and the riches  which the com-
 merce of the newly discovered countries
 poured into  Portugal, may excuse the
 neglect with which the proposals of Co-
 lumbus, to seek new lands  in the west,
 were received at the Portuguese coast.
 But after the happy i-sue of that great dis-
 coverer's enterprise was known, John also
 sent  out a fleet to the west.  Thence arose
 the dispute between Portugal and Castile,
 which pope Alexander VI finally settled
 by the line  of demarkation, drawn 100
 leagues west of the Azores and  CapeVerd
 islands, and separating the  future con-
 quests of  the  two crowns.   Thus was
 established, by Portuguese policy and en-
 ergy, that colonial system with which be-
 gins  the modern histoiy of Europe.
   III. The  Modern  History  of Portugal
 extends, therefore, from 1495 to 1820, from
 the most flourishing period ofthe country
 to the restoration of the cortes, and of a
 free  constitution.  This period embraces
 three epochs ;—1. that of the commercial
 grandeur of Portugal, from  1495 to the
 extinction of the Burgundian line in 1580;
 2. that of  the decline of Portugal under
 the dominion of Spain, 1580—1640 ; and,
 3. that of the history  of Portugal under
 the house of Braganza, and British influ-
 ence, to 1820.—(1.) The Golden Period of
 Portugal  (1495—1580).  What John  II
 had  begun with  such fair prospects, was
 continued  under the fortunate reign  of
 Emanuel (1495—1521). In 1497, he fitted
.out  an expedition of four ships, under
 Vasco  da  Gama (see Gama), which ar-
 rived safely  at  Goa ; and thus was the
 passage to  India by sea laid  open by the
 Portuguese.   In  the beginning  of the
 sixteenth centuiy, the great Almeida (q. v.),
 first  Portuguese  viceroy  in  India, con-
 quered Ceylon. Albuquerque (q. v.) made
 Gca, the most important harbor in India,
the capital of Portuguese India, and traded
to the Moluccas.  Lope de Soares opened
a commerce with China in 1518.   Eman-
uel ruled from Babelmandel to the straits
of Malacca, and the power of Portugal
had now reached its height  (See  East
India Companies, and India, division Por-
tuguese India.)  On  this  distant  stage
were performed great deeds of heroism;
and this is the most glorious period of Por-
tuguese history. The  national  spirif  of
the  people was animated with youthful
force and fire,  and produced heroes, in-
spired  solely with a zeal for the honor
and grandeur of their country.   Lisbon
became the most important  commercial
city of Europe; but  the wealth which
commerce accumulated was hardly suffi-
cient to meet the expenses of the cam-
paigns in Africa, where the arms of Eman-
uel were less successful.  The  king of
Congo had, indeed, allowed himself to  be
baptized  by  the missionaries,   without
whom no discovery-ships then sailed, and
sent his two sons to  Portugal,  to be  edu-
cated,  and the colony on  the  Guinea
coasts, from  which all other nations were
excluded by the Portuguese, was a source
of great  wealth; but  the enterprises  in
Northern Africa were unsuccessful.  The
unfavorable character of the country pre-
vented a rapid  progress, and  it is highly
probable that Venice and Spain,  jealous
of the  Portuguese prosperity, secretly af-
forded assistance to the Moorish princes.
The fame of Emanuel's conquests in In-
dia was no indemnification for the depop-
ulation of Portugal, by the loss of so many
of her most vigorous youth, sent to extend
or defend  those conquests.  In the reign
of John III, son of Emanuel  (1521—57),
the  Indian  discoveries  and  commerce
were still further extended; but the conse-
quences of the rapid accumulation of the
precious  metals at home, without a cor-
responding increase of domestic industry,
already  began  to appear.  The  inquisi-
tion was  introduced in  1536, to be em-
ployed  against  those  Jews  who  had
adopted the  externals  of Christianity.
The wise John  II had  received into the
kingdom a great number of those whom
the intolerant rigor of Ferdinand and Isa-
bella  had driven from Spain;  but  they
were still treated with so  much  severity,
that Emanuel had at firet intended to ex-
tend to them greater indulgence.   But  in
the first intoxication of his passion for his
wife, the  beautiful  Eleonora, sister of
Charles V, the old king  was persuaded to
proceed with such rigor against the Jews,
as to require them to  embrace Christiani- 
PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.                     277
ty, under the penalty of being deprived
of their children and made slaves.  Wheth-
er they found means to prevent the exe-
cution of this cruel order,  or whether
Emanuel feared  the effects  of their de-
spair, it is certain, that he allowed them
twenty years for their conversion.   This
measure led a great many of the  Jews to
conform publicly to the Christian usages,
while they secretly adhered to their faith.
The inquisition practised the most revolt-
ing cruelties on  their ilescentlants.  Still
more injurious  in  its consequences than
the inquisition, was the  admission of the
Jesuits into the kingdom by John III
(1540), who received them into  his  do-
minions earlier than any other European
prince, as if he had been doomed to un-
dermine the prosperity  of his kingdom.
The artful Jesuits gladly allowed  them-
selves to be employed as preachers of the
faith in India, where the Franciscans had
hitherto been principally employed.   The
education  of his giandson, Sebastian, the
heir apparent to  the throne, was likewise
intrusted by John to the Jesuits, the worst
tutors  of princes.   They  inspired  the
young prince with that  spirit of bigotiy,
and that fanatical  ambition, which led to
his  death.   He resolved to  reduce the
Moore in Africa (an attempt  in which his
powerful predecessors had always failed),
and persevered in his projects with a wil-
ful  obstinacy, in opposition to the remon-
strances of his wiser  counsellors.   In
1578, having, as is  supposed, lost his life
in the battle of Alcassar, he left his throne
without an  heir ;  and from  this period
Portugal sank  rapidly from her former
prosperous condition.
  (2.)  Portugal under the  Dominion of
Spain  (1580—1640).   After  the  short
reign of the old and feeble Henry, uncle
of Sebastian, Philip II (q. v.)  of Spain,
the  most  powerful candidate  for  the
throne, obtained possession of the  king-
dom  by  the victory  of Alcantara, and
Portugal had the misfortune to be annexed
to a kingdom, which, from this time, was
hastening its own decline by a series of
unsuccessful ware, and by its  unwise ad-
ministration. Philip II introduced  the
censorship (Dec. 4,1586), and overthrew
four Pseudo-Sebastians.  (See Sebastian.)
England and Holland, the powerful ene-
mies of Spain, now attacked  the defence-
less Portugal, the  wealth of which prom-
ised so rich a  booty, and whose posses-
sions were  now  gradually  torn  away.
The old heroic spirit of the nation was
quenched  in the last days  of its  inde-
pendence, and the  Portuguese had  made
  vol. x.         24
themselves so much hated by their arro-
gance and severity,  that the  oppressed
princes  and  people of Asia were eager
for any change.   Spain made no exertions
in favor of a nation  which she had  in-
volved in her own  declining  fortunes.
The Dutch conquered the Moluccas (q.v.),
and, in  1624, half of Brazil, which  had
been discovered (1500) through a fortu-
nate accielent, in the flourishing period of
the reign of John II,  by Alvarez de Cab-
ral.  They took possession of the settle-
ments on the coast of Guinea in 1637, and
forced their way into the rich markets of
India, where  they pressed hard upon the
Portuguese.   To these losses was added
the rapacity of the Spaniards, who alienat-
ed the  finest domains  of the Portuguese
crown.  The Portuguese nobility,  exas-
perated by this oppression, and the con-
temptuous conduct of Olivarez, minister
of Philip  IV, entered  into a conspiracy,
which  was planned  and executed with
great art,  and, December 1, 1640, placed
on the throne John IV, duke of Braganza,
a descendant of the old royal family.
  3. Portugal under the House of Bragan-
za, and dependent on the Policy of England
(1640—1820).  In justification of this rev-
olution, which restored the independence
of Portugal, the  cortes of 1641 issued a
manifesto, addressed  to the powers of
Europe.   The war with Spain, which was
the result  of this measure, was terminated
by a treaty of peace in 1668, and a renunci-
ation, on the part of Spain, of her claims to
the Portuguese crown.  A treaty of peace
was also concluded  with Holland, under
English mediation,by Alphonso VI,succes-
sor of John, and Pedro II (who, in 1667,had
deposed his brother Alphonso), by which
Brazil was restored to Portugal; but its for-
mer greatness could not now have been
restored, even had the princes of this line
displayed  as much vigor and wisdom  as
some  of  them showed  good intentions.
A commercial treaty had been concluded
with England under  the firet Braganza
prince, antl, in 1703,  a new treaty was
concluded by the English ambassador,
Mr. Methuen, which secured to England
the advantages of the newly discovered
gold mines in Brazil.   From this time the
relations with England continued to be-
come more intimate, until Portugal was no
longer in a condition to maintain an inde-
pendent attitude  in  European  politics.
The cortes, in the ordinance for assem-
bling  which  the  king had  expressly re-
quired, that the third estate should send as
deputies no persons who held offices  in
the department of finance, in the judiciary, 
278
PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.
the army or the navy, was not summoned
after 1697.   During the long  reign of
John V (1707—50), some vigor was ex-
erted  in regard to the foreign relations,
and something was attempted for the pro-
motion of the national welfare  at home
(the restrictions on the power of the inqui-
sition, and the foundation of au academy
of Portuguese history, for example) ; but,
in the former case,  without decisive con-
sequences,  and, in the latter, without a
completion of the plans proposed, while
the sumptuous  monastery at Mafra, and
the dear-bought permission to institute a
patriarch of  Lisbon, exhausted  the re-
sources  of  the  country.  Under his son
and successor, Joseph I, the  marquis of
Pombal  (q. v.), a vigorous reformer, such
as Portugal  required,  administered the
government   He  attacked  the Jesuits
and the  nobility, who, during the preced-
ing reigns,  had exercised a secret influ-
ence in  the government  The exposure
of the power of the Jesuits in Paraguay
(q. v.),  their  conduct at the  time of the
earthquake in Lisbon (in 1755), and the
conspiracy  against the life of the king
(1759), led to the suppression ofthe order.
In 1757, they had  been deprived of the
post of confessors to the royal family, and
forbidden the court.  Two years after, all
the Jesuits were banished the kingdom,
and their estates were confiscated.  The
brave  count  of Schauenburg Lippe, to
whose services against Spain  (1760) Por-
tugal  was  so much  indebted,  likewise
reformed the Portuguese army; but, soon
after his departure,  the  effects of his im-
provements disappeared.  On the acces-
sion of  Maria Francisca Isabella, eldest
daughter of Joseph (in 1777), Pombal lost
the influence which he had possessed for
twenty-five years. To him Portugal owed
her revival from her previous lethargy;
and although many of his useful  regu-
lations did not survive his fall, yet the en-
lightened views which he introduced, and
the national feeling which he awakened,
were not without permanent effects.  Dur-
ing the reign of Maria, the power was in
the hands of an ignorant nobility, and a
not less ignorant  clergy.   In 1792,  on
account of the sickness of the queen, Juan
(John) Maria Joseph, prince of Brazil (the
title of  the prince-royal until 1816), was
declared regent (see John  VI),  and, in
1799,  her malady having terminated in a
confirmed  mental  alienation, the prince
was declared regent with full regal pow-
ers, but  made no change in the policy of
the government.   His connexions with
England involved him in the wars of that
power against France j and  the  Porta-
gucse troops distinguished themselves, by
their valor, in the peninsular  campaigns.
But commercial distress, the accumulating
debt, and the threatening language which
Spain was compelled by France to adopt,
led to a peace with France in 1797.  The
disastere  of the  French  arms, in 1799,
encouraged the regent to renew hostilities,
in alliance with England and Russia; but
after general Bonaparte had established
his authority, Spain  was obliged  to de-
clare war against Portugal (1801), which,
however, was ternmiated the same year
by the treaty of Badajoz, by which  Portu-
gal was obliged to cede Olivenza, with the
payment  of a large  sum of money, to
Spain. Portugal, meanwhile, preserved
a mere shadow of independence by the
greatest sacrifices, until at last Junot en-
tered the  country, and the  house of Bra-
ganza was declared, by Napoleon, to have
forfeited  the  throne  (on account  of die
refusal of the prince to seize the English
merchandise in his dominions).  The re-
gent now threw himself entirely into the
arms of the English,  and,  Nov. 29, 1807,
embarked for Brazil.  Junot entered the
capital the  next  day,  and Portugal was
treated as a conquered country.  An Eng-
lish force was landed, and, in the northern
provinces, numerous bodies of native troops
determined to sustain the struggle for free-
dom ;  a junta  was  also  established  in
Oporto to conduct the government.   After
some  hard fighting, the decisive battle of
Vimeira took place (Aug. 21,1808), which
was followed by the convention of Cintra,
and the evacuation of the country  by the
French forces.—See Thiebault's Rdation
de VExpidition de Portugal (Paris, 1817).
The Portuguese now took an active  part in
the war for Spanish independence.   (See
Spain.)   On the death of Maria, John VI
ascended the throne of Portugal and Bra-
zil.  This transference of the  court of
Lisbon into an American colony was fol-
lowed by important consequences:  firstly,
that Brazil attempted  to withdraw itself
from dependence on  England, and, sec-
ondly, that that colony gradually became
a separate state;  in Portugal, on the con-
trary, the influence of England continued,
and the condition ofthe kingdom was not
essentially changed.  The  peace of Paris
(May 30,  1814),  by no means, therefore,
corresponded to  the  expectations  of the
nation, although it had exerted itself vig-
orously in the common cause, and Spain
evaded the restitution of Olivenza, which
had been provided for by the congress of
Vienna, at the same time that Portugal 
PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.                     279
was required to restore French Guiana to
France.  The court of Rio Janeiro, there-
fore, occupied the Banda Oriental (q. v.),
and Portugal was involved in new  diffi-
culties  with Spain.   (See  Brazil.)   In
1815, the inquisition was abolished in tne
Portuguese  dominions;  the  Jesuits  were
refused admission into them ;   Rnd the
Jews, at the request of the  pope (1817),
were allowed the  same privileges which
they enjoyed in the Roman state's.  The
absence of the court was viewed with dis-
like by the nation; the military were dissat-
isfied with the influence of marshal Beres-
ford (q. v.), and the general feeling required
some fundamental changes in the adminis-
tration andconstitutionofgovernment: thus
commences the recent history of Portugal.
  Portugal  since 1820.  On the  morning
of Aug. 24,  1820, began the  revolution, in
which the army and citizens acted in con-
cert.  The soldiers were induced by their
officers to swear obedience  to the king,
the  cortes,  and the constitution which
should be adopted.  The magistrates and
citizens declared in favor of  the  measure,
and a junta was established, which ad-
dressed a declaration  to  the  nation, in
which they assert that the convocation of
the cortes, and the  adoption of a new con-
stitution, were the only means by which
the state could be saved.   All the garri-
sons from Minho to Leyria embraced the
constitutional cause, anel the troops of the
regency, established at Lisbon, refused to
act against  their countrymen.   Septem-
ber 15,  all  the troojis and the citizens in
Lisbon declared for  the king, the cortes,
and the constitution.   The revolution was
attended by no violence  nor bloodshed.
A provisional government was established,
which, October  1, formed  a union widi
the junta of 0|K)rto. Count Palmella (q.v.),
the  head of the royal regency,  was de-
spatched to  Bio Janeiro, with an account
of what had happened, and a petition, that
the king or  the prince-royal  would return
to  Lisbon.   The  mode of electing the
cortes was settled  chiefly  in imitation of
the  Spanish constitution, and the liberal
party, which was desirous of the immedi-
ate adoption of that constitution, obliged
the supreme junta, November 11, to ad-
minister the oath of obedience to it to the
troops.   The latter took the  oath, but the
eighth bntudion, under colonel Sepulveda,
acceded to this measure only to prevent a
civil war.  On the 14th, four membere of
the  junta  and  150  officers, dissatisfied
with this act of violence, resigned their
posts; and  it was soon after agreed by a
meeting of officers, with the general ap-
probation, that no  part of the Spanish
constitution should be in force, excepting
the regulation of the mode of election,
until  acted  upon by the cortes.   The
elections fell chiefly  upon the clergy, law-
yers and officers, and the firet session of
the cortes was opened Jan. 26,1821, under
the presidency of'the archbishop of Braga.
It proceeded to name a regency and  a
ministry, sanctioned  the insurrections of
Aug. 24, and Sept. 15,1820, and abolished
the inquisition.  March 9th, the articles
of the new constitution, securing freedom
of person aud property, the liberty of the
press, legal equality, and the abolition of
privileges, the admission of all  citizens to
all offices, and the sovereignty of the na-
tion, were  adopted  almost  unanimously.
There was more diversity of opinion con-
cerning the organization of the chambers,
and the royal veto; but large majorities
finally decided  in favor of one chamber
and a conditional veto.  After  some dis-
turbances in Brazil (q. v.), the king  sailed
for Portugal,  where he was not permitted
to land (July 4) until he had given his
consent to several acts of the  cortes,  im-
posing  restrictions  on his  power.   On
landing, he immediately swore to observe
the new constitution, and concurred, with-
out opposition,  in all the succeeding acts
of the cortes.  The  Austrian and Russian
ambassadors left the country ;  the separa-
tion of Brazil from  Portugal (1822) fol-
lowed, and the rouutry was disturbed by
several  movements  in favor  of the old
system of government  The constitution
wns finally  completed and sworn  to by
the king, Oct. 1, 1822, and the session of
the extraordinary cortes was  closed No-
vember 4.  The ordinary cortes was con-
vened December 1,  and was occupied to
the end of its session (March 31, 1623) in
reorganizing the different departments of
the administration.  France declared that
she had no inteution of interfering with
the affaire of Portugal, and the duke d'An-
gouleme refused to  enter into any con-
nexions with the Portuguese  insurgents
under count Amarante, who was driven,
after  several  sanguinary  engagements,
from  the northern provinces, and  fled into
Spain.  A Portuguese regency was estab-
lished in  Valladolid (May, 1823),  under
the presidency ofthe patriarch of Lisbon,
who had been banished the kingdom ; and
the plot for overthrowing the constitution,
at the head of which was the queen  (a
Spanish infanta), and in which several of
the nobility and clergy were engaged, wns
now  ripe  for  execution.   Dom Miguel
(q. v.), after assuring his father of his de- 
280
PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.
 termination  to maintain the constitution,
 went to Villafrauca, where he was joined
 by several nobles and many officers, with
 several regiments of troops, and invited
 the nation to rise, under the royal stand-
 ard, against the  auarchical  policy of the
 cortes.  At the same time, general Sepul-
 veda, in Lisbon, had been gained over by
 some members of the cortes, and the min-
 istry, to assist in the  overthrow of the
 liberal party, and to effect  the introduc-
 tion of a new constitution with two cham-
 bers ;  but SepulveJa, who was  already
 suspected  by the cortes and the national
 guards, was  prevented  from accomplish-
 ing the plan  of carrying off the king, and
 did not join  the prince till the evening of
 May 29.  Bat the garrisons of the pro-
 vincial  towns declared for the  Infant;
 general Rego did the  same, June 4; anel
 count  Amaraute  advanced  from Spain
 with his forces.  The troops remaining at
 Lisbon also joined the absolute party, and
 John VI, yielding to the instances of the
 soldiery, entered the camp of the Infant,
 nair^d a new ministry, and declared the
 constitution of 1822 null.  Sixty membere
 of the  cortes, finding their  cause  lost,
 signed a  protest against the new  order
 of things,  and the king entered  Lisbon,
 June  5.  Petitions were sent up, request-
 ing the king to reassume absolute power,
 the restoration of which was the object of
 the counter-revolution.   But the king still
 declared his determination not to comply
 with this  request   The national guards
 and militia were  disarmed; the  church
 property restored; the patriarch  of Lis-
 bon recalled; Amaraute reinvested with
 his former rank and rights;  several adhe-
rents ofthe cortes banished or imprisoned ;
anel a censorship of the press established.
 Filially, June 17, a junta was organized,
at the head  of which  was Pahuella, to
draw up a constitution adapted to a repre-
sentative  monarchy.   The  theocratical
party and the absolutists,  supported by
France and Spain, and of which the queen
was the rallying point, exerted themselves
to prevent the establishment ofa constitu-
tion.   The  queen  returned  to  Lisbon,
June 18, and, a few days after, Amarante
made his  entry into the capital with his
followers to the number of 3000 men; he
was created marquis of Chaves (the  name
of the town where he had organized the
insurrection  against the Cortes), with an
 iucome of >3000.  The police, under the
 direction ofthe absolutists, now proceeded
 to prosecutions against the constitution-
alists, who were  banished into the  prov-
inces,  and eocret societies,  particularly
those of the freemasons (who were con-
sidered  to have acted an important part in
the revolution), were denounced.  Dom
Miguel, who had  been appointed com-
mander-in-chief, composed  bis staff of
decided enemies to the constitution, and
filled the offices in the army with his ad-
herents.   The new diplomatic  corps in
Lisbon began to influence  public affairs ;
several powers congratulated the king and
prince on the restoration of legal order;
the British court aimed at the recovery of
its former ascendency, while the Portu-
guese endeavored to conciliate the favor
of all the great powers, with the hope of
preserving Brazil  through their interfer-
ence.    The  Portuguese  commissioners
were not allowed to land in Brazil, and the
exhausted treasury would not permit the
government to execute  its  plan of an ex-
pedition  against the country.   The in-
trigues of the absolutists still continued,
and a Spanish ambassador,  the duke of
Villa Hennosa, having appeareel at Lisbon
(April 7), the  queen's party determined to
annihilate the hopes of the constitutional-
ists, aud to put an end to the system of
moderation (to which the king adhered) at
one blow.  April 30,  1824, dom  Miguel
called the troops to arms, and issued proc-
lamations, in  which he declared that  it
was his intention to complete the work of
May 27, 1823, and  to deliver  tho  king
from the pestilent sect of freemason-. &c.
On the same  day, the ministere^nd seve-
ral  other civil officers, to  the number of
about a hundred, were arrested, and no
person, not even of the diplomatic corps,
was allowed access to the  king,  until the
French  ambassador obtained an audience,
and was assured by him that every thing
had been done without his orders.  The
Infant,  therefore,  declared that  he had
taken these steps on his own authority, to
frustrate a conspiracy, which was  on the
point of breaking out,  against the life of
the king and the  queen.  On the repre-
sentations of the  ambassadors,  the  king
ordered the troops to retire to their quar-
ters, and commanded the release of tho
persons who had been arrested; but May 3,
he issued a decree, commanding die sum-
mary investigation and immediate punish-
ment of the (pretended) treason ; aud he
pardoned the  Infant for having exercised
an extraordinary power in the royal name,
on account of the urgency  of the  case.
The Infant, however, continued  to  issue
orders on his own authority; the arrests
continued; the king was closely watched;
and the prince was already  talked of for
regent.   But the ambassadore protested. 
Portugal, history of.
281
against  the violences of April 30, and
preparations were made, with  the king's
consent, for receiving him on board an
English ship of the line, lying in the Ta-
gus.  May 9, under pretence of making a
visit to a palace  beyond the Tagus, he
escaped to the ship, with his two daugh-
ters, and the  whole diplomatic corps as-
sembled in the same vessel.  The  king
now deprived the Infautof his commandj
and summoned him to his presence.  The
prince  obeyed,  confessed  that  he had
been  deceived and misguided,*  and re-
ceived the royal pardon, with permission
to  travel.  May  14, the  king returned
ashore,  and, June 5, 1824, proclaimed an
act of amnesty for the  adherents of the
cortes of 1820, from which only a few ex-
ceptions were made (ofthe authors ofthe
insurrection of Oporto, August, 1820^ and
nine superior officers in particular), and
on  the same day  appeared the decree of
June  4, reviving  the old constitution of
the estates, and summoning the cortes of
Lamego.  At the same time, the junta for
the preparation of a constitution was su-
perseded by another, which was directed
to make preparations for the election of
the deputies ofthe old cortes.  But Spain
opposed the convocation ofthe old cortes,
und the  influence  of the queen and the
patriarch  was thus revived.  New  con-
spiracies were detected  against the minis-
ters and the king; in consequence,  seve-
ral  arrests were made in October.   The
ministry was divided in its views, princi-
pally  in  regard to the policy to  be  pur-
sued  towards Brazil, and,  Jan. 15, 1825,
a new ministry was naulcd.  After many
difficulties and protracted negotiations,
the independence  of Brazil was finally
acknowledged (Nov. 15,1825) by John VI,
who merely retained the imperial title in
his own  person.   The Brazilians  and
Portuguese  were  to be treated  by  the
respective powers  as the subjects of the
most  favored  nation.  March  10, 1826,
John VI  died,  after having named  the
Infanta  Isabella regent   She governed in
the name of the emperor of Brazil, as king
of Portugal.  April 23,1826, dom Pedro
(IV of  Portugal)  granted  a constitution
(Carta de Ley), establishing two chambers,
and in  other respects  resembling  the
French charter.  May 2, he abdicated the
Portuguese throne, in favor of his daugh-
ter  doiia Maria (he remaining king during
her minority), on condition of her marry-

  *  Ho is also said  to  have confessed all the
circumstances of the  murder of the marquis of
Louie, a royal chamberlain,  who had been found
dead, March 1.
                   24*
ing her uncle Miguel. But a party (secretly
faVored by Spain) was formed in Portugal,
which aimed at the overthrow of this con-
stitution, which had been sworn to by the
queen, by the two  chambers, and all the
magistrates, and even by dom Miguel him-
self (in Vienna,  Oct. 4, 1826), and pro-
claimed the prince  absolute king of Por-
tugal.  The marquis of Chaves and the
marquis of Abrantes appeared at the head
ofthe insurgents, and Spain, which alone
had not acknowledged  the new order of
things, assembled an army on the  Portu-
guese frontiers.  Portugal, therefore,  ap-
pealed to England for assistance, and
15,000 British troops were landed  in Lis-
bon;  they occupied the most  important
points; the  insurrection was completely
put down by the  government, in February
and March, 1827, and Spain was forced to
yield.  The cortes,  which had  been con-
vened in October, 1826, closed its session
in March, 1827.  In  July,  dom  Pedro
named his brother dom Miguel  lieutenant
and regent of the kingdom,  with  all the
rights established by the charter, accord-
ing to which the government was to be
administered.  The prince,  accordingly,
left Vienna, and, passing  through Paris
and London, anived at Lisbon in Febru-
ary,  1828.  The cortes was in session,
and, on the 26th, Miguel took the oath to
observe the charter, in the presence ofthe
two  chambers.   But the apostolicals or
absolutists, to whom the disposition ofthe
regent was well known, already began to
speak openly of his right  to the throne,
and to hail  him as absolute king.  His
ministers  were all  appointed from that
party, except the count Villa Real, and the
populace were permitted to  add to their
cry," Long live the absolute king,"  that of
"Down with the constitution."  March 1,
the day fixed by the prince for receiving
the congratulations of the functionaries on
his return, the palace yard was filled with
a crowd, who obliged each person who ap-
peared to join in the shout for the absolute
lung, and  actually committed acts of per-
sonal  violence on some constitutionalists.
The officers of the garrisons favorable to
the charter were removed, and their places
filled by men devoted  to the court   It
was now  determined that Miguel  should
go to Villa Vicosa, a town near die Span-
ish frontier,  where  he could be supported
by the troops of the marquis of Chaves,
and be proclaimed absolute king; but this
project  was frustrated  by  the  decision
of Mr. Lamb, the  British  minister, who
counteracted the order  for the  departure
of the British troops, and prevented the 
282
PORTUGAL, HISTORY OF.
payment ofthe loan made to dom Miguel
under the guaranty of the British govern-
ment  The cortes, being opposed to the
designs  of  the  prince, wu.s  dissolved
March 14,  and the recall of the British
troops  iu April removed another obstacle
from  his path.  May 3, he accordingly
issued a decree in his own name, convok-
ing the ancient cortes of Lamego, which
had not met since 1697.  The military in
general  was not favorable to the projects
ofthe prince, and, May 18, the garrison of
Oporto  proclaimed dom Pedro and  the
charter.  They were soon joined by  the
other  garrisons, and by the students of
Coimbra, and the  constitutional  army,
(iOOO strong, advanced  towards Lisbon.
But they pushed  their operations with
little vigor, until at length they were met
by  superior forces and defeated, towards
the end of June.  The constitutional junta
at Opo«to dissolved itself, and the  troops
either forced  their  way to the Spanish
frontiers, or embarked for England.  Thus
terminated the efforts of the constitution-
alists iu Portugal, and, with the extinction
of that party, the influence of England in
the Portuguese government ceased.   Mi-
guel now turned his attention to the con-
solidation of his power; severity and cru-
elty were his expedients;  the  prisons
were  crowded with the suspected,  and
foreigu  countries  were full of  fugitives.
The cortes met, June 23, and, with great
unanimity  (all,  whose  opposition  was
feared, being in prison or having taken
flight), declareel dom Miguel  lawful king
of Portugal  and Algarve, chiefly on  the
grounds  that dom Pedro had  become a
foreigner by becoming a Brazilian citizen,
and was not a resident in the country,
and that  therefore he  could neither suc-
ceed to the throne himself, nor name  the
person who should succeed  in his stead.
July 4, 1828, Miguel confirmed the judg-
ment ofthe cortes, and assumed the royal
title.  He immediately established a spe-
cial commission to  punish all who  had
taken part in the Oporto insurrection,  the
members of the commission  being to be
paid from the confiscations they should
make.  An expedition was sent out (Au-
gust 9) against the  islands which refused
to acknowledge Miguel, and Madeira and
the Azores, with the exception of Terceira,
were reduced.  A new expedition against
the latter place (October) failed.  In  the
islands, the same course of condemnation
was pursued, that had been  practised at
home.   Since this  period, Portugal has
been the prey of political and  religious
bigots.  In March, 1830, the regency ap-
pointed by dom Pedro, as guardian of his
daughter, was installed in Terceira, con-
sisting of Palmella, Villa Flor and Guer-
reiro.  The other islands have since been
reduced by the forces ofthe regency, and
subsequently to the return of dom Pedro
to Europe, it is well known that he has
been making preparations  for displacing
Miguel from his  usurped  seat  Mean-
while insurrections have repeatedly brok-
en out at home, but have  been suppressed
by the vigor  of the government and the
want of concert  in the  insurgents.   In
1830, it  was estimated that the number
of prisoners  confined for political causes
was above 40,000, and that the number of
pereons concealed in different parts of the
country  was about 5000.  Besides these
victims of tyranny, foreign countries, as
is well  known, have been thronged with
Portuguese fugitives.  In consequence of
some acts of violence, and a refusal of re-
dress on the port  of the government,  a
British fleet was sent to the Tagus to en-
force the demands  ofthe  English govern-
ment (May 4,1831); but on its appearance
the concessions required by Great Britain
were made.   In  July (11), Miguel was
obliged to suffer a second humiliation of
this nature ; a French fleet having forced
the passage of the  Tagus, and taken pos-
session of the Portuguese fleet, in conse-
quence of the demands of the French
government, for satisfaction for injuries to
French subjects, committed by the Portu-
guese authorities, not having been com-
plied with.  The  court  of Lisbon was
forced, by this vigorous measure, to sub-
mit to the terms imposed  by the French,
which included the dismissal of some of
the Portuguese functionaries, an  indem-
nity for  the expenses incurred by  the
expedition, the reversal of all sentences
pronounced against Frenchmen for po-
litical opinions, and the publication o^
these terms in the  Lisbon  Gazette.  In
August,  an insurrection  of the  troops
broke  out against  Miguel: it was  sup-
pressed after  some bloodshed;  but the
extensive preparations of Pedro,  for the
recovery ofthe Portuguese throne, render
it doubtful whether Miguel will long retain
it—See the works of Murphy, Link, Ruder,
Chatelet, Costigan, Southey, &c.; see, also,
Antillon's Geogrqfia d'Espana y Portugal
(Valencia, 1815); Balbi's Essai Statistique
sur Portugal (Paris, 1822), and his VariHes
Politico-statistiques sur la Monarchic Portu-
gaise; and Miss Baillie's Lisbon in 1821-23.
  Portuguese Language  and  Literature.
Among the  Romanic languages, which
originated from a  mixture  of the Latin 
PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.          283
and Teutonic, is the Portuguese.  It is not
a dialect of the Castilian;  for, besides the
difference in its structure and pronuncia-
tion, it was  formed earlier than the Cas-
tilian.   The  two resemble  each  other
about  as  much as the  Danish and  the
Swedish.  Respecting the mixture of the
Arabic, Fr. Joao de Souza has written a
good book (Vestigios da Lingua Arabica
em Portugal). When Henry of Burgundy
took  up  his  residence at  Guimaraens,
many  Frenchmen followed him, which
caused a number of French expressions
to fiass into the language of the country.
The national spirit of the Lusitanians al-
ways turned with pleasure to the vernac-
ular tongue, and strove to apply it to eveiy
branch of literature; yet it cannot  be de-
nied that patriotism carries the Portuguese
too far in his admiration  of his mother
tongue.  Franc. Diaz  Gomes, a celebrated
Portuguese author and poet, calls it " rich,
melodious, impressive, proper for all sub-
jects, and in its pronunciation correspond-
ing to its orthography." Its delicacy and its
richness in songs  gave it, even in  Spain,
the name of the flower language.  Yet its
pronunciation is difficult for the foreigner,
particularly its nasal and guttural sounds.
In respect to the j anel ch, in respect to the
nasal sounds, and the mute endings, its
pronunciation is  like the  French.    Sis-
mondi, more wittily than correctly, calls the
Portuguese language  un Castilian disosse"
(a boneless Castilian), because the Portu-
guese  have  generally omitted the middle
consonants, and particularly the I;  as, for
instance, in dbr for dolor, AJonso for Alfon-
so. The Portuguese was used earlier than
the Castilian, and became the language of
the country under Alfonso I, son of Henry
of Burgundy.  Early  epic  attempts were
followed by books of songs, to which suc-
ceedeel sonnets,  and, in  the fourteenth
century, prose.   The best  grammar is
Pedro Jose de Figueiredo's Arte da Gram-
matica Portugueza (Lisbon, 1799), and the
best dictionary the revised  edition of Blu-
teau, by the Brazilian Anthony de Moraes
Silva (Lisbon, 1789,2 vols., 4to.).  Ribeiro
dos Santos has  done the most towards.
investigating the spirit of the Portuguese
language.  As a  conversational language,
the Portuguese is considered to have ad-
vantages over  the Spanish.  It is more
concise, easy and simple, well adapted for
easy  conversation; and the social tone
and the spirit ofthe Portuguese are much
like what the French probably was in for-
mer times, for we still find with the Por-
tuguese a kind of good-natured and artless
politeness.  The  richness of the language
in synonymes, diminutives and augmenta-
tives renders  it expressive and veiy vari-
ous: at the same time it is concise and
perspicuous, as almost all the substantives
have corresponding  adjectives,  verbs and
adverbs.  A number of them  cannot be
rendered in other languages without para-
phrase.  The Portuguese language is al-
most the  only monument of the  former
greatness of the Portuguese empire, for it
is yet the general language of commerce
in India and Africa.   The Portuguese lit-
erature is pretty complete without being
rich: in all branches  we find  happy at-
tempts ; in none abundance, except in lyr-
ic and  bucolic poetry.  Yet the short pe-
riod of its bloom has  passed.  Its poetry
has splendor and feeling, much epic dig-
nity, spirit, and dramatic vivacity, but little
ideal elevation.  It  comprises  the most
important part of the literature, for prose
has remained in a backward state  in this
nation, which, fettered by ignorance, and
destituteof philosophy and criticism, could
not rise  to history  or eloquence. The
chief causes of this imperfect state of its
literature have been the Spanish domin-
ion and the inquisition.  It become and
remained bombastic and affected: the an-
cient power, the natural grace, were lost.
In the time of Louis XIV, the French
were copied,  and many  Gallicisms were
admitted.  It was not till  the time  of
Pombal (q. v.) that poets gave elevation to
the language.   After that time,  the prose
also became more simple and pure.  Pom-
bal was the firet who banished  the scho-
lastic logic and metaphysics from the lec-
ture-rooms of Coimbra; but the study of
the ancient languages continues to be neg-
lected.   According to Balbi, there are, in
the whole kingdom,  not more than eight
schools for the  Greek  language.   For
their firet acquaintance with philosophy,
botany, medicine, astronomy, cosmogra-
phy and  Hebrew,  the  Portuguese are
indebted chiefly to the Jews.  Scientific
studies, especially mathematics and natu-
ral histoiy, are not entirely uncultivated,
but attract little interest; and it is asserted
that, among the 3,000,000 of Portuguese,
there are  hardly 500 readers of scientific
books.   According to Balbi, there were
printed, from 1801  to 1819, about 1800
new works, of which 1200 were originals,
430 translations, 57  periodical works, 40
new editions. Besides these, the academy
of sciences and the university at Coimbra
caused  116 works  to be printed  in the
same period-  All Portugal  had, in 1827,
but sixteen printing-offices; one in Coim-
bra, three in Oporto,  twelve in  Lis- 
284          PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE AND  LITERATURE.
bon.  Those three places are also the only
ones containing considerable libraries and
establishments  for  the  sale  of books.
How much this little may have been  les-
sened of late, since an outrageous tyranny
has been plunging that unfortunate coun-
try deeper and  deeper into barbarism, we
cannot say.  The style of the Portuguese
prose writers is  often embarrassed, ob-
scure, and full of repetitions.  Of  late
years, however, they have been employed
on translations of  good  English  and
French prose writers, which will contrib-
ute to improve the  taste of  the  nation.
These translations have  been chiefly of
novels.  Their own novels and tales con-
tinue to be written in the style ofthe  firet
Portuguese work of belles-lettres in prose,
a  tale of  pastoral  life  and   chivalry—
Menina e Moca (the Innocent Maiden)—by
Bernardim Ribeyro (printed wkh his ec-
logues, Lisbon,  1559), which gave the tone
in Portugal, which Montemayor,  a Por-
tuguese, afterwards introduced into Spain,
and which, some time later, was imitated
in France and Germany.  The most pop-
ular national romance in Portugal, the His-
toria de Carlos Magno e dos doze Pares de
Franga por Jeronymo Moreira  de Carvallio
(Lisbon, 1784,  2 vols.),  amuses  by its
comic bombast.  Among the  best Portu-
guese original romances are the oltl Palme-
irim de Ingalterra (exempted by Cervantes
from the flames^ written by Franc, de Mo-
nies  (an edition of it was printed at  Lis-
bon, 1786, in 3 vols., 4to.), and the Fdiz
Independente,  which  was translated  into
Spanish, and  iu  that  language went
through six editions.  The treasures of the
Portuguese language  may be in some de-
gree judged from the Catalogo dos Livros,
que se hao de ler para a continugao do Dic-
cionario da Lingua Portugueza mandado
publicar pda Academia real das Sciencias
de Lisboa (1799).  The oldest works men-
tioned in it are  of 1495 and  1502.  The
former is  the Livro  da Vita  Christi,  por
Valentim de Moravia, e Nicolao de Saxonia
(Lisbon, 4 vols., folio); the latter a transla-
tion ofthe travels of Marco Polo and Ni-
colao Veneto to India, with a map by  a
Genoese,  by  Valentim Femandes (Lis-
bon, folio).  Only one volume of the dic-
tionary of the academy has appeared (in
1793), a thick folio containing A, which
letter embraces  the fifth part of the words
in the language.  Respecting  the  history
of Portuguese  literature,  Bouterwek's
Geschichte der Poesie und Beredtsamkeit seit
dem Ende des 13 Jahrhunderts  (History of
Poetry and Eloquence since the End of
the Thirteenth  Century,  4  vols.)  is  the
chief work.  Sismondi* in his Litleralurt
du Midi de FEurope (4th vol.), has follow-
ed this. A short history ofthe Portuguese
language and literature is also to be found
in the preface of Joaquim  de Santa Rosa
de Vitcrbo's Elucidacad das Palavras, Ter-
mos e Frases que em Portugal antiguamente
se usarao,  &.c,  que  hoje regularmente se
ignorao, &c. (Lisbon, 1798, 2  vols.), and
in Balbi's Essai  Statistiquc (Paris, 1822, 2
vols.).—Portuguese poetiy flourished ear-
lier than the Castilian, and all accounts of
the firet civilization  of the Portuguese,
says Bouterwek,  indicate an original poeti-
cal direction ofthe mind ofthe whole na-
tion.  The  most ancient  known Portu-
guese poets are of the twelfth century—
Gonzalo Hermiguez  and Egaz  Moniz,
whose songs the Portuguese of the pres-
ent day do not  readily understand.  In
the thirteenth  century, the language be-
came more and more regular and distinct.
King Dionysius,  in the second half of this
century, was a  patron of literature, anel
even a  poet himself.  Alphonso IV and
Peter I are mentioned as poets ofthe four-
teenth centuiy.   Even in this early period,
Italian poetiy seems to have had an influ-
ence on the Portuguese, as several sonnets
prove.   Dom Pedro, son of John I, trans-
lated  some of  Petrarch's sonnets.   But
with the fifteenth century, the  era of the
heroic  age of Portugal, begins the flour-
ishing  period  of Portuguese  literature,
when it vied with the Spanish.  A tender
as well as heroic spirit, a fiery activity,
and a soft enthusiasm^ war and love, po-
etry  and glory,  filled the whole nation,
which  was carried,  by its courage and
spirit of chivalrous enterprise, far over the
ocean to Africa and India.  This separa*
tion from home,  and the dangers encoun-'
tered on the ocean, in distant climes and
unknown regions, gave their songs a tone
of melancholy  and  complaining  lovef
which  strangely  contrasts  with  their en-
thusiasm for action, their heroic  fire, and
even cruelty.  The cancioneri ofthe time
of John II  contain such  complaints  of
love, but neither  Bouterwek nor  Sismon-
di were able  to find these  collections.
The  Portuguese cancioneiro, discovered
by  Joaquim Jose  Ferreira  Gordo,  at
-Madrid, in 1790,  comprising  poems  by a
huntlred and fifty writers of the  fifteenth
century, is known only by what is  con-
tained  respecting it in the Memorias de
Liiteratura Portug.   The first celebrated
Portuguese poet  was  Bernardim Ribeyro,
under Emanuel  the Great (1495—1521).
He introduced into Portuguese  literature
the notion of an ideal pastoral life, and 
PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE AND LrTERATURE.        285
 was a learned man, esteemed at the court
 of Emanuel. His romance has been men-
 tioned above.  This direction of taste gave
 rise to the many pastoral poets of Portugal,
 who are tender, graceful, languishing, but
 often monotonous  and cold.  This is a
 kind  of poetiy with which  our  age has
 little  sympathy.  The admiral and gov-
 ernor  of Madeira,  Christovao   Falcon,
 Ribeyro's contemporary,  has expressed
 the  pain of  unsuccessful love  in  die
 same romantic, mystic tone, iu an eclogue
 of 900  verses.  It is  a remarkable tact,
 that several distinguished Portuguese poets
 composed at the same time in the Castili-
 an language, if  they  wished to  sing  of
 great subjects, for instance, Franc, de Sa
 de Miranda (Obras, Lisbon, 1784, 2 vols.;
 earlier,  J560,1569 and 1614), who died in
 1558.   His two comedies  Os Estangeiros
 aud Os Villalpandios are contained in the
 second volume ofthe edition of 1784 ; but
 be distinguished himself more in lyric and
 didactic poetry.  Ant Ferreira, whom the
 Portuguese call their Horace, still more
 successfully imitated the ancients in the
 epistle.   He died in 1569.  His Poemas
 Lusitanos appeareel in Lisbon, 1598, 4to.,
 and the most recent edition Lisbon, 1771,
 2 vols. His tragedy Castro (lues de Castro,
 q. v.), in vol.ii of the edition of 1771,is form-
 ed ufter the Greek  model, and Sismondi
 prefers  it to the Italian tragedies then ex-
 isting.  They were  followed by Pedro de
 Andrade Camiuha (Poesias, recent edition,
 Lisbon, 1791), andDiegoBemardesPimen-
 ta (Rimas Varias ao bom Jesus, &c, Lisbon,
 1594 ; O Lima, em o qual se contemassuas
 Eclqgas e Cartas, Lisbon, 1596, and Flores
 do Lima, Lisbon,  1596), who  died  in
 1596.   Sismondi compares him to Marini.
 The  most celebrated of all  Portuguese
 {joets is Luis  de Camoens.  (q. v.)  The
 >est edition of his poems was published
 under the care of Thorn. Jos. de Aquino
 and Fern. Lobo Sumipita (Obrasde L. de
 Camoens, Principe dos Podas de Hespanha,
 Seg. Edic. Lisb. Na   Offic.  de   S. Th.
 Ferreira, 1782 and 1783).  It contains a
 preliminary discourse, the life ofthe poet,
 an index, various readings and stanzas, in
 4 vols., 12mo.   A  pretty edition of the
 Lusiad, in 16mo., appeared  at Coimbra,
 from the pruiting-office of the university,
 in 1800, 2 vols., with two engravings, the
 life ofthe poet, an index, various readings,
 &c.   The firet edition of the Lusiad ap-
 peared  at Lisbon, 1572, 4to.; his Rimas
 Varias,  with a full commentary by Manoel
de Faria e Souza, Lisbon, 1685,1 vol. fol.;
the third and fourth  volumes in 1688,
and the Commentaiy on the Lusiad. Ma-
drid, 1639, 4 vols, folio.  Another com-
mentary is that of dom Manoel de Faria
Severin, in the Obras de Camoens (Lisbon,
1720); a third is  by  Manoel Correa (Lis-
bon, 1613, 4to.), and Obras do grande L. de
Camoens (Lisbon, 1720, folio); a fourth
by Ignacio Garcez Ferreira, Lusiade lllus-
trata com varias  Nolas (vol.  i,  Naples,
1731, 4to.; vol. ii, Rome, 1732,4to.).  The
hero of Camoens's epic  is  his country.
It breathes the most  intense  patriotism, a
noble pride and an enthusiastic feeling of
love, animated by  a powerful imagination.
This work is die noblest  monument of
Portuguese greatness, attractive to  every
one who cherishes patriotic  feelings and
a love of glory.  Several sonnets of Cam-
oens, and other  productions  (Rhytmas,
Cancaos, t ii;  Edogas, t iii; Comedias ;
El Rei Seleuco; Os Amphitrioes and Filo-
demo, with Fragmentos and  Obras attri-
buidas a Luis de  Camoens, t iv), breathe
the sprit of a great and  deeply  stirred
soul.  In his dramatic attempts, his coun-
tryman  Gil Vicente,  whom die  Portu-
guese call their Plautus, and wl>o died in
1557, was his model.  The collection of
the dramatic works of Gil Vicente, who
preceded the Spanish and English dram-
atists, and whose fame spread all  over
Europe, so that Erasmus learned  Portu-
guese, in order to  read this pioneer of the
modern drama in the original, appeared
at Lisbon, 1562, folio (Copilagam de todas
las  Obras de Gil  Vicente, a qual  se  re-
parte em cinco Livros).  On the model of
Gil  Vicente,  rude  as his works  were,
Lope de Vega  and Calderon  formed
themselves.  In Portugal itself, dramatic
poetry was neglected.  The  ruling taste,
unfortunately,  was  pleased only with
pastorals.  Franc. Rodriguez Lobo brought
out tedious pastoral  romances, in which,
however, some ballads and canzoni breathe
a true spirit  of poetiy; his epic  Nuno
Alvarez Pereira, High Constable of Por-
tugal (O  Contestabre de Portugal, Poema
heroico, Lisbon, 1610,  4to.) is only rhymed
prose; Edogas (1605,4to.); APrimavcra
(1619, 4to.);  O Pastor Peregrino (1608,
4to.); and several  others.  Yet he was the
firet who  showed the purity, tenderness
and  harmony of which Portuguese prose
is capable. The merits of Jeronymo Corto
Real are higher, as shown  in his Naufra-
gio, o laslimoso Successo da  Pardigao  de
Manoel de Sousa de Scpulveda e  D. Leonor
de Sa, sua Mulhcr (Lisbon, 1594,4to.). This
poet also sung  the famous siege of Diu,
valiantly defended by Mascarenhas; he
himself was a  brave  soldier  (Successo  do
segundo  Cerco  de Dio, Poema,  Lisbon, 
286         PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
1574, 4to.).   He and  Lobo showed  to
Portuguese historians the way in which
Joao  de Barros, a celebrated  politician
of  the  time  of John III  (died 1571),
whom Portugal calls her Lxvy, first ac-
quired distinction.  His Asia, or Dos Fei-
tos, que os Portuguezes fizerao no Descobri-
mento e Conquista dos Mares e Terras do
Oriente (Lisbon, 1552, folio; second edi-
tion, Lisbon, 1553; third edition,  Lisbon,
1563;  fourth  edition, with notes  and
maps, by J. B. Lavanha, Madrid, 1616,
folio), is  an important work.  Diego de
Couto has continued it in his Asia Portu-
gueza, which  comprises the whole in 14
vols.,  folio,  1552—1615.   Also  Fernao
Lopes de Castanheda,  in his Historia do
Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos
Portuguezes (Coimbra, 1552—1561,8 vols.,
folio); Ant Bocarro, and the famous Por-
tuguese hero  Afonso de Albuquerque,  in
his  Commentarios,  published by  his son
(Lisbon,  1557, folio);  Damiao de  Goes
(translator of the Cato major of  Cicero),
in his Chronica do Folic. Rey D. Emmanu-
d (p. i—iv, Lisbon, 15(55—1567, folio); anel
Chron. do Principe D. Joam II (Lisbon,
1567, folio); and in his short Latin writings
De Moribus Mthiopum, &c. (in P. Martyr's
work  De Rebus Oceanicis, Cologne, 1574,
third edition), have described the Portu-
guese heroes.   The Histoiy  of King Em-
manuel by the bishop Jeronymo Osorio,
who died 1580 (Lisbon, 1571), is esteem-
ed on account ofthe tolerant views of this
prelate.   Bernardo de Brito afterwards
wrote his Monorchia  Lusitana (1597 and
1609,  folio);  also  his  Elogios dos  Reis
de Portugal (Lisbon, 1603, 4to.).   But as
he began with the creation  of the world,
he had not proceeded to the actual foun-
dation of the Portuguese state, when he
died in  1017;  his style is manly and
simple.   The voyages of discovery of the
Portuguese missionaries and other Portu-
guese also furnished abundant materials
to the Portuguese literature; for instance,
the Travels of John Fernandez, from cape
Arguin into the interior of Africa, in 1445;
of Alf. de Paiva and Joan de Covilhain,
whom John HI sent, towards the end of
the fifteenth  century, as ambassadors to
the (so called) Prester John, king of Abys-
sinia,  and to  India;  yet many  of these
narratives are still in  manuscript.—Re-
specting the historical literature, see Bib-
lioth. Histor. de Portugal e sens Dominios
Ultramarinos, &c, with notes by Arco do
Cejo (Lisbon, 1801).   At that time the
power of Portugal sunk under  Spanish
despotism,  and  with it the Portuguese
literature  (in  the seventeenth century).
A voluminous writer, Manoel de Faria 0
Souza (1590 to 1649), commented on Cam-
oens, without taste and  spirit,  but  with
an abundance of erudition; he published
Fuente  de Aganippe,  e  Rimas  varias
(Madrid, 1644—46,  7 vols.), and Europa
Portugueza (3 vols., folio, Lisbon, 1675),
in the Castilian language, and  was con-
sidered  for a long time a good critic in
Portugal.  His historical work  shows a
faulty taste, and, whilst he is anxious to
exhibit  every  where his  knowledge, wit
and  eloquence,  he abuses  the  talents
which he actually possessed.  Among his
sonnets some are distinguished by feeling
and  grace.  Among other poets  is  the
inventor of  a sort  of elegiac  composi-
tions, called saudades, the famous lawyer
Ant. Barbosa Bacellar (who died in 1663).
The prose writer Jacinto Freire de An-
drade is distinguished by his Vida de  D.
Judo de Castro, Viso  Rey da India (Lisbon,
1671, second  edition,  folio), and  by his
comic poems.  This biography, translated
into  several  languages, is  considered,  by
the Portuguese, a model of a pure and
noble historical style.   Violante do Ceo,
a Dominican nun, published Rimas (1646)
and  Soliloquios (1668).  She, as well as
some others, such as Jeronymo Babia, are
too artificial.  The  sonnets of Franc,  de
Vasconcellos, who was born in Madeira,
and the sacred songs ofthe Brazilian An-
dre Nunes de Silva,are in a simpler style.
In the eighteenth centuiy, the literature of
Portugal seemed to  sink entirely with the
decay of the state.  In  order to  give it
some support, the  government founded
the academy of the  Portuguese  language
in 1714, and the  academy of history in
the same year.  But the  Jesuits and the
inquisition permitted no talent  to devel-
ope itself freely.   Under Pombal's power-
ful government (1750—1777), the national
feeling rose once  more.  He established,
indeed, a censorship; but this was intend-
ed chiefly for political writings; he  him-
self was a great friend to scientific pur-
suits.  Under Joseph I, the whole school
system was reformed, and an institute for
the education of young  noblemen  was
established.   The  rupture  with  Rome,
then existing, was wisely taken advantage
of for this purpose.   The traces of inde-
pendent thinking  yet to  be met with are
chiefly  derived from  that  time, when,
among  others, the  great theologian Ant.
Pereira was veiy active.  The renovation
of the university of Coimbra also belongs
to this period, and several good works
then  appeared.  After  the death of Jo-
seph, the  enemies  of  intelligence again 
PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.         287
 raised their heads, yet without being able
 to destroy every thing.  On the contrary,
 an academy of sciences was founded in
 1779,  by the  influence of the duke  of
 Braganza, which consists of three classes.
 One man, of great talents and accomplish-
 ed taste, distinguished himself in the firet
 half of the eighteenth century—general
 Franc. Xav.de Meneses, count of Ericeyra.
 He corresponded with Boilcau, whose Art
 Po&ique he  had  translated into Portu-
 guese verse, and published, among several
 other writings, an  epic poem, the Henri-
 queida, or the Foundation of the Portu-
 guese  Monarchy, by Henry of Burgundy
 (Lisbon, 1741).  It was intended  to  be
 more regular  than the Lusiad, but Boi-
 leau's  school  was unable to inspire the
 count with the ardent and chivalric spirit
 of Camoens.   Another poem of this pe-
 riod,  by Jose Basilio  da Gama, called
 Ouraguay (Lisbon, 1769), commemorating
 the conquest of Paraguay, is much esteem-
 ed.  The inclination of the people of Lis-
 bon now turned  again  to  the theatre
 which had been  so long  neglected.  We
 shall say a  few words on the Portuguese
 theatre hereafter.   Among  the  recent
 Portuguese poets,  several  have  contrib-
 uted to banish the ancient pastoral style,
 and to alter the taste  of the people for
 poetry of an Oriental character, by good
 translations, particularly from the English;
 e. g. two Brazilians, Claude Manoel da Cos-
 ta, and Antonio Diniz da Cruz e Silva, after
 whose death  appeared his  Obras, &c.
 (Lisbon, 1807),  containing imitations of
 British poets, and Odes Pindaricas posthu-
 mas de  Elpino  Nonacrience (Coimbra,
 1801); also Almeno, translator ofthe first
 four books of  Ovid's Metamorphoses into
 Portuguese  verse, author of Poesias  de
 Almeno, publicadas por Elpino Duriense
 (Lisbon, 1805);  Francisco Manoel,  who
 was bom  in 1734, and after 1778,  when
 he  escaped from the inquisition, passed
 his life in Paris, where  his lyrical poems
 appeared in 1808, and  where he died  in
 1819;  and several others.  One of the
 most fertile and most popular poets was
 Manoel Maria de Barbosa du Bocage,
 who died in 1805, in the Lisbon hospital.
 Of his Rimas, the second edition appeared
 in Lisbon, 1800, in 3 vols, (the third, 1804,
 under the  title Poesias, dedicated to the
countess of Oyenhausen).  This lady, a
daughter of the  marquis of Alorno, has
 translated Wieland's Oberon, but  not yet
published it. Among the poets yet living,
Jose Monteiro da Rocha  and Mozinho
d'Albuquerque are esteemed.  There are
among the Portuguese  several successful
improwisatori.   The Parnasso Lusitano
(published in  Paris)  facilitates an  ac-
quaintance with Portuguese poetry.  Since
1827, a Portuguese periodical  has been
published in Paris, called Novos Annaes das
Sciencias cdas Aries, in which a fragment
of a great Portuguese poem, yet in man-
uscript, is to be found—Branca ou a Con-
quista do Algarve Blanca.  There can be
no question respecting the state of Portu-
guese literature at this moment  In no
arts have the Portuguese so distinguish-
ed themselves  as in  music, in dramatic
performance and in dancing.   In music
they come near the  Italians, in the the-
atrical dance to  the French.  King John,
just  before he  left Portugal, established
an academy of  painting under the direc-
tion of the painter Jose da Cunha Tabor-
da, but it came to  an  end  when  the
French took  possession of Lisbon.  Be-
fore the reign of king Joseph, there  ex-
isted no national Portuguese theatre, if
we do not apply this name to the absurd
productions  called sacred  pieces (autos
sacramentaos) which  were as  barbarous
as the  dramas  of other  nations in  the
middle ages.  Private persons undertook
to establish a theatre under Joseph, and
Pombal did much to  support them.  In
1771, a royal decree declared the profes-
sion of actors respectable, and many  ex-
cellent actors soon  distinguished  them-
selves.   But,  after the death of Joseph,
the queen thought herself in conscience
bound   to  prohibit the  appearance  of
women on the stage.  Dramatic writing,
of course,  immediately relapsed.  It had,
indeeel, consisted, in this  period, of little
more than  translations  from  foreign
works.  King John  permitted again  the
appearance of  actresses.   At present,
there is hardly one actor at Lisbon who
can be compared with a second rate actor
in other large cities  of Europe.  Lisbon
has at present five theatres—1. San Car-
los, the largest  In  1822,  government
appropriated 15,000,000 reis for its sup-
port.   2.  Rua dos Condes, for the sup-
port  of which  government contributed,
in 1822, 10,000,000 reis.  3. and 4.  Sali-
tre and Bairo Alto, smaller theau-es, where
Portuguese and  Spanish pieces are  play-
ed alternately.  5. Boa-Hora, at Belem,
where Portuguese farces only are played.
A circus  adjoining  the  theatre Salitre
serves  for bull-fights.  The theatre  of
San-Joao,  at Oporto, is the second in the
kingdom.  Women were allowed to ap-
pear on the stage here before they were
allowed so to  do in Lisbon.  In  1822,
this theatre  received  from government 
288  PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE—POSIDONIUS.
10,000,000 reis.   Setubal (St Ubes) has
a large theatre,-but no permanent com-
pany.  Madeira has a beautiful theatre at
Funchal, and a society, calling themselves
*ocios do bom  goslo, support a theatre.
The tragedy, so neglected in Portugal, is
here much cultivated.  Brazil possesses
several theatres, of which  some may be
compared with San Carlos.  The  first
Brazilian theatre, San-Joro, at Rio Janeiro,
was opened October 11, 1813. There are
several others at this place.  Bahia has a
brilliant theatre since 1810.  Pernambu-
co has also one.   The Italian opera has
always been the  chief theatrical attrac-
tion in Portugal.   Joseph was enthusias-
tically fond of music, and Pombal nour-
ished this inclination, in order to be left
more at liberty in  affairs of government
Joseph had several royal theatres for the
opera.  That in Lisbon cost more  than
any  similar establishment  in Europe.
The first  musicians and singers were at-
tracted by large  salaries.   Among the
performers who sang in the royal chapel,
Egizieli and  Cafiarelli had salaries of
72,000 francs, though they performed but
two or three months in the  year, and,
after a few years, received considerable
pensions for life.   The theatre on which
the operas were performed, was situated
on  the Tagus, and when the curtain in
the back  ground was raised, the sea was
seen in  its splendor.  After the  ban-
ishment of actresses, the opera also  suf-
fered ; but it revived, and  Italian voices,
like  those of Crescentini, Naldi, Mom-
belli, Mad. Catalani (q. v.), Gaforini, &c,
were heard.  The  ballet and scenery were
equally attended to.  But the invasion of
the French, and the  subsequent political
events, caused  the decline  of the opera.
At  Oporto it  flourished longer.    The
Jesuits formerly  established  a  singing
school for negroes near Rio Janeiro, on
their estate,  called  Santa  Cruz.  When
the order was  abolished, this district fell
to the crown,  and  Santa Cruz became
one of the residences of the court, after
the removal of the royal family to Brazil.
When the court for the first time attend-
ed mass in the church of St. Ignatius de
Loyola at St. Cruz, the king was aston-
ished at  the perfection with  which the
sacred music was executed by  negroes
of both sexes,  who had formed  them-
selves on the rules formerly  introduced
by the Jesuits.  The king now ordered
the establishment of elementary musical
schools,  and  very skilful  singers  and
musicians of both sexes were soon form-
ed ; the first performers on  the violin,
bassoon and clarionet were  negroes, and,
among vocal performers, two  negresses
were distinguished.  In 1826, the whole
orchestra of the chapel consisted  of ne-
groes.  The ex-emperor Pedro, an en-
thusiastic  admirer of music, who com-
poses himself, had several operas com-
posed by the brothers Marcos and Simao
Portugal (more known under  the name
of Porlogallo), and performed by negroes
only, who played with universal applause.
  Portumncs, among the Romans; the
god of harbors; the same as the Melicerta
(q. v.) or Pidmmon of the Greeks.  He
had a small temple on the Tiber, and the
Portumnalia were yearly  celebrated in
his honor.  He  bore a key in his hand as
an emblem of his  office.
  Poseidon.  (See Neptune.)
  Posen, or Posnania, grand duchy, one
of the ten provinces of the kingdom of Prus-
sia, composed, by an act ofthe congress of
Vienna (1815), ofa part of South Prussia
and of the district of* Netz.   It borders on
the Prussian provinces of Silesia, Branden-
burg and West  Prussia, and on the king-
dom of Poland.   It has a superficial area
of 11,500 square miles, with a population
(in 1828) of 1,064,000, of which  50,000
are Jews, 150,000 Germans, and the rest
Poles; there are  about  253,000 Protes-
tants.  The  province is  divided into the
two circles of Posen and Bromberg. The
face of the country is, for the most part,
level, and, in general, is fruitful, and un-
der excellent cultivation.  The  principal
rivers ofthe province are the Warta and
the Netze, which flow into the Oder ; the
Vistula, with which the Netze is con-
nected by a canal, also touches the north-
east  boundary.    (See Prussia.)  Posen
was  formerly a palatinate of Poland; it
fell to Prussia by the partition of Poland,
in the last centuiy.  (See Poland.) The
capital, Posen (in  Polish, Poznan),  lies on
the Warta, in lat.  52° 19' N., and lon. 17°
22'   E.;  population,  24,598, of  whom
4000 are Jews.
  Posidonius ; a stoic philosopher (see
Stoics), born at  Apamea, in Syria, about
B. C. 103, called, also, the  Rhodian, be-
cause he was the  scholar of Pansetius of
Rhodes, and was  himself  a teacher at
Rhodes, after he returned from  his trav-
els.   He  taught  the stoic philosophy
with great applause, was  at  the same
time a statesman and one of the Prytanes,
and went, when fifty years of age, as an
ambassador  to  Rome.  The  most dis-
tinguished Romans  were  his  scholars,
and Cicero himself was  initiated by him
into the  stoic  philosophy.  He  wrote 
POSIDONIUS—POSTS.
289
many works, which are now lost.  Jan.
Bake collected  the fragments—Posidonii
Reliquiae,  etc. (Leyden, 1815}.   He dis-
tinguished the ideas of God, fate and na-
ture more accurately than the other stoics.
  Posilippo.   (See Pausilippo.)
  Position.  (See Prosody.)
  Posse  Comitatus, in law; the pow-
er of the  county or the citizens who are
summoned to assist an officer in suppress-
ing a riot  or executing any legal  process,
which is forcibly opposed: the word com-
itatus  is often  omitted, and posse alone
used in the same sense.
   Posselt, Ernest  Louis;  a historical
and political writer, bom at Durlach, in
Baden, in 1763, studied at Gottingen and
Strasburg, and, in 1784, became profes-
sor of histoiy and rhetoric, in the gym-
nasium at Carlsruhe.   In  1791,  he was
made bailiff of Gernsbach, near  Rastadt,
and died  in 1804, in consequence  of a
fall from a window.  His principal works
are Bellum Populi Gallici adversus Hun-
garian  Borussiaque Reges, &c.  (1793);
his Histor. Taschenbuch fiir  die neueste
Geschichte;  and  Geschichte   der Deut-
schen, continued by Pdlitz, &c.  He also
edited the European Annals (in German)
from 1795, and the Allgemeine  Zeitung,
which he established in 1799.
   Possessed (demoniacs). The epileptic,
hysteric and  frantic  patients were  so
calleel in  ancient times, anel  it  was be-
lieved that one or several devils  dwelt in
such unfortunate persons.   Delusion, in
connexion with monkish knavery, pro-
duced miracles;  stupidity and malignity,
autos da fe.
   Post-Captain.  (See Captain.)
   Postern, more frequently called a sally
port, is a small  gate generally  made in the
at'.gle of the flank of a bastion, or in that of
the curtain, or near the orillon, descending
into the ditch, by which the garrison may
march in  and out unperceived by the ene-
my, to relieve the works, make sallies, &c.
   Posts ; one  of the  most effective  in-
struments of  civilization, to  be ranked
with the art of printing and the mariner's
compass.   We find the firet posts in the
Persian empire.  Darius I, son of Hystas-
pes, caused couriers, with saddled horses,
to stand ready at different stations through-
out the empire, situated one day's journey
from each other, in order  to receive  re-
ports from the provinces without delay.
Augustus established  on institution in the
Roman empire similar  to  the   modem
posts.   The name of posts is said  to be
derived from the Latin positus  (placed),
because horses were put at certain dis-
   vol. x.         25
tances, to transport letters  or travellers.
In the ninth centuiy, there existed in Ger-
many, France and Italy, messengers who
travelled on horseback, destined, however
only for  the service of government; and
this  establishment, besides, was  of little
duration.  Careier pigeons (q. v.) are used
in the East, and became known in Eu-
rope  through  the  crusaders,  but seem
never to have been introduced in the latter
part of the world to any extent   When
commerce  began to flourish, the  larger
commercial cities, particularly in  Germa-
ny, began to establish mounted messengers
and stage-coaches.   Travelling merchants
and butchers (who ride about in the coun-
try to buy cattle) used to take charge  of
lettere.  In the beginning ofthe thirteenth
century, the university of Paris maintained
pedestrian  messengers, who, at  certain
times, took charge of letters and  money
for the students, collected in that city from
almost  all parts of Europe.  Louis XI
established for his own use mounted mes-
sengers, and, by an edict of June 19,1464,
instituted post stations, at intervals of four
French miles, on the chief roads of France.
Charles  VIII  extended this institution,
which existed until 1524, for the sole  use
of the court.  When the Spaniards dis-
covered Peru, in 1527, they found mes-
sengers  placed at short distances on  the
road from Cusco to  Quito, in order to
transmit with speed the orders ofthe inca.
In Germany, the firet post was established
in Tyrol, in the latter half of the fifteenth
centuiy, by Roger I, count of  Thurn,
Taxis and Valsassina. His son established
another from Brussels to Vienna, in 1516,
by the wish ofthe emperor Maximilian I.
In 1522, a post was established between
Vienna and Nuremberg, where  the diet
sat, on account of the war with Solyman
II; but it  ceased with the war.  Charles
V was anxious to have news as quickly as
possible, on account of the vastness of fiis
states, and caused Leonard of Thurn and
Taxis to establish a permanent riding-post
from the  Netherlands  through   Liege,
Treves, Spire and  Rheinhausen, through
Wurtemberg, Augsburg and Tyrol to Ita-
ly.   In 1543,  Leonard was  appointed
postmaster-general  of the empire.  After
the death of Charles V, the members  of
the  empire were  unwilling to  allow a
Spanish-Netherlandish post (such was that
established by Charles V) in their territo-
ries ; yet Ferdinantl I confirmed Leonard
in 1563.  In 1595, he was appointed post-
master-general of the  empire, in  opposi-
tion to the wishes  of the membere; but
several of them, having already establish- 
290
POSTS.
ed posts in their dominions, refused to ac-
knowledge the exclusive privileges claim-
ed by the imperial post.  In  1615, La-
moral of Taxis was actually infeoffed with
the imperial  post, as an imperial fief. Fer-
dinand II extended  this grant so as  to
make it descendible to the nieces  of Le-
moral, and a regular post now went every
week from  the imperial court, and also
from  Rome, Venice,  Milan, Mantua, &c,
to Augsburg, and thence to Brussels and
back.  The post remained as long as  the
empire existed, one of its many ill-defined
and  unwieldy institutions, in  which pri-
vate  or petty interest was allowed to stand
in the way of the public  welfare. The
post  was actually made a regular point in
the  Wahlcapitulationen,  the  stipulations
between the electors and  the candidate for
the imperial  dignity.  The imperial posts
were restricted, and the emperor  himself
excluded the Thurn and  Taxis post from
several of his dominions.   In a  country
where so many small territories had their
own posts, it was natural that they should
remain in a very bad condition, and it is
only in very recent times  that they have
become better; yet,  generally speaking,
the letter-mail is not transmitted quickly.
It was wise in the U. States to intrust the
whole post  establishment to  the general
government, thereby avoiding  the difficul-
ties which have interferetl with the bene-
ficial operation of the institution in Ger-
many.  There are at present post estab-
lishments of different kinds in Germany.
Austria, Prussia,  Bavaria,  Hanover,  the
kingdom of Saxony, Baden,  Brunswick,
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Holstein-Olden-
burg, llolstein-Lauenburg  and  Luxem-
burg liave  exclusively their  own posts;
but, in Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Nassau, in the
states of the Saxon-Ernestine line, in both
the Schwartzenburgs, Hohenzollern, Wal-
deck, Lippe-Detmokl, and the territories
ofthe princes of Reuss, the post is left to
the house of Thum and Taxis as a  fief.
In soihe other states, the  Thurn and Taxis
post is founded upon a  regular compact.
The  whole Thurn  and Taxis  post  es-
tablishment   is  under  the  superintend-
ence of the postmaster-general at Frank-
fort on the Maine. The petty principality
of Lichtenstein has no post  The Thum
and  Taxis post  extends over an  area of
25,000 miles, with 3,753,450 inhabitants.
We  will mention here a few items, either
peculiar  to   Germany,  or otherwise  in-
teresting.  The stage-coaches, almost all
over Germany, are united with the  post-
offices,  and  are called  Fahrende Posten
(driving posts).  With  the  many disad-
 vantages  connected with  this  state of
 things, there is at  least one "advantage,
 that, by these posts, which travel, of couree,
 slower than letter-mails, parcels, &c, may
 be  sent as  safely as lettere.  In several
 German  states, lettere  can be  "recom-
 mended," when they are specified on the
 way bill, for which higher postage is paid.
 If  any person  wishes  to  communicate
 something to all the post-offices of a cer-
 tain line (for example, an inquiry after an
 important parcel), an open paper may be
 sent by mail, which is read and forwarded
 by  all  the respective postmasters.  Esta-
fettes (q. v.) may always be had.  In some
 states,  it is  permitted to pay a  sum, not
 beyond a certain amount, to any post-
 master, and  to send the receipt therefor to
 any other part of  the  state, where  the
 postmaster who receives it is obliged to
 pay the sum.  For the remittance of small
 sums this is very convenient, particularly
 for the poorer classes.  A receipt for the
 delivery of any letter purporting to  con-
 tain a particular sum, may always be had,
 and this sum is paid, if the letter is lost in
 the regular  couree  of transportation.  If
 the letter, however, should arrive in good
 order,  and no money be found in it, the
 government would  not  be answerable in
 consequence of such a receipt   But  if a
 man goes to the post-office with an -open
 letter,  and encloses a certain sum therein
 in the  presence of the postmaster, the re-
 ceipt ofthe government makes him liable,
 at all events, for the safe transportation of
 the money.—Something was said, in the
 beginning of this article,  respecting the
 origin of the posts hi France.  During the
 reign of Louis XIII, 1610—30, the French
 system of posts received  a more regular
 form from the  establishment of a control
 ler-general of posts. They, as well as the
 postmasters named in 1630, received the
 revenue, till at length the minister Lou-
 vois, in  the reign  of Louis XIV, 1676,
 farmed out the posts to a  certain  Patin,
 and committed to him the regulation of
 the postage.  In 1688, when the post was
 farmed out  for the third time, the revenue
 amounted to 1,400,000 francs  (a franc is
 about 18|  cents),  and, in  1695, when it
 was sold by auction unconditionally, to
 2,000,000 francs.  In 1733, this revenue
 amounted to 3,000,000, principally because
 the regency, in 1719,  had abolished the
 academical couriers (on which account
 the university  at Paris had assigned  to it,
 from  the  revenue  of  the  post-office
 300,000 francs yearly, which was paid to
 it  till the beginning ofthe revolution). In
 1738, the post establishment was taken 
posts.
291
under royal management, in order that the
government might find out the true in-
come.  The result of this was an increase
of the Bum at which it was farmed out  In
1786; when it was leased for the twenty-
diird time, the  sum  paid amounted to
10,800,000 francs. At the expiration ofthe
last lease, in 1791, when the establishment
reverted to the king, it produced a  clear
income of more  than  11,000,000 francs.
From  1814 to  1822, the average yearly
returns of the letter posts were 21,890,000
francs:  now, these returns amount to
26,560,000 francs, which is the postage of
60,000,000 letters.  Besides these,  there
are lettere and packets free  of postage, so
that the  whole  may  be  reckoned at
110,000,000,  Without  including  25,000
sheets  of  Parisian  periodicals, sent dai-
ly to  the  departments, and 25,000 oth-
ers which are published and circulated in
the departments.  The revenue from the
post-office  of Paris is yearly 4,310,000
francs.  40,000 lettere  are sent daily from
Paris  into  the  interior  and abroad, of
which 28—30,000 pay postage, and from
10 to 12,000 are  free;  and  30,000 arrive
daily,  of which 18,000 pay postage: thus
25,550,000 lettere yearly arrive at and are
sent from Paris.  From the time of Louis
XV till the time of the revolution, geu-
 eral intendants were almost always placed
 at the head of the post-office department,
 principally cliosert, as in Sn<"dn and ItaK
 from  inen ofthe highest  rank,  because
 their place was always near the kiug. For
 the superintendence of the letter-post and
 postmasters, a particular council was ap-
 pointed, under the presidency ofthe head
 of the department, and consisting of three
 general inspectors.  Since 1819, the letter
 and extra  posts (posies  relais),  the last of
 which were left  to  the  postniastere for
 their own  advantage, have been united un-
 der the same department.  A  general di-
 rector is chief of the  whole post system,
 as in all the important  branches belonging
 to the  ministry of finance. In eveiy one of
 the  French departments is a post-inspect-
 or ;  every  post-office has a director, a con-
 troller, and such  number of assistants as
 circumstances  may require.  The  post-
 masters stand, indeed, in respect to extra
 posts,  under the general director, but have a
 particular  council of direction, consisting
of three general inspectors.  The manage-
 ment of the post department is very sim-
ple, and the  system of accounts worthy
of imitation.  The couree of business is
very much facilitated by  the Instruction
generate sur le Service des Postes, publish-
ed in 1808, and still in  force. Till the rev-
olution, which took away ali privileges, the
postmasters  enjoyed  great  immunities,
with regard to landed property, the quar-
tering of soldiers, the military duties of
their sons, &c. They were under the min-
istry of the royal  household,  had their
commissions signed by the king, and  en-
joyed  considerable salaries.  For these
reasons, they were willing to  transport
the mail at firet  for  the  trifling  price of
three, afterwards of ten sous, per pound
for a stage.  The national assembly gave
them for their lost  privileges, under the
name of salary,  a small compensation of
2—400  francs.   Afterwards, in October,
1823, the postmasters received thirty sous
for the horse for die transportation of the
mail and public expresses; likewise for the
couriers twenty-five sous.  All the mails
in France are accompanied by responsible
couriers (service des malles); they likewise
transport  money anel  individuals, each
of whom  pays  two francs a stage fol- a
place,  and may  cany fifteen pounds Of
luggage.   The  directors-general of the
posts make contracts with the postmasters
for the transportation ofthe mail and pub-
lic expresses, but are not bound to keep
them strictly, as it is only the extra posts to
which the postmasters have an undisputed
claim.  Couriers are of two kinds, great
anel small.  The first  traverse the princi-
pal  routes,  as  through  Lyons to Italy,
through Bourdeaux to  Spain and Portu-
gal, dirough  Strasburg to Germany,  tic.
The route ofthe last is through the interi-
or, and they are dependent  upon private
enterprise.  The couriers of the grfeat pos*
have covered carriages, with three hordes.
Since  the  return of  Louis  XV X|I  to
France, the carriages of the couriers up-
on the great r outes have h?xorae muc|^
handsomer and.  more comrjodious.  'fhia
was owing to the suggestions of  cue king,
who had con ipaeed tneir tasteless struc-
tures with tl je  light constmction of the
English.  This gave rise, it  is  true,  to
complaints  i rom  the  owners  of the old
carriages  against  the postmasters, which
were even brought into the chamber of
deputies,  but finally settled by an a<ree~
ment concluded September,. 1822.  Since
1791, the post s in France have been much
more .regular raid expeditious.   The post-
age has also, in.  the course of time, under-
gone important changes.   Under Louis
XIV,  the farmers of the post regulated it
al will; but as soon as the post system was
taken  under the  royal  management, an
end was put to the system of extortion,
as is  apparent  from  the earliest post-
age rate*, namely those of the years 1701 
292
POSTS.
and 1703.  The present rates were estab-
lished  by the decree of 1806.  In pro-
portion to the postage of 1759, there is a
considerable increase in particular charges,
amounting to a third in the case of single
lettere, but the excuse for this is found
in the more than trebly increased expendi-
ture.   Yet the  French  postage  upon a
single  letter is  more reasonable than that
of any other country;  for the  highest
price  of such a letter to any part of the
kingdom amounts  but to  one franc (185
cents).  The increase,  however, in the
price   of  lettere  with  their  increasing
weight is not so reasonable ; for the ratio
in the French system is the highest of all,
higher in proportion than the English, and
"recommended" letters must even pay
double.  On  the contrary,  France offers
an example worthy  of imitation  in  the
rates of conveyance  for  printed  matter.
Newspapers sent into the interior pay but
four centimes a sheet; those sent out  of
the kingdom eight  Other printed matter
pays five centimes in the first case, and ten
in the second.  These charges on  printed
matter must be  paid upon delivery.  Pat-
terns  of goods  pay one  third  postage.
Quite contrary to this is the Prussian post
system of 1824, which prohibited the car-
rying of printed matter in the letter mails,
and transferred  it to the government bag-
gage wagons.  It  imposes, moreover, a
charge of triple letter postage on pack-
ages of two ounces weight, and of seven
times letter postage on packages of two
pounds weight  Postage  upon  money,
since 1703, has been fixed at five per cent,
without regard  to  distance. Since 1759,
a small post  has been established in the
city of Paris, under  royal  regulation, to
the great advantage of the Parisian pub-
lic. From eight offices, in different parts
of the city, the lettere, as well of the great
as the lesser post, are distributed  by the
letter-carriers, five times each day during
the six cold  months, and six times a day
during the others.  As to the inviolability
of letters, it is known that every postmas-
ter must take an oath to  observe it; but
letters are, in fact, often opened by the se-
cret police.  In 1825, the letters  sent by
commercial couriers from  Paris to Lon-
don were broken open.  The answer re-
turned to the complaints  made was, that
the right to send couriers  was a simple
permission, in consideration of which the
government must have liberty to examine
the contents of the lettere.  In the time
of the French republic and consular gov-
ernment, the secrecy of letters was much
more regarded.  After the fall of the Vil-
lele ministry (Jan. 1828), the government
abolished the department intrusted with
the unsealing of lettere, and declared them
inviolable.  The coaches, or diligences, for
the transportation of passengers and bag-
gage, have always been private establish-
ments, licensed, indeed, by the govern-
ment, and paying a fixed tax to the state.
Competition,  therefore,  has contributed
much to their improvement.  The most
important undertaking of this kind is at
Paris, entreprise ginerale des messageries.
Besides diligences, there are  pataches, a
kind of travelling messengers, who  re-
ceive travellers, and make short journeys,
without  changing horses,   but likewise
have licenses from government, and  are
obliged  to pay a certain tax.  In  1766,
there went daily from Paris twenty-seven
coaches, with 270 travellers, into the dif-
ferent provinces.   Now there are 300
coaches, which  carry more than 3000 pas-
sengers.  Just before  1792, the last lease
of  the  public  coaches produced  but
600,000  francs.  Now the taxes on them
alone amount to nearly 4,000,000  francs.
In the above-mentioned year, fifty  francs
were paid for  a seat in a  carriage from
Paris to  Lyons,  and the journey occupied
ten days.  Now the time does not exceed
three days, and the price is seventy-two
francs.   The  extra  posts in France are
particularly distinguished for their swift-
ness.  This is owing,  not to the goodness
of the horses, but to  the activity of the
postmasters, the postilions and the drivers.
The postilion  never thinks of sleep or
rest. As soon as he  gets in sight  of*  his
stopping-place, he gives a signal by crack-
ing his whip,  at which every thing is im-
mediately got in readiness, so that he starts
again in a few  minutes.  In France, the
official  regulations  for  extra  posts are
printed yearly, together with all the routes,
and what is to be paid and to be observed
at each stage ; also the post charts, and all
new changes.—The  beginning of the
English post system is first observed in the
statutes  of Edward III; yet the supposi-
tion  is  not well  founded that from that
time the post was established  as a public
institution.  Edward  IV  placed  post-
houses at intervals of twenty miles; and,
in the north, a military post  was establish-
ed to communicate as quickly as possible
with the army  during the  Scottish war.
This institution was indeed authorized by
the reigning king, but it was probably ow-
ing to the  king's brother  Richard, who
commanded the  army.  Ajt what time,
and under  what  conditions,  the  public
were able to avaU  themselves of it,  we 
POSTS.
293
have  no certain  knowledge.  That  this
post, nevertheless, was, for a long time, very
limited, and but partially used, is obvious
from  the  fact that, not long before the
reign of Charles I, merchants, tradesmen,
and professional men, in the whole king-
dom, resorted to less secure means of con-
veyance, or employed express messengers,
at great expense, to carry their correspond-
ence.   The  universities  and  principal
cities had their  own  posts,—messengers
who performed long journeys,  riding or
walking, and retarned with the answers to
the letters.   In this manner the post  was
conducted, in Scodand, till a much later
period.  In 1543, a post existed by which
letters were carried from London to Edin-
burgh within four days; but  this rate  of
transportation, extraordinarily  rapid  for
that period, lasted but a short time.  After
Camden, who was much employed  by
Elizabeth in her Scottish affaire, Thomas
Randolph  (in  1581) held  the place  of
postmaster-general of England.  James I
set on foot, under the superintendence of
Matthew de Quester, a system for forward
ing lettere intended for foreign lands. Hith-
erto,  this had been done by private per-
sons.  The foreign merchants settleel in
London preserved  long after  the privi-
leges belonging to the place of postmaster
for foreign letters.  In 1632, Charles I, by
a proclamation, forbade lettere to be sent
Out of the kingdom except  through the
post-office.  In 1635, he established a sys-
tem of posts  for  England and  Scotland,
which was conducted  according  to new
and judicious regulations.  All private and
local posts were abolished, and the income
of the post-offices  was claimed by  the
king.   This institution was under the di-
rection of Thomas Witherings, who was
removed in 1640, on account of notorious
nhises.  To him succeeded Philip Burla-
macliy, who was under the immediate con-
trol of  the  secretary of state.   In 1630,
Charles, in connexion with  Louis XIII of
France, established a post between Lon-
don and Paris,- from Dover to Calais,  and
from thence through Boulogne, Abbeville
and Amiens to Paris.  At the same time,
lhe private  post, which had existed  be-
tween the countries, from Rye to Dieppe,
was abolished.
  These arrangements  suffered,  during
the civil ware, many important  interrup-
tions, or were almost entirely annihilated.
Yet  no  sooner was  public trauquillity
restored, than  a  commission  wis  ap-
pointed, and a jiost system arranged,  un-
der the direction of the attorney-general,
Edmund Pridcaux, which became soprof-
                25*
itable, that the posts could now be leased
for £10,000, while before, the support of
them had  cost £7000.   The lessee  still
made so large  profits that the common
council of London looked upon him with
jealous eyes.  On the restoration, the sys-
tem was retained with slight modifications.
During  the government  of William  III,
acts  of  parliament were  passed, which
regulated the internal post system of Scot-
land, and, by the ninth act of queen Anne,
the post system of England was an-anged
as it is at present.  The  general post-of-
fice  of Great Britain has jurisdiction of
all which concerns the English and Scotch
posts, and those going to the English col-
onies, excepting the East Inelies, and  the
settlements in the South sea.  Ireland  has
a separate post department  In all  the
cities, and in most of the large villages,
postmasters  and deputy  postmasters  are
appointed.  Their duty is to receive and
despatch the mail, forward the letters to
their place of destination, receive the post-
age,  and send it at certain periods to  the
chief post-office.   In order to ensure the
observance  of the different regulations
which are connected with this depart-
ment, and the fulfilment  of the contracts
for the transmission of the mail by car-
riages, on horseback, or on foot, seven in-
spectors travel on horseback through Eng-
land and two through Scotland.  Each of
these has his particular district, in which
he must watch over the regulation of the
post.  They correspond with the heads of
the department in  London.  In England
the number of postmasters amounts to
600,  who are immediately connected with
the chief post-office.   In Scotland it is
above 200. The regularity with  which the
post  comes and goes, and the letters  are
received  and distributed  in England, is
remarkable.   The English have in this
particular acquired a promptness worthy
of being imitated, and which greatly con-
tributes  to the certainty  and  celerity of
their commercial intercourse.—No where
is the inviolability of lettere more respected
than in England and the U. States.  With-
out an accurate acquaintance with die  de-
tails of the British post system, it is not pos-
sible to obtain a conception of  its present
perfection.   Mr.  Palmer's invention  of
mail-coaches has been found highly con-
venient and useful, not only for the safe
and expeditious conveyance of letters,  but
also of passengers.  Much praise is due
also to the auxiliary institutions  of the foot
and horse posts, which complete the com-
plicated machine.  Postmasters are also
established in British North America and 
294
POSTS.
 the West Indian colonies, which regularly
 receive,  once or twice a month, packet
 boats from Falmouth.  Even  in the sea-
 ports of the  continent, of the  Mediterra-
 nean sea, and South America, agents are
 appointed which receive English packet
 boats.   In London there is die general
 and the two-penny post: in the first are the
 principal offices; that of the chief secre-
 taries, receiver-general, accountant-gener-
 al, &c.  Besides these chief offices, there
 are in the city more  than  sixty houses
 where lettere for the general post can be
 delivered.  The number of the officers
 iu the  institution is 175,  messengers and
 porters 35, letter-carriers 203, guides 270.
 The mail-coaches travel daily about 13,000
 English miles, and the contractors receive
 about one penny and a half per  mile.
 Twenty-two  mail coaches go from  Lon-
 don, and forty-five are  employed upon the
 other routes.  The first mail coach started
 for Bristol, August 2,  1784,  aud in  1786
 they were in  general use.  In the district
 of the two-penny post,  which includes
 in  its  circuit, London and  the country
 within  a  distance of ten miles, there are
 140 houses,  where lettere are received;
 the number  of officers amounts to 48;
 that of the letter carriers to 359.   The
 revenue from the post offices throughout
 the kingdom of England, of late years, since
 the restrictions on intercourse  with the
 continent  have been  removed, has av-
 eraged  1—li  million pounds sterling.
 Thus, for example, in 1828, the net income
 was 1,508,000,  and, in  1830,  1,466,012
 pounds sterling.   The expenditure  in
 1828 was 702,418 pounds sterling.  In
 1801,  the  income  was  only  858,000
 pounds sterling, although England pos-
sessed,  even at  that time,  the  com-
 merce  of the world.   We perceive,  from
this comparison, how much the English
 trade has increased since 1815, for  this
trade is the great support of  the post sys-
tem.  Tbe postage in  England is higher
than in any other of the European  king-
doms ;  but it is  to be considered that the
worth of money is less, and the wealth
greater, than in  other 6tates.   The postage
may therefore be considered  moderate to
die inhabitants  of England.  From the
public  conveyances the government re-
ceives over 700,000 dollars, and still trav-
elling is hardly any where so convenient,
expeditious, and cheap, as  in England.
From Dover to London, seventy-one miles,
die traveller is  conveyed  conveniently in
eleven  hours.  From Edinburgh to Lon-
don, 396 miles, the journey is made in
coaches, fifteen of which traverse this route
every week, in sixty hours.  The coaches
g20	u	5"
30	II	6"
50	II	7"
80	a	8"
120	u	9"
170	k	10"
230	it	11"
300	u	12"
400	li	13"
 employed in 1763 took 16—18 days.  The
 rates of postage  in England are, for any
 Distance   not  exceeding 15 miles, 4 d.
 above 15, and not exceeding 20
      20         "
      30         "
      50         "
      80
     120         «
     170         «
     230         «
     300         «
     400, for every 100, or part of it, 1 "
 The post establishments of the  other Eu-
 ropean states are either still in a very low
 condition, or are formed more or less upon
 the models of those  already mentioned.
 The post establishments of Russia have
 been  much improved in later times, com-
 pared with her other political institutions.
 They appear to have been formed on the
 model of the principal post establishments
 in North Germany.  The postage is mode-
 rate, and has been gradually rather lessen-
 ed than increased.  By the late rates, a
 letter  of an ounce weight pays two co-
 pecks for each hundred versts.*  This is
 the rule up to 1500 versts.   For any dis-
 tance between 1500 and 3000 versts, only
 one copeck additional  is paid.  For any
 distance over 3000 versts, not more than
 fifty copecks are paid.  Letters are sent in
 that immense  empire 6000—7000  versts.
 For the  sending  of powers of attorney,
 exchange,  and  money documents,  the
 postage is  double that of an ordinary let-
 ter.  For money and packets  of  value,
 which are transported badly, and generally
 upon baggage wagons, the insurance is, for
 a distance  of 500 versts, half per cent,
 over 500, one  per cent.  For letters sent
 abroad the  Russian  postage is  also very
 moderate.  Although  Russia is twice as
 large  as all Europe, and numbers more
 than fifty million inhabitants, yet the rev-
 enue of the postage cannot be  reckoned
 at more than between 5—600,000 dollars.
 There are five post routes: those of Mos-
 cow, Riga, Viborg, Archangel, and Poland.
 Post carriages, or diligences, are not to
 be found in Russia.  The  extra  posts,
 however, are no where cheaper and more
expeditious.  An extra post-horse costs,
for  a veret, not more  than  two copecks.
 A journey of 4580 versts, for which eight
 weeks are employed, costs, including the
expense of living, only about 220 dollars.
He who wishes to make use of the extra
post, must  be authorized by a  particular
  * The amount of two copecks, or of the double
copeck, in weight of copper, is a little more than a
cent.  A verst is about two thirds of an English
mile. 
POSTS.
295
pass or order.  Any one travelling with
an extra post in any part of the country,
will find a great convenience in wearing a
uniform.  In Denmark, the post is man-
aged veiy much with a view to revenue,
but is  distinguished by no particular ar-
rangement  The postage in Sweden and
Norway is more moderate, and hence the
income is much less than in the neighbor-
ing state.  In die Netherlands, posts were
established by the ancestors of the prince-
ly Taxis house, and Leonard von Taxis
held, even in 1543, the station of postmas-
ter-general of the Netherlands.  After the
revolt  of the Nedierlands from the house
of Austria,  the post system  of England
appears to have been taken as a model.
The French  post system   was  intro-
duced  into Holland immediately after its
incorporation  with  the French empire.
So it still continues, and with veiy little
alteration, since the  change of Holland
into the kingdom of the Netherlands.  It-
aly appears to have been the cradle ofthe
system of posts.  Even under the  empe-
ror Augustus,  it was in the most flourish-
ing condition that it had enjoyed in ancient
times.   It  was then  constituted  princi-
pally with a view  to obtain  intelligence
from the army.  Messengers and couriers
were employed, the last of extraordinary
swiftness.  Thus, for  example, the  empe-
ror Augustus several  times received de-
spatches from Sclavonia in four days; and
Tiberius was so much accustomed  to this
expedition,  that   he  indignandy  threw
away  his despatches  if they were more
than twenty days from Asia,  fifteen from
Europe, ten from Africa, five from Scla-
vonia,  and  three from any part of Italy.
Under him, and also under the succeeding
emperors, extra posts were  used.  The
head ofthe post department was the com-
mander of  the pretorian guards.  From
u manuscript in the library ofthe king of
France, it appears that the German em-
peror Charles V paid  the  postmasters in
Italy.   Simon von Taxis was general post
director at Milan, and resided in the im-
perial  palace, where every thing was kept
m readiness for the post service.  In Milan
and the neighboring places a foot post was
established, which seems to have been the
occasion and the  model of the small post
now established in Paris.  Until the union
of the kingdom of  Italy  with the old
French empire, the Italian post establish-
ments  were well ordered; but they  attain-
ed, from time to time, a higher degree of
perfection, by being formed on the French
  Elan.  Since 1815, the post system  in the
  ombardo-Venetian kingdom, in Tusca-
ny, Parma,and Modena, has been institut-
ed more according to the Austrian mod-
el, still retaining, however, the  French
basis.  In the other states of Italy, the
posts, with some modifications, continued
as before.  The letter and extra posts are
well organized in Italy.  The privacy of
letters was even so much respected, that,
by the criminal code of Milan, the break-
ing of a seal was punisheu with death.
In Switzerland, each canton has, accord-
ing to the  ordinances of the diet of 1^03,
the regulation of the post; consequently,
it has its own post establishment  They
are variously  managed, and of various
merit.  A general system might make the
postage cheaper,  but it cannot,  even at
present, be called dear, as it  has never
been made an object of financial specula-
tion.  The absence  of a general system
for all the cantons has been, in some de-
gree, compensated by agreements which
have  introduced some  uniformity in the
management of the  post systems.  There
are no extra posts any where in Switzer-
land, and as  all the regulations which
have hitherto been  made  on this subject,
have  remained ineffectual, it  has  been
supposed  that the interest of inn-keepers
and  keepers  of carnages  for hire, has
prevented their  success.  In Spain aud
Portugal, the post establishments are still
iu a very low condition, although a correo
mayor  presides  over them as director-
general.   Only in European Turkey are
they entirely in their infancy. For cen-
turies, no  change has been made, except-
ing  that  the grand signior  maintains
mounted  Tartars for the  public  service,
who  must forward  with celerity his de-
spatches, and those  of all  the  public au-
thorities.  In  earlier times, there  were
public messengers who  travelled on foot,
but  had the privilege  of commanding
those on  horseback, whom they met, to
dismount, in the name of the grand sign-
ior, and to use their  horses to the  place of
destination,  or to exchange them  if they
met others farther on, with less tired horses.
   In the English colonies in North Amer-
ica, a post-office was projected as early as
1692.  A  patent was laid  before the Vir-
ginia assembly for making Mr. Neal post-
master-general of Virginia and other parts
of America.   The assembly passed an act
in its favor, but it had no  effect   It was
impossible to  carry it  into execution on
account of die dispersed situation  of the
inhabitants.  The first  office in the colo-
nies was established in 1710, by an act of
parliament,  "for  establishing  a  general
post-office for all her majesty's dominions."
The postmaster-general was to be "at lib-
erty to keep one chief letter-office in New 
296
POSTS1.
York, anel other chief offices at some con-
venient place or places in each of her majes-
ty's provinces or colonies in America."
After the breaking out of the revolution,
this department came of .course under the
control of the congress of the confederacy.
The constitution of the U. States, adopted
in  1789, gave the exclusive power  of
establishing post-offices and post-roads to
congress,  thus preventing the difficulties
which would have resulted from  leaving
this department to  the   several states.
There is at the seat of government of the
U. States a general  post-office, imder the
direction of the postmaster-general,- who
is appointed by the president, and appoints
two assistants, and such clerks as may be
necessary for the performance  of the busi-
ness of his office.  He establishes post-
offices,  and  appoints  postmasters at  all
such  places as appear to him expedient
on  post-roads established by law.   He
instructs the postmasters, provides for the
carriage ofthe mail, and directs the routes.
" No stage, or other vehicle which regu-
larly performs trips on a  post-road,  or a
road parallel to it, shall convey lettere, nor
any packet-boat, or other vessel which
regularly plies on a water declared to be a
post-road, except it relates to some  part
of the cargo, under the penalty of fifty
dollars;" but it is lawful for  any one  to
send letters by special  messenger.  Rob-
bery of die mail is punishable with impris-
onment  from five to ten years, and a second
offence with death. If the earner is wound-
ed by the robbers, or his life endangered
by the use of deadly weapons on their part,
thefirst offence is punished with death. An
unsuccssf'ul attempt to rob by assaulting the
carrier,  or threatening him with  elanger-
ous weapons,  is punished with imprison-
ment from  two to ten years.  The pun-
ishment is the same for stealing the mail,
or stealing auy letter or packet from it,  or
from a post-office.   In regard to dead let-
ters, the laws provide that " the postmas-
ters, every three months, shall publish a list
of the  letters remaining  in their offices
for three successive weeks, in  one of the
newspapers published at or nearest their
places of residence, or shall  have such
lists posted at public places in  their vicin-
ity, and,  at the expiration ofthe next three
months, shall send such ofthe  said letters
as then  remain on hand  to the  general
post-office, where the same shall be open-
ed  and  inspected,  and if any  valuable
papers or matters of consequence shall be
found therein, it shall  be the duty of the
postmaster-general to return such  letter to
the writer thereof, or to cause a descrip-
tion thereof to be inserted in  one of the
 newspapers published at the place most
 convenient to the supposed  residence of
 the  owner, if within the  U. States; and
 such letter and the contents thereof shall
 be preserved to be delivered  to the person
 to whom the same shall  be addressed, up-
 on payment of the postage and the ex-
 pense of publication.  If  the letter contains
 monejr, the postmaster may appropriate it
 to the use of" the department, keeping an
 account thereof, and the  amount shall be
 paid to the rightful claimant as soon as he
 shall be found."  " It shall be lawful for
 the postmaster-general to make provision,
 where it may  be necessary, for the receipt
 of all letters aud  packets  intended to be
 conveyed  by any  ship or  vessel beyond
 sea, or from any port in the U. States to
 another port therein, and the lettere so re-
 ceived shall be formed into a mail, sealed
 up, and directed to the postmaster of the
 port to which  such vessel shall be bound,
 and for every letter or packet so received,
 there shall be paid, at the time  of its re-
 ception, a postage of one  cent, which shall
 be for the use  of the postmasters respect-
 ively receiving the same.*  And the post-
 master-general may  make arrangements
 with the postniastere in any foreign coun-
 try for the reciprocal receipt  and delivery
 of lettere and packets through  the post-
 office."  Postmasters, post-riders and driv-
 ers of the mail-stages are exempt from
 militia duties,  and from serving on juries.
 —Privilege of Franking.    Lettere and
 packets to and from the following officers
 of the government are by law received
 and  conveyed  by post  free of postage:
 the president and vice-president ofthe U.
 States, secretaries  of state, treasury, war
 and  navy, attorney-general, postmaster-
 general anel assistant postmaster-general,
 comptrollers, auditors, register, and solicit-
 or ofthe treasury, treasurer, commissioner
 of the general land-office, commissioners
 of the  navy  board,  commissary-general,
 inspectors-general, quartermaster-general,
 paymaster-general, superintendent of the
 patent office,  speaker and clerk  of the
 house of representatives, president and sec-
 retary of the  senate, and any  individual
 who shall have been, or may  hereafter be,
 president ofthe U. States;  and each may
 receive newspapers by post free of postage.
 Each member of the senate, and each
 member and delegate ofthe house of rep-
 resentatives, may send and receive, free of
 postage, newspapers, letters,  and packets

  * Persons sending letters abroad  are not al-
ways aware of the necessity  of paying the post-
age to the port in the U. States where the letters
are shipped. The additional cent is paid only
when they are shipped where delivered. 
POSTS.                                297
weighing not more than two ounces (in
case of excess of weight, excess alone to
be paid for), and all documents printed by
order of either  house, during and sixty
days before and after each session of con-
gress.   Postmasters may send and receive,
tree of postage, lettere and packets not ex-
ceeeling half an ounce  in weight;  and
diey may  receive  one daily newspaper
each,  or  what  is equivalent  diereto.
Printers of newspapers may send one pa-
per to  each and every odier printer of
newspapers witliin the U. States free of
postage, under  such regulations  as  the
postmaster-general may provide. " If any
person shall frank any letter or lettere other
than those written by himself, or by his or-
der, on the business of his office, he shall, on
conviction thereof, pay a fine often dollars."
—Rates of Postage.  On a single letter,
composed  of one piece of paper, for  any

Distance not exceeding   30 miles,   6 c.
above 30 and  not exceeding 80   "   10 "
  "  80        "       150   "  12£ "
  " 150        "       400   "  18| "
  " 400                       "  25 "

A letter composed of two pieces of paper
is charged widi double these rates; of
three  pieces, with  triple ; and  of four
pieces, with  quadruple.   " One or more
pieces  of paper, maded as a letter, and
weighing one  ounce, shall be charged
with quadruple postage, ahd at the same
rate, should the weight be greater."  For
eveiy letter lodged at the post-office to be
delivered at the place where it is so lodged,
one cent is charged.  Newspaper Postage.
For each newspaper, not carried out of tne
state in which it is published, or if carried
out of the state, but not carried over 100
miles, one cent; over 100 miles, and  out
ofthe state in which it is published, one
and  a half cent.   For magazines and
pamphlets, if published periodically, dis-
tance not exceeding 100 miles, one and a
half cent per sheet; distance  over 100
miles, two and a half cents per sheet;  if
not  published periodically, distance  not
exceeding 100 miles, four cents per sheet;
distance over 100  miles, six cents  per
sheet.   " Each printed pamphlet or mag-
azine which contains more than twenty-
four pages, on a royal sheet, or any sheet
of less dimensions, shall be charged by the
sheet; and small pamphlets, printed on a
half or quarter sheet, of royal or less size,
shall be chargeil with half the amount of
postage charged  on a full sheet."  The
postage on ship-letters, if delivered at the
office  where die vessel arrives, is  six
cents; if conveyed by post, two cents in
addition to the ordinary postage.—The
following table will show the rapid exten-
sion  of the post-office department in  the
U. States :—
Number  of Post-Offices, Amount of Postage paid to Postmasters, incidental Expenses,
   Transportation ofthe Mail, net Revenue, and Extent of Miles, from 1789 to 1831.
      Number of
Vears.    Post-
        Offices
 1789
 1790
 1795
 1800
 1805
 1810
 1815
 1816
 1817
 1818
 1819
 1820
 1821
 1822
 1823
 1824
 1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
     75
     75
    453
    903
   1558
   2300
   3000
   3260
   3459
   3618
   4000
   4500
   4650
   4799
   5043
   5182
   5677
   6150
   7003
   7530
  8004
\SeethefoU
Mowing r&-
\marlu.
Amount of
 Postage.
$  37,935
  160,620
  280,804
  421,373
  551,684
1,043,065
  961,782
1,002,973
1,130,235
1,204,737
1,111,927
1,059,087
1,117,490
1,130,115
1,197,758
1,306,525
1,447,703
1,524,633
1,659,915
1,707,418
1,850,583
1,997,811
Amount paid	Incidental
to Postmasters.	Expenses.
$ 8,198	$ 1,861
30,272	12,262
69,243	16,107
111,552	26,180
149,438	18,565
241,901	18,441
265,944	16,508
303,916	23,410
346,429	24,792
375,828	24,152
352,295	26,206
337,599	31,003
355,299	23,655
360,462	29,069
383,804	35,276
411,183	32,214
447,727	33,885
486,411	40,203
548,049	55,583
559,237	69,249
595,234	63,463
635,028	48,304
Transportation
 ofthe Mail.
$ 22,081
  75,359
 128,644
 239,635
 327,966
 487,779
 521,970
 589,189
 664,611
 717,881
 782,425
 815,681
 788,618
 767,464
 768,939
 785,646
 885,100
 942,345
1,086,313
1,153,646
1,274,009
1,252,226
Net Revenue.
$ 5,795
 42,727
 66,810
 44,006
 55,715
294,944
157,360
 86,458
 94,403
 86,876
 9,739
77,482
80,991
55,574
91,582
 Extent in
 Miles of
Post-Roads.
   1,875
  13,207
  20,817
  31,076
  36,406
  43,748
  48,673
  52,089
  59,473
  67,586
  72,492
  78,808
  82,763
  84,860
  84,860
  94,052
  94,052
 105,336

 115,000
 See thefol-
| lowing r#-
 maKkt.. 
298                          POSTS—POTASH.
The reports ofthe postmaster-general for
1830 and 1831 do not give the number of
post-offices, nor the  extent  in miles of
post-roads; but they give the number of
miles  performed by  the  mail  annually;
and it appeare that,  in  the  year ending
July  1, 1831,  this was 15,468,692, of
which 10,728,348 miles were traversed in
stages  and  steam-boats, and  4,740,344
miles on horseback and in cabriolets. This
amount was 968,702  miles  more than in
the previous  twelve months.  For more
particulars, we must  refer the reader to
the reports   of  the  postmaster-general,
presented  to  congress annually, in con-
nexion with  the reports  of the members
of the cabinet  and the  message  of the
president of the U. States.  These papers,
laying open the operations of the admin-
istration without any reserve,  are  quite
characteristic of the  government of  the
U. States.  The Post-office Laws, Instruc-
tions  and Forms, Washington, 1828, con-
tain  the  regulations  respecting the  post
establishment  The U. States' mails cany
lettere, newspapers, pamphlets, aud  are
transported  on  horseback,  iu coaches
anel steam-boats.   No [mckage weighing
above three pounds can  be  sent by mail.
The inviolability of  lettere  is  no where
more  respected than in the  U. States, no
law existing which  can empower any offi-
cer, or private person, to open letters for
whatever purpose (except in the. case of
dead leUers above-mentioned); and, on the
other  hand, high penalties are imposed for
opening or stealing them..  The U. States
are probably the only countiy in which
posts  exist widiout laws prohibiting pri-
vate pereons  to carry lettere,  and  the
quantity  of lettere  forwarded by private
conveyance   between  certain  places  is
very  great   Only  regularly established
conveyances,  as common stages, wagons,
&c, are not allowed to take sealed letters.
Great numbers of letters pass between
America and  Europe in the fines of pack-
ets, particularly those which run between
New York and Liverpool and Havre, and
are supported by the enterprise of private
individuals in the U. States.  The number
of lettere delivered by these  packets into
the  New York  post-office, sometimes
amounts (when several arrive together in
consequence of a continuance of contra-
ry winds on die coast) to many thousands
in one day. Otiier places, as Philadelphia,
have also lines of packets to Europe.
  Postulate (from postulo, to demand);
in  mathematics, a problem which  it is
self-evident can be solved;  as, for exam-
ple, to draw a line about  a pointy ao  that
every part of die line shall be at an equal
distance from  the  point.  In  the  critical
philosophy, postulates of practical reason
arc theoretical axioms, not susceptible of
demonstration, to the reception of which
we are determined by practical ideas, or
certain  practical laws existing uncondi-
tionally, and a priori.   Man is free ; man
is  immortal; there is one God; are, in the
Kantian philosophy, the three  postulates
of pure practical reason.
  Potash, or Potassa, derives its name
from ashes,  and the pots (caHed potash
kettles) in  which the lixivium from which
it is obtained is boiled down.  Some  of
its old  names were, vegetable alkali, in al-
lusion to its being derived from the incin-
eration of vegetables ; salt of tartar, from
the fact that cream, of tartar  is another
source  of  potash, and alkali of nitre, from
its having  been known to form the basis
of that  salt  The process employed in the
arts for obtaining potash is the  following s
The ley of vegetable ashes is mixed with
quick lime and boiled down in iron pots,
and the residuum  ignited ; the substance
remaining after ignition is common pot-
ash.  The purest potash is obtained from
the mutual action in a red-hot iron pot, of
nitre and tartar, in the ratio of one of the
former to  two  of the  latter; the basis of
each of these salts is potash, and the acids
combined  with  them  are  destroyed  by
their action on each other.  Those ashes
which  are derived from plants, growing
remote from salt water yield this alkali in
greatest purity.  Herbaceous  vegetables
yield  more  than  trees;  in  trees,  the
branches yield more than the body,  the
small branches more than the large, and
the leaves most of all.  One thousand
pounds of the following vegetables yield-
ed saline matter in the following order :

  Wormwood,............. 748.
  Stalks of sun-flower, ......., 349
  Stalks of Turkey wheat,  ...... 198
  Vine branches,........«... 162
  Fem,.................no
  Box,..................   78
  Fumitory,...............300,
  Beech,.......,........219
  Elm,.................. 166
  Fir,..................132
  Oak,...........,.....in
  Heath,................H5
  Aspen,................61

The alkali arises from various  salts exist-
ing in  the vegetable  juices, and which
have been decomposed by the action  of
fire.  To prepare the potash, in a state of
perfect purity,  from die impure  articls 
rOTASII.
299
bearing this name in  commerce, we boil
the common potash with twice its weight
of quick-lime for a few hours, in abun-
dance of water,—separate the precipitate,
and boil the liquid down to the consistence
of a sirup ; after which we add an  equal
bulk of strong alcohol, and let the mixture
stand some time in a closed vessel. Some
solid matter will collect at the bottom of
the vessel, above which will appear  a
stratum of watery liquor containing sev-
eral salts in  solution; while the alcohol
occupies the top, and  is colored ofa dark-
red color.  This last is separated from the
fluid below by decantation, and is evapo-
rated to dryness in a silver basin. The dry
substance is  a hydrate of potash.   It is
solid, white,  and extremely  caustic.  In
minute  quantities, it  changes the purple
of violets and cabbage to a green, redden-
ed  litmus to  purple, and yellow turmeric
to a reddish-brown.   It rapidly attracts
humidity from the air, and becomes semi-
fluid.  It is fusible at a heat  of 300°, and
is volatilized at low ignition.  It is used in
surgery, under the name  of lapis inferna-
lis, or lapis causticus. In chemistry, it is
veiy extensively employed, both in manu-
factures and as an agent in  analysis.  It
is the basis of the common soft soaps, for
which purpose, however, it is not used in
its pure state.—Decomposition of potash. If
a thin piece of solid hydrate  of potash be
placed between two discs of platina, con-
nected with the extremities of a voltaic ap-
paratus of 200 double plates, four inches
square, it will soon undergo fusion; oxygen
will separate at the positive surface, and
small metallic globules will appear  at the
negative surface, which are the basis of pot-
ash, and are called by sir H. Davy, who dis-
covered the fact in 1807, potassium.   Oth-
er  and  more  convenient methods  have
been devised for obtaining this extraordi-
nary substance.  That invented by MM.
Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  consisted in
heating potash  to  whiteness  in a  gun-
barrel, in contact with turnings of iron, the
air being excluded; the potassium is lib-
erated and collected in the cold extremity
of the  tube.  M. Bronner, by acting on
calcined tartar in a bottle of wrought iron,
has succeeded in obtaining potassium at a
comparatively  low heat.   The  bottle  is
spheroidal, about half an inch in thickness,
and capable of holding about a pint of
water:  a bent gun-barrel, ten or twelve
inches  in length, screws into the mouth
of the bottle.   The bottle, well luted over
with fire clay, is set in a strong air-furnace,
so  that the tube may  dip down externally,
beneadi the surface of the naphtha contain-
ed in a cylirulric copper vessel, standing .n
a tub containing snow or  ice and water.
The top ofthe naphtha vessel has a cover
fixed on it, pierced with a hole to receive
the end of the gun-barrel;  and from  the
side of the  upper part  of the vessel, a
small tube goes  off at right angles, to let
the air anel vapors escape.  It is advan-
tageous to  mix a little ground charcoal
with die  tartar,  previously  calcined in a
covered vessel, in the same  iron bottle, for
example.  Nearly 300 grains of potassium
have been  procured  by this  apparatus
from 24 ounces of crude tartar.  Potassium
is possessed of the following properties :
It is lighter than  water, its specific gravity
being only  0.86.  At common tempera-
tures, it is solid, soft, and easily moulded
by the fingere.   At 150° it fuses; and in a
heat a little below redness, it rises in vapor.
It is opaque.  When freshly cut, its color
is a bright silver-white; but  it suffers a  tar-
nish on a moment's exposure to the  air.
To preserve it unchanged, it must be kept
in small vials under naphtha,  or oil of  co-
paiba.  It conducts electricity, like  the
common  metals.   When  thrown  upon
water, it  acts with great  violence, and
swims rapidly upon the  surface,  burning
with a beautiful light of a red  color, mixed
with violet.   The water becomes a solu-
tion of potash.  When moderately heated
in the  air, it inflames, burns with a  red
light, and  throws  off  alkaline  fumes.
Placed in  chlorine, it bums  with great bril-
liancy. On  all fluids containing much  wa-
ter, oxygen, or chlorine, it readily acts.   It
combines with oxygen  in two proportions.
The protoxide is the pure potash above
described, and  consists  of potassium 40
and oxygen 8.   When potassium burns in
open air, or in oxygen gas,  it is converted
into an orange-colored  substance, which is
the peroxide of  potassium.    It may  also
be formed by conducting oxygen gas over
potash at  a red heat.  It  consists of potas-
sium 40 and oxygen  24.  The attraction
of chlorine for potassium is much stronger
than that  of oxygen for this metal.  Chlo-
ride of potassium has a saline and bitter
taste.  It is composed of 36 parts of chlo-
rine and 40 of potassium.  The iodide of
potassium is formed with the emission of
light, when potassium is heated in contact
with iodine.  It fuses readily when heat-
ed, and is volatilized at a temperature be-
low redness.  It dissolves  in strong alco-
hol ; and the solution, when gently evap-
orated, yields small colorless cubic crys-
tals of iodide of potassium.  It  is com-
posed of 124 iodine and  40  potassium.
Hydrogen and  potassium  unite  in  two 
300
POTASH.
proportions, forming in one  case a solid,
and  in  the other a gaseous compound.
The latter is produced, when hydrate of
potash is decomposed by iron at a white
heat; and it appears also  when potassium
is burned on the surface  of water.   It is
called potassureted hydrogen.   It inflames
spontaneously in air or oxygen gas; but
on standing for some hours over mercury,
the greater part, if not the whole, of the
potassium is deposited.   The solid com-
pound of these bodies, called hydroguret
of potassium, is formed by heating potas-
sium in hydrogen gas.  It is  a gray, solid
substance,  which is readily  decomposed
by heat, or contact with water, but does
not inflame spontaneously in oxygen gas.
By the aid of a little heat, sulphur unites
readily with potassium, and  fonns a sul-
phuret of this metal; and so  much caloric
is evolved at the moment of  combination,
that the mass becomes incandescent.   It
has a red color, fuses before  the tempera-
ture of ignition, and assumes a crystalline
texture in cooling.  It consists of sulphur
16 and potassium 40.   Phosphuret of po-
tassium may be formed in like manner by
the  action of potassium on phosphorus,
with the aid of a moderate heat.  Charcoal
which has been strongly heated in contact
with potassium effervesces in water,  ren-
dering it  alkaline,  though   the charcoal
may be previously exposed to a tempera-
ture at  which potassium is  volatilized.
Hence there is probably a compound of
the two formed by a feeble attraction.—
We now return to the subject of potash, or
the  protoxide of potassium, whose  im-
portance in a state  of purity and  in the
compounds it forms with the acids, is  so
great to mankind.  Potash is acted on by
phosphorus.   When  it  is   heated  in a
close tube  with phosphorus,  a compound
is formed, which, when thrown into water,
decomposes it, phosphoric acid remaining
in solution, and phosphureted hydrogen
being liberated.  The nature of this com-
pound is yet uncertain;  it may either be
a phosphuret of potash, or  a mixture of
phosphate  of potash  and phosphuret of
 Eotassium.  Sulphuret of potash, it used to
 e  imagined,  was  formed  when  equal
parts of sulphur and dry  concrete potash
are heated in a covered crucible, or when
one part of sulphur and two parts of  sub-
carbonate of potash are  heated together.
But the usual product of these methods is
sulphuret of potassium.  It  is said, how-
ever, that if the  heat be kept moderate, a
proper sulphuret of potash is formed.  It
is inodorous while dry; but when mois-
tened, or dissolved, acquires a fetid smell,
from the production of sulphureted hydro-
gen.    From  suffering  decomposition
when in a state of solution, it  is scarcely
possible to discover precisely its peculiar
agencies.   Hydrosulphurd of  potash is
formed by transmitting sulphurated  hy-
drogen through a solution of potash.  It
is obtained in large  prismatic crystals,
white and transparent; its taste is alkaline
and bitter.  It attracts humidity from the
air, and is soluble both in water and alco-
hol.  Carbonate, or sub-carbonate of pot-
ash.  This is the pearlashes of commerce.
It is obtained from heating the crude pot-
ash in a reverberatory furnace, and stirring
it briskly for  some time at a white heat
From  the  predominance  of the alkali
in it, it is deliquescent; if exposed to the
air, it soon attracts its weight of water,
which is the  quantity necessary for its
complete solution.  Its  taste is acrid; it
changes the  vegetable colors  to  green,
and combines with oils.   These char-
acters are so distinctly alkaline, that  they
formerly led to the opinion, that the potash
was in excess in  the salt, and hence it was
termed a sub-carbonate ; they are, how-
ever, to be ascribed rather  to  the weak
acidity of the carbonic acid than to defi-
ciency in its  proportion; for it is proved
that the salt consists of carbonic  acid
22  and potash 48; hence it is strictly a
carbonate of potash.  It is decomposed by
the acids; its carbonic acid being disen-
gaged  with effervescence.  The bi-carbo-
nate of potash may be obtained by expos-
ing the solution of the  carbonate to the
air  for some time, carbonic acid being
imbibed from the atmosphere,  and  crys-
tals being deposited ;  or it  is formed
more  directly by passing a current of
carbonic acid gas  through a solution of
the carbonate of such  a strength  that
crystals form  spontaneously.   They are
much  more  soluble in hot  water,—the
water  taking up five sixths of  its weight;
but, if the temperature be that  of boiling
water, part of the carbonic acid assumes
the elastic state, and rises through  the
liquor.  The taste  of this salt  is  more
mild than that of the pearlashes; though
still alkaline, it  has no causticity, but it
changes the vegetable colors to a green.
It contains just double the quantity of car-
bonic acid in the carbonate of potash.  It
is  much  used  for medicinal purposes.
Nitrate of potash, nitre, or saltpdre, is a
white, translucent  or  transparent  salt,
usually crystallized in  distinct six-sided
prisms, with  dihedral summits.   Its taste
is penetrating; but the cold produced by
placing the salt to dissolve in the mouth, is 
POTASH.
301
such  as  at first to predominate over the
acid.  Seven parts of water dissolve two of
nitre, at the temperature of 60°; but boil-
ing water dissolves its own weight  Its
constituents are nearly equal  weights of
nitric aciel and potash.   On being exposed
to a gentle heat, it fuses; and in this state
being poured into moulds, so as to form
little round cakes, or balls, it is called sal
prunella, or crystal mineral.  Nitre power-
fully promotes the combustion of inflam-
mable substances.  Two or three  parts,
mixed with one of charcoal, and set on fire,
burn rapidly; nitrogen and carbonic acid
gas ore given out; and a small portion of
the latter is retained by the alkaline residu-
um, which was formerly called clyssus of
nitre.  Three parts of nitre, two of sub-
carbonate of potash, and one of sulphur,
mixed together, fonn the pulvis fulminans,
a small quantity of which, laid on a fire-
shovel, and held over die fire till it begins
to melt, explodes, with a loud, sharp noise.
Mixed with sulphur and charcoal, it forms
gunpowder,  (q.  v.)  Three ports of nitre,
one of sulphur, and one of fine saw-dust,
well mixed,  constitute  the powder of fu-
sion.   If a bit of base copper be folded up,
and covered with this powder, in a walnut
shell, and the powder be set on fire with a
taper, it will detonate rapidly, and fuse the
metal into a globule of sulphuret, without
burning the shell.  The sources of nitre
are as follows:—It is found ready fonned
in the East Indies, in Spain, ill  the king-
dom of Naples;  and it abounds in die
limestone caves ofthe western and soutii-
western states  of our country, hi which
last-mentioned  situations it is rarely found
ready formed, but is obtained from the ni-
trate of lime, which is changed to nitre
by being mingled with wood-ashes, and
leached.  Far the greater part of the ni-
trate made use of is produced  by a com-
bination of circumstances, which tend to
comj iose and condense  nitric acid.  This
acid  appeare to be produced in all situa-
tions where animal matters are complete-
ly decomposed with aceess of air, and of
proper substances with which it can read-
ily combine.  Ground frequently trodden
by cattle, and impregnated with their ex-
crement, or the walls of inhabited places,
where putrid animal vapors abound, such
as slaughter-houses, drains, or the like, af-
ford nitre by long exposure to the air. Ar-
tificial nitre beds are made by an attention
to the circumstances in which the  salt is
produced by nature.   Dry  ditches  are
dug, and covered with sheds, open  at the
sides, to keep off the rain; these are filled
with animal  substances of all  kinds, and
   vol. x.           26
occasionally watered, and turned up, from
time to time, to accelerate the  process by
increasing the surfaces  to  which the air
may apply.   When a certain  portion of
nitrate is fonned, the  process  appears to
go on more quickly; but a  certain quan-
tity stops it altogether, and, after this ces-
sation, the materials will go on  to furnish
more, if what is fomied be extracted  by
lixiviation.   After a succession of many
months,  more or less,  according to the
management of  the operation, in which
the action of a  regular current of fresh
air is of the  greatest  importance, nitre is
found in the mass. If the beds contained
much vegetable matter, a considerable por-
tion of the nitrous salt will be common
saltpetre ; but if otherwise, the acid will,
for  the  most part, be combined with the
calcareous earth; to extract the  saltpette
from which, a number of large casks are
prepared, with  a cock  at the  bottom of
each, and a quantity  of straw within to
prevent its being stopped up: into these
the matter  is put, together with wood-
ashes, either strewed at top or added dur-
ing the filling. Boiling water is then pour-
ed on, and suffered to  stand for some time,
after which it is drawn off, and other wa-
ter added, in the same manner, as long as
any saline matter is afforded.   The weak
brine is heated,  and passed through other
tubs,  until  it becomes of  considerable
strength; it is then carried  to  the  boiler.
It contains nitre  and other salts, the prin-
cipal one of which is common salt.  It is
the property of nitre to be much more
soluble in hot than in  cold  water, as has
been seen above; but common  salt is very
nearly as soluble in cold as in hot water.
Whenever,  therefore, the evaporation is
carried by boding to a certain point, much
of the common salt will fall to the bot-
tom, for want of water to hold it in solu-
tion, though the nitre  will remain sus-
pended  by virtue of the heat  The com-
mon salt thus separated is taken out with
a perforated ladle; and a small  quantity of
die fluid is cooled, from time to time, that
its concentration may  be known by the ni-
tre  which crystallizes in it.   When  the
fluid  is sufficiently evaporated, it is taken
out and cooled, and a  great part ofthe ni-
tre  separates in crystals, while the remain-
ing common salt continues  dissolved,  be-
cause  equally soluble in  cold as  in  hot
water.   Subsequent  evaporation of  the
residue will separate more nitre  in  the
same maimer.  By the suggestion of La-
voisier, a much simpler plan was adopted;
reducing the cmde nitre to powder, and
washing it twice with water.   This nitre, 
302
POTASH—POTATO.
which  is called  nitre of the first boiling,
contains some common  salt, from which
it may be purified by solution in a small
quantity bf water, and subsequent evap-
oration ; for the crystals thus obtained are
much  less contaminated with  common
salt than before, because  the  proportion
of water is so much larger,  with respect
to the small quantity contained by the ni-
tre, that very little of it  will crystallize.—
The uses of nitre are  various.  Besides
being  employed  in  the composition of
fluxes, and  for the purposes of metallur-
gy, it serves to promote the combustion of
sulphur in fabricating sulphuric achk  It
is used in the art of dyeing;  it is added to
common salt for preserving meat, to which
it gives a red hue ; it is prescribed in med-
icine as a cooling febrifuge and diuretic;
and some  have recommended it,  mixed
with vinegar, as a very  powerful remedy
for  the  sea-scurvy.—Sulphate of  potash
is formed by adding diluted sulphuric acid
to a solution of carbonate of potash, un-
til  the acid  and alkaline  properties are
neutralized.   It  crystallizes in  six-sided
prisms, with pyramidal  terminations, and
requires for its solution seventeen parts
of water at 60°,  and five parts at 212°.
Its taste is  bitter.—Bi-sulpliate of potash
is the  salt remaining after the decompo-
sition of nitre by sulphuric acid.  It  con-
tains twice the quantity of acid in the sul-
 phate, has  a veiy sour taste, and reddens
vegetable colore, and is  more soluble than
 the sulphate. Phosphate of potash forms
 a gelatinous mass, which attracts humidi-
 ty  from the atmosphere: its taste is saline,
 with a degree of sweetishness. Sub-borate
 of potash is soluble in water, and by evap-
 oration affords  prismatic crystals, which
 are not changed by exposure to the air.
 Muriate of potash has a saline taste, which
 is  slightly bitter.  Its crystals are cubic,
 and decrepitate when  heated.  Chlorate
 of potash,  or  hyperoxymuriale, may  be
 formed by receiving chlorine as it is form-
 ed into  a solution of potash.   When the
 solution is saturated, it may be evaporated
 gently, and the first crystals produced will
 be the salt in question.  They are shining,
 hexahedral laminse, or  rhomboidal plates.
 Its taste is cooling and disagreeable. Spe-_
 cific gravity, 2.  Sixteen parts of water at
 60°, and two and a half of boiling water,
  dissolve one of it.   The purest oxygen is
  obtained from this salt, by exposing it to a
  gentle heat.  Its effects upon inflamma-
  ble substances are very  powerful.  Two
  grains,  rubbed into a powder in a mortar,
  and mingled with one grain of sulphur,
  give a loud detonation  when struck upon
an, anvil with a. hammer.   Five grains of
the salt, mixed, in die same manner, with
two and a half of charcoal, will be inflam-
ed by strong trituration.  If a little sugar
be mixed with half its weight ofthe pow-
dered chlorate, and a little strong sulphu-
ric  acid poured on it, a sudden inflamma-
tion will ensue.   If to one grain of the
salt in a mortar we  add half a grain of
phosphorus,  and  communicate to  it  a
slight  trituration,  it  will  detonate  with,
great violence, and attended widi some
hazard  to the operator from the jets of
burning phosphorus.  Chlorate of potash
is decomposed by the acids, accompanied
with the evolution of a dense yellowish-
green vapor,  which  acts with great ener-
gy  on inflammable  substances.  In this
way a light may be easily obtained,.at any
time, by placing a few grains of the salt
on a piece of paper,  dropping a  little oil
of turpentine on them, and then adding  a
drop  of strong sulphuric  acid ; the oil
will be  immediately inflamed, and  will
kindle the paper.   In the common match-
bottles for procuring a light, a mixture,
consisting of sugar,  like that above  de-
scribed, except  the  presence of a  little
mucilage  to  form the compound into  a
paste,  is  spread over sulphur  matches,
which are dipped into a bottle containing a
portion of strong sulphuric acid, retained
by fibres  of amianthus,  or spun  glass.
Chlorate of potash consists of 9.5 chloric
acid and 6 potash.  Fluate of potash has
a sharp taste, is deliquescent, very soluble
in  water,  and not  easily  crystallizable.
Hydriodate of potash is veiy  soluble in
water.  When dried, it is decomposed,.
like the other hydriodates, and is convert-
ed into iodide of potassium.  We have al-
luded to the most important uses of pot-
ash in the arts and medicine.  It may be
added that, besides being produced in the
vegetable, it is found in the mineral king-
dom, either as a saline combination, or as
an ingredient in earthy fossils ;  and it  is
likewise found  in several of the animal
fluids and solids.  The amount of pot and
 pearlashes exported  from the U. States in
the year ending September 30, 1830, was
 8957 tons, valued at 1,105,127 dollars.
   Potato  (solanum tuberosum).   Man-
 kind owe this invaluable root to the con-
 tinent of South America, where it grows
 wild,  and where it was  cultivated long
 previous to its introduction into Europe.
 Clusius is the first  European writer who
 mentions it, about the year 1588, and from
 this period it spread into the different parts
 of the eastern  continent  with  greater or
 less rapidity.  The potato has been cul- 
POTATO—POTEMKIN.                      303
'tivated  in  Suabia and Alsace only since
1720, and  did  not reach Switzerland till
1730.  Almost  every where its introduc-
tion met with  great  opposition.   The
French, especially, were excessively pre-
judiced on die subject; and it was not till
a time of scarcity, during the  revolution,
rhad fastened it  upon them, that its culture
became general.  Now, however, it is al-
most universally  cultivated  within  die
tropics, and to latitude 64° north, in Swe-
den ; and it seems to be adapted to  all ex-
posures, and almost eveiy soil.  The po-
tato has added millions to the population
of Em-ope, anel has  there rendered  un-
known those famines Which formerly were
so  frequent  and  so  distressing.   The
roots are large tubercles, rounded  or ob-
long, almost always white internally,  but
differing, in different varieties, in the color
of the skin, which is of various mixtures,
of brown, purple, red, yellow,  aud  white.
The stems are angular,  herbaceous,  anel
from one  and a half to two feet high.
The leaves are pinnate, composed of five
or seven lanceolate  oval leaflets, having
lesser ones between them.  The flowers
are pretty large, numerous,  and disposed
in corymbs upon long peduncles,  which
are inserted opposite to the superior leaves;
their color is  violet, bluish,  reddish, or
'whitish.  The  fruit is of moderate size,
 and reddish-brown when ripe.  The po-
tato succeeds  best in a light sandy loam,
 containing a certain proportion of vegeta-
ble matter. The usual mode of planting
 is by cutting the roots in pieces, reserving
 one eye, or bud, to each piece, and cover-
 ing these with  earth.  It is a much more
 certain crop than any other, having little
to fear from storms, or hail, or even from
 long elroughts,  or continued rains.  It is,
besides, planted the latest of all, andgath-
vn\d in when all others have been disposed
 of.  The varieties of the potato are very
 numerous, differing in the time of ripening,
 in their form, size, color, and quality ; and,
 in general, eveiy district has  its peculiar
 or favorite ones;  and then*  names are
 qitite arbitrary, or  local.  Some degene-
 rate, and others improve, by  removal to
another district   New  ones are readily
 procured  by  sowing the seeds, which,
 with care, will produce  tubers the tliirel
year, and a full crop die  fourth.  In addi-
tion to the usual culinary uses of potatoes,
 brevd may be made by mixing with them
 a nearly equal  portion of wheat flour; and
 also a kind of cheese, by reducing them
to the consistence  of paste,  adding an
 equal  quantity of curd,  and, with a little
salt, mid some other ingredients, mixing
the whole  togedier, and  forming it  in
moulds.  Alcohol is very extensively dis-
tilled  from  them in Europe*    Starch
may be made by the simple process  of
scraping them in water, and well washing
the pulp, When  the starch settles to the
bottom in a heavy  and dense sediment.
This starch is not Only used for the same
purposes as that prepaVed from wheat, but
also as a size, which does not putrefy, like
that produced from animal substances, a*id
has no disagreeable smell.   Yeast may
also be prepared from the potato, and
even the seed-vessels may be employed as
a pickle; and, when properly prepared,
are said to be superior to the cucumber.
   Potemrix, Gregory Alexandrowitsch,
prince, and  Russian  field-marshal, was
bom iu 1786, at Smolensk, ofa family  of
Polish extraction.  Of all the favorites  of
the empress "Catharine II,  Potemkin was
for thirty-two years the only one who gain-
ed the complete control of public affairs.
According to'the description which Dohm
gives  of him, in his memoirs, he was only
a bold and  artful cOurtier, without solid
political knowledge.  His rapid success,
his-great influence, Ae  power which  he
exercised over the empress, and even  his
Oriental and affected manner of life, have
frequently caused him to be viewed as an
extraordinary  man, whose  faults were
merely the results of his  great qualities.
His rudeness and caprice have been con-
strued into originality, and the free scope
which he gave his passions has been taken
for greatness. Potemkin was without mor-
al worth;  nay, more—he was a veiy ordi-
nary  man, who, favored by extraordinary
circumstances, became engaged in impor-
tant relations.  After the  early death  of
his father, he entered the military service,
and, two years later (1762),  became  an
ensign in  the horse-guards.  As Catha-
rine was riding through the ranks in uni-
form,  for the  purpose of gaining  the
troops to  favor  her advancement to the
throne, Potemkin perceived that she had
no tassel on her sword.  He immediately
untied his own, and presented it to  the
empress.   His  form and his  attention
made an impression upon her.  He soon
confirmed himself in her favor, after  he
was admitted to her society. He supplant-
ed his rivals, especially the brothers Or-
loff, and, in 177(5, was, the declared favo-
rite.  The  hatred of his  rivals was  in-
creased by his arrogance, and  in a duel
with  Alexis Orloff,  he lost an eye.  This
circumstance made him more dear to  the
empress, and as he retired occasionally,
from prudence,  he  escaped  becoming 
304
POTEMKIN.
tiresome.   Catharine appointed him min-
ister of war.  He succeeded iu persuad-
ing the empress  that he was indispensa-
ble for her security.  She  was sensible
that she was hated by many powerful men ;
she also feareel her son, to whom she had
engaged  to transfer the throne on  his
majority, and  regareled Potemkin as a
daring, resolute  man, cqiable of putting
down  opposition.  She committed to
him, therefore, unlimited power,  before
which  she herself, at  last,  trembled.
Nevertheless, he  maintained, from 1776
until his death,  a space of sixteen years,
a boundless sway over  the  empress, in
spite of his enemies.  From 1778 till his
death,  he exercised  almost the whole di-
rection of foreign affairs, which he con-
ducted in a daring and  reckless  spirit
He caused  a  proposal  to  be  made to
Frederic II, in 1782, through count Gorz,
for a new division of what  remained of
Poland.  " The  first division," lie said,
"was only child's play; had the  whole
been divided at that time, the cry would
have been  no louder."  When the king
rejected this proposal   on  grounds  of
right, prince Potemkin was so astonished
that, after a third perusal of the answer,
he returned it to the minister  with the
words, " I  should never  have  imagined
diat king Frederic was capable of roman-
tic notions."  In 1783, when the Tartars
of the  Crimea refused  to acknowledge
the authority of  the empress, the  gene-
rals had orders to cut down the refracto-
ry.  One general refused to  comply, say-
ing that he was no executioner; but Paul
Potemkin, a relation of the prince, exe-
cuted the commission, and caused 30,000
men, women, and children, to be seized
and  put  to  death.   While governor-
general of  Taurida, Potemkin treated
the Tartars with  the  greatest  cruelty,
and  thus   depopulated   the province.
He  was jealous  of all which interfered
with his  vanity  or ambition.   Every
man distinguished  by  merit,  birth  or
riches,  was treated with  indignity.  The
representatives of foreign powers were
treated as  his  subjects.   His arrogance
towards the empress was such that  he
was eveu said to have struck her.   Cer-
tain it is, that he often opposed her wishes,
and purposely acted contrary to  them.
On the other hand, he  deluded her  by
the boldest  flattery, accommodated to her
character,  as, for example,  in  1787,  on
her journey to Taurida.   (See Catharine
II.)  Another time, he  reviewed, before
the empress, the  same regiments on dif-
ferent days, in  different uniforms,  in or-
der to convince her that the numbers of
the army were complete.  The Prussian
ambassador,  count Gorz, says of him,
" He is a man who has genius anel talents,
but his character does not attract love or
esteem."   Potemkin, however, directed
his attention to some useful objects.   He
proposed to the  empress to  take posses-
sion of the Crimea, and to lay the foun-
dation of  the city of Cherson, on the
Dnieper, about seven leagues from Ocza-
kow, in 1778.  He introduced fruit-trees
into Taurida.  Petersburg is also indebt-
ed to him for a manufactory of glass and
looking-glasses, which equals, in the size
and beauty of its  productions, those of
Venice and Paris.  Potemkin  paid par-
ticular attention to the arts, was passion-
ately fond of  music, anel had eighty mu-
sicians in  his train.  In  1776, he  was
made a prince of tki German empire.
Afterwards he wished to become duke
of'Courland.   In 1787,  Catharine  gave
hiin the  name  of the  Taurian (Taw-
ritscheskoi).   The riband  of  the order
of St George, which could be bestowed
only on a commander-in-chief after a vic-
tory, was wanting  to complete his lion-
ore.   Hence,  in 1787,  he  enticed the
Porte to a  declaration of war.  The (so
called) Greek system, and the  expulsion
of the Turks  from Europe, was Ids  fa-
vorite plan, the execution of which seem-
ed to him at hand after Catharine's above-
mentioned journey  to Taurida, and her
connexion  with  Joseph  II.  In case of
its success he expected to hold Moldavia
and  Walachia, as  an independent prin-
cipality, under the protection of Russia.
At the commencement of the  war,  Po-
temkin was placed, with unlimited power,
at the head of an army of 150,000 men,
and distinguished generals served  under
him.  The war was carried on with fury
on the plains  of Oczakow,  Cuban  anel
Little Tartary.  Hunger and  pestilence
increased the  universal distress. Never-
theless, Potemkin undertook the siege of
Oczakow, which lasted from July to the
17th of December,  1788.  Potemkin, ut
last,  ventured  a  decis.'ve blow, in order
that he might not be compelled to raise
the siege.  In the night  of December
17th, he took the works by storm, though
they had received hardly any injury, but
a small breach.  The  attempt, however,
would have failed but for the blowing up
of a powder  magazine.  The slaughter
was ten-ible; the city was plundered for
three days; more than 30,000  men per-
ished on  both sides;  but  Potemkin re-
ceived the  great riband  of St  George, a 
POTEMKIN—POTOCKI.
305
present of 100,000 roubles, the  title of
hetman  of the Cossacks, and a  baton
set with  diamonds  and encircled  with
branches  of laurel.  When he returned
to Petersburg,  in  March, 1791, the em-
press caused  splendid festivals to be pre-
paretl  in  honor of  him,  gave him the
Taurian palace and  a dress set with dia-
monds.   The  author of die war, how-
ever, was seized with the sickness which
raged  in the  camp.   Without regarding
the advice of the most celebrated physi-
cians of  Petersburg, who  attended him,
he  continued  his  excesses.    As  the
air of Jassy was prejudicial to him, he
set out for Nicolajeff; but, on the second
day of his journey, he became so unwell
that he descended  from  the carriage and
expired in the arms of his niece,  the
countess Branicka, under a tree, on the
16th of October,  1791.   His body was
carried to Cherson,  where  the empress
appropriated 100,000 roubles for the erec-
tion of a  monument to  him, which was
never  completed.  Afterwards, the em-
peror  Paul caused  the  corpse of his
mother's favorite to be taken from its cof-
fin, and thrown into  the ditch of the for-
tification, and neither the coffin nor body
is now to be  found.  Satiated  even to
disgust with  sensual pleasure, Potemkin
denieel himself nothing,  and  satisfied
every passing whim by a prodigal waste
of the money of the state, and a wanton
sacrifice of the lives of others.  Though
the empress denied him nothing, and the
sums of money which she  expended on
him exceeded all belief, still he was mean
enough to  appropriate  to himself the
money intrusted to  him  for  other pur-
 poses,  and even to  forge  orders on the
treasury, in the name of the empress, in
order to obtain for himself the money
which was necessary for supply ng the
wants ofthe state.   Potemkin also  -aiffer-
eel himself to  be  purchased by foreign
powers.  While possessed of incredible
wealth, and  throwing away the  largest
sums at the gaining  table, or in the grati-
fication of his whims, he did not pay the
bills of those who  furnished his ordinary
supplies.   Those  tradesmen considered
themselves  ruined who received orders
to furnish goods to Potemkin.
   Pothier, Robert  Joseph, a celebrated
French jurist,  born 1699,  died  1772.
His digest of the  maxims and principles
of the  Roman law,  contained in Justin-
ian's pandects, under the title of Pandeda
Juslinianetf in novum Ordinem  digesta,
was  more  highly esteemed  in foreign
countries than at home.   Of his profound
                  26*
knowledge of  the  droit coutumier,  we
have a proof in his Introduction a la Cou-
tume  d'Orlians, and the  commentary
which accompanies it. Ills different trea-
tises on various points of legal science are
in the highest esteem.  The first, which
is a sort of foundation for the others, is
his  Traite des  Obligations, which, as is
also  the  case  with  the  rest, displays a
methodical mind, anel is distinguished for
clearness, profundity and precision, and
for its high tone of morality, which was
in accordance  with the  character of his
life.   Pothier was appointed professor of
French law at the university of Orleans,
and appropriated  the salary attached to
his  office for  premiums to his most in-
dustrious pupils.  All his works, except
the Pandects, are contained in the edition
of Siffrein (Paris,  1821—23,   17 vols.,
8vo.).
  Potocki; the  name  of an  ancient
Polish family,  of which  we  shall here
mention several of the most distinguish-
ed members.—1. Count  Paul was an il-
lustrious statesman  and  scholar  of  the
seventeenth century, whose works were
published by Zaluski, with the addition
of a  Genealogia  Poiockiana.—2. Count
Anthony, grandson of the preceding, was
ambassador  of Augustus II to Russia,
and, in the reign of Augustus III, mar-
shal ofthe nobility. His masterly speeches
are,  in part,  given in  Daneykowicz's
Suada Polona.—3. Count Stanislaus  Fe-
lix, the commander ofthe Polish artillery,
acted  an important part in the trou-
bles of 1788.   He adhered pertinaciously
to the old constitution  of the  republic,
and  exerted  his influence  against  the
constitution  of May 3, 1791.  (See Po-
land.)  Potocki so far forgot  his duty to
his country as to form  connexions with
Russia, and, in May, 1792, joined with
Rzewuski and Branicki  in the declara-
tion  at Targowicz  against the  constitu-
tion.   He then united himself  with  the
Russian army, and was one ofthe leaders
of the diet of  Grodno, which abolished
the constitution and subscribed the  act
for  the partition of  the  country.  (See
Poniatowski.)   He was thought to aspire
to the crown,  and received several im-
portant appointments from Catharine II.
When the Cracow confederation, under
Kosciusko, Kolontay, Ignatius  Potocki,
&c, had occasioned the expulsion of the
Russians from  Warsaw  and  Wilna,  he
fled to Russia,  aud  was  condemned by
the supreme tribunal of the republic as a
traitor to his  country,  and  his estates-
were  confiscated.  Catharine, however^ 
306
POTOCKI—POTOSI.
restored his estates, and made him com-
mauder-in-chief.  He died in 1803.—4.
Count Ignatius,  his  cousin, born  1751,
grand marshal of Lithuania, united with
Malachowski, Kolontay and other  patri-
ots in support of the constitution of May
3, 1791.  He also procured the declara-
tion  of the king in favor of it,  and,  in
1792, went to Berlin for  the purpose of
inducing the Prussian  court to protect
the Poles from Russia.  When the Rus-
sian troops took  possession of the  coun-
try, Potocki fled  to Dresden,  and was
deprived of  his estates.   In  179-1, he re-
turned to Wareaw, to engage  in the at-
tempt of Kosciusko, was appointed  gene-
ral, and member of the supreme national
council.  After the capture of Warsaw,
he remained in  the city, trusting to the
capitulation  concluded with  Suvvarroff,
but he was  arrested in December, and
confined as  a  state prisoner in Russia,
until he was released by Paul, in  1796.
In 1806, he again engaged in public affairs,
and  exerted himself to effect  the aboli-
tion of slavery, and to promote the  prog-
ress of education among the people. He
died  in 1809.—5. Count Stanislaus  Kost-
ka, his brother, was always faithful to the
cause of his unfortunate country. He
distinguished himself greatly by his in-
formation and his eloquence, in the vari-
ous diets which were held between 1788
and 1792.  In the latter year, he became
general of artillery.   When the king ac-
ceded  to  the  confederation of Targo-
wicz, and  by that false step consummat-
ed the ruin  of Poland,  count  Potocki
retired into Austria;  but he was arrested
there, and imprisoned in a fortress. On
being restored to liberty,  there being no
hope of breaking the chains of his country-
men, he retired to his estate, and devoted
himself to the sciences and arts.  When,
however, the French penetrated, in  1807,
into  Poland, he  rallied around him the
friendsof independence; and, on the grand-
duchy of Warsaw being established, he
was  chosen  one of the plenipotentiaries
to Napoleon.   While  the  grand-duchy
existed, he  held various  high offices.
When Napoleon  meditated the  restora-
tion  of the ancient kingdom of Poland,
Potoclci's  talent  and   influence  were
called into action by him ;  and the abbe
de Pradt pays to the count a warm tribute
of praise  on this occasion.   In  1815,
count Potocki was appointed minister for
ecclesiastical affairs  and  public  instruc-
tion, and was afterwards chosen president
ofthe senate.   He  died in  1822. He
was the author of a work on eloquence,
and  of a Polish translation of Winckel-
laann's work on art.
  Potomac ; a river which rises in the
Alleghany mountains, and forms, through
its  whole   course,  tic boundary  be-
tween Maryland and Virginia.  It passes
by Shepherdstown, Georgetown, Wash-
ington city,  Alexandria, and other places,
and flows into Chesapeake bay, between
point Lookout and Smith's poiut.  It is
seven and a half miles wide at its mouth,
and one and a quarter at Alexandria, 290
miles from the ocean.   The termination
ofthe tide water is above 300 miles from
the sea, and the river is navigable for the
largest ships through nearly that distance.
Its junction  with  the  Shenandoah,  at
Harper's feny, is regarded as a great cu-
riosity.  (See Harper's Ferry.)  The river
is seven fathoms deep at its mouth, five
at  St. George's island, three  at  Swan's
point, and thence  to Alexandria.   Above
Washington  city,  there are  many ob-
structions to the navigation.
  I'otosi ; a city of Bolivia (q. v.), in the
province of the same name;  lat.  19° 34'
S.; lon. 67° 22' W.  It  was founded  in
1547 ;  the royal mint was established  in
1562, and  the population increased  so
rapidly  that in   1611   it amounted  to
160,000,  but  in  1826 had  sunk  to
11,200.   The  mountain  of  Potosi  is
16,250 feet high ; and the city stands on
a plain 11,000 feet above the sea.  The
streets are   narrow and irregular; the
houses are built of stone or brick, of only
one  story,  with balconies of wood, but
without chimneys.  The city  contains
diree monasteries, five convenis, an  hos-
pital, a college, nineteen parish churches,
and a mint  The mines were discovered
by Diego Hualca, an Indian peasant, when
pureu'n g wild goats.  Arriving at a steep
place ne laid hold ofa small shrub to pre-
vent  himself from falling; but the shrub,
being unable to support his weight, was
torn up by the roots, and disclosed to the
hunter a rich mass of silver, lumps of
which  adhered to the earth  that came
away with the plant.  Not long afterwards
the discovery was made known, and the
mine  was opened in 1545.  From the
time  of the first discovery to 1803, these
mines supplied 1,095,500,000 piastres,  or
£237,358,334 sterling,  which  paid the
royal duties; and  this only includes sil-
ver.  If the gold  and  smuggled  metals
were  included, the  amount  would be
much greater.  According to the official
statement, the amount coined from 1790
to 1794, inclusive,  was  $27,967,566, i.  e.
on an  average, $5,593,513 yearly.   The 
POTOSI—POTTERY.                         307
present diminution of the quantity of sil-
ver from  what it was formerly, is stated
by Pazos as four to one; by Humboldt the
diminution is stated to be greater; but they
are still the richest mines iu South Amer-
ica.   The number of mines worked was
formerly 300; in  1803, only 97.  Accord-
ing to Helms, nothing can equal the ig-
norance with which the mining operations
are conducted; if judiciously manageel,
the quantity of silver might be doubled.
   Pot-pourri (French) signifies the same
as olla  podrida. (q. v.)  It also signifies
a vessel containing flowers or plants, and
more generally any sort of medley.  (See
Quodhbd.)
   Potsdam ; a residence  of the king of
Prussia, seventeen miles west from Berlin,
on the river  Havel, with 25,000 inhabit-
ants, of whom 5700 are soldiere.  Several
troops of the guards are always stationed
here.  It has five churches, one synagogue,
aud 1600 houses.  It contains palaces and
gardens, chiefly built and laid out by Fred-
eric the Great (whose favorite residence
was  Potsdam), at an immense expense,  a
military orphan house for 600 children, in
exemplary order (besides  2000 other chil-
dren of military persons who arc provided
for by this establishment), with various
other public buildings; but the general ap-
pearance of the place is cheerless, because
it  has  no manufacturing  industry, nor
commerce.  A very fine  road leads from
Berlin to Potsdam, through a most unin-
teresting plain. Potsdam itself,  however,
is rather pleasantly situated;  lon.  E. 13°
.V; lat. N.  52° 24' 19".
   Potter, de. (See Netherlands, in the
Appendix at the end ofthe work.)
   Potter. John, primate of all England,
born in 1674, was  the son of a linen elra-
per of  Wakefield, in Yorkshire,  in the
grammar  school of which town he re-
ceived die rudiments of a classical edu-
cation.  He then became a member of
University college, Oxford, where,  in his
twentieth  year,  he published  Variantes
Lediones  et  Nota  ad Plutarchi Librum
de audiendis Poetis; et ad Basilii magni
Orationem ad Juvenes quomodo cum Fructu
legere possint  Graxorum Libros.   The
next  year he became fellow of Lincoln
college, and, in 1697, printed an edition
of Lycophron.    Soon  after  appeared
his Arch&ologia Graca,  or the Antiqui-
ties  of  Greece,  in 2 vols., 8vo.,  which
has gone through  many  editions, and is
almost indispensable to the classical stu-
dent.  In  1706, he became chaplain to
queen Anne, on which occasion he grad-
uated as  doctor  in divinity.   In  1715,
 being then regius professor of divinity, he
 was raised to the see of Oxford, and, in
 1737, was appointed archbishop of Can-
 terbury.   He died in 1747.   His works,
 besides those enumerated, are, a Discourse
 on Church Government (1707); an edition
of Clemens Alexandrinus (1714); and the-
 ological works, printed together,  in 3 vols.,
 8vo. (Oxford, 1753).
  Potter, Robert, horn in 1721, gradu-
 ated at Cambridge, 1741, died in 1804, was
 an admirable classical scholar, distinguish-
 ed by his excellent translations of the works
 of iEschylus (1777), Euripides, Sophocles
 (1788), equally  remarkable for the  spirit
 and  fidelity widi which they are rendered.
  Potter,  Paid; a painter of animals,
 born at Enkhuisen, in 1625, was the son
of Peter Potter, a painter, from whom he
received his first instruction, but to whom
he himself was greatly superior.  As early
as his  fifteenth year he hatl  executed a
work which was universally admired; and,
after he  settled at  the Hague, he was
unable to satisfy the demand for his works.
His department was the painting of ani-
mals and  landscapes,  but he  was more
particularly successful in the former; the
latter were designed  merely to afford an
opportunity for  exhibiting animals in dif-
ferent  attitudes  and circumstances.  His
coloring is uncommonly brilliant, and the
separate  parts are most delicately  exe-
 cuted,  yet  without any appearance of
stiffness or mannerism.  His pieces  were
generally of a small size ; but there is one
 in the Louvre, which originally belonged to
the  prince of Orange, representing a man
and cattle as large as life.  His walks were
always occupied in study; whatever struck
his fancy,  he immediately sketched. He
died iu 1654, at the age of twenty-nine
years, at Amsterdam, where he had  been
residing two years.  His engravings are not
less esteemed than his paintings.  His cab-
inet  pieces command a very high  price.
His celebrated Cow, which was taken from
the Cassel gallery to Paris, was bought by
Alexander, emperor of Russia, for about
4000 dollars.
  Potter's Clay.  (See Clay.)
  Pottert.  The art of forming vessels
or utensils of any sort of clay, kneaded
with water, and hardened in the fire, is of
high antiquity; and we find mention of
earthen ware   in the  Mosaic  writings.
The Greeks, at an early period,  had pot-
teries  at  Samos, Athens, and  Corinth.
Demaratus, father of Tarquinius Priscus,
is said to have instructed the Etruscans
 and  Romans in  this art, of which the
 Etruscan vases show the great perfection. 
308
POTTERY—POUDRE DE SUCCESSION.
  In the different kinds  of earthen  ware,
  the different degrees of beauty and costli-
  ness  depend upon the quality of the raw
  material used, and  upon  the labor and
  skill  expended in the operatiou.   (See
  Clay.)  The cheapest products of the art
  are those made Of common clay, similar to
  that of which bricks are formed, and which,
  from the iron it contains, usually turns red
  iu  burning.  (See Bricks.)  Next to this
  is the common Crockery ware, formed of
'  the purer and whiter clays, in which iron
  exists only in minute quantities.  Porce-
  lain,  which is the most beautiful and  ex-
  pensive of all, is formeil only from argil-
  laceous  minerals of  extreme  delicacy,
  united with  siliceous earths,  capable  of
  communicating to them a semi-transpa-
  rency, by means of its vitrification.  (See
  Fayence, and Porcdain.)  Though the va^
  rious kinds of pottery and porcelain  differ
  from each other in the details of their
  manufacture, yet there are certain general
  principles and processes, which are  com-1
  mon  to them all. The first belongs to the
  preparation of the clay, and  consists in
  dividing and washing it, till  it  acquires
  the requisite  fineness.   The  quality of
  the clay requires the  intermixture  of a
  certain proportion of siliceous earth, the
  effect of which  is to increase its firmness,
  and  render it less  liable  to  shrink and
  crack, on  exposure to heat  In  common
  clay,  a sufficient quantity of sand exists in
  a state of natural mixture,  to answer this
  purpose.   But in the finer kinds, an artifi-
  cial admixture of silica is necessary.  The
  paste which is thus formed is  thoroughly
  beaten and kneaded to  render it ductile,
  and to drive out the air.  It is then ready
  to receive its form.  The form of the ves-
  sel intended to  be  made is given to the
  clay either by turning it on a wheel,  or by
  casting it in a mould.  When dry, it is
  transferred to the oven  or furnace, and
  there  burnt  till  it  acquires  a sufficient
  degree of hardness for use.  Since,  how-
  ever, the clay is still porous, and of course
  penetrable  to water, it  is necessary to
  glaze it.   This  is done  by covering the
"f surface  with some  vitrifiable substance,
I  and exposing it a second time to heat, un-
  til  this substance is converted into a coat-
  ing of glass.  (See Glazing.) In the coarse
  earthen ware, which is made of common
  clay, the  clay, after  being  mixed and
  kneaded, until it has acquired the proper
  ductility, is transferred to a revolving table,
  called the  whed.  A piece of clay being
  placed in the centre of this table, a rotary
  motion is communicated to it by the feet;
  the potter  then begins to shape it with his
 hands; the rotary motion gives it a circu-
 lar form, and it is gradually wrought up
 to the intended shajie, a tool bei'ig occa-
 sionally used to assist the finish.ng.  The
 vessels  arc now  set  aside  to  dry,  after
 which they are baked in die oven or kiln.
 Stone ware may  be formed of the clays
 which are used for other vessels, by ap-
 plying to them a greater degree  of heat,
 which increases their strength  and solid-
 ity.  These vessels afford the material of
 their own  glazing by the vitrification of
 theirsurface.  When the furnace in which
 they are burnt  has arrived  at its greatest
 heat, a quantity  of muriate of soela, or
 common salt, is thrown into the body of
 the kiln.  The salt rises in vapor and en-
 velopes the hot ware, and by the combi-
 nation of its alkali with  the siliceous par-
 ticles on the surface ofthe ware, a perfect
 vitrification  is  produced. This  glazing,
 consisting of an earthy glass, is insoluble
 in most chemical  agents, anel is free from
 the objections  to  which vessels glazed
 with lead are liable—that of  communi-
 cating an unwholesome quality to liquids
 contained in  them, by the solution of  the
 lead in common  acids  which  they fre-
 quently contain.  White ware is made of
 white clay, or of  clay containing  so little
 oxide of iron that it does not turn red in
 burning, but  improves its whiteness in  the
 furnace.  (See Wedgeivood.)  The manu-
 facture of pipes is also  a branch of pot-
 tery.  Pano,  a  Spanish  monk, first intro-
 duced  earthen  pipes  from  St.  Domingo
 into Spain.   A manufactory was estab-
 lished in England by James I, in  1621,
and not long after, a  similar one was set
 up at Tergow by  the Dutch   The clay
used for pipes must burn white, be  care-
fully cleansed, and kneaded up to a tena-
cious paste.   Small lumps ofthe paste, of
a suitable size, are then  formed on the
 wheel into cylinders, bored by the laborer
 with a wire, and shaped in brass moulds.
The head is  then  hollowed  by a stopper
 pressed into  it, and the whole is again
smoothed and polished,  and  the pipes are
 then baked.  After baking, they are again
 polished with wax, gum  tragacanth, or
 grease.  (For enameled ware, see Enam-
 eling.)   See the History of me  Manufac-
 ture of Porcelain  and Glass, No. 26 of
 Lardner's Cyclopaedia (London,  1832).
  Potwallopers.  (See Preston.)
  Potjdre  de Succession (French, suc-
 cession powder) ; poisonous powder, once
 prepared in Italy  and France  to a great
 extent, to kill people slowly.  The horrid
 art of poisoning never excited more atten-
 tion in  France than about the  year 1670, 
POUDRE DE SUCCESSION—POURSUIVANT.          309
 when the extent ofthe crimes ofthe mar-
 cliioness  of Brinvilliere became  known.
 A numerous society of young women, un-
 der the direction of an old woman, of the
 name of Hieronyma Spara, was discover-
 ed in Rome, in 1659, who had adminis-
 tered poison to many people among the
 lnghest classes, to rid  wives  of their hus-
 bands, and husbands of their wives, chil-
 dren of their parents, &c.  The  histoiy
 of this foul blot in the records of mankind
 may be found, with many particulars of a
 painful interest, in Beckmann's Histoiy of
 Inventions,  &c,  translated  by  Johnston
 (vil i, division  Secret  Poison).  Though
 the  times when poisoning was habitually
 practised have past, yet, in some cases, it
 has, even in our times, been  carried to an
 inconceivable extent  In 1831, a woman
 of die name of Gottfried was executed in
 Bremen, Gennany, for having successive-
 ly  poisoned  more than thirty  pereons
 (among whom were her parents, children,
 husbands, friends, Servants), by means of
 butter mixed with arsenic, used to poison
 mice.
   Pougf.ns, Marie Charles Joseph de, a
 French poet, bom at Paris, in i755, was
 the  son of a great  person at court, anel,
 while yet a youth, attempted an  imitation
 of Gessner's Idyls,  in a poem which he
 called L'Aurore.  Being designed for a
 diplomatic career,  he was sent to Italy,
 with the  consent of the king, and with
 lettere of recommendation from a prince
 of the blood to cardinal Bernis.  Here, in
 1777, he projected his  great work  Trisor
 de la Langue Frangaise, on the plan of
 Johnson's dictionary.   An attack of the
 small pox, in his twenty-fourthyear,depriv-
 ed him forever of his sight; yet he continu-
 ed his researches, and was sent to England
 as a public agent. The revolution depriv-
 ed him of his  pension  of 10,000 livres,
 and, after attempting to gain a subsistence '
 by translations, he entered the book trade,
 without capital or experience.  His perse-
 vering industry, however, soon placed him
 at the head of a large establishment;  but
 several bankruptcies nearly involved him
 in complete ruin, from which he was sav-
 ed by a loan of 12,000 francs from a  dis-
 tinguished benefactress, and a further loan
 of 40,000 francs from  Bonaparte, then
 first-consul, who afterwards, on his repay-
 ment of half of that  sum, gnmted him
 the remainder outright   In 1808,  he re-
 tired from business, and has since lived,
 devoted to study and his friends,  at die
estate of a benefactress in die valley of
 Vauxbuin, near Soissons.  Of his  nume-
rous works we may mention Recreation de
 Philosophic  et de Morale; Essai sur les
 Antiquity du Nord, &c; ArcMologie Fran-
 gaise,  ou Vocabulaire de  Mots  anciens
 Tombis en Desuetude (2 vols., 1823); Les
 Quatre Ages, a poem ; Abel, ou les  Trois
 Frere3; Jocko, sur I'Instinct des Animaux
 (1824)', La Religieuse de Nimcs ; Ldlres
 sur divers Svjets de Morale (1824).  In
 1819, he published a specimen of his Trc-
 sor, and was soon after received into sev-
 eral foreign academies.  Pougens was, in
 1806,  appointed by the empress mother
 of Russia her literary correspondent; and
 he afterwards held the same appointment
 from the late prince Constantine.
  Poughkeepsie, hi New York, is situat-
 ed on the east shore of the Hudson, sev-
 enty-five miles south of Albany, and sev-
 enty-four north of New York.   There are
 five landings, widi convenient storehouses,
 wharves, &c, and the trade is extensive.
 On the south line of the  township is the
 small post village called New Hamburgh.
 Barnegat is the  name of a place on the
 shore of  the river, where great quantities
 of lime are manufactured.  The trade at
 the landings employs many packets. The
 village of Poughkeepsie is situated on a
 plain nearly a mile from the river, on the
 post-road from New York to Albany.  It
 contains the county buildings,  five meet-
 ing-houses, a bank, an academy, and sev-
 eral factories.  Many of the buildings are
 of stone, but the new ones are of wood or
 brick.  Population in 1820, 5726; in 1830,
 7222.
  Poultices.  (See Cataplasms.)  Mus-
 tard poultices are called sinapisms, (q. v.)
  Pounce ; gum sandarach, pounded and
sifted very fine, to rub on paper, in order
to preserve it from sinking, and to make
it more fit to write upon.   Pounce is also
 charcoal dust, enclosed in apiece of mus-
 lin, or some other open stuff, to be passed
 over holes pricked in a work,  in order to
 mark the lines or designs on paper, silk,
 &c, placed underneath, which are to be
 afterwards finished with a pen and ink, a
 needle, or the like.
  Pound ; an English weight, of different
 denominations, as avoirdupois, troy, apoth-
 ecaries', &c.  The  pound avoirdupois is
 sixteen ounces ofthe same weight, but the
 other pounds  are each  equal  to twelve
 ounces.  The pound avoirdupois is to the
 pound troy as 5760 to 6999£, or nearly as
576 to 700.  (See Measures.)—Pound is
 also the highest denomination used by the
 English iu their money accounts, being
equal to twenty shillings.
  Poursuivant, or Pursuivant, in her-
aldry ; the lowest order of officers at arms. 
310                     POURSUIVANT—POUSSIN.
The poursuivahts are, properly, attendants
on the heralds, when they marshal public
ceremonies.
  Poussin, Nicholas, historical and land-
scape pauiter, born at  Andelys,  in Nor-
mandy, in 1594,  was descended from a
noble but poor family.   He first studied
in his native place, and then at Paris, un-
der masters of little merit; but he made
astonishing progress. He had already ac-
quired considerable reputation, when, in
1624, he went to  Italy for the purpose of
improving himself in his  ait.   At Rome,
Marini the poet became his friend, and in-
spired him with a taste for the Italian po-
ets, in which Poussin found rich materials
for the subjects of his paintings.  After
the death of Marini, he  was left without
patronage^ and obliged to sell his produc-
tions at very low  prices.   He continued,
nevertheless, indefatigable in the  study of
geometry, perspective, architecture, anato-
my, and  other sciences  necessary for a
painter, and in the practice of his art.  His
conversation, his walks, his reading, were
also almost always connected with it.   In
his figures, he copied antiques ; he mod-
elled statues and reliefs with  great skill;
and he might  have become an excellent
sculptor.  In his landscapes  he  followed
nature: they usually represent plains with
magnificent ruins.  All his  works show
much study ; notliing is introduced with-
out a purpose, or merely as an afterthought.
He at length found liberal patrons in car-
dinal Barberini and the cavaliere Cassia-
no del Pozzo,  for whom he  painted the
celebrated  Seven  Sacraments.   These
works likewise gained him  celebrity in
France; and cardinal  Richelieu, at  the
suggestion of Desnoyer, invited him to
Pains to  paint  the great gallery of the
Louvre.  Louis XIII appointeel him his
first painter» with a pension of 3000 livres.
Poussin arrived in Paris in 1640,  and exe-
cuteel numerous  works,  particularly his-
torical  pieces  from  the  Old Testament,
and a repetition of his Seven Sacraments,
but  was  much harassed by his  enemies.
The  painter Jacques Fouquiere had been
employee! to decorate the gallery with
views of  the principal cities of France,
and the architect  Mencier had overloaded
it with ornament.  Poussin found himself
under the necessity of beginning his  un-
dertaking with the removal of their labors.
He also had to contend  with  the whole
school of Simon Vouet, who was protect-
ed by the queen ; and his paintings were
less justly appreciated by the French, who
leaned to the brilliant and showy, than by
the  corrector  taste of the Italians.  An
artist who loved  quiet, and had been all
his fife devoted to his art, could  not  be
contented in such a situation, and he soon
detennined to leave Paris. In September,
1642, while employed on cartoons of the
labors of Hercules, for the gallery of the
Louvre, he  returned  to Rome* which he
never again  quitted.  He died there, hi
1665.  Although Louis XIV allowed him
to retain his post and pension, yet he nev-
er became  rich ; his  disinterestedness
made him neglect the opportunity of ac-
quiring wealth; he labored more for fame
than for  money.  Full of veneration  for
the ancients, he aspired to the lofty ideal
which  he observeel in them.  His draw-
ing is remarkably connect; his composition
judicious, dignified, and noble.  His in-
vention was rich ; his style grand and he-
roic.  His expression  approaches that of
Raphael,  and he has  been called the
Raphael of France.   His merits were due
to his own efforts.  His only pupil was
his brother-in-law, Gaspar Dughet, who
became  distinguished as a  landscape-
painter.  (See the next article.)   Poussin
had studied the works of Titian, but his
later productions are inferior in coloring to
his earlier, since he paid less attention as he
advanced in life to this branch of the ait,
and more to the design.  Poussin has been
censured  for a too studied arrangement,
and a too great propensity to episodes; too
much uniformity  in the attitudes, air and
expression of his figures ; an excessive ful-
ness in the drapery, and too small propor-
tions in  his figures—faults  which  may
have been owing to his close imitation of
the ancients.  But, notwithstanding these
faults, Poussin may be compared with the
greatest Italian masters.  Among his most
celebrated works are the Seven Sacra-
ments, the Deluge, Germanicus, the Cap-
ture of Jerusalem, the Plague of the Phi-
listines, Rebecca, the Adulteress, the In-
fant  Moses, anel  Moses  bringing Water
from the Rock, the Worship of the Gold-
en Calf, Jolm baptizing hi the Wilderness,
&c, and many fine landscapes.  Bellori
has written his life,  in Italian.  Chateau,
Poilly, and Claudine Stella, have engraved
many of his works.
  Poussin, Gaspar, a very eminent laud-
scape-painter, was bom, according to some
authors, in France, in 1600, and to others,
in Rome, in 1613.   His real name was
Dughet.   His sister was the wife of Nich-
olas Poussin.  The disposition  which he
early showed for painting caused him to
be placed under his brother-in-law, whose
surname he  assumed; and, being a lover
of the country and its sports, he devoted 
POUSSIN—POYAIS.                          311
himself to rural sketches, and became one
ofthe greatest masters of landscape upon
record.   He practised his art with great
distinction in  various parts of Italy, but
chiefly in Rome, where he lived a life of
celibacy, and freely expended his gains in
hospitable attentions to his friends. He
worked with extreme celerity, although
nothing  can  exceed the  beauty  of his
scenery and the precision of his perspec-
tive.   He particularly  excelled  in the
representation  of land-storms,  in which
every tree seems agitated, and every leaf
in motion.  In his  figures he was less
happy, and they were frequently supplied
by  Nicholas.  This  skilful artist, whose
performances are deemed very valuable,
died, according to D'Argenville, in 1675,
and to others in 1663; but the former date
is preferred.   He engraved eight of his
own landscapes.
  Powder of Succession.   (See Pou-
dre de Succession.)
  Power, in arithmetic and algebra; that
which arises by the successive multiplica-
tion of any number or quantity into itself,
the degree of the power being always de-
nominated by the number of equal factors
that are employed : thus,

  2 =......2',  1st power of 2.
  2 X 2 = ...  22,  2d [lower, or square.
  2 X 2 X 2 = 23,  3d power, or cube.
Hence it appears, that the index which
denotes the degree  of any power, is al-
ways equal to  the number of factors from
which that power  arises ; or one more
than the number of operations.  (See Ex-
ponent, and Involution.)
  Power, in  law, is an authority which
one man gives to another to act for him;
and it is sometimes a reservation which a
person makes in a conveyance for himself
to  do  some  acts, as to  make leases or
the like ; thus, power of attorney, an in-
strument or deed whereby a person  is
authorized  to act   for  another,  either
generally,  or  in a  specific transaction.
  Power, in  mechanics, denotes any
force, whether of a man, a horse, a spring,
the wind, water, &c, which, being applied
to a machine, tends to produce  motion;
also, any of the six simple machines, viz.
the lever, the balance,  the  screw, the
wheel and axle, the wedge, and the pul-
ley. (See Mechanics, and Horse Power.)
  Power Looms are driven by water or
steam, and are now universally introduced
into cotton and woollen manufactories.
  Power of  a Glass,  in optics,  is, by
some, used for the distance between the
convexity and the solar focus.
  Powers, Great, of Europe ; a term
of  modem  diplomacy,  by  which  are
meant England, France, Austria, Prussia
and Russia.
  Powhatan ;  a  famous  sachem,   of
great authority  among the  Indian tribes
in Virginia, at the period  of its coloniza-
tion.  He was father of the celebrated
Pocahontas,  (q. v.)
  Pownall, Thomas, born at Lincoln in
1722,  became secretary to  the  commis-
sioners for trade and plantations in  1745,
and had  a situation   in  the  commissa-
riat of the army in Germany.  In 1753,
he went to America, and in  1757 was  ap-
pointed  governor  of Massachusetts  bay,
and, subsequently, of South Carolina.   He
remained there till 1761, when, returning
to England,  he was nominated  director-
general of the office of control, with  the
rank of colonel. He died at Bath, April 25,
1805.   Governor Pownall was a fellow of
the society of antiquaries, and a contribu-
tor to the Archaeologia.  He was also the
author of Descriptions of Antiquities of
the Provincia Romana of Gaul (1788,4to.);
Descriptions of Roman Antiquities  dug
up  at Bath  (4to.); Observations  on  the
Currents in the Atlantic Ocean (1787,4to.);
and Intellectual Physics (4to.);  besides
many political tracts, as the Administra-
tion of the Colonies (London,  4th edition,
1768).
  Poyais ; a fertile tract of land, on  the
Mosquito shore, near the bay of Honduras,
with a capital of the  same  name, inhab-
ited by a warlike race of Indians (the  Po-
yais), who have hitherto maintained their
independence.  Sir Gregor Mac-Gregor,
a British officer, who served with reputa-
tion in Spain, was afterwards (1816) active
in the Venezuelan revolution,  and,  in
1817, took possession of Amelia island,
on the coast  of Florida (then belonging to
Spain), calling  upon  the inhabitants to
embrace the cause of independence.  In
1819, he attacked Porto Bello, which he
captured, but was soon after surprised in his
bed, and obliged to escape  out of a win-
dow.  Some years after, he settled among
the Poyais, and gained their  confidence to
such a degree as to be chosen their  ca-
cique.  He encouraged commerce, found-
ed schools, &c.  In 1824, the cacique of
Poyais procured a loan in London, from
respectable houses.   The chief produc-
tion of his dominions is indigo; they also
yield sugar, coffee, cocoa,  tobacco, ma-
hogany  wood,  dye-stuffs, &c.—See  the
Sketch of the Mosquito Shore, including
the Territory of Poyais (Edinburgh, 1824),
by Strangeway, aid to the cacique. 
312
POZZO DI BORGO—PRADT.
  Pozzo di Borgo,  count,  one of the
ministers of the emperor of Russia, was
born in 1769, in the  village of Alala, in
Corsica.  His family  is noble, but  poor.
He embraced the profession of  the law,
but soon engaged in politics.  In 1790, he
was appointed to office under the protec-
tion of general Paoli, and,  in  the year
following,  was elected deputy to the na-
tional assembly,  to whom, in  1792,  he
addressed a very  elaborate speech, in the
name of the diplomatic committee, to de-
termine them to declare  war against the
Germanic  body.   After the 10th of Au-
gust, however, he was compelled to  with-
draw from Paris by menaces of denuncia-
tion from  Arena, a fellow-deputy, who
had found  his name, under suspicious cir-
cumstances,  in the papers of Louis  XVI.
Having retired to Corsica, he renewed his
political relations  with Paoli.   He was
named president of the council  of  state,
and attorney-general  of the department.
Four months later, a decree of the con-
vention commanded him to appear at the
bar, to explain his conduct and  that  of
general Paoli.  He refused to obey, and,
in conjunction with  Paoli,  invited the
English to take possession of the island.
He was named president of the  council
under the new government, and after-
wards secretary of state.  In this  situation
it was not long before he found himself
opposed to numerous enemies, and with-
drew  to England.   He  afterwards at-
tached himself to the service of  the em-
peror Alexander, and arrived at the high-
est diplomatic honors.  In the latter cam-
paigns he held the rank of major-general.
In 1813, he  was despatched on a mission
to die prince-royal of Sweden, whom  he
accompanied to the battle of Leipsic.  He
afterwards accompanied the emperor Al-
exander in the campaign in France, at the
commencement of 1814.   After the resto-
ration of Louis XVIII, he was appointed
Russian minister-plenipotentiary to the
new French government.  He  quitted
Paris at the commencement of the revo-
lution of March 20,1815, but resumed his
functions at the   French court   on the
return  of  the  king.   In 1817,  he was
made lieutenant-general  in the  Russian
service.
  Pozzolana, in natural history, is a kind
of substance formed  of volcanic ashes.
When  mixed with a small portion of
lime, it quickly hardens; and this indura-
tion takes place even under water.  This
singular property  of  becoming  petrified
under water, renders it peouharly valu-
able as a cement, in the erection of moles,
and  other  buildings, in maritime situa-
tions.
  Pozzuoli ;  the ancient Puteoli.  (See
Naples, City and Environs of.)
  Prado.  (See Madrid.)
  Pradon, Jean Nicolas, a poet, born at
Rouen, died ut Paris in 1698.   His trage-
dies were receiveel on their firet appear-
ance with great applause, and gained him
the  friendship of distinguished pereons,
among whom were St. Evremont and
Mad. de Sevigne.  Pradon even ventured
to appear  as  a rival of Racine,  having
attempted a tragedy on the same subject
on which the  latter had already written.
His Phkdre et Hippolyte was brought out
in 1677,  and for some time was actually
preferred to that of Racine; but it has been
long forgotten.  His Regulus and Tamer-
lane are  more  known.  Boileau made
Pradon, who was, indeed, a  very mode-
rate  poet,  and  extremely ignorant  and
arrogant,  the subject of  his satire.  His
dramatic  pieces were published in 2 vols.,
1744.
  Pradt,  Dominique  Dufour de,  for-
merly archbishop of Malines, (Mechlin,)
born at Allanches, in Auvergne, in 1759,
one of the most voluminous political  wri-
ters of the day,  was, before the revolu-
tion, grand vicar to the cardinal archbishop
of Rouen.  As a deputy from the clergy
of Normandy to the constituent assembly,
he was a  more violent royalist than even
the  abbe  Maury. On the dissolution of
the  assembly, Pradt signed the protest of
the   right side, left France,  and went to
Miinster,  where he became  known to
prince  Gallitzin.  In 1798, he published,
anonymously, L'Antidote du  Congris de
Rastadt,  and  afterwards La Prusse et
sa NeutraliU,  two pamphlets, which at-
tracted attention, and in  which  Pradt
warmly opposed  the peace with republi-
can  France.   After the  18th of Bru-
maire, he returned to France.  The  first
work which he published in that country,
Les  trois Ages des Colonies, in which he
advocated their entire freedom, met with
little encouragement.  Nearly destitute of
means, he applied to his relation, marshal
Duroc, by  whom he  was  presented to
the  emperor.  The  latter was bo  much
pleased with  his conversation, that he
conferred on the  abbe the post of imperial
almoner.   He  was present at the corona-
tion and consecration of the emperor, and
was named baron and bishop of Poitiers.
The pope himself consecrated him.  He
accompanied the emperor to his corona-
tion  at Milan,  and in 1808 to Bayonne,
where  his services were required  in the 
PRADT—PRAGA.
313
treaty with Escoiquitz.  In  1809, he re-
ceived the archbishopric  of Malines; in
1811, he was employed in the negotiations
with the pope at Savona, and, in 1812, the
important embassy to Wareaw  was in-
trusted to him.  From this place he  was
driven by the approach  of the enemy,
after  the disastrous  campaign in Russia.
Pradt has given a history of this embassy,
and of Napoleon's return, in his Histoire
dc  I'Ambassade dans le  Grand-ducM de
Varsovie (1815),  which passed  through
eight editions, and  was  translated  into
several languages; but its  satirical tone is
not suitable for histoiy.  He fell into dis-
grace, lost his place as almoner, and was
obliged  to retire to  his diocese; but in
1814, he  returned again to Paris, for the
purpose of taking part in  the restoration,
and the  negotiations  connected with it.
The provisional government assigned him
the important post of chancellor to the
legion of honor.  He soon after, however,
retired to his estate in Auvergne, and re-
mained  there during the  hundred days.
After the second restoration, Macdonald
received  the post of chancellor to the
legion  of honor.  From  that  time, De
Pradt has not hekl any office.  He gave
up his claims to the archbishopric of Ma-
lines for a pension of 10,000 francs from
the king of the Netherlands.  Since 1815,
he has written  Du  Congres de  Vienne;
Ricit historique sur la Restauration de la
Royaute  en  France;  Des Colonies  et de
la  Revolution aduelle  de  FAmirique;
Les  quatre  Concordats; L'Europe apris
le Congres   d'Aix-la-Chapdle;  Le  Con-
gres de   Carlsbad (2 vols.);  De la  Re1 vo-
lution de VEspagne et de ses Suites (1820);
Petit  Catichisme a F Usage des Frangais
sur les Affaires de leur Pays (1820); De
I'Affaire  de  la Loi des Elections (1820).
He was  prosecuted  as a seditious wri-
ter, on  account of this last publication.
This trial excited a  great  sensation in
Paris, both  on account of  the  circum-
stances of the case, and ofthe brilliant elo-
quence  displayed  by him, and his advo-
cate, Dupin,  in Consequence of which he
was acquitted.  See the  Proces complet
de M. de Pradt pour son  Ouvrage sur
VAffaire  de la Loi des  Elections (1820).
In 1821,  he was again obliged to appear
before the tribunal of the police correction-
ndle, at Paris, on account  of an article in
the Constitutionnd of October 14th, rel-
ative  to  the congress at  Verona,  enti-
tled Mon Congres.  He was defended by
an  advocate,  and was  acquitted.   This
article was directed against M. de Bonald,
and advanced the opinion, that if France
had declared herself for the  constitutions
of Spain, Portugal, and Naples, she would
have had a population of fifty millions for
her allies, and might thus have regained
the influence which she had lost in  Eu-
rope by the final overthrow of Napoleon.
Pradt's work De la Grece dans ses Rapports
avec FEurope (Paris,  1822), which  con-
tained much trudi, though little that  was
new, excited a good deal of attention.  In
this work he maintained that  a new Greek
kingdom  would  present  an  additional
check to the great powers,  that Europe
could not trust the delivery of Greece to
Russia, &c.   Soon  after appeared his
Examen d'un Plan  prisenti aux Cortes
pour la Reconnaissance  de FIndependence
de  FAmirique  Espagnole (Paris, 1822).
About the same time this  indefatigable
author  wrote the Parotides de la Puis-
sance Anglaise  et Russe  rdativement  a
FEurope, suivis d'un Apergu  sur la Grece
(1823), in which he advanced the opinion
that  there were only two states (England
and Russia) in Europe that were really in
full possession of their independence, and
in a condition to adopt an active policy in
their conduct towards other states, which
had  nothing left, but the alternative of
joining  one or the other of these  two
powers,  and that France, in particular,
must follow the British system.  In 1824,
De Pradt published L'Europe d FAmi-
rique en 1822 et 1823 (2 vols.jj the third of
his works on this subject,  in which he
gives a historical view  ofthe  principles of
government in the old and new worlds, er-
roneously considering European  politics
as composed  of the struggle between ab-
solute  and constitutional monarchy.   In
his work De la France, de FEmigration et
des Colons (Paris, 1825), he declares him-
self against granting  an indemnity to the
imigris, although he had himself been one
of the  number.  His later writings  are,
L'Europe par Rapport a la Grece et  a la
Reformation de la Turquie (Paris, 1826);
and  Garantis a  demander  a  FEspagne
(Paris, 1827]; in which he maintains the
necessity of abolishing the monastic or-
ders.  Verboseness and repetition are the
faults of his style, and his views are too
partial  and shallow.   His  motto is, Le
genre humain est  en marche,  et rien  ne le
fera ritrograder.
  Prjetor, Prstorians.   (See  Pretor,
Pretorians.)
  Praga ; a fortified town ofthe kingdom
of Poland (waywodeship of Masovia), on
the right  bank of the  Vistula, opposite
Wareaw, of which it may be considered
as a suburb.  It is connected with War- 
314
PRAGA—PRAIRIE.
saw  by a bridge of boats,  and contains
3000 inhabitants. After the battle of Mac-
ziewice, in which Kosciusco (q. v.) was
made prisoner (October 10,  1794),  Suwa-
roff advanced against Praga, the last bul-
wark of Poland, into which 20,000 men
nad  thrown themselves.  Zajonczek re-
ceived  the command of  the garrison,
30,000 strong,  which occupied a fortified
camp before Praga.  November 4, Suwa-
roff stormed  Praga, which was taken, af-
ter a most bloody fight: 13,000 Poles cov-
ered the field  of battle ;  more than 2000
perished in the Vistula, and 14,680 were
made prisoners.  Besides this loss, a great
number of peasants, women, old men,
children and infants, perished in the con-
flict and dming the pillage.   The Russian
loss was trifling.   Suwaroff (q. v.) wrote to
the empress from the field of battle, "Hur-
rah !  Praga!  Suwaroff;" and was  an-
swered as laconically,  "Bravo! General
field-marshal."   He  entered Wareaw on
the 9th; and the last partition of Poland
 il795) was the consequence of the fall of
 'raga.  (See Warsaw.)
   Pragmatic  Sanction.   (See Sanction,
Pragmatic.)
   Prague (in German, Prag); capital of
Bohemia,  on the Moldau; arehiepiscopal
see;  lat 50° 5' N.; lon. 14°  24' E.; fifty-
four  leagues north-west of Vienna; popu-
lation  (including  the  ganison,  12,354
strong) 117,059,  of whom 7400 are Jews,
and the remainder principally Bohemians
(see  Bohemia) and  Gennans.   Prague
contains forty-six Catholic and two Prot-
estant churches,  eleven male and four fe-
male monasteries,  nine synagogues, and
six hospitals.   It is surrounded by a wall
and moat, and divided by the Moldau in-
to two unequal parts, which are united by
a handsome stone bridge of sixteen arches,
1900 feet in length.  It consists of four di-
visions : the old city, comprising the Jews'
quarter, and the new city,  on the right
bank of the  river, and  Hradschin and
Litde Prague (Kleinseite)  on the left bank.
To the south of  Prague lies Wischehrad,
an old citadel, well fortified, and contain-
ing an arsenal.   Although Prague  is well
fortified, the works are too extensive, be-
sides being commanded by the neighbor-
ing  heights,  to  sustain a long defence.
The streets are, in general^traight,.regular-
ly laid out, well paved, and provided with
footpaths.   The  new city contains the
handsomest streets ; the houses are most-
ly built of stone, in a neat style, and seve-
ral of them deserve the name of palaces.
Among them is the palace of the famous
Wallenstein (q. v.), which is one of the
principal ornaments of the city.  TherB
are a number of handsome squares, and
many  elegant  public  buildings,  among
which are the  town-house and the fine
Gothic cathedral, containing die tomb of
several Bohemian kings, and of St. John
Nepomuk. (q. v.)  The university, situat-
ed in the old city, is die oldest in Genna-
ny ; it was founded,  in 1348, by the em-
peror Charles IV, and until 1409 was in a
most flourishing condition; but,  in that
year, the interference of the government
in religious matters  causetl the secession
of several  thousand  foreigners, and the
consequent establishment  of new  univer-
sities at Leipsic, Ingoldstaelt, Rostock and
Cracow..  The  number of professors in
the university of Prague is forty-four ; of
students, 1500 ; die  library consists  of
100,000 volumes, and 4000 manuscripts
in the ancient and in Sclavonic literature.
There are several other literary and sci-
entific institutions, as three gymnasia, an
academy of science, &c.  The manufac-
tures of Prague are not  very  important;
they are linen, cotton, silk,  hats, &c.  ; and
government has here  a great manufactory
of arms, and tobacco works.   It is tho
centre of the Bohemian commerce,  and
of a considerable transit  trade.  Of the
thirty great commercial houses,  nearly
half are Jewish. The general appearance
of the city is poor; the lower  classes are
in a  miserable condition.  Prague is the
birthplace of Jerome (q. v.), the disciple
of Huss.  (q. v.)  In the fifteenth century,
it was troubled by the persecutions of the
Hussites.  In 1620, the elector palatine,
who had been elected king of Bohemia by
the nation, was defeated by the emperor
in the  battle  on  the White  mountain
(Weisser  Berg), two miles from the city
(see Bohemia);  and, in 1757, the city was
bombarded by Frederic II (the Great) of
Prussia.
  Prairial.  (See Calendar, vol. ii, page
403.)
  Prairie (a French word, signifying a
meadoiv); used  in the U. States to desig-
nate the remarkable natural meadows, or
plains, which are found in the Mississippi
Valley.   Flint (Geography of the Western
States)  classes  the prairies under three
heads:—1. the  heathy,  or bushy, which
have springs, and are covered  with small
shrubs,  bushes, grape-vines,  &c, very
common in Indiana, Illinois and Missou-
ri.  2. The dry, or rolling, generally desti-
tute  of water, and almost all  vegetation
but grass.  These are the most common
and extensive ;  the traveller may wander
for days  in  these vast and nearly  level 
PRAIRIE-PREBLE.
315
plains, without wood or water, and see no
object rising above the  plane of the hori-
zon.  In this kind of prairies roam  im-
mense herds of bisons.  3.  The alluvial
or wet prairies form the third anel smallest
division ;  they are covered  with a rich
vegetation, and  have a black, deep and
friable soil, of inexhaustible fertility. They
are well adapted for wheat and maize, in
the proper climates.  In a state of nature,
they arc covered with tall, rank grass, and,
in the rainy season, are frequently over-
flowed, or contain numerous pools collect-
ed in small basins,  without  outlets, the
waters of which therefore pass off solely
by evaporation.
   Prase,  (See Quartz.)
   Prater; the  most famous promenade
of Vienna.  (See Vienna.)
   Praxiteles ; one of the greatest sculp-
tors of Greece.  (See Sculpture.)  He car-
ried the art to such perfection that a Greek
epigram on his  Niobe  says,  " The  gods
changed me to stone,  but Praxiteles re-
stored me to life."  Praxiteles  and his
contemporary Scopas uniteel  grandeur
with  grace ; and with them (about 364 B.
C.) be "ins the period of the beautiful style
in  statuary.   The fonner also Worked
in bronze, but, according to Pliny, he was
most successful  in marble.  Pliny  (Hist.
Nat., lib. 36,  c. 4, 5)  gives  a list  of his
principal works, which were statues of the
gods. The finest is said to have been the
Cnidian Venus, whom he was the firet to
represent naked.  According to tradition,
the celebrated  courtesans  Cratina  and
 Phrync  (q. v.)  served as models  for it
This Venus is represented with a smiling
countenance, and in the attitude of having
left the bath, or risen from the sea.   This
statue was frequently copied.  His Coan
Venus was nude down to die hips.  In
Bottiger's opinion, the Venus de' Medici
resembles the Cnidian Venus only in the
 fiosition ofthe left hand; but the Capito-
 ine Venus is  considered as a copy of it.
(See  Venus.)  The group of Niobe now
in existence, which  is also  attributed to
Scopas, seems to have been the produc-
tion of different times.  His  two statues
of Cupid were also  celebrated.  One of
them, which was placed  in the temple of
Cupid, at Thespia, and a statue of a satyr,
which  was called  periboetos (the  far-
famed), were considered by Praxiteles,
according to Pausanias, as his finest works.
An excellent copy of the latter, discover-
ed in a villa of the emperor Antoninus, is
in the Musco Pio- Clementino.  Among his
works were also statues of Diana, Ceres,
Bacchus, &c, in marble, and in bronze,
which  served as models to succeeding
artists.
  Prayer, Attitudes of.  The Greeks
and Romans, like all  other heathem na-
tions, extended their hands When praying,
since they prayed to  receive.  This an-
cient mode of praying was at first follow-
ed by the Christians; but they afterwards
changed it, extending the arms in die form
of the cross, to represent the  cracifixion
of the Savior.  They were therefore often
obliged to have their amis supported • for
hours, during which  their prayers lasted,
by their servants.  They afterwards cross-
ed their arms, and thus imitated the Ori-
ental expression of submission and humil-
ity.  It then became the practice to cross
die hands, which  was finally changed to
the present custom of clasping them—an
attitude, in ancient  times, expressive of
the most profound grief and submission.
Among  many nations  (for  instance, the
modem Greeks), it is customary  to turn,
in prayer, towards the east,  as  the region
of the holy sepulchre.
   Prkadamites  (from the Latin pra,
before); those men, or generations, who,
according to some, inhabited  the earth
previously to the  Adamitic creation.  By
some, therefore, it is assumed that Adam
was not the firet man;  and  Isaac  Peyrer
(1655) maintained that the Jews were de-
scended  from Adam and Eve, and the
Gentiles from the Preadamites. The term
preadamitic is also applied to the remains
of the primitive world.
   Prebend ; a yearly stipend,  paid from
the funds of an ecclesiastical establishment,
as of a cathedral, or collegiate  church.—
Prebendary is the person who has a preb-
end.   A  simple prebend has no more
than the revenue which is assigned for its
support; but if the  prebend has a juris-
diction annexed, the prebendaiy is styled a
dignitary.  Prebendaries, as such, have
no cure of souls;  and therefore a prebend
and a parochial benefice are not incom-
patible promotions.—The prebendal stall
is the seat of the prebendary in the church,
into which he is inducted by the dean and
chapter.
  Preble, Edward, commodore  of the
American navy, was bom, Aug, 15, 1761,
in that part of Falmouth in Cosco bay
which is now Portland, in Maine.  From
early ehildhood,  he discovered a  strong
disposition for perils and adventures, and
a firm,  resolute and persevering temper.
Hw first voyage was to Europe in a letter
of  marque, captain  Frend. About the
year 1779, lie became midshipman in tho
state ship Protector,  twenty-six guns, cap- 
316        PREBLE--PRECE!3SI0N

tain John Foster Williams, which, in her
first  cruise, captured the Admiral  Duff,
an English letter of marque of thirty-six
guns, but, in  her second, fell in with a
British sloop and frigate, aud was taken.
The  principal  officere were carried to
England ; but Preble, by the interest ofa
friend of his father, obtained his release at
New York, and returned to his friends.
He next entered as first lieutenant  on
board the sloop of war Winthrop, captain
Little, and, while in that capacity, board-
ed and cut out an English anned brig, of
superior force, lying in Penobscot harbor,
under circumstances which  gave the ac-
tion  great  iclat.   He  remained in the
Winthrop until the peace of 1783, and,
between that period and the commence-
ment ofthe French war, in 1798, occupied
himself mostly as ship-master in various
voyages.  In the latter year,  he was nam-
ed one of the  five  lieutenants that  were
firet appointed by the government of the
U. States, when making preparations to
resist the insults and injuries of the rulers
of France.  In the autumn and winter of
1798—9, he made two cruises  as com-
mandant ofthe brig Pickering.  The next
year he received a captain's commission,
and die command of die frigate Essex,
of thirty-six guns.   In January,  1800, he
made a voyage in her to Batavia, wliidier
he was sent with captain James Sever, in
the Congress, to convoy our homeward-
bound  vessels  from India and  the East
The day after leaving port, a snow storm
came on, aud  diey parted from die three
vessels under convoy out  Ou the  12th,
in a heavy gale, he lost sight of die Con-
gress, which was unfortunately  dismast-
ed, and obliged to put back.  The Essex
pursued the voyage alone, and, after wait-
ing a suitable time at the cape  of Good
Hope for the Congress, proceedeel to Bata-
via.  Before and after arriving at Batavia,
captain Preble made two cruises, of a fort-
night each, in the bay of Sunda.   In June,
he took under convoy home  fourteen sad
of American merchantmen, valued at sev-
eral  millions   of dollars, and protected
them until they were out of danger. Near
the end of the year, he arrived at  New
York, in a  very delicate state of health*
and he continued so feeble as to be pre-
vented from assuming the command of
the Adams for the Mediterranean,  to
which he was appointed.  In 1803, he was
sufficiently recovered to enter again upon
duty, and, in May of that year, was direct-
ed to take command of the frigate Consti-
tution,  then lying at Boston, and get her
ready for sea.  In June, he  received or-
OF THE EQUINOXES.

 ders to take charge of the  squadron des-
 tined to act in the Mediterranean as soon
 as it should be prepared.   In August, he
 set sail, and reached the Mediterranean
 the ensuing month.  In that station, by a
 happy union of prudence and energy, he
 first prevented a war between die empe-
 ror of  Morocco and the U. States, and
 next brought the bashaw of Tripoli to
 tenns, by a  series of skilful  and daring
 bombardments.   Having been joined by
 another squadron, Under die command of
 commodore Barron, his senior officer, he
 obtained leave to return home.  On his
 departure, he received  an address  from
 the officers who had served under him,
 containing the strongest expressions  of
 attachment and respect.  Congress voted
 the thanks of the nation to him, and  an
 emblematical medal, which were present-
 ed by die president with emphatic declar-
 ations  of esteem.  After  his  return,  he
 was much consulted, and employed by the
 government in the management of the
 naval concerns.  In die latter part of the
 year  1806,  the  health  of commodore
 Preble began to decline.  He was attacked
 with die same complaint—a  debility of
 the digestive organs—under which he was
 near sinking  a few  years before.  For
 many months, he struggled with the dis-
 order,   indulging  a  hope of  recovery
 till within ten elays of his death.   Finding
 that he received  no  relief from  medical
 skill, he determined upon trying the effects
 of a voyage,  and embarked in a packet,
 but soon returned in the certitude that his
 end  was  near.   He  breathed  his last
 Aug.  25, 1807, in the forty-seventh  year
 of his age. The appearance of commodore
 Preble  was  commanding;  his  features
 were strongly marked, and his  carriage
 firm and erect.  In the exercise of author-
 ity, he  was peremptory and  rigid; but,
 though  he  made himself feared, and
 sometimes failed in restraining the impet-
 uosity of his temper, he always retained a
 strong interest in the  affections of his offi-
 cers and  men.   In  private life, he was
 kind and affectionate  ; a fond relation and
 a  kind  neighbor.  His public sp"irit was
 great.   He was patient of labor, and in
 business was remarkable  for exactness
 and despatch.
   Precession of the Equinoxes is a
 very slow motion of them, by which they
 change  their  place,  going from east to
 west, or backward, in antecedentia, as as-
 tronomers call it, or contrary to the order
 ofthe signs.  The pole, the solstices, the
 equinoxes, and all the odier points of the
 ecliptic, have a retrograde motion, and are 
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES—PREFECTURES.
317
constantly moving from east to  west, or
from Aries towards Pisces, &c, by means
of which the equinoctial points are carried
farther and farther back among the pre-
ceding signs of stars, at the rate of about
50$" each year, which retrograde motion is
called the precession, recession, or retroces-
sion of the equinoxes.   Hence, as the stars
remain immovable, and the equinoxes go
backward, the  stars  will  seem to  move
more and more eastward with respect to
them ; for which reason the longitudes of
all the stars, being reckoned from the firet
point of Aries, or the vernal equinox, are
continually increasing.  From this cause
it is that the constellations seem all to
have changed the places assigned to them
by the ancient astronomers.  In the time
of Hipparchus and the oldest astronomers,
the equinoctial  points were fixed to the
firet store of Aries and Libra; but the
signs  do not now  answer to the same
points; and the stare, which were then in
conjunction with the sun when he was in
the equinox, are now a whole sign,  or 30
degrees, to the eastward of it; so the first
star of Aries is  now in the portion of the
ecliptic called Taurus; and the  stars of
Taurus are now in Gemini, and those of
Gemini in Cancer, and so on.   Hence,
likewise, the stare which  rose or set at
any particular  season of the year in the
times of  Eudoxus, Hesiod, Virgil, Pliny,
&c, by  no  means answer, at this  time,
their descriptions.  This seeming change
of place in the stars was first observed by
Hipparchus of Rhodes, who, 128 years
B.  C., found that the longitudes of the
stars  in  his time were greater than they
had been before observed by Timochares,
and than they were in the sphere of Eu-
doxus, who wrote 380 years B. C.   Ptol-
emy also perceived the gradual change in
the longitudes ofthe stars ; but he stated
the quantity at too little,  making it but
1°  in 100 years,  which is at the rate of
only 36" per year. Y-hang, a Chinese, in
the year 721, stated the quantity of this
change at 1° in 83 years, which is at the
rate of 48i" per year.  Other more mod-
ern astronomers have made this precession
still more, but widi some small differences
from each other; and it is now usually
taken at  90{" per year.  All diese  rates
are deduced from a comparison of the
longitude of certain stars, as observed by
more ancient astronomers, with die later
observations ofthe same stars, namely, by
subtracting the fonner from the latter, and
dividing  the remainder by die number of
years in the interval between the dates of
the observations: thus, by a medium ofa
                  27*
great number of comparisons, the quantity
of the annual change has been fixed at
50|", according to which rate it will re-
quire  25,791 years  for the equinoxes to
make their  revolutions  westward quita
around the circle, and return to the same
point  again.  The explanation  of  the
physical cause of this slow change in the
position ofthe equinoxes, or the intersec-
tions of the equinoctial with the ecliptic,
is one of the most difficult problems of
physical  astronomy, which even Newton
attempted in vain to solve in a perfectly
satisfactory  manner.  Later mathemati-
cians, however,  as D'Alembert,  Euler,
Simpson, Laplace, have  succeeded in it
Our limits will only allow us  to  say, in
general, that this phenomenon is owing to
the spheroidal figure of die earth, which
itself arises from the earth's rotation on its
axis;  for, as more matter has  thus been
accumulated all round the equatorial parts
than any where else on the earth, the sun
and moon, when on  either side of the
equator, by attracting this redundant mat-
ter, bring die equator sooner under them,
in every return towards  it, than  if there
was no such accumulation. This subject
is  treated clearly and fully in the 22d
book of Lalande's Astronomy (3d ed., Paris,
1792); see, also, D'Alembert's Richerches
sur la Pricession des Equinoxes  (Paris,
1749, Ato.); and Ferguson's Astronomy
(Brewster's edition, Edinburgh, 1821).
  Precious Stones.  (See Gems.)
  Precipitation.   (See Cohesion.)
  Predestination.   (See  Grace,  and
Calvin.)
  Prefectures. Among the problems
of the modern policy of  Europe, there is,
perhaps,  none more important than  the
combination which should take place in
the administration of the  affairs of towns
and districts, between the general govern-
ment  and the local authorities.   In  the
countries of Germany, the care of certain
public matters, which formerly belonged
to the communities in their general  as-
semblies, under  the superintendence  of
their bailiffs, counts  and  princes,  was, at
an  early period, transferred to  the sove-
reign and to the stewards of the princes;
and only here and there have any traces
been preserved of an  older constitution,
which certainly  once  existed in all  die
Germanic kiugdoms, but has nowhere re-
mained to a considerable extent except in
England. For all that relates to the pres-
ervation  of  public order and peace,  the
care of roads, and other public institutions,
schools, poor rates, prisons, &c, the par-
liament is there the supreme  authority, 
318
PREFECTURES.
which must determine the general princi-
ples on which they are conducted, and
must authorize the particular  establish-
ments that  may be  proposed.  In the
counties, the sheriff, as the king's officer,
is only the  guardian  anel administrator
ofthe public authority, the executioner of
the  royal commands and judicial sen-
tences, with power to call out the posse
comitatus. (q. v.)  The administration, on
the contrary, is vested chiefly in the jus-
tices of the peace, who may be considered
as a deputation ofthe principal pereons of
each county, and it is controlled by the
grand  jury,  which  assembles at  each
court of assizes.  (See Assizes.)  Connect-
ed with this independence ofthe counties
is the right of the people to assemble in
order to express their views, wishes and
grievances.  (See Petition.)  This is se-
cured and completed by the liberty of the
press.  In the states of the continent, the
separate  districts  have ceased to  govern
themselves,  and have come under the
control of officers appointed by the gen-
eral government; and: in most ofthe Ger-
man  countries,  colleges  of counsellors
have become common since the sixteenth
century.   In France, a similar couree  of
things has taken place; in  some of the
provinces, indeed, the  constitution of the
estates was  retained, and in others local
officers (elus)  were established to super-
intend the taxation; but the estates in the
pays d'dats  were by  degrees  much re-
stricted,  and the ilus reduced to  mere
royal officers.  Most of  the subjects  of
country police were transferred to the su-
perior bailiwics, royal officere and parlia-
ment; but, as the conseils du  roi  were
more and more developed, not only did it
become the  common course of things to
prefer petitions to them, but maitres des
requites were  annually sent through the
provinces to examine the administration
of them in all its branches, including mil-
itary, judiciary, financial and police affairs.
Henry II established them, in 1551, as
perpetual overseers in all the provinces,
and, under Louis XIII, in 1635, they re-
ceived the  name  of  intendants.   Their
official powers were more and  more en-
larged.   They  were bound to  uncondi-
tional  obedience to  the ministers, and
could be recalled at any time.  To their
functions belonged the  proportional as-
sessment of taxes, the levying of soldiere,
and their removal, the procuring of sup-
plies for the  army and the royal magazines,
the keeping  of roads, bridges and public
edifices in repair, the care ofthe common
concerns of die districts, the regulation of
the trade in corn from  one province td
another, &c.  It was often suggested to in-
troduce, instead of these men, invested with
such arbitrary powers, a collegial adminis-
tration, a part of whose members, at least,
should  be chosen by the provinces them-
selves.  But this  Was never done;  and
thus the office of intendants remained till
the revolution, and the abuses of their au-
thority contributed not a little to produce
this catastrophe.  It was therefore one of
the first doings of the national convention
to abolish these offices,  and, instead  of
them, to erect in each department a gen-
eral administration, whose members were
chosen  by the citizens.   A directory of
the department was permanent: a coun-
cil, on the other hand, was to meet every
year, to fix the expenditures ofthe depart-
ment, to audit accounts, and to exercise a
degree of legislative power over  the affairs
of the department.  A similar regulation
was introduced in the districts and single
towns.   But, by this organization,  the
power  of the government  was  much
weakened, and the authorities of the  de-
partments often came forward in open  op-
position to the ministry.  It was, there-
fore, one ofthe firet operations of Napoleon,
who cannot  be denied to have  possessed
an extraordinary sagacity in  all  that per-
tains to the mechanism of government, to
restore the intendants, not, however, under
this odious name, but  under the appella-
tion of prefects.  This was accomplished by
the law of Feb. 17,1800 (28 Pluv., year
VIII), by which there was established for
each department a prefect (to be appoint-
ed and  dismissed at pleasure by die first
consul), a council of the  prefecture, con-
sisting of 3—5 membere, and  a  general
council ofthe department  The last, also,
appointed by the  first  consul, was to  as-
semble once a year to distribute  the quota
ofthe departmental taxes among the dis-
tricts (arrondissemens,or under-prefectures),
to fix  the expenses of the department, to
decide on remonstrances respecting ex-
cessive taxation, and to audit the accounts
ofthe prefects respecting the departmental
treasury.  But it seems that these conseils
geniraux de dipartement, as well as  the
conseils cFarrondissement, were tacitly suff-
ered to fall into  disuse.   The prefects
are intrusted with the whole organization
and management of the police  establish-
ments;  but  the punishment of offences
against the police  regulations belongs to
particular courts not  under their  control.
Within this  sphere of action, the prefects
are unchecked:  the  sub-prefects, who
stand at the head of the districts,  are  en- 
PREFECTURES—PREGNANCY.                 319
 tirely subject to their commands; and
 the authorities of  the  communities,  as
 Well as the ^lstices of the peace, can set
 no  limits to dieir  activity.   The courts
 have no cognizance of any matter which
 has already been decided by an act  of
 prefecture (arriti of the prefects, or coun-
 cil  of  the  prefecture), even  thbugh the
 officere may have exceeded their powers,
 until that act has been  avoided by the
 competent authorities.  By means of the
 prefects, the ministry can exert a  great
 influence, not merely on public, but also on
 private affairs.  Under Napoleon, the pre-
 fects  had to  make reports  of the rich
 hefresses of dieir departments, in order to
 afford  an opportunity to  die  favorites  of
 government to address  them.  Legrave-
 rend (Des Lacunes de la legislation Fran-
 caise) has disclosed a number of abuses,
 by which the prefects invaded the private
 property and domestic relations ofthe cit-
 izens.   How the administration of penal
 justice, the elections, &c, were managed
 by them according to the purposes of the
 ministers, is notorious.  The power of the
 prefects, however, ceases, at  least by law,
 as soon as a legal contest arises respecting
 a subject of aebninistration;  for he must
 refer such cases to the court appointed for
 the purpose, the council ofthe prefectures,
 of which he is the president, but in which
 he  has only a casting vote.  Under the
 cognizance  of this court fall all disputes
 respecting the taxation of particular indi-
 viduals, respecting contracts for supplies,
 engagements with the state  for building,
 the indemnification of those who have had
 to give up any dung to the public, or have
 been injured by die contractors for public
 buildings, together with injuries sustained
 in  war, contests respecting  any of the
 public domains, &c.  The appeals against
 its decisions (arritis) lie to the council of
 state.   Against the decision of the minis-
 ters, also, in contested matters of adminis-
 tration, complaints must  be  submitted to
 the council of state; but in matters not
 disputed, memorials alone against the pre-
 fects can be laid before the ministers, and
 complaints  against the ministers must be
 addressed immediately to the king.  The
 nature and extent of the power of the
 prefectures, and the destruction of free-
 dom and independence in the administra-
f tion ofthe townships, all parties iu France
 agree  in censuring.  But how arbitrary
 power and partiality  may  be banished
 from the administration ofthe prefects, so
 as  not to deprive the government of its
 requisite energy, and in  what way com-
 munities may be reinvested widi self-gov-
ernment, are questions respecting which
the greatest diversity of opinion prevails.
  Pregnancy ;  the state of a female who
is  with  child.   Pregnancy begins at  the
moment  of conception, and ceases with
that of birth.  During pregnancy, the vital
activity,  especially of the womb, which
probably receives, a few  days after con-
ception, the fecundated vesicle, increases.
Tne periodical discharge of blood ceases,
but the vessels of the Womb become  en-
larged, more charged with blood, longer
and straighter.   Its cellular substance  be-
comes softer, and more spongy, the sides
thicker, the  cavity wider.  It loses  the
pear shape, which it has when not  im-
 fregnated, and  becomes  more  globular.
 t  sinks  during the two first months of
pregnancy lower into the pelvis, but after-
wards rises, and becomes  larger, until, in
the eighth month, the bottom of it can be
felt externally in the region of the stomach.
In the ninth month, it sinks again some-
what.  In these changes  of the womb,
the embryo (q. v.) developes itself, until it
has reached, in  the fortieth week, a suffi-
cient degree of maturity to be able to  live
separate from the mother, when the birth
takes place, and pregnancy is at an end.
But  the vital activity is increased in  the
state of pregnancy not only in the womb,
but in die whole body, with healthy  and
vigorous women.  Pregnant women  are
bolder,  more independent, more enter-
prising, stronger than before, and retain
these qualities  when they are mothers.
They are more rarely affected by conta-
gious diseases; consumption is checked
during pregnancy, but makes the more
rapid progress after its completion.  Hys-
teric women feel often uncommonly well
during diis period; the  gouty are freed
from their attacks; some become uncom-
monly fat.  On the other hand, this state
is, with  many, particularly  with feeble,
sickly, delicate, too young or  too old  wo-
men, often accompanied by a great many
complaints, which depend upon the alter-
ed state of the systems of the vessels  and
nerves.   The stomach particularly often
suffers; hence nausea, vomiting, a morbid
loathing of, or craving  for,  particular
dishes, which were till  then indifferent
Pregnant women often  suffer, also, by
wandering pains, particularly in the teeth,
and by coughing.  Much incluiation  ex-
ists  in the body to inflammation and a
heated state ofthe blood; the veins ofthe
feet and the posteriors are swelled.  The
mechanical  pressure of the womb, thus
changed in situation and  form, not unfre-
quently causes irregularities  in the  dis- 
320
PREGNANCY—PREMONSTRATENSE3.
charges ofthe urine and excrements.  All
these changes serve as signs of pregnancy.
Other signs are the gradual and regular
changes observed at the opening of the
womb  by internal examination; also die
state of the breasts, which  become larger
during pregnancy, and in which a milky
substance collects,  but particularly  the
change of color round the nipple; lastly,
the motion ofthe child felt by the mother
in the  second half of the period of preg-
nancy, and the perception  of different
parts of the foetus by external and internal
examination. It is  very important to de-
tennine the fact of pregnancy at an early
stage;  but it is very difficult,  in some
cases, particularly in the firet half of the
period, because there are a number  of
diseases of the abdomen which are attend-
ed with  similar symptoms.   Pregnancy
itself is subject to a number of deviations
from the ordinary course.  The rules laid
down to prevent injury  to the embryo,
and to preserve the health  of the mother,
have reference principally to air, nourish-
ment and exercise;  to the natural  desires
and preternatural longings (the latter must
be gratified with much caution); to the
passions, which must be carefully restrain-
ed ; to the imagination, because the whole
nervous system may easily become over-
excited ; to the proper allowance of sleep,
and  the disposition of the dress, which
must not  press either the abdomen or the
breast.  All injuries from over-exertion or
mechanical  causes  are to be  carefully
avoided,  as  falls,  lifting, blows, &c,  be-
cause they may easdy occasion abortions.
During pregnancy, care ought also to  be
taken that  the  breasts are fit, after  the
birth of the child, to nourish  it  It is a
mistaken idea that  abortions  take place
much more frequendy among  the  higher
classes: the poorer classes in populous
cities are quite as liable to them.  In the
country, where a purer air keeps the body
altogether in a more vigorous state, abor-
tions occur less frequently.  The  advice
of experienced female friends, during the
whole period of pregnancy, is, of course,
of the  greatest  value;  yet, in almost all
countries, certain prejudices exist respect-
ing this important state in a female's life,
and the advice of a  physician cannot be
dispensed  with.  The internal examina-
tions mentioned above are comparatively
rare  in England and the U. States; but,
in France,  Germany and Italy,  if  not
throughout the  European continent, they
belong to  the regular course of medical
attendance in the state of pregnancy.
  Prehnite ; a mineral first  discovered
by  colonel Prehn, at the cape of Good
Hope, to whom it  owes  its name.  It
sometimes occurs  in oblige rhombic
prisms, its primary form, but more gen-
erally in irregular eight-sided tables and
low six-sided prisms.  Prehnite, however,
is fouud, for the most part, in botryoidal
concretions, of the size of a pea, and larger,
made up of delicate  fibres;   its color is
some shade  of  yellow  or green; it is
translucent, shining, and  hard enough to
scratch glass;  specific gravity 2.6 to 3; it
melts with intumescence into a pale green
or yellow glass, and consists of silex 43.83,
alumine30.33,limel8.33,oxideofiron5.66,
and water 1.83; it belongs to trap rocks
and sienite, in which it  is found in  the
form of veins and geodes.  It is found in
various parts ofthe world, and comes, in
particular, in very fine pieces, from Scot-
land.   In the  U. States,  it occurs abun-
dantly in several towns  in Connecticut,
but is found in the greatest perfection at
Farmington.
  Prelate ; in the Roman Catholic ch urch,
those spiritual officers who exercise juris-
diction in their own name.  These were,
originally, only the bishops, archbishops,
patriarchs, and the pope.   The cardinals
and legates, abbots and  priors, also ob-
tained certain privileges of jurisdiction by
grant or  prescription.  In the German
empire, previous to the secularisations of
1803, a number of high ecclesiastics, who
held immediately of the emperor, had also
a secular jurisdiction,  and several had  the
princely  dignity,  with a seat and voice in
the diets. (SeeEledor,andGermanEmpire.)
The term prelates is often used merely to
signify the higher dignitaries ofthe church.
  Premises.  (See Syllogism.)
  Premium.  (See Bounty.)
  Premonstratenses ; a religious order,
founded in the French bishopric of Laon,
by Norbert, a canon of Xanten in Cleves,
who, by the austerity  and zeal which  he
manifested as  archbishop of Magdeburg
(in  1127), acquired the honor of canoniza-
tion.  In the forest of Coucy, in a meadow
pointed out to him, as he said, by Heaven
(pri montri, pratum monstratum;  thence
the name of the order), he collected  his
first disciples (1120),  and gave them the
rule of St Augustine with some additional
rigor.  The Premonstratenses, therefore,
consider themselves as regular canons,
though, by  their constitution, they are
actually monks.  Their order increased
rapidly ;  several  nunneries  were estab-
lished with the same  rigid rules; at first
(as was the case with that of Fontevraud)
in the neighborhood of the monasteries, 
PREMONSTRATENSES-PRESBYTERIANS.            321
from  Whose revenues  they  were sup-
ported,  but  subsequently  at  a distance
from them, to avoid the  dangers of inter-
communication.  The abbot ofthe original
monastery Premontre, near Coucy,  was
general,  and,  with three other abbots,
formed the great council of the fathers of
the  order.  The order  was  introduced
into England in 1146, and its membere
were there regularly known as the White
Canons.  Before the reformation, they had
2000 monasteries, among which were 500
nunneries, mostly in Germany, the Neth-
erlands, France, England, and the north
of  Europe; but the reformation dimin-
ished this number, by more than one half,
in the sixteenth century.  The  monas-
teries in Spain attempted to revive their
discipline in 1573, by uniting  in a strict
observance of their  rules; but they  re-
maineel  in communion with those of the
common observance.  In 1630, this com-
munion of all  the  monasteries,  of both
kinds, was confirmed by new statutes.  In
the eighteenth century, the order had no
bouses in Italy;  in France, it had forty-
two monasteries ;  the nunneries had all
disappeared.  It now consists of a few
houses in Spain, Poland and the Austrian
states, especially in Bohemia, where it has
at Prague one of its handsomest and rich-
est monasteries.
   Preposition  (from propositus, placed
before); a part of speech, which is  used
to  show the relation of one object to
another, and  derives its name  from its
being  usually  placed  before the word
which expresses the object of the relation.
In some languages, this relation is often
expressed by changes of the termination
(cases),  without the use  of  a  preposi-
tion.
   Prerogative Court.  (See Court, di-
vision Ecclesiastical Courts.)
   Prerogatives of the King of Eng-
land.   (See Great Britain.)
   Presburo (Posonium ; in  Hungarian,
Posony;  in  Sclavonic,  Pressburek);  a
city of Hungary, capital  ofa palatinate of
the same name, on the left bank of the
Danube, which  here divides into several
branches, and is crossed by a flying bridge;
lat. 48° 8' N.; lon. 17° & E. It is built on
a hill overlooking a wide plain; the walls,
which formerly sejiarated it from the sub-
urbs, have been demolished;  the streets
are nareow, steep, and only in part paved.
The handsomest streets and  squares are
in the  suburbs.  The cathedral dedicated
to  St.  Martin is a large building in the
Gothic  6tyle; in the chapel of St. John,
lielonging to it, the  coronation  of  the
kings of Hungary formerly took place.
The castle,  which served as a barrack,
was burnt down at the beginning of the
present century, but its walls are standing.
Presburg contains seven monasteries, four-
teen churches (of which twelve are Cath-
olic),  one synagogue,  several hospitals,
and  some literary institutions.  Popula-
tion 32,026, of which 25,000 are Catholics,
5000 Lutherans, and 2000  Jews.   The
transit trade is considerable, and there are
some manufactures.   Presburg was the
capital of Hungary until Joseph II made
Buda the capital.  The peace of Presburg
(concluded Dec. 16, 1805, between Fran-
cis, emperor of Germany, and Napoleon)
was the immediate consequence of the
battle of Austeriitz.  (See Austria,  and
Austeriitz.)   The German emperor ceded
the part of the territory of Venice acquired
by  the peace of  Luneville (q. v.) to the
kingdom of  Italy;  acknowledged  the
regal dignity and sovereignty  of the elec-
tors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and die
sovereignty  of the  elector  of  Baden ;
ceded Tyrol, Vorarlberg, and some dis-
tricts, to Bavaria; the greater part of the
Brisgau, with Constance, to Baden; and
the towns on the Danube, and some other
portions of  the  Suabian possessions of
Austria, to Wurtemberg.  For these ces-
sions, Austria received some indemnifica-
tion.   (See  Confederation of tiie Rhine ;
and consult Scholl's Histoire des Traitis
de Paix, 7th vol.)
   Presbyterians (from  the  Scripture
term npecfJvTtpos, elder);  those  Christians
who maintain that there is no order in the
church superior to  that of presbyters  or
elders, affirming the terms npecPvTepos (elder)
and inwKonos (bishop) to be of precisely the
same import. The Presbyterians believe
diat the  authority of their  ministers  to
preach the gosjiel, and to administer the
sacraments  of  baptism and  the Lord's
supper, is derived from the  Holy Ghost
by the imposition ofthe hands of the  pres-
bytery (assembly of presbyters); and ac-
cordingly  they  oppose the scheme of the
Independent or Congregational churches,
with the same argument which the Epis-
copalians use, while they differ from these
latter in  not admitting any inequality  of
rank among the ministers of the church.
The established  church of Scotland  is
Presbyterian ; this mode of  ecclesiastical
government having been introduced thith-
er from Geneva, by John Knox,  the cele-
brated Scotch reformer.  (See Knox, and
Scotland.)  The doctrines of the church
are  Calvinistic, the Westminster confes-
sion of faith being  the  standard of the 
322                  PRESBYTERIANS—PRESCOTT.
national  creed, which all  ministere  are
required  to  subscribe.   There  are four
ecclesiastical judicatories, viz.  the kirk
session, composed of the minister of the
parish and a number of the most respect-
able laymen;  the presbytery, composed
of the  ministers of a certain district, with
an elder  from each  parish ; the  synod,
consisting of the ministers and elders of a
certain number of presbyteries; and the
general assembly, composed of  represen-
tatives  of the presbyteries (200  ministers
and 156  elders), and of the universities.
This is the supreme ecclesiastical tribunal,
and meets once a year.  The Presbyte-
rian church in  the  U.  States  does  not
materially differ  from that of Scotland.
The first  presbytery was organized in this
country  in 1704,  by  the  association of
several ministers who had received Pres-
byterian ordination in Europe, and who
agreed  to govern themselves agreeably to
the Westminster confession of faith (see
Creed), form of government, book of dis-
cipline, and  directory for worship.  The
presbyteries  subsequently  formed have
been organized by act of this presbytery,
or some  superior judicatory, such as  a
synod or  general assembly.  In  the mid-
dle of  the last century, the Presbyterian
churcii was divided, by a schism, into the
synod of New York,  or the New Lights;
and the  synod of Philadelphia; but,  in
1758, the two bodies met, and reunited
themselves  into  one synod, entitled the
Synod  of New York and  Philadelphia.
The firet general assembly met in 1789,
and, in  1831, it comprehended  2253
churches, 1801 ministere,  182,017 com-
municants,  embracing a population  of
1,800,000 souls.  The number of synods,
in 1830,  was  nineteen; that   of  pres-
byteries,  ninety-eight  The theological
seminaries, under the care of the general
assembly, are  three, at  Princeton (New
Jersey),  Alleghanytown  (Pennsylvania),
and Prince  Edward county  (Virginia),
besides several synodical seminaries.
  Prescott, Oliver, was born at Groton in
the state  of Massachusetts, April  27,1731,
of a highly  respectable  English family.
He was  graduated at Harvard college, in
1750,  and commenced the practice  of
medicine, after a  due couree  of  study.
The condition of the times, however, did
not allow him to prosecute his profes-
sional  duties uninterruptedly.   He en-
gaged actively in public life, and received
from the  government many  appointments
and commissions.  In the militia he was
successively  made, by the king,  a  major,
lieutenant-colonel, and colonel.  On the
 breaking out of the revolution, he took a
 decided part in favor of liberty,  and, in
 1776, was appointed, by the supreme ex-
 ecutive council of Massachusetts, briga-
 dier-general of the militia for the county
 of Middlesex—a post the duties of which,
 joined to  his care in aiding to organize
 the town committees of correspondence in
 that part of the  country in which he lived,
 rendered his situation one of great labor.
 In 1776, he was chosen a member of the
 board of war.  In 1777, he was elected a
 member of the supreme executive council
 of the  state, and after serving  in  that
 capacity for three years,  declined a re-
 election.  In 1778, he was appointed the
 third  major-general of the militia through-
 out the commonwealth.  In 1779, he  was
 made judge of probate of wills, &c, for
 the county of Middlesex, and retained the
 office until his death, giving universal satis-
 faction by his  urbanity and the able  and
 correct manner in which  he dischargeel
 his duties.   In  1781, he was named  the
second major-general of the militia,  but
 he soon tendered  his resignation.  In the
same  year, he received a  testimonial of
 the confidence  reposed  in his character
 by the government, by receiving from it a
commission " to cause to be apprehended,
and committed to  gaol, any person whom
 you shall deem  the safety of the common>-
wealth requires to be restrained of his
personal  liberty,  or  whose  enlargement
within the commonwealth is dangerous
thereto."  Doctor Prescott also held sev-
eral municipal offices, and took an active
part in the  public business of his town.
He died af Groton, Nov. 17, 1804, in  the
seventy-fourth year of his age.   Doctor
Prescott was distinguished  for activity,
colloquial talents,  and politeness of man-
ners.  As  much time as he could spare
from  his public occupations, he devoted
to his professional duties, and, for nearly
half a century, was one ofthe most popu-
lar physicians of the commonwealth.  Ho
possessed the singular faculty of sleeping
on horseback.
  Prescott, William,  a  distinguished
revolutionary officer, was born in 1726, at
Goshen, in Massachusetts.   At the cap-
ture of Cape Breton, in 1758, he was a
lieutenant ofthe provincial troops,  and at-
tracted, by his conduct in diat campaign,
the notice  of the British general, who of-
fered  him  a commission  in the  regular
army, which, however,  he declined.   In
 1774,  when the  straggle between the col-
onies  and the mother country was at hand,
he was appointed to command a regiment
of minute men, organized by the  provin- 
PRESCOTT—PRESIDENT.
323
cial congress, and, on receiving notice of
the intended operations of general Gage
against Concord, inarched with it to Lex-
ington.  Before he arrived, however, the
British had  retreated,  and he then pro-
ceeded to  Cambridge,  where he entered
the army that  was ordered to be raised,
the greater part of his  officers and men
volunteering to  serve  with  him  for the
firet campaign.  On the  16th of June,
1775, he was ordered to Charlestown with
three regiments, and directed to throw up
works on  Bunker hill.  On reaching the
ground, it was perceived that the neigh-
boring elevation, called Breed's hill, was  a
more suitable  station ;  and on it the de-
fences were  erected.  The next day, as  is
well known, general Howe, with  a force
more than quadruple that under the orders
of colonel Prescott attempted to dislodge
him, and, after a contest among the most
memorable in the American annals, suc-
ceeded in effecting that object with  im-
mense loss.  Colonel Prescott was one of
the last to leave the intrenchments when
he  found  it necessary  to order a retreat,
and he offered to the commander-in-chief
to retake the position the same night, if he
would give him two regiments. In 1777,
he resigned his command,  and returned
home ;  but  in the autumn  of the same
year, he went  as a volunteer to the north-
ern army under  general Gates, and  was
present at the  capture of Burgoyne. This
was his last military service.  He subse-
quently sat in the legislature of his native
state for several years.   He died  in 1795,
in  his  seventieth year, highly esteemed
as an energetic, brave, and patriotic cit-
izen.
   Prescription is a right or title acquir-
ed by use and time, as when  a man can
show no other title  to what  he  claims,
than that  he, and those under whom he
claims, have immemorially used to enjoy
it.   The  object of prescription is to se-
cure the title to property to him who has
had the possession of it for the term fixed
by the law,  and  to prevent any one from
disturbing his possession after such term
has expired.  The law of prescription  is
not intended to  punish the indolence of
proprietors; it only interprets their silence
as consent, presuming that  a man who
neglects to  assert his right for a long se-
ries of yeare, gives it up.  Many celebrat-
ed authors, as Grotius, Puffendorff  and
Wolfius, have maintained that the law of
prescription is derived from the law of
nature.   It forms a part of the law of na-
tions. By the civil law, things  movable
become subject  to prescription, after the
expiration of three years, and a possession
during ten yeare, if the parties are present
(that is, in die province),  and twenty years
if they are absent, will also found a pre-
scription to things immovable, if the pos-
session  was  honestly obtained  at  first
(Just. Inst. lib. ii, tit. 6). Where the posses-
sion was malajide, a prescription of thirty
yeare is necessary to confer a title.  In the
code of Napoleon, the provisions in regard
to prescription  to things immovable  are
similar.  In some Roman Catholic  coun-
tries, prescription does not avail against
the church, if short of  a hundred  yeare.
In the English law, the  term prescription
is applied only to incorporeal  heredita-
ments, as a right of way, a  common, &c.
A prescription is  distinguished  from  a
custom by this, that custom is  properly a
local usage, and not annexed to a person,
such as a custom  in  a  manor, that land
shall  descend to  the  youngest  son; but
prescription  is merely a personal usage;
as that Sempronius and his ancestors, or
those whose estate he  hath, have used,'
time out of mind,  to have common  of
pasture in such a close;  for this is a usage
annexed to  the  person  of the owner of
this  estate.  By the  law of England, a
prescription must have existed  from time
whereof the memory of man  is not to
the contrary, which is to be understood,
not merely of living memory, but of mem-
ory by means of records or other written
memorials;  and, therefore, where there is
any proof of the original or commence-
ment of any thing, it cannot be claimed by
prescription; unless,indeed,the commence-
ment  were  before  the  reign of Richard
I, for then it is considered to have existed
immemorially, on an  equitable  construc-
tion  of the statute  of  Westminster, 1,
which limited that time for a writ of right
(Starkie on Evid., 1204.)   In the U. States,
it has been made a question, whether there
can be a prescription, as  the settlement of
the country was within the timeof memory
by the English law; and  it  has  been
held that there could be no prescription iu
this  country, in some of the states.  In
Massachusetts, it has  been  held, that the
time of prescription does not extend fur-
ther  back than sixty years, and  that it is
questionable whether it extended  back
further than forty years.  (8 Pick. 504.)
   President ; the supreme executive of-
ficer ofthe U. States.  The qualifications,
powers, and mode of election, of this offi-
cer are settled by article  II of the Consti-
tution,  the  first section of which was
amended in  1804.   (For qualifications
and  mode of election, see Election; see 
324
PRESIDENT.
also article Constitutions.)  By  section
1st of that article, it is provided,  "that in
case of the removal of the president from
office, or of his death, resignation or disa-
bility to discharge the powers and duties
of his  office, the same shall devolve on
the vice-president; and the congress may
by law provide for the case of removal,
death, resignation or  inability both of the
president and vice-president, by declaring
what officer shall  then act as president,
and such officer shall act  until the disa-
bility be removed or a president be elect-
ed." In pursuance of this provision, the
act of congress of March 1, 1792, sec. 9,
declares, that in such case of vacancy, the
president  of the senate pro tern.,  and if
there be none, the speaker of the house
of representatives,  shall act until the va-
cancy is supplied.  The president holds
his office for four yeare, and it is provided
by  law (act of congress, March 1,  1792),
that the  term  for which  the president
and vice-president  shall be elected,  shall
begin on  the  fourth  day of March next
succeeding the day of election.  The firet
section  of Article II of the constitution
also provides, that " the president shall, at
stated times, receive for his services  a
compensation  which shall  neither be in-
creased nor diminished during  the period
for which he shall have been elected, and
he shall not receive within that period any
other emolument from the U. States, or
any of them."   Before entering  on the
execution of his office, he  is required to
take the  following oath or affirmation:
" I  do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I
will faithfully execute the office  of presi-
dent of the U. States, and will, to the best
of my ability, preserve, protect and defend
the constitution of the U.  States."  The
powers of the  president are fixed by sec-
tion 2 of Article  III, in  the following
terms:  "The president  shall be  com-
mander-in-chief ofthe army and  navy of
the U.  States,  and of the militia of the
several states when called into the actual
service of the U. States; he may require
the opinion, in writing, of the  principal
officer  in each of the executive  depart-
ments, upon any subject  relating to the
duties  of their respective offices, and he
shall have power  to grant reprieves and
pardons for offences  against the U. States,
except in  cases of  impeachment   He
shall have power, by and with the consent
ofthe senate, to make treaties, provided two
thirds ofthe senators present concur; and
he shall nominate, and, by and with the ad-
vice and consent ofthe senate,  shall ap-
point ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls, judges of the supreme court,
and all other officere ofthe U. States, whose
appointments  are not herein  otherwise
provided for, and which  shall lie estab-
lished by law; but the congress may by
law vest the appointment of such inferior
officers, as they think proper, in the presi-
dent alone, in the courts of law, or in the
heads  of  departments.   The president
shall  have power to  fill up all vacancies
that may happen during the recess of the
senate,  by granting  commissions, which
shall expire at the end of their next ses-
sion."   Section  7 of Article I requires
that " every bill, which shall have passed
the house of representatives and the  sen-
ate, shall, before it become a law, be pre-
sented to the president of the U. States
if he approve, he shall  sign it; but if not
he shall return  it, with his objections,  to
that house in which it shall have originat-
ed, who shall enter the  objections at large
on the journal, and proceed to reconsider
it.  If,  after such reconsideration,  two
thirds of that house shall agree to pass the
bill, it shall be sent, together with the ob-
jections,  to the other house,  by which it
shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if ap-
proved  by two thirds of that house, it
shall become a law.  If any bill shall not
be returned by the president within ten
days  (Sundays  excepted)  after it  shall
have  been presented to  him,  the same
shall be a law, in like manner as if he had
signed it, unless the congress by their ad-
journment prevent its return, in which
case it shall not be a law."  The same pro-
vision is extended to every order, resolu-
tion or vote, to which the concurrence of
the senate and house of  representatives
may be necessary (except on question of ad-
journment). The duties ofthe president are
determined by Article II, section 3.  " He
shall, from time to time, give to the congress
information ofthe state of the Union, and
recommend to their consideration  such
measures as he shall judge necessary and
expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary
occasions, convene both houses, or either
of them, and in case  of disagreement be-
tween them, with respect to the time of ad-
journment, he may adjourn them to such
time as he shall think proper; he shall re-
ceive ambassadors and other public  min-
isters ; he shall take care that  the laws be
faithfully  executed, and shall commision
all the officers of the U. States."  Art. II,
section  4, provides that  "the  president,
vice-president, and all civil officers of the
U. States, shall be removed from office on
impeachment for, and conviction of, trea-
son,  bribery, or  other high  crimes  and 
PRESIDENT—PRESS, LIBERTY OF THE.
325
misdemeanors."   The senate has the sole
power to try  impeachments; but it  is re-
quired by "section 3  of Article  I,  that
when  the  president of the U. States is
tried, the chief justice shall preside.  (See
United Stales, and Congress  of the United
States.)  By the apportionment of repre-
sentatives under  the census of 1820, the
number of presidential electors was 261 in
24 electoral colleges.
  Press,  Correction of  the.   (See
Correction of the Press.)
  Press, Laws of.  (See next article.)
  Press, Liberty of the ; the liberty
of  every citizen to print whatever he
chooses, which at the same time does not
prevent his being amenable  to justice for
the abuse of this liberty.   To make the
liberty of the press  real, two things are
essential; 1. that the laws against its licen-
tiousness should be precise and clear ; 2.
that they should only punish what is really
injurious to  the public  welfare.   The
laws  against treason under  Tiberius,
against  heresy   under the  inquisition,
against irreverence  under  Catharine II,
against conspiracy under  the convention,
against infringements of the royal dignity,
and contempt of government, in various
states, are very indefinite, and  allow the
greatest  tyranny.  The laws for punish-
ing abuses  of the press are generally di-
rected against attacks  upon the govern-
ment or its officers, upon the reputation
of individuals, and upon good morals and
religion.   The latitude allowed  to the
press of couree  will  vary  with circum-
stances.  A discussion will  be permitted
in Prussia which would be punished in
Austria.  Discussions of certain religious
topics are considered in one  age  blasphe-
mous, while another age esteems them in-
nocent.  As to charges affecting the  char-
acter of governments and individuals, we
may observe that the  freer a government
is,  the less sensitive  it is, and  the less
sensitive are the people who live under it.
No people are so indifferent to being pub-
licly  spoken of as the Americans  and
English, whilst the Prussian code contains
many laws against verbal offences.  (See
Injuria.)   As the liberty of speech is un-
questioned, and printing  only gives  per-
manence and circulation  to what  might
be freely spoken (newspapers, for instance,
take the place of speeches and conversa-
tions in the forums of the  petty states of
antiquity), the right of printing rests on
the same abstract grounds as the right of
speech; and  it might seem strange to a
man  unacquainted  with  history,  that
printing should be subjected to a previous
  vol. x.         28
censorehip (q. v.), as it is in most states,
any more than speaking, and that the lib-
erty of the press should be expressly pro-
vided for in the constitutions of most free
states.  But when we look to histoiy, we
find the origin of this, as of many other
legislative  anomalies, in periods  when
politics,  religion and  individual  rights
were  confusedly intermingled.  It is only
since  men's views  of the just limits of
government have become clearer, that the
liberty of the press has been recognised as
a right; and to England we are particu-
larly indebted for the establishment of this
principle, as of so  many other bulwarks
of freedom, though  the Netherlands pre-
ceded her in the actual enjoyment of the
liberty of the press.  When we consider
the practical effect of the censorship, it is
no more defensible on that ground than on
the ground of abstract right  In what
times and countries have morals and reli-
gion,  and  the  reputation  of individuals,
been more  outrageously attacked through
the press, than in those in which the cen-
sorship  was  established ?  We  are  far
from considering the liberty of the press
as without evil consequences; but the cen-
sorehip does  not prevent  these  conse-
quences,  while it destroys the numberless
benefits of an unshackled press.  But the
liberty of the  press,  properly considered,
is not to be treated as a mere  question of
political  expediency.   Liberty of con-
science and liberty  of thought are rights
superior  in importance  to  any objects
which fall under the head of expediency.
Representative governments  are  empty
forms  without the  liberty of the  press.
The free discussion  of all political meas-
ures, and of the character of public offi-
cere, is of much more consequence than
the freedom of debate in legislative assem-
blies.   A parliament would  be a compar-
atively small check  upon a  government,
were  it not for the  hberty of the press.
In fact, it might easily be made an instru-
ment for  enforcing oppressive measures;
since a government would find little diffi-
culty in gaining of er a majority of such a
body by the motives of ambition and ava-
rice, were it not for the control exercised
over legislative  bodies,  by a free press.
Without  this,  publicity  of  discussion in
legislative assemblies  would  be  of little
avail.  In fact, representative governments,
without the liberty of the press, are a
mockery. This liberty is, indeed, the great
safeguard of all others; and a whole dy-
nasty  was lately prostrated in  a struggle
with this formidable power.   Polignac's
Report, which caused the revolution of 
326           PRESS,  LIBERTY OF

1830, will ever be memorable in the his-
tory ofthe liberty ofthe press, as proving
the difficulty or impossibility of a minis-
ter's ruling in  opposition to public  opin-
ion in  a country  where the press is tree.
(For the history of the press, see Censor-
ship.)  In no country is the liberty of the
[tress so complete as  in the U. States; not
only as regartls the laws, but in respect of
public  opinion, which is of much  more
importance.  An individual  in public  of-
fice hardly  thinks of prosecuting  for a
libel, however outrageously he may be at-
tacked.   If the charge  is  noticed, it is
generally through the same source through
which   it was made—the  press.   The
freedom with which, even the private and
domestic affairs  of a candidate  for any
high office, from the president downwards,
are discussed,  surprises  a foreigner.  A
law was passed*  which  made  it au  of-
fence  punishable by fine  and  imprison-
ment for any one to write, print, utter or
publish any false, scandalous and malicious
writings, against the government or either
house of congress, or the president (act of
July  14, 1798), but it expired by limitation
in 1801.   In  France,  "censorehip can
never again be established,"  according to
the adelition  made,  in  1830,  to article
seventh of the charter.—In  England, the
liberty  of the press, soon after printing was
introduced, was  regulated by the  king's
proclamations, prohibitions, charters  of
license, &.C., and, finally, by the court  of
star-chamber.  The long parliament, after
their rupture  with  Charles I, assumed
the same power.   The government  of
Charles II imitated  their ordinances, and
the press did not really become free till the
expiration of the statutes restricting it in
lb!J4, after which it was found impossible
to pass new laws in restraint of it, and it
has remained free ever since.  In the  ar-
ticle  Books, Censorship of, an account  is
given of the regulations  of various coun-
tries for restricting printing, and the sale
of printed matter.   Where  the  govern-
ment has the complete control of either,
no liberty of the  press exists.   In  other
countries, the principal rules for the  regu-
lation of the press are, 1. that all presses
must have a  license; the printers  must
often give high security for their loyal be-
havior, and sometimes even  take an oath.
A license is required both in France and
England (in the  latter country it is easily
obtained; but a late law in France, since the
revolution of July, 1830, has required very
high security). 2. The name and place of
residence of the printer must be mention-
       * Commonly called the gag-law.
THE—PRESTER JOHN.

  ed on the  title-page.  This is the case In
  England, and on the continent of Europe
  The  printer must keep a list of all that
  he prints, and some  copies must be sent
  to the government before publication.  In
  France, if a work is found illegal, a crim-
  inal  process is  instituted, and  the books
  are not allowed to  be sold until the de-
  cision  is given.  Government need not
  prosecute  immediately, but can  at any
  time.   In  1817, there was much debate,
  whether offences  of the press should be
  judged by  the assizes (with a jury), or  by
  the tribunaux de police corredionnelle (with
  out a jury).  The latter opinion prevailed,
  but the " special provisions," added in
  1830 to the charter, provide for a  trial  by
  jury for offences of the press, and political
  offences.   The work Code des Imprimcurs,
  Libraires, Ecrivains  et Artistes, par F. A.
  Pii (Paris, 1816, 2 vols.), contains all the
  French laws of the  press, to the date of
  its publication.   In the U. States,  there is
  no restraint  upon the  liberty of printing.
  Any man can print and circulate  whatev-
  er he chooses, and is  only answerable if
  the matter itself is illegal.  What publi-
  cations are punishable  in the  U. States
  will depend, in  some  measure, upon the
  circumstances of  the  particular  state in
  which they appear.  In the slave-holding
  states, publications of a  tendency to ex-
  cite commotions among the blacks,  of
  couree, are liable to punishment.
    Press  of Sail signifies as much sail
  as  the then state of the wind,  &c, will
  permit a ship to cany.   (See Navigation,
  and Ship.)
    Press-Gang ; the name given in Eng-
  land  to  a  detachment of seamen,  who
  (under the command of a lieutenant) are
  empowered, in time of war, to take any
  seafaring men, and  oblige them  to serve
  on  board the king's ships.
    Press, Printing.   (See Printing.)
    Prester John.  In the middle ages, it
  was reported by travellers, that  there was
  a Christian prince who  reigned in the
  interior of  Asia, under this name, and the
  same story was also known  to  the cru-
  saders.  Albert of Aix, and Otho of Frei-
  singen, speak of him in the twelfth  cen-
  tury ; Rubruquis, in  the thirteenth centu-
  ry, attributes the name of Prester John  to
  a Nestorian  prince,  Ungkhan,  who had
  reigned in Caracomm, over two Mongol
  tribes, and  perished in a war against Gen-
  gis Khan,  about half a century before the
  time of his  journey,   (See  Nestorians.)
  Other travellers of the thirteenth century
  also mention this personage, and Giovanni
  di  Montecorvino,  bishop of Camlwdu, is 
PRESTER JOHN—PRETOR.                    327
said to have converted (1305) a prince of
his house to Christianity.  Who this Pres-
ter John was, it is not easy to decide; the
supposition  that he was the Dalai Lama,
or one ofthe chief priests ofthe Lamaites,
does not agree with the  position assigned
to his residence by the travellers, nor does
any of  the etymological explanations,
which have been  proposed, seem satisfac-
tory.   The most ludicrous mistake on this
subject was that made by the Portuguese
in the fifteenth century,  who  picked up a
story of  a Christian prince in the  interior
of Africa, whose name was Ogan,  and
who was in  fact the negus (king) of Abys-
sinia.  In consequence of the resemblance
of the names  Ogan and Ungkhan,  they
transferred the throne of Prester John
from Asia to Africa,  and gave the name to
the Abyssinian prince.
  Presto (Italian); quick, used in music
to designate the fifth chief degree  of mu-
sical motion, quicker than allegro.  Presto
assai denotes very quick, and prestissimo
the highest degree of quickness.
  Preston; a borough town  in  Lanca-
shire, England,  on the Ribble, 31 miles
from  Liverpool.    The population,  in
1790, was 6000, and had been nearly sta-
tionary  for  a centuiy; but, in 1791,  a
small muslin manufacture was establish-
ed there by Mr. Horrocks,  which, with
soun, other cotton  works, formed by the
same individual, soon rendered it  one of
the most flourishing places  in the king-
dom.  In 1801,the population was 11,887,
and in 1821,  24,575.   The streets are
broad  and  well paved, anel there  are
churches for almost all denominations ef
Christians.  The town sends two repre-
sentatives to parliament,  who are elected
by every male inhabitant, whether house-
keeper  or lodger,  who has  resided six
mouths in  the town, and has not  been
chargeable to any township as a  pauper
for twelve months.*
  Preston, Thomas, an  English dramatic
writer, who flourished in the earlier part
of the reign of Elizabeth.  He was edu-
cated at Cambridge, where he succeeded
to a fellowship.  He was afterwards cre-
ated a doctor of  civil  law, and appointed
master of Trinity-hall, over which  he pre-
sided fourteen years.  He wrote one dra-
matic piece, entitled a Lamentable Trage-

  * Voters of this kind are  called potwallopers,
or potwallers (from wallop, to  boil), a lerm
which includes all persons who boil their  own
not, or cook their  own  victuals.  Taunton,  a
borough in Somersetshire, with a population of
8500, likewise  returns two members, chosen by
die potwaUovers of the borough.
dy, full of pleasant Mirth, conteyning the
Life of Cambises, King of Percia, &c.—a
sad tissue of fustian, which escaped not the
satire of Shakspeare, who, in  Henry IV,
makes Falstaff talk  of speaking  in Cam-
byses' vein.   Preston died in 1598.
   Preston,  Captain.  (See the article
Adams, John.)
   Preston-Pans ; a town  eight  miles
east of Edinburgh, where the royal troops
under  the  command of sir John  Cope
were defeated,in 1745, by the Highlanders,
who fought for the Pretender, Charles Ed-
ward.  (See Edward, Charles.)
   Pretender.   (See  Edward, Charles;
and Stuart, James Edward Francis.)
   Pretor ; the  principal  Roman magis-
trate, next after the  consul.  The admin-
istration  of justice devolved  upon  him.
This office was established 369 years after
the building of the city, because the  con-
suls were too much occupieel by the ul-
most uninterrupted  series of ware, to at-
tend to that duty.  In the year 418, ple-
beians  were  admitted  to the pretorehip.
The pretor was chosen in die same man-
ner as the consuls, and was therefore call-
ed collega consulum.  At  firet  there was
only one; but as the business increased
through the influx of strangers, a second
was added, in the year of Rome 510.  The
duties were divided  between them by lot,
the one  trying  causes between  citizens
(prator urbanus), the other between citi-
zens and foreigners  (prador percgrinus).
In 527, two additional ones were chosen
to administer justice  in the provinces of
Sicily and Sardinia, which were conquer-
ed at that time.  In 557, when the Roman
dominion was extended over  Spain, two
more were added,so that the whole num-
ber was now six.  Sylla  increased their
number to eight, and Caesar to ten. Under
die emperors their number varied.   The
distinctions of the pretor  were, six lictors
who carried  the fasces before him,  the
toga pratexta, and a sella curulis, on which
he  sat while administering  justice.   A
spear, or, if he was holding a public court,
a sword, was placed before him, as  the
emblem of his judicial character.  The
principal business of the pretor was  the
administration of justice. On his entrance
into office, he swore to  respect the laws,
and published an edict, stating the rules
according to  which he should adminis-
ter justice  for  the  ensuing year  (cdic-
turn, formula praitoiis).  He chose from
the legal ranks a sufficient number of* per-
sons to be judges during his continuance
in office.  The prador urbanus, who was
the firet  in  rank, took die place of the 
328
PRETOR—PREVOST D'EXILES.
consuls in dieir absence; he presided in
the assemblies of the people, and, in case
of emergency, convened the senate.  The
care of some ofthe public games also de-
volved on  him, as the ApoHinarian, the
Circensian  and the Megalensian.   The
office of pretor continued for a year, after
the expiration of which he went into the
province assigned him, as propretor.
  Pretorians.  In the times of the re-
public, the  cohors pradoria was a body of
troops selected to guard the person of the
commander (in old Latin, prador), while in
active service.   But Augustus established
a standing body-guard, consisting of three
cohorts, called pretorians, which  were sta-
tioned in the city.  This number was af-
terwards  increased to nine, and a body of
horse was finally added.  Under Tiberius,
a fixed station (castra prattoria, or pradori-
ana, or pratorium)  was assigned them.
Under the  later  emperors,  particularly
from  the time of Connnodus, they often
deposed and murdered the emperors, anel
raised  their favorites, or even (as in the
case of Didius Julianus) the  highest bid-
der, to the throne  of the Ccesars.  Their
commander {prafeclus  pratorio) became
the most important officer in  the  state,
having, from the beginning of the third
century, not only the command of the
guards, but the  administration of  the
finances,  and an extensive criminal juris-
diction—a  natural  consequence of the
growth of military despotism.  The  prc-
torian guards were abolished by Constan-
tine the Great.
  Pretres Insermentes.  (See Priests,
Non-juring.)
  Prevesa ; a town of Albania, sangiacat
of Janina,  on the northern  side of the
gulf of Arta; lat  39° 5? N.;  lon. 20° 38'
E.; eight and a half leagues from Arta,
and not far from the ruins of Actium.  In
1684, the brave Venetian admiral Morosini
took from the Turks Santa Maura, Prevesa,
Butrinto, Parga, Arta, and Voinitza, and
thus rendered Venice mistress ofthe  Am-
bracian gulf.  In 1797, these  places were
ceded to the French republic, and when
the latter became involved in a war with
Turkey, Ali, paefaa of Janina, took  Pre-
vesa  by  storm .(1798),  pillaged  the  city,
and  put to deadi the greater part of the
male population,  in violation of express
stipulations.  By the peace of Luneville,
Austria aud France formally ceded Preve-
sa, Parga, Voinitza and Butrinto (Buthro-
tum) to the Porte.   (See Parga.)  Prevesa
again suffered  by the  rebellion of Ali,
whose son  threw himself into the citadel,
and .thus subjected it to a long blockade.
In 1825, it also  suffered by  an earth-
quake, which did much damage iu Santa
Maura.
  Preville, Pieire  Louis Dubus do,  a
distinguished French actor, born at Paris,
in 1721, was designed for the church, but
ran away, and, after serving as a journey-
man-mason, joined u company of playere,
and performed  at Strasburg, Dijon, Rou-
en, and finally became manager ofa com-
pany  at  Lyons.  In  1753, he made his
dibut  at  Paris, at the thidtre Frangais.
Armand  favored  his firet appearance at
the theatre  of Fontainebleau, which de-
cided his reputation.  He played five dif-
ferent parts in the Mercure galant.   Louis
XV, who had a good taste,  was so struck
with his performance, that he ordered him
to be  received  among his  own players.
Preville's acting was excellent, and he
shone not only in humorous parts,  but in
pathetic scenes.  He left the  theatre in
1786, but afterwards made his appearance
again to relieve some of his companions,
who had been reduced to distress by the
revolution.   He died  blind at Beauvais in
1799.
  Prevost d'Exiles, Antoine Francois,
a French writer,  born in 1697, studied
with the  Jesuits, and entered  the order;
which, however, he  soon quitted for the
military  service.   Dissatisfied with  the
slowness  of promotion, he again  joined
die Jesuits,  but, after a short time, once
more returned to the  career of  arms, and
served with reputation.   Disappointed
love next caused him to assume the habit
of the  Benedictines of St. Mour, and he
retired to St. Germain des Pres, where he
found consolation  in  study.  His restless
temper soon led him to  separate himself
from the Benedictines, and, in 1729, he
went to Holland, and was  thrown upon
his own resources for subsistence.  Here
he published his  Mimoires d'un Homme
de Qualiti, and, having formed  a connex-
ion with  a young woman,  he  went over
to England.  In 1734, he returned to
France, and was appointed almoner and
secretary to the priuce  of Conti.  The
chancellor d'Aguesseau also selected him
to superintend  the  Histoire ginirale des
Voyages.  As he was one day walking in
the forest of Chantilly, he was attacked by
a stroke of apoplexy.  Having been found
in a state of insensibility by some peas-
ants, the public officer proceeded to open
the body of the supposed deceased, when
he opened his eyes;  but the wound was
mortal. This event  occurred  in 1763.—
Besides the works already mentioned, are
his Histoire de M. Cleveland, Histoire du 
PREVOST D'EXILES—PRIAM.                    329
Chevalier  des  Grieux, et de Manon Les-
taut,  with several other romances, and
numerous translations  from the English
of Richardson, Hume, &c.
  Prevot, Codrs Prev6tai.es.  Several
officere bore the name of prevot in France
previous to  the revolution.   The grand
privut de France, with two deputies (lieu-
tenants gbitraux civils,  criminels et de po-
lice),  exercised jurisdiction in  the royal
palace  and  household; the prtvdt des
marchands at  Paris and Lyons was the
firet magistrate of the  city.   The prevdt
de Paris, as governor of the chdtdet, was
the chief judicial officer, head of the knights
of the town, and its dependent territory,
and of the vicomti of Paris, and was the
bailli of the university.  The prcvots des
marichaux de  France,  who  were  lately
restored for a time under the name of
cours prevdtales, were  guardians  of the
public peace, and exercised a rather sum-
mary justice over vagabonds, robbers, gip-
sies  and disturbers  of  the public  peace
(house-breakers, highway robbere, rioters,
counterfeiters, etc.).  The nobles, and most
of the officere  of government,  were not
amenable to their jurisdiction, which was
so badly administered (for the privdts were
not jurists),  that the celebrated chancel-
lors L'Hopital  and  D'Aguesseau restrict-
ed  their authority  by the ordinances  of
1505 and 1731; and, in 1790, it was en-
tirely abolished. But Napoleon found that
the ordinary courts  were insufficient to
maintain the strict control which he desired
over  public  order.  Of this he took ad-
vantage to extend his power.  By the law
of March 3d, 1810, concerning prisons of
state, he received the power of confining
dangerous persons, without trial, in those
prisons.   Iu 1800, the foundation had  al-
ready been laid for the  erection of special
tribunals, which the new criminal organi-
zation of 1808 confirmed, with new de-
velopements.   Iu these special tribunals
■the president of the court of assizes, with
four  counsellors and three military men,
were to judge vagrants (gens sans  aveu)
for all manner of crimes; and, in case of
rebellion, armed smuggling, counterfeiting,
and murder, by numbers, the trial was to be
without jury, and  in  a summary form.
The  imperial  decree  of April 6,  1809,
added to the above specified acts that of
having borne arms against Napoleon since
■September 1,1804.  By the law of April
20, 1810, government  was authorized to
establish  extraordinary special tribunals,
for the term  of one year, composed of
eight members of the court of appeals, in
those departments in which certain crimes
                 28*
were unusually frequent.  For the trial of
smugglers, by an  imperial decree of Oc-
tober  18,  1810,  cours  des douanes were
established in thirty-six cities, and cours
privCAales des douanes in eight cities; the
latter  had a grand-prevCt for president,
with eight assistant judges, and in cases
of armed smuggling had original jurisdic-
tion, and  proceeded without jury.  All
these  extraordinary  tribunals,  together
with die military commissions, were abol-
ished  by the charter  of 1814 (art. 63),
with a proviso for the  restoration of the
cours privdtales,  should it be found  ne-
cessary.   By the law  of December  20,
1815, the special criminal courts were re-
established, for two yeare, under the name
of cours prevotales.  One of these courts
was erected in each department, consisting
of a jurist as president, a military officer as
privot, and four members of the court ofthe
first instance in the district Their jurisdic-
tion resembled that of the special criminal
courts constituted in 1808, and their pro-
cedure was exacdy the same.  They were
not renewed, and therefore tacitly expired
in 1818.  The article ofthe charter above
referred to (54th in the new charter) was
so amended, August 7th, 1830, as to read
thus: "There can be no  extraordinary
commissions or tribunals, under any tide
or name whatsoever," the proviso in favor
of the cours privotales being struck out.
   Priam ; son of Laomedon and Suymo
or  Placia, called, in his earlier years, Po-
darces;  but when Hercules took Troy, and
permitted Hesione to ransom one of the
prisoners  at  her  own price, she  selected
her brother Podarces,  and  gave  her veil
for him.  On this account he was ever af-
ter called Priam (the Ransomed).  When
a youth, he marched with the Phrygians
against  the Amazons,  and  went as am-
bassador to  the  Thracians.  After  the
death of his father he reigned in Troy.
By his first wife, Arisbe, daughter of Me-
rops,  he  had jEsacus.  He afterwards
gave  Arisbe to  Hyrtacus, and  married
Hecuba, by whom he had, according to
Homer, nineteen  children, among whom
Hector, Paris, Creiisa, Laodice, Polyxena,
Cassandra (Alexandra), Deiphobus, Hele-
nus,  Pammon,  Polites,  Antiphus, Hip-
ponoiis, Polydorus and Troilus were  the
most distinguished. By four  concubines,
he also had  thirty-six sons  and  four
daughters.  His name has been  rendered
famous by the tragical fate of himself and
his family, brought on by his blind love
for his son Paris; for  when  he  was ex-
tremely old, the Greeks demanded of him
the restoration of Helen, who had been 
33d
PRIAM—PRIDEAUX.
 carried away by Paris, and, on his refusal
 to give her up, they made war against
 Troy, took and destroyed the city, after a
 siege of ten yeare, his son Hector  (q. v.)
 having already fallen before his eyes.   In
 this night of horror  the old man armed
 himself to seek death in the midst of the
 enemy; but the prayers  of Hecuba pre-
 vailed upon him to  take  shelter at  the
 altar  of Jupiter.   Here he  saw his  son
 Polites fall by the hand of Pyrrhus; and,
 unable to  contain himself, he hurled his
javelin at the youthful warrior, who drag-
ged the old man by the hair to the altar,
and plunged a sword into his breast.
  Priapus ; originally a god of the fields
in Lampsacus, a town of Mysia, situated
in a rich wine country. Venus bore him
to Bacchus, when the latter was returning
from  India,  but was  unwilling to  ac-
knowledge him, on  account of  his  de-
formity.   Others give him a different ori-
gin ; but he was always god of the fields,
the protector of gardens,  bees, goats, and
sheep. He was represented with  homs
and goat's ears,  and large  sexual  parts,
having in his lap all kinds of fruits;  in his
hand  he held a sickle, and usually a horn
of  plenty.  His  worship spread  from
Lampsacus over Greece to Rome.  Some
mycologists consider him an emblem of
nature.
  Price, Richard; a dissenting minister,
distinguished as a mathematician and sta-
tistical writer.  He was born at Llangun-
nor, in Glamorganshire, in 1723, and was
educated at Talgarth, in his native coun-
ty, whence he removed to a Presbyterian
academy  in London, and became pastor
of a nonconformist congregation, of Arian
or semi-Arian principles,at Hackney,where
he continued as long as  he lived.   He
commenced his literary career in 1758 by
his Review of the principal Difficulties iii
Morals (8vo.), wliich was  followed  by
Four  Dissertations on the Importance of
Christianity, the Nature of Historical Evi-
dence, and Miracles, &c. (1767, 8vo.).  In
1769,  he received the diploma of D.  D.
from the university of Glasgow.  In 1771
appeared  his  Observations on Reversion-
ary Payments and Annuities (8vo.), which
established his character as a mathemati-
cal calculator.  He next published an Ap-
peal to the Public on the Subject of the
National Debt; and,  during  the  contest
with the North American colonies, advo-
cated their cause in Observations on  Civil
Liberty (1776, 8vo.), Additional Observa-
tions,  and a  Supplement  These tracts
provoked the animadversions of a number
of writers on die opposite side of the ques-
 tion, and exposed  him to some obloquy \
 but they also procured him  a vote of
 thanks from the  corporation of Lonelon,
 presented in a gold box.  He engaged hi
 an  epistolary coreespondence  with  hia
 friend doctor Joseph Priestley on die sub-
 jects  of materialism and  necessity,  the
 substance of which was laid before  the
 public  in an octavo volume,  in  1778.
 When Pitt  became  prime-minister,  he
 consulted doctor Price, in his schemes for
 the reduction of the national  debt; and
 the establishment of the sinking fund was
 the result of his recommendation.  (See
 Sinking  Fund.)   At the commencement
 of the French revolution, in  a  sermon
 (published in 1789) On the Love of Coun-
 try, he warmly expressed his  delight at
 the emancipation of the French people.
 This discourse produced Burke's Reflec-
 tions, in which doctor Price was severely
 treated.   He died April 19, 1791*   Be-
 sides many papers in the Transactions of
 the Royal Society, of which he was  a fel-
 low, he published Sermons on the Chris-
 tian Doctrine, as received by the different
 Denominations of Christians (8vo.),  and
 several   single  sermons  and  political
 pamphlets.
   Price.  (See Value.)
   Prickly Pear.  This term is frequent*
 ly applied to various species of cactus, but
 more commonly to the C. opuntia, a fleshy
 and succulent plant,  destitute  of leaves,
 covered with fasciculi of spines, and con-
 sisting of flattened  joints, inserted upon
 each other.   The flowers are pretty large,
 yellow, having numerous petals and sta-
 mens.  They are succeeded by a purplish
 and edible fruit  This plant grows wild,
 in sandy sod, from New York to Flori-
 da.
   Prideacx, Humphrey, a learned Eng-
lish divine, bom in 1648, was educated at
Oxford, and,  while at the university,  pub-
lished the ancient inscriptions  from the
Anmdel  marbles, under the title of Mar-
mora Oxoniensia.  Lord chancellor Finch,
earl of Nottingham, gave him a prebend
in Norwich cathedral, and lord North be-
stowed on him  the rectory of Bladen,
which, on taking the degree of  D. D., he
exchanged for the benefice of Soham, in
Norfolk.  He was subsequently promoted
to the  archdeaconry of Suffolk, and, in
1702, made dean of Norwich.  His death
took place November 1, 1724.   Besides
his great work entitled the Old and New
Testament connected in the History ofthe
Jews and neighboring Nations, of which
there are many editions,  he was the  au-
thor of the Life of Mohammed (8vo.); the 
PRIDEAUX—PRIESTLEY.                     331
 Original and Right of Tithes (8vo.); Ec-
 clesiastical Tracts (8vo.), &c.
   Priestley, Joseph, an eminent philoso-
 pher and divine, was bom in March, 1733,
 at Fieldhead, near Leeds.  His father was
 a clothier, of the Calvinistic persuasion, in
 which he was also  himself brought up,
 under the protection of an aunt, who, af-
 ter he had attained  a respectable degree
 of classical acquirement in several schools
 of the neighborhood, finally placed him
 at the dissenting  academy  at  Daventry,
 with a view to the ministry.  He spent
 three  yeare  at this  school,  when he be-
 came acquainted with the writings of doc-
 tor Hartley,  which  made a great impres-
 sion upon his mind; and he was gradual-
 ly led into  a partiality for the Arian hy-
 pothesis.  On  quitting  the  academy, he
 accepted an invitation to become minister
 of Needham Market, in  Suffolk, when,
 being suspected of heretical opinions, he
 received little encouragement;  and, after
 a residence of three  years, he undertook
 the charge of a congregation at  Nampt-
 wich, in Cheshire, to which he joined a
 school.  Here his reputation  increased;
 and,  in 1761, he was invited by the trus-
 tees of the  dissenting academy at  War-
 rington to occupy  the post of tutor in the
 languages.  At Warrington, his political
 opinions were manifested in an  Essay on
 Government   He also published an Es-
 say on a Couree of Liberal Education, and
 his useful Chart of Biography.  A visit to
 London having introduced him to doctors
 Franklin, Watson  and Price, he was  en-
 couraged to compose a History of Elec-
 tricity, which first appeared in 1767, and
 procured him an admission  into the royal
 society; he had previously obtained the title
 «f doctor of laws  from the university of
 Edinburgh.  In the same year, he accept-
 ed an invitation to preside over a congre-
 gation at Leeds, where his religious opin-
 ions  became  decidedly  Sociiiiau.   At
 Leeds his attention was firet drawn to the
 properties of fixed air; and  here  he also
 composed his  Histoiy and  Present State
 of Discoveries relating to Vision, Light,
 and  Colors.    After a residence  of  six
 years  at Leeds, he accepted an invitation
 from the earl of Shelburne, afterwards
 marquis of Lansdowne, to reside with him
 as a companion, in  the nominal capacity
 of librarian.   While  forming a part of the
'establishment of this nobleman, he occu-
 pied himself in scientific pursuits, and, in
 1773, gave to the Philosophical Transac-
 tions a paper on the different kinds of air,
 which obtained the prize of Copley's gold
 medal. This was followed by three vol-
 umes, the publication of which forms an
 era in the history of aeriform fluids*  In
 1775, he published  his Examination of
 the Doctrine of Common Sense, as held
 by doctors Reid, Beattie and Oswald, and
 soon after published the treatise of Hart-
 ley.   He had alreaely declared  himself a
 believer  in the doctrine of philosophical
 necessity, and, in a dissertation annexed
 to his edition of Hartley, expressed some
 doubts of the immateriality of the sen-
 tient principle in man.   This  docnine he
 still more forcibly supported in his Dis-
 quisitions on Matter and Spirit (1777); and
 tne obloquy which these works brought
 on him producing a coolness in his patton,
 the connexion was dissolved, the doctor
 retaining an  annuity of 150  pounds per
 annum, by original  agreement  He next
 removed to  Binningham,  where  he be-
 came once more  minister of a dissenting
 congregation, and occupied  himself in his
 History of the  Oomiptions of Christiani-
 ty, and Histoiy of the early Opinions con-
 cerning Jesus Christ.  His  Familiar Let-
 ter to the Inhabitants of Birmingham was
 written  in support of the  claims of the
 dissenters for a repeal of the test acts. The
 era ofthe French revolution added to the
 usual animosity of  theological  dispute.
 The  anniversary of the capture  of the
 Bastile being celebrateel at Birmingham,
 a mob assembled, and, although  doctor
 Priestley was not present, proceeded to his
 house, which, with his library, manuscripts
 and apparatus, fell a prey to the  flames.
 The  outrage was countenanced by too
 many exercising both lay and clerical  in-
 fluence, and the legal compensation which
 he obtained  fell considerably short of his
 real losses.  On quitting Birmingham, he
 was chosen to succeed his friend doctor
 Price at Hackney,  where  he remained
 some  time in the cultivation of his scien-
 tific pursuits, until, finally, goaded by par-
 ry enmity to seek an asylum in  the U.
 States, which he reached  in 1794, and
 took up his residence at  Northumberland,
 in Pennsylvania.  In America he dedicat-
 ed his whole time to his accustomed pur-
 suits, until a severe illness laid the founda-
tion of a debility hi his digestive organs;
 and a gradual decay followed, which ter-
 minated  his  existence, February 6,1804,
 in his seventy-first year.  He had compos-
eel, not long  before, his Jesus and Socra-
tes compared. *  Doctor Priestley was an
ardent controversialist, chiefly in  conse-
  * It was  incorrectly stated, in the article John
 Blair Linn (vol. vii), that the merits of Socrates,
in this work of doctor Priestley, are placed above
 those of Jesus Christ. 
332
PRIESTLEY—PRIESTS;
quence of extreme simplicity and open-
ness of character, but no man felt less an-
imosity towards his opponents than he did;
and many who  entertained the  strongest
antipathy to his opinions were converted
into friends by his gentleness and urbani-
ty in personal intercouree.   As a man of
science, he stands high in the walk of in-
vention and discovery; and to no one has
pneumatic  chemistiy  been so  much in-
debted.   As a metaphysician, his elucida-
tion of Hartley's theoiy of association, his
works upon philosophical necessity  and
upon materialism,  wUl always ensure at-
tention.   As a theologian, doctor  Priestley,
who followed his  convictions  wherever
they led him, passed through all changes,
from Calvinism to a Unitarian system, in
some measure  his own; but, to the last,
remained a zealous opposer of  infidelity.
Of his theological and controversial pro-
ductions, those  most generally  esteemed
are his Institutes of Natural and Reveal-
eel Religion, and Letters to a philosophical
Unbeliever.   He also wrote many works
Of practical divinity.   His works amount
to about seventy volumes, or tracts, in oc-
tavo. (See liis Life, by himself and his son.)
  Priests ; officere  called by  choice or
birth to perform religious rites, and to in-
culcate  and  expound religious dogmas.
Among the ancient pagan nations, all that
was dignified and venerable, that deserv-
ed respect and obedience, that stood near-
er to the Divinity than the common mass
of mortals,  was associated with the idea
ofthe priestly office.  The patriarch of
the primitive world was at once the king
and the priest of his  family ; and when
the state was developed from the family,
the royal and priestly dignity still contin-
ued, for a long time,  to be united in the
same person.  (See Mdchisedek, and  Pa-
triarchs.)  But these offices became sepa-
rated in those states of antiquity which
owed their existence to the ascendency of
single heroes or conquering tribes;  and
by the side of the regal dignity  and sove-
reignty a sacerdotal order, which in some
countries was elective, in others heredita-
ry, grew up, and by the reputation of su-
perior  wisdom, and  secret communion
with the gods  (whence the priests were
also honored as magicians and physicians),
inspired  the mind with  awe.   In  the
states of Western Asia,  in Egypt, Greece
and Rome, the  priests were therefore pub-
lic counsellors,  and instruments of govern-
ment   Their original  office was to bring
down divine things to the conception of
men (the origin of most ofthe  mythuses
may therefore be referred to their expla-
nations of symbols and emblems), and to
solemnize the public worship of the gods
by sacrifices, prayers and religious pomp
(mysteries). Instruction anel die interpre-
tation of symbolical doctrines ceased to be
a part of their office when the mydiical
religious system came to an  end;  and
when the  poets,  rhetoricians and phi-
losophers assumed the office of  inter-
preters  of die  mythuses, the  sole busi-
ness of the  priests became the perfonn-
ance  of the religious rites.  The Mosaic
constitution exhibits them in diis stage of
developernent, and, while it clothes diem
with great power,  reserves the  spiritual
part of religion to the prophets.   (See
High Priest, and Theocracy.)   The pos-
terity of Aaron, the hereditary  priests of
the Hebrews, became, therefore, mere me-
chanical agents in the daily repetition of
the temple service.  It fared  no  better
widi  die  Roman  Catholic clergy when
they adopted the rigor and  formalities of
the Jewish priesthood, widi the view of
obtaining the same privileges,  and exact-
ing from the Christian laity the same con-
tributions (e. g. tidies)  which the Levites
had enjoyeel.   Such a tendency was alto-
gether foreign from the Founder of Chris-
tianity and its  apostles.  The  primitive
Christian communities had, indeed, teach-
ers, whose eluty it was to expound the di-
vine word, and to exercise a paternal care
over their disciples ; but not to  perform'
pompous ceremonies, nor to rule over the
conscience.  Some of these teachers were
called presbyters, whence the term priest,
in  our  language,  is derived (see  Pres-
byterians) ; but  they were  by no means
priests in the  sense of the word which
prevails  at  present.   In  the  Catholic
church, priests  are that order of the cler-
gy who  perform  the  holy office of the
mass,  and  in some of the  Protestant
churches, those who administer the sacra-
ments, preach, &c. (See Hierarchy,  and
Ordination.)  Among  the  Hindoos, the
sacerdotal caste styled Bramins form the
highest  caste.  (See Bramins, and Caste.)
In the systems of Lamaism and Moham-
medanism, the dalai-lama and the  caliph
are the  heads  of the priesthood.  (See
Lama, and Caliph.)
  Priests, Non-juring, or  Pritres  Inser-
mentis.    The  schism in  the  French
church, produced by the constitution civile
du  clerge of the 12th  of July, 1790,  was
connected with the old relations of that
church  with  the  Roman  see  and the
French government, and of these latter
with each other.  Louis IX, by his prag-
matic sanction (1268), defended the rights 
PRIESTS.                              333
of election against the see of Rome, and
restricted the pecuniary exactions of the
latter.   By the concordate of Leo X with
Francis I (1516), the right of appointing
the bishops anel prelates was secured to
the king, and that of receiving the annates,
to the pope;  at the same time, an oppor-
tunity  was afforded  to the nobles, by re-
quiring of them a shorter period of prepa-
ration, to exclude  the learned class, who
were really the clergy, from the higher and
more profitable ecclesiastical offices.  By
a royal edict of 1606, this exclusion ofthe
learned was completed,  and  those abuses
introduced, which, in connexion with the
licentiousness and  immorality of some of
die higher clergy,  contributed to produce
the revolution.  The immense revenues
of the  Gallicun church  were  not  applied
to spiritual purposes, but merely to supply
to the younger sons of nobles the means
of leading dissipated and  dissolute lives,
while the real laborere in the church—the
priests—were obliged to live, for the most
part, on very moderate,  and  often scanty
incomes.  The declaration of the  French
clergy of 1682 (denying the  personal in-
fallibility  of the pope and his power to
interfere in secular affairs), the Jansenist
controversy,  and  the  bull  Unigenitus
(1713),  had introduced  divisions  into the
church.   It  was  no wonder, then,  that
when, in 1788, the government itself called
the people to a great political reform, the
church should have  been  one of  the first
objects of attention.  The firet step  was
to declare the possessions of the church
national property,  which,  after supplying
the necessary wants of the  church,  was
to  be  employed for purposes of state.
The relations of the state to the Catholic
church were afterwards entirely changed
by the civil  constitution of the clergy
above  mentioned.   The  135 bishoprics,
which were of very unequal extent, were
reduced to 83, one for  each  department,
and the whole country was divided  into
ten archbishoprics.  The ten archbishops
were to have their seats at Rouen, Rheims,
Besancon, Rennes,  Paris, Bourges, Bor-
deaux,  Toulouse, Aix and Lyons.   The
bishops were to officiate as the curates of
their sees; the priests and bishops  were
to be chosen by the people; the canonical
cousecration was to  be  performed by the
bishop  or  archbishop  (the archbishop
being consecrated  by the oldest bishop in
the arch bishopric!.  The pope, as the visi-
ble head of the church, was merely to be
informed after the choice had taken place,
without any confirmation from him being
necessary; and all the bishops, both those
in office at the time and those who should
thereafter be chosen, were to take an oath
"to watch  over the  congregations com-
mitted to them, to be faithful to  the  na-
tion, the law and the king, and to sup-
port the constitution, which should be
framed by the  national  assembly and ac-
cepted by the king."  Most of the  old
prelates and many of the priests refused
to take this oath.  Such  refusal was  de-
clared equivalent  to a  resignation, and
others were chosen to supply their places.
The non-juring clergy formed one of the
most powerful means of opposing repub-
licanism in France ; they kindled the war
in  La  Vendee; the  greatest  part of
them emigrated, and published excommu-
nications and charges of heresy, particu-
larly from  England,  against  those who
had submitted to the new order of things.
The national convention opposed these
attacks by  the most  rigorous  measures.
Several   hundreds of the  clergy,  who
refused to take the oath, were murdered
in the prisons of Paris, on the 2el and 3d
of September, 1792.  The  revolutionary
tribunal  endeavored  to extirpate  them
from the republic.  Carrier drowned fifty-
eight at once, at Nantes; and a law was
passed condemning them to  deportation
en masse. Even those servants of religion
who had submitteel to the civil constitution
were  not suffered to live in  peace;  re-
ligion itself had become hateful to politi-
cal fanaticism.  This violence was carried
so far, that  the constitutional bishop of
Paris, John Baptist Joseph  Gobel, a man
67 years of age, who had been  educated
at Rome, and had been  suffragan of the
bishop of Basle (since 1772), appeared at
the bar of the  convention, acknowledged
himself an  impostor, who  had  hitherto
deceived the people with doctrines which
he  did not believe himself, and tore off
the badges of his sacred office.   He was
soon  after  guillotined.   This  madness,
however, did not  long continue.  Some
constitutional bishops obtained  from the
national convention, in 1794, the  declara-
tion of freedom of conscience, and enter-
ed into an  association with their clerical
brethren. The consequence  of this was
the national councils of 1797 and 1801,
the acts of which were printed;  and their
principles, founded on  the  constitution
civile, met with  approbation from many
foreign  bishops, particularly the  Italian.
Of the 40,000 parish  churches of France,
32,214 were again opened in 1796,  and
almost all were filled by priests who  had
taken the oath (pritres assermentis).  The
French church was far advanced towards 
334
PRIESTS—PRIMOGENITURE.
independence,  when  the revolution of
1799, and die  concordate of 1801,  in
which Napoleon sought to make  the
church a support to his power, restored
its old connexion with Rome.  The re-
sult showed how much Napoleon erred
in this policy.
  Primage is a small allowance made by
the shippers to the master of a freighting
vessel, for his care and trouble in respect to
the cargo.  It is usually confounded with
average (see Average) in the bill of lading,
and both are estimated at a certain rate per
cent, on the amount of the freight.
  Primary.   (See Ornithology.)
  Primary Rocks.  (See Geology.)
  Primate (primas regni, head  of  the
kingdom);  in the  European states,  the
chief archbishop in the state, and the firet
subject of  the  realm  ; in  the  Catholic
church, the primate is also perpetual le-
gate of the pope, and has a sort of spirit-
ual jurisdiction over the other archbishops.
There are  also  primates of provinces.
The  archbishop of Toledo is primate of
Spain ; the archbishop of Braga is styled
primate of Portugal, although he is actu-
ally inferior to the patriarch of Lisbon.  In
England, the archbishop of Canterbury is
styled primate of all England, and the arch-
bishop of York primate of England.  In
the Protestant Irish church, the archbishop
of Armagh is primate of all Ireland ; the
archbishop of Dublin, primate of Ireland ;
the archbishop of  Cashel,  primate  of
Munster,  and the archbishop of Tuam,
primate of Connaught  In the Germau
empire, the archbishop of Salzburg was
primate of Germany.  In  France, the
archbishop of Lyons is primate of France;
that of Bourges, primate of Aquitania, and
that of Rheims, of Normandy. In Hun-
gary,  the archbishop of Gran is primate;
in Poland, the archbishop  of Gnesen.
  Primaticcio, Francesco, a painter of
the Bolognese school, born at Bologna, in
1490,  received his  first instruction from
Innocenzo da Immola, and completed his
studies under Giulio Romano.  In con-
nexion with several  of the pupils  of the
latter, he painted the  Palazzo del  Tr, in
Mantua (q. v.),  from  Giulio's  designs.
Through the  recommendation of Frede-
ric, duke  of Mantua,  Primaticcio was
taken into the  service of Francis I  of
France, in  1531.  His arrival and resi-
dence  in  France makes an  epoch in
French art  To his influence were ow-
ing, not only numerous paintings in fresco
and works in  stucco, which the king
caused to be executed,but several branches
of painting, as, for instance, enamel paint-
ing, and designs for tapestry, were carried
 to great perfection through his exertions.
 Francis sent him to Italy to purchase un-
 tique statues, of which he made a respect-
 able  collection,  and  caused numerous
 casts to be  executed.  On the  death  of
 Rosso, the royal painter, Primaticcio suc-
 ceeded  him in his post, and Francis II
 appointed him superintendent of the royal
 buildings.  He furnished  the designs of
 several architectural works, among  them
 of the tombs of Francis I and Henry  II.
 His  works  at  Fontainebleau,  however,
 gained  him more reputation.  He was
 assisted in his  labors  by  several of his
 countrymen, of whom Niccolo del Abbate
 was the most distinguished.  Primaticcio
 died in 1570.  The vvorks which  he exe-
 cuted in  France are nobler and freer, in
 point of design, than those which  he exe-
 cuted in  Giulio's school.  In his great
 works he often violated nature.
  Prime  Minister, or Premier.  (See
 Minister.)
  Prime Numbers are those which have
 no divisors, or  which cannot  be divided
 into  any number of equal integral parts,
 less  than the number of units of which
 they are composed ; such as 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,
 13,17, &c.  These numbers have  formed
 a subject of investigation and inquiry from
 the earliest date down to the present day ;
 and a rule for finding them is still amongst
 the desiderata of mathematicians.   Tiie
 method of finding a prime number be-
 yond a certain limit, by a direct  process,
 is considered one of the most difficult prob-
 lems in the theoiy of numbers, which, like
 the quadrature of the circle, the trisection
 of an angle, and the duplication ofthe cube,
 have engaged the attention of many able
 mathematicians,  but  without  arriving at
 any satisfactory result.
  Prime Vertical is that vertical circle,
 or azimuth, which is  perpendicular to the
 meridian, and passes through the east aud
 west points ofthe horizon.
  Prime Verticals, in dialling, or Prime
 Vertical Dials, are those that are pro-
jected on  the plane of the  prime vertical
 circle, or on a plane parallel to it.  These
 are otherwise called direct, erect, north, or
 south dials.
  Primer.  Great primer and long prime-
 are different kinds of type.  (See  Type.)
  Primitive Rocks.  (See Geology.)
  Primogeniture.   The right of primo-
 geniture iu males seems anciently  to have
 prevailed only among the Jews. The first
 born in the patriarchal  ages had a supe-
 riority over his  brethren, and, in  the ab-
 sence of  the  father,  was  priest  of the
 family. Among the Jews, he had a double
 portion of the inheritance; in the same 
PRIMOGENITURE—PRIMROSE.                   335
manner as, by the laws of Henry I, in Eng-
land, the eldest son had the capital fee, or
principal feud of his father's possessions,and
no other preeminence;  and as the  eldest
daughter had the principal mansion when
the estate descended in coparcenary.  The
" insolent prerogative of primogeniture," as
Gibbon  denominates  it,  was unknown
among the Romans ; the two sexes were
placed on a just level; all the sons and all
die daughters were entitled to  an  equal
portion of the patrimonial estate.  The
Greeks,  the  Britons,  the  Saxons,  the
Danes,   &c,  anel even,  originally,  the
feudists, divided the lands equally, some
among  all the children  at large,  some
among the males only.  The equal divis-
ion of the patrimonial  estate among the
children is certainly the most obvious and
natural way.  When the emperors began to
create honorary feuds, or titles of nobility,
it was found  necessary, in order to pre-
serve their dignity, to make them imparti-
ble,  and, in consequence, descendible to
the eldest son alone.  This example  was
further  enforced  by the inconveniences
that  attended the  splitting of  estates;
namely,  the division of the military ser-
vices, the multitudes of infant tenants, in-
capable of performing any duty, the con-
sequent weakening of the strength  of die
kingdom, and the inducing younger sons
to take up widi the business and idleness
of a country life, instead of being service-
able to themselves and the public, by en-
gaging in mercantile, military, civil  or ec-
clesiastical employments.   These reasons
occasioned an almost total change in the
nature  of  feudal  inheritances; so  that
the  eldest son began, universally, to suc-
ceed to the whole of the lands in all mili-
tary tenures.
   In this condition, the feudal constitution
was established  in  England by William
die Conqueror.  Before the conquest, the
descent of lands was to all the sons alike.
Socage estates • in England frequently de-
scended to  all the  sons  equally, till the
time  of Henry HI, when, in imitation
of lands in  chivalry,  they had  almost
entirely  fallen into the  right of suc-
cession  by  primogeniture;  except hi
Kent, where they gloried in  the  pres-
ervation  of  their  ancient  gavelkind
tenure, of which  a principal branch  was
the joint inheritance of all the sons;  and
except  in some  particular manors  and
townships, where their local customs con-
tinued the descent sometimes to all, some-
times to the  youngest son only, or in other
more  singular methods  of succession.
By the English law, there is no right of
primogeniture among females, except as
to the inheritance of the crown. (Black.
Commentaries, ii, 215.) The right of primo-
geniture, which  calls the eldest boru to
the  crown,  was  not  introduced  into
France till very late;  it was unknown to
the firet and second race of kings.   The
four  sons  of Clovis shared the  kingdom
equally  among  themselves.   Those of
Louis le Debounaire did the same; aud it
was  not till the race  of Hugh Capet as-
cended the throne, that the prerogative of
succession to the crown was appropriated
to the first born. The  right of primo-
geniture is now abolished in France ; but
it  prevails  in some degree in every other
nation of Europe.  In the U. States, no
distinction  of age or sex is  made in the
descent  of estates to lineal descendants.
Though primogeniture and the preference
of males are now thus univereally given
up in this country, yet in some states they
remained in full force, and in others mod-
ifications of  them  continued for  a long
period.  The English common law,  with
regard to descents, prevailed in New Jer-
sey until 1780,  in  Maryland and South
Carolina until 1786, and in Virginia until
1787.  In  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island
and Connecticut, the eldest son, probably
in imitation of the Jewish law, had for-
merly a double  portion of the real and
personal estate, and,  in Delaware, of the
real  estate, of his father.  (Amer. Jurist,
No. I. 80.)
   Primrose   (primula).  A genus of
beautiful low Alpine plants, abounding
especially on the  mountains ofthe eastern
continent  A few species are found in
North America, chiefly in Canada, on the
Rocky  mountains, and  on those  which
border  the North  Pacific.   Some are
among  the earliest flowers in spring, as
the  common  primrose, the oxlip and
cowslip of Europe; and several are cul-
tivated  in  gardens as ornamental plants.
Their roots are perennial; tiie leaves al-
most always radical;  and the flowers sup-
ported on a naked stem, and usually dis-
posed in a sort  of umbel.  The calyx is
tubular; the corolla funnel-shaped, and
divided  at  the  summit into five  equal
lobes; the stamens five in number, with a
single style; and the capsule oval, one-
celled, and containing numerous  seeds
attached to a central placenta. The vari-
eties of the  common primrose,  which
have arisen from cultivation, are very nu-
merous.  The P. auricula, a native ofthe
Alpine regions of Italy, Switzerland and
Germany, is also a well known favorite
with the florist. 
£16
PRIMUM MOBILE—PRINTING
  Primum Mobile, in the Ptolemaic as-
tronomy ; the  ninth or highest sphere of
the heavens, whose centre is that of the
world, and in  comparison of which the
earth is but  a  point.  This the ancients
supposed to contain  all other  spheres
within it, anel to  give  motioa to them,
turning itself, and all of them, quite round
in twenty-four hours.
  Prince Edward's Island. (See John's,
St.)
  Prince of Wales's Island (called by
the Malays Pulo  Pinang, or  Betel-nut
island) is an  island in  the East  Indian
sea, near the coast  of Siam ; latitude of its
north-eastern point, 5° 25> N.; lon. 100°
197 E.  It measures  about 160 square miles,
and has a fine  harbor.   Its basis is a mass
of granite.  The  western side  affords
abundance  of timber for ship-building.
The remainder is  extremely  fertile,, and
yields large crops of pepper, coffee, sugar,
rice, ginger, yams, sweet potatoes, be-
tel-nut, cocoa-nut,  spices, &c, and the
elastic  gum-vine, resembling  the  caout-
chouc  plant.  The climate is temperate.
George Town  is the capital.   Population
ofthe island and its dependencies in 1822,
51,207.
  Prince Regent's Inlet.  (See North
Polar Expeditions.)
  Prince's Metal ; a mixture of copper
and zinc, in imitation of gold.
  Princes of  the  Blood ; those pereons
who have the same origin with the reign-
ing house, and, after the extinction of the
same, have the next right to the throne.
Thus  the princes  of the houses Orleans
and  Bourbon  Conde   were   formerly
princes of the blood'.   Louis XIV also
declared his sons by his mistresses La Va-
liere and Montespan princes ofthe blood;
but the dignity was taken from them after
his death.
  Princeton ; a post-town of New Jer-
sey, 10 miles north of Trenton, 40 north-
east of Philadelphia, and 49  south-west
of New York; lat 40°  22' N.; lon. 74°
35' W.  It is  a pleasant town, and con-
tains a college, a theological  seminary, a
brick Presbyterian church, and more than
100 houses.  The college of New Jersey
was founded in 1746, at Elizabethtown;
the next year it was removed to Newark,
and a royal  charter was  granted to it in
1748, by its present title.  It remained at
Newark ten  yeare,  and was permanently
established   at Princeton in 1757.  Its
situation is peculiarly healthful and pleas-
ant, and it has long been a highly respecta-
ble and flourishing seminary.  The col-
lege edifice is styled Nassau Hall,  and is
 four stories high, 175 feet long, and 50
 wide, and contains a chapel about 40 feet
 square, and 60 rooms for students.  There
 are also  buildings for the library, philo-
 sophical  apparatus,  museum, refectory,
 recitatiou rooms, &c.  The library is very
 well selected, and contains 8000 volumes.
 The  students'   libraries  contain  4000^
 There are ten instructors and 105 students.
 Commencement is  on the last Wednes-
 day of September.  There are two vaca-
 tions, viz. from commencement six weeks,
 and  from the  firet  Thursday after the
 second Tuesday of April six weeks.  The
 board of trustees consists of twenty-three
 members.  The governor of the state is.
 ex officio, president of this board; and one
 half of the  remainder  are  clergymen.
 The executive government is composed
 ofa president, who is also teacher of the-
 ology and moral philosophy; a vice-pres-
 ident, who is professor of languages and
 belles-lettres; a professor of mathematics
 and natural philosophy;  a professor ©f
 chemistry, experimental  philosophy, and
 natural history; and three tutors.  The
 theological seminary of the Presbyterian
 church in the U. States was also establish-
 ed at Princeton, in 1812.  The associate
 reformed church  afterwards united'  with
 the Presbyterian,  and thence  their semi-
 naries were joined.   A stone edifice, in-
 tended to accommodate 100  students, is
• appropriateel  to  this institution-.   The
 number of professors is three ;  of students,
 ninety-two; of graduates,  537; of vol-
 umes in  the  library, 6000.  A residence
 of three years is required to complete the
 couree of study.  Candidates for  admis-
 sion are required to  produce testimonials
 of good natural talents, of good' moral and
 religious character, of belonging to some
 regular church, and of having  passed
 through a regular couree  of academical
 studies.   Tuition and the use ofthe libra-
 ry are afforded free of expense to every
 student, and there are charitable funds for
 aiding the indigent  Princeton was dis-
 tinguished, during the revolution, by a de-
 cisive battle between the  British  troops
 and a division ofthe American army com-
 manded by general  Washington.   The
 British lost 100 men, and 300 more,  who
 had taken refuge in the college, were fore
 ed to surrender.  In this action, January
 3,  1777, general Mercer  of Virginia was
 killed.                        8
   Principal, in criminal law.  (See Ac-
 cessary.)
   Printer's Ink.  (See hk.)
   Printing, Art of, in regard  to  the
 processes used, is divided into xylograph- 
PRINTING.                             337
M,  typographic  and  stereographic.   In
xylographic printing, the writing is carved
on wooden tables; they are then covered
with ink, the paper is put upon them, and
an impression is taken.   This is the oldest
mode of printing, and  is still in use in
China, Japan  anel Thibet Typographic
printing is that in which single lettere or
types are used,  which  are properly ar-
ranged, and then the work is printed. For
a short time, carved letters were in use;
but cast letters were soon introduced, and
are still used.   In stereographic printing,
pages composed of many types are trans-
formed, by casting, into plates, or tables,
from which copies are printed.  A mould
of plaster is taken from a page of types,
and from this the stereotype  plates are
obtained  by casting.  The Chinese, even
in the reign of their emperor  Wu-Wang,
who lived  about 1100 B. C,  are said to
have  been   well acquainted  with xylo-
graphic printing;  but the Japanese as-
sume the merit ofthe invention.  In Thi-
bet, also, according to the accounts of va-
rious travellers, this ait has been exercised
from time immemorial.  Although  it had
been the custom, for thousands of yeare, to
make  impressions with seals  on  wax,
which might  have easily led to the  in-
vention of the  art of  printing,  Gutten-
berg  firet  made  this  discovery,  about
three centuries  and  a half ago;  for it
may  justly be  questioned, whether the
Europeans  had then any knowledge of
the art of printing among the  Chinese,
although it is not to be denied, that, before
the time of Guttenberg, and even in 1423,
the art of cutting images on wood, with a
few lines of text, was well known.  Three
cities contend for the honor of the inven-
tion  of  typographical printing—Harlem,
Strasburg  and  Mentz. The  people  of
Harlem maintain that  their citizen  Lau-
rence Jansoen, under  the name of Coster
(i.  e.  sacristan  in the great parochial
church at  Harlem), as early as 1430,  in-
vented the art of cutting on  wooden ta-
bles.   But he did not stop  here ; and
there arc many of Coster's impressions,
as Scheltema  and K6nings have tried to
prove, as late as the year 1823, made with
movable types of wood, and afterwards
of lead and tin.   If the invention  of the
art of printing is thus  due to the  Dutch
(Van  Hultem, a learned Dutch writer,
is opposed  to diis opinion),  the inven-
tion of  the art in Mentz still ought to
be considered as independent of that in
Harlem ; for the account that Coster was
robbed of his types by his assistant John,
who  fletl through Amsterdam  and Co-
   vol. x.         29
logne to Mentz, and there printed, in 1442,
Alexandri   Galli  Dodrinale  and  Petri
Hispani Traclatus, is without foundation.
The people of Strasburg ascribe this in-
vention to Guttenberg, in Strasburg.  The
people of Mentz,  on the contrary, main-
tain that Guttenberg invented typograph-
ical  printing, not in Strasburg, but  in
Mentz.  The  truth  is, that Guttenberg
(q. v.) conceived the firet idea of his in-
vention, and made a few experiments of
it at Strasburg, but firet brought it to per-
fection, with the aid of Peter Schoffer, in
Mentz.  It is proved that Guttenberg, as
early as 1436, when  he was still at Stras-
burg, had  his printing instruments,  and,
the same year, made some trials with a
printing press.   But, dissatisfied with the
slow process of the xylographic method
he began to consider whether he might
not print with  single letters,  and use the
same lettere more than  once.   This led
him to the invention of movable letters,
which  he must  have used  earlier  than
1442, for, in  this year, separate  lettere
were in  use.  In 1445, Guttenberg re-
turned to his native city, Mentz; and with
1449 begins  the period of the completion
ofthe art of printing.  Guttenberg, in the
couree of this year, connected himself
with a rich citizen in Mentz,  nameel John
Fust (Faustus), who carried on the business
of founding, in company with Peter Schof-
fer, of Gronsheim.   Faustus, soon  after
(probably in 1453), entered into a copart-
nership with this Schoffer, an inventive
genius, who now became the true perfecter
of  the art of printing.  Guttenberg, in-
deed, had invented  movable letters, and
made them  first of wood, then of  lead,
and at last of tin.  But the art of printing
continued to be  very difficult and ex-
pensive, till  the metallic letters cast by
John Faustus, or  Peter Schoffer, and
other improvements, were invented.  The
oldest  work, of  any considerable  size,
printed in  Mentz,  with cast  letters, by
Guttenberg, Faustus  and  Schoffer, fin-
ished about 1455, is  Guttenberg's  Latin
Bible,  which is called,  also, the Forty-
two-lined Bible,  because in  every  full
column it has forty-two lines.  Faustus,
having separated  from  Guttenberg, in
1456, and, by means of a  loan of 2020
florins, having obtained his printing press
for his own  use, undertook, in  connexion
with Peter  Schoffer, greater typograph-
ical works, in  which the art was carried
to higher  perfection.  Faustus was par-
ticularly engaged in the printing of the
Latin and German Bible, by the copying
of which the monks had hitherto gaired 
338
PRINTING.
considerable  sums.  As they  could not
understand  this astonishing  multiplica-
tion of the printed copies, and therefore
ascribed it  to some inspiration of Satan,
he became  involved in a violent quarrel
with them.  He went to  Paris with his
Bibles  (die first copies of which, bear-
ing date,  were  printed in 1462), for the
purpose  of selling them  there.  Being
obliged to leave the city in haste, on ac-
count of the jiersecutions of the German
monks, this  probably  gave rise  to the
well-known tradition, that the devil had
carried him off.  In 1466,  Faustus made
a second journey to Paris,  and died there
of the  plague;  upon which P. Schoffer
continued the printing business alone, at
Mentz.  After the separation of Gutten-
berg and Faustus, the former had found
means  to procure  a new  printing press,
and had struck off many works, of which
the most remarkable is the Astrological
and Medical Calendar (in folio, 1457), con-
sidered the firet known work printed with
the date annexed.  As the letters of this
Calendar are entirely different from those
with which Faustus anel Schoffer printed,
it is confidently inferred that this Calendar
was printed at  the press of Guttenberg.
After  1462, many  workmen  went from
Mentz, and established presses in  Ger-
many  and  in foreign  countries, first in
Italy, then in France, the king of which,
at that time, was the firet prince that in-
terested himself in the new ait. Besides
Faustus,  Schoffer  and Guttenberg, one
Albert  Pfister became acquainted  (it ia
not known  by what means) with the art.
Soon after  1450, he also printed a Bible.
As the art of printing began with  the
impression of whole blocks, it has come
to the  same  point again in  its progress
towards perfection, viz. by the introduc-
tion of stereotype plates.   The art of
printing, as  every one knows, was greatly
advanced by the invention  of movable
letters; but on this very account, as often
as a book is  reprinted, new errors creep
in ; and, in  printing, the lettere sometimes
stick to the balls, and are drawn out  with
them, whence new en-ors of the press are
made, because the printer does not always
set them  again  correctly.  These imper-
fections are  particularly  felt  in  books
consisting of tables of numbers.  Firmin
Didot,  son  of Francis Ambrose  Didot,
when   engaged  in  printing the logarith-
mic tables of Callet, invented a method to
prevent all  errors,  by causing the  pages,
composed of movable letters and figures,
and  accurately  corrected, to be  cast
into entire  plates, which might be moved
without  displacing a single letter.   By
this contrivance, the displacement of the
lettere, and new errore ofthe press during
the printing, are made impossible.  If an
error is afterwards discovered, the plate ia
pierced,  the wrong letter taken out, and
die  right one put in, and it is soldered
again, so that the plate may  be thus made
perfectly correct.  Didot called these let-
ters,  thus united, stereotype,  from  the
Greek arcpcot (firm, standing firm) and nmo?
(figure, form).   He printed Callet's above-
mentioned logarithmic and  trigonometri-
cal tables with them in 1795.  The inven-
tion of stereotype printing does not prop-
erly belong to  Didot, but is- ascribed to
the Dutch.  More  than  a hundred yeare
since, it  was in use among them.   The
inventor  of it is said to  have been J. van
der Mey, father of the well-known painter
ofthe same name, who resided at Leyden
towards the end of the  seventeenth cen-
tury. He prepared and cast immovable
forms or  plates for a Dutch Bible in quar-
to, of which many thousand copies were
struck off. The plates  of this  Bible a?3
still in the hands of the booksellers S, & J.
Luchtmans, in Leyden.   At the death of
Mey, the art of making fixed types  was
lost  again in Holland; at least, no further
use was made of it, because the method
was too  expensive.  A  Scotchman, also,
by the name of Ged, at  the beginning of
the eighteenth century,  invented the art
of printing from cast plates, and struck
off an edition of Sallust, with types  sol-
dered together.  Hence  it appears  that
Didot had predecessors  in stereotype or
stereographic printing.    He,   however,
greatly improved the art  His improved
contrivance was as  follows:   He  took
movable  lettere, differing from  the com-
mon ones only by being somewhat shorter,
and of a  harder substance.  These were
set  in the usual way;  the  proof sheets
were then printed  and  corrected, till the
whole copy was as  free from  errors as
possible.   Then every page set with these
hard letters was pressed upon a plate of
properly  prepared  metal.   These plates
served as matrices for whole pages;  and
the lettere of the  hard  substance, men-
tioned above,  might now be  separated
from each other, set anew,  and used to
form other matrice-plates.  A page which
served for a matrix was pressed upon
melted type-metal,  which, hardening  im-
mediately, served for printing. In printing,
the plates, or pages, were set upon  plates
of brass,  which took the  place of a form,
and were necessary to support the whole;
tor  these stereotype pages  or  columns 
PRINTING.
339
being very thin, could otherwise hardly
bear the violence of printing.  The pro-
cess of stereotyping, at present, is simple.
A page of any work proposetl to be ste-
reotyped, is set up in the usual  manner,
with  movable types.  From  this page,
when corrected, a mould  in plaster is tak-
en  off* and from this mould a  plate of
type metal  is cast,  having all the charac-
ters in relief, and being a  lac-simile ofthe
original page.  From this plate the print-
ing is executed, and there  must be, of
course, as many plates cast as there are
pages in the book to be printed.  The
plaster used  for forming the moulds  is
pulverized  gypsum, dried  by heat, and
mixed with water,  to which is  added a
little whiting, to diminish the tendency of
the plaster to shrink aud crack.  After
the form of types has been slightly oiled,
and surrounded with a brass frame,  fluid
plaster is applied over the surface, with a
brush or roller, so  as to fill  every cavity
ofthe lettere.  A quantity of plaster, mixed
with water to the consistence of cream, is
then poured on the type, and the super-
fluous part scraped off.  When the plaster
has become hard, it is  lifted off by the
frame, and detached from it.  It is then
baked to dryness in an. oven, and, when
quite hot, it is placed in an iron box, or
casting-pot, which  has also been heated
in an oven.  The box is now plunged in-
to a large pot of melted  type-metal, and
kept about ten minutes under the surface,
in order that the weight ofthe metal may
force it  into all the finer  parts of the let-
ters.   The whole is  then  cooled, the
mould is broken anel washed off, and the
back of the [date turned smooth in a lathe,
or  planed by a  machine.   For typo-
graphical beauty, the most  distinguished
printers are Baskerville in  England; Didot
and Crapelet in France ; Bodoni  in Italy ;
Ibarra in Spain ; and Breitkopf, Geischen
and Tauchnitz  in  Germany.   Next to
types, the  chief instrument  used in this
art is the printing press.   The ink is firet
applied   over the  whole surface of the
types; the  paper, previously  moistened, is
then laid down upon them ;  the whole  is
passed under the  press, and the paper,
being brought into forcible  contact with
the types, receives  from  their surface the
ink necessary for  a distinct impression.
Printer's ink (q. v.) is composed chiefly of
lampblack and oil, inspissated by boiling
and burning.  Oil is necessary  that the
ink may not dry  during the operation,
and it is reduced by boiling to prevent it
from  spreading on  the paper.  It is ap-
plied  to  the types  by large elastic  balls,
made of Ieathei* ahd stuffed with wool, or
by elastic rollers.   Guttenberg printed, at
firet, with writing ink, and afterwards used
lampblack.   About 1450,  or somewhat
later, Faust and Schoffer invented  print-
er's ink.  The common old printing press
derives its power from a screw,  which is
turned by a lever, and acts perpendicu-
larly on the platten, or level part, which
transmits the pressure.   Various improve-
ments have been  made  in the printing
press, by lord Stanhope and other invent-
ors) in most of which a cast iron frame is
substituted for a woodeh Oiie, being more
inflexible ; and a combination of levers is
used, so arranged as to cause the platten
to descend  with  decreasing rapidity, and
consequently With  increasing force, till it
exerts the greatest  power at the moment
of contact of  the  paper  with the  types.
Before the press was invented, impres-
sions were taken from the wooden  tables
by means of a rubber of horn.  Gutten-
berg invented the press.  In a Strasburg
document, it is proved that this apparatus
was  in use as  early as 143(5.  In France,
on the other hand, there were no presses
in 1458 ; for  during  that  year Charles
VII  sent a man to Strasburg, to learn the
art .of printing there.   Leonard  (John)
Danner, who died 1585,  firet introduced
brazen spindles into printing, in 1550, at
Nuremberg. Printing by machinery had its
origin within the present century.   It has
produced a very great improvement in the
expedition with which work is executed,
and  is  now extensively  applied  to the
printing of newspapers, and even of books.
Various machines are already introduced
into  use, most of which  perform the pro-
cesses of inking foe typ's, conveying the
paper, anel  giving  the  mpression.   For
distributing the ink on the types, elastic
cylinders are  employed, called inking-
rollers, made ofa composition of glue and
treacle, which  combines the properties of
smoothness, elasticity, and sufficient dura-
bility.   These transmit the ink  to the
types by rolling over their surface.   The
impression  is performed, in most of the
English  machines, by  large  cylinders,
which revolve  upon the types, having the
sheet of paper confined to their surface by
bands of tape.  The types are  arranged
in some machines in  the  common flat
form; in others, the characters are placed
in a convex form, upon the surface  of
cylinders.   To produce the latter  effect,
Mr. Nicholson proposed to  cast  the  body
of the types with a  tapering  or  wedge
form, like the stones of an  arch ; but Mr.
Cowper has  produced  the same  result 
340
PRINTING—PRIOR.
more expeditiously, by curving stereotype
plates into the required shape.   Messrs.
Donkin and Bacon placed their types on
the four sides of a revolving prism, while
die ink *as  applied by a  roller, which
rose and fell with the irregularities of the
prism,  and the sheet  was wrapped on
another prism so formed as to  meet the
surfaces of the firet.  A common  printing
press  gives  about  250 impressions per
hour ;  whereas of the Times (a  London
newspaper),  printed  by Applegarth and
Cowper's machine, it is stated that 4000
per hour are printed on one side.   The
firet working machine  which printed by
steam, was erected by Mr. Koenig, in 1814.
In this country, Treadwell's power-press
is  the machine  most employed.  In this
invention, the types are inked by elastic
rollers, and  the distribution of  the ink
 endered equal by a revolving table, which
► asses  in contact  with the  rollers.   The
mpressions are made by a flat surface or
platten, instead of  a  cylinder,  so  that
cleaner and  better impressions are sup-
posed to  be  obtained from it than  from
any other machine.  (For the correction
ofthe press,  see Correction.)
  The author  of  Sketches  of China
gives the following account of Chinese
printing:   " The means iu use among the
Chinese for producing an impression of
letters  appear to be nearly the same with
those  invented iu the infancy of the art.
Blocks of hard wood, or masses of metal
forming a kind of stereotype, are printed
from, by a simple and expeditious  process,
and solely by manual labor, as presses for
the purpose are entirely unknown.   The
Canton Gazette, a kind  of court journal of
 appointments, arrivals and departures, is
. lie of the few publications which are
printed from movable types.  The blocks
which  are mostly used for engraving these
stereotypes upon, are made of hard and
well-seasoned wood, divided into  slabs, in
the direction of the grain.  The subject
to be  engraved is  carefully written or
drawn on thin paper, and pasted reversed
upon  the board ;  the wood is then cut
from around the characters, and  the let-
ters remain  in low relief.   Much care is
used in adjusting the written pattern, as
it  is not  possible  to rectify a mistake on
 wood,  as on copper or other metal.   The
cost of engraving depends entirely on the
size and delicacy of the lettere, the price
increasing in proportion to the smallness
of the type.   The equipments of a printer
are very simple and cheap, and the op ra-
tions  less complicated than almost any
otiior mechanical process.   The  board or
slab of wood is placed on a table before
the workman, and a pile of dry paper, cut
to the proper size, at his side, when, with
a rude bamboo brush, a coating of liquid
Indian ink is put upon it;  a sheet of paper
is then placed on the top,  and the impres-
sion completed by rubbing it over once or
twice with a kind of vegetable fibre ; die
sheet is then lifted off, and the process re-
peated with the next.  The paper used is
very thin, and is only printed on one side;
the sheet is folded with the  blank sides in
contact, and tho two edges are bound  into
the back of the book, making it resemble
a volume, the leaves of which are uncut;
the paging, &c, is on the external margin.
In this simple manner, all books and en-
gravings on wood  are  printed,  and  a
skilful workman is able  to produce  the
impressions with as much celerity as  our
own, with  the use of the press.   Works
of minor consequence are generally exe-
cuted in a flimsy and  imperfect manner,
the printing of some being  very indiffer-
ent at first, and nearly unintelligible by
the time a  full edition has been taken off!
The price of books  is  low,  and there are
numerous  book shops and stalls in all the
principal streets.   The binding is very
different from  our own, the cover being
merely soft paper, and the  title carefully
written on the edge of the bottom leaves.
Five or six volumes  are enclosed in  a
pasteboard  case, and the  books arranged
on shelves, so as to present the titles to the
front.  Spurious editions are  said to be
very common, and  I have  never  discov-
ered that there was  any protection of the
copyright by law; consequently numerous
incomplete copies of the  original are cir-
culated.  Works are sometimes met with,
the lettere of which are white, on a black
ground, the characters being cut, as in the
copperplate engraving, below the surface.
There are, in  most cases,  specimens of
the various kinds of writing, intended as
copies to  write from, as well as some
school books."
  Prior, hi monasteries; the next officer
in rank to the  abbot; or, where there  is
no abbot, the superior of the monaster}'.—
Priorcs3 is applied, in a similar sense,to the
head of a female convent.  A  monastery
which is under the government of a prior is
called a priory. (See Abbot, and Monastery.)
  Prior, Matthew ; an English poet, born
in 1664, in London, or at  Winbome, in
Dorsetshire.  His father  dying when he
was young, he  was brought  up  by an
uncle, who kept the  Rummer tavern  at
Charing-cross,  and seut  to Westminster
school.  He early imbibed a strong  taste 
PRIOR-PRISM.
34
for classical literature, and attracted the
notice ofthe earl of Dorset (see Sackvitte),
who enabled him to enter himself, in 1682,
at St. John's college, Cambridge, where he
proceeded B. A. in 1686, anel was shortly
after  chosen fellow.   At college he con-
tracted an intimacy with Charles Montagu,
afterwards earl of "Halifax, in concert with
whom, in 1688, he composed the Country
Mouse  and City  Mouse—a  parody  on
Diyden's Hind and Panthen  In 1690, he
was introduced  at court  by the earl of
Dorset, at whose recommendation he was
appointed secretary to the English  pleni-
potentiaries at the Hague.  With this  post
he also held the title of gentleman  of the
king's bed-chamber; and he presented an
ode to king William in 1695, on the death
of queen Mary; and soon after displayed
his humorous vein in a parody of Boileau's
ode on the taking of Namur, when  it  was
recaptured by William.  In 1697, he  was
nominated secretary to the commissionere
for the treaty  of Ryswick; and, on bis
return from that employment, was made
secretary to the lord-lieutenant  of Ireland.
He was  afterwards secretary to the earls
of Portland and Jersey,  successively am-
bassadore to France.  At  length he  was
made under-secretary of state,  and, while
holding that office, was sent to France to
assist in the partition treaty.  In 1701, he
succeeded Locke as a commissioner at the
board of trade, but soon after deserted the
whigs and joined  the tories,  for  which
no satisfactory reasons have been assigned.
At the beginning ofthe reign of Anne, he
published a volume of poems, and todk
some share in the Examiner.   When the
tories again .obtained the ascendency, he
was employed in  secretly negotiating at
Paris the terms of the treaty of  Utrecht
(q. v.J  He remained in France, with  the
appointment of ambassador, and, after the
departure of the duke of Shrewsbury, in
1713, publicly assumed that  character.
On the accession of George I, he was re-
called, and  examined before  the  privy
council  in respect to his  share in  nego-
tiating the treaty of Utrecht, and treated
with great rigor  for some time, although
ultimately discharged  without  trial.  Be-
ing without any provision for his declining
yeare, except  his  fellowship,  he  again
applied  himself to poetiy; and having
finished  his Solomon, he published his
poems by subscription.  The publication,
being liberally encouraged by party zeal,
produced a considerable sum, which was
doubled  by the earl of Oxford, at  whose
seat the  author died, after a lingering ill-
ness,  in 1721,  in the fifty-eighth year of
                  29*
 his age.  He was interred in Westminster
 abbey,  under a  monument  for  which
 "last piece of human vanity," as he styles
 it in his will, he left the sum of £500.
 Prior seems to have made his way  by wit
 and social  qualities, rather than by moral
 or  political  endowments of a  superior
 order.  He  is said to have  always re-
 tained a taste for coarse  intercourse and
 gross enjoyments.  As a  poet, his reputa-
 tion has declined  of late yeare, the hu-
 mor in which he principally excels being
 overlooked  on account  of the charac-
 ter of his serious  performances,  which,
 although, as in his Solomon, and  Henry
 and Emma, splendid and correct in dic-
 tion, harmonious in versification, and  co-
 pious in poetical imagery, fail in moving
 either the  feelings or the fancy.  The
 great art of Prior consists  in telling  a
 story with a degree of poetical  ease and
 vivacity, which, perhaps,  setting aside La
 Fontaine, has never  been excelled. His
 Alma, a piece of philosophical pleasantly,
 exhibits a felicitous vein  of humor; and
 for his  lighter pieces he is  now chiefly
 read.  A Histoiy of his  Own Times,
 compiled from  his MSS., contains little
 from his pen, and is of small  value. His
 poems were published in  1733, in 3 vols.,
 8vo., and are also in all the collections.
  Priscian.  (See Philology.)
  Prism, in geometry, is  a body, or solid,
 whose two  ends are any  plain  figures
 which are parallel, equal and similar; and
 its sides, connecting those ends, are paral-
 lelograms.   Hence every  section parallel
 to the base  is equal and similar to  the
 base; and the prism may be considered
 as generated by the parallel motion of this
 plane figure.  Prisms receive particular
 names,  according to  the  figure of their
 bases; as  a  triangular prism,  a square
prism, a pentagonal  prism,  a hexagonal
prism, and  so on.  And hence the de-
nomination prism comprises also the cube
and parallelopipedon, the former being  a
square prism, and the latter a rectangular
 one*  And  even a cylinder  may be con-
sidered as a round prism,  or one that has
 an infinite number of sides.  Also a prism
 is said to be regular, or irregular, accord-
 ing as the figure of its end is a regular or
 an irregular polygon.  The axis ofa prism
 is the line conceived to be drawn length-
 wise through the middle of it, connecting
 the centre  of one  end with  that of the
 other end.  Prisms, again, are either right
 or oblique.  A right prism is  that whose
 sides and its axis are perpendicular to its
 ends, like an upright tower; and an oblique
 prism is when  the axis and sides are ob- 
342
PRISM—PRISON  DISCIPLINE.
lique to the ends;  so that, when set upon
one end, it inclines ou one hand  more
than on the other.   The principal proper-
ties of prisms are,  1. that all prisms are to
one another in the ratio compounded of
their bases and heights; 2. similar prisms
are to one another in the triplicate ratio of
their like sides; 3. a prism is triple of a
pyramid of equal base and height, and the
solid content of a  prism is found by mul-
tiplying the base  by  the perpendicular
height; 4. the upright surface of a right
prism is equal to a rectangle of the same
height, and its breadth equal to the perim-
eter of die base or  end, and therefore such
upright surface of a right prism is found
by multiplying the perimeter of the base
by the perpendicular height   Also  the
upright surface of an  oblique  prism is
found by computing those of all its paral-
lelogram sides separately, and adding them
together.   And if to the  upright surface
be added die  areas of the two  ends,  the
sum will be the whole surface ofthe prism.
  Prism, in optics, is an  instrument em-
ployed for showing the properties of solar
light,  and consists merely of a triaugular
prism of glass, which  separates the rays
of light in their passage through it  (See
Optics, division Colors.)
  Prismatic Spectrum.  (See  Colors.)
  Prison Discipline.  The true and on-
ly real object of punishment is the preven-
tion of crime.  There is, of couree, a great
latitude of choice in the means winch may
be adopted for the attainment of this ob-
ject—a latitude to be limited by  a just re-
gard to the rights  inseparable from human
nature, however  depraved, by a correct
view of the true power of society over its
members, and by a wise estimate of the
probable  effect of die means employed.
In most ages of the world, men seem to
have imagined dieir rightful power over
their fellow men absolutely unlimited, and
have inflicted punishment upon the viola-
tors of the law apparently without regard
to airy other consideration than their own
pleasure, and die degree of guilt they have
attributed to the  offender.  Acting with
this apprehension  of their own unrestrict-
ed power,  they have, at the  same time,
exhibited the most narrow acquaintance
with die almost infinite variety of means
of punishment.   They  have  confined
themselves veiy  much  to the effects of
physical suffering, as if that were die sole
remedy which could be  advantageously
applied to  moral  depravity; a depravity
often  increased, if  not caused, by the
temptations to which physical suffering has
itself  exposed men.   It  has happened,
too, in this, as in so many other human
pursuits, that the end has been forgotten
in attention to the means; and the object
has appeared to be ratiier secretly to har-
ass  and oppress the subjects of  punish-
ment, dian either to deter others from the
commission  of crime, or to amend the
habits  of the  guilty  themselves.   None
would be prevented fi-om the commission
of crime  by penalties which  were  un-
known; and, in die extreme depression
of eveiy physical and mental  quality, it
were absurd to expect any reformation of
die unfortunate subjects of human severi-
ty.   In all ages and nations of which we
have any record, from  the most refined
people of ancient times to the most civiliz-
ed of a more modern era, have such ex-
tremes of severity been used in the pun-
ishment of criminals as justly to  deserve
the appellation of cruelty.  Torture, in ev-
ery honible variety; chains; stripes; soli-
tary confinement in  darkness, dampness,
and  idleness;  promiscuous  crowding of
offenders, of eveiy degree of guilt, in the
same loathsome, pestilential, narrow vaults;
insufficient and unwholesome food; filth;
illness of the boely, and sickness of the
soul,—are some of the evils which have, in
eveiy age, been wantonly,  carelessly, or
ignorantly inflicted upon the violators of
law; and, what is worse, they have been
inflicted upon those who have violated no
law; upon many who have been proved
innocent, after suffering  the infliction of
some or all of the ills enumerated in this
atrocious catalogue, and upon many whose
impmdence  alone has exposed them to
the vengeance  of an  equally imprudent
creditor.   Society has, unquestionably, a
right to punish the  offenders against its
laws, and against those  of God; but has
it, under any circumstances, a right  to in-
flict such  suffering as we have named ?
Has it a right to trifle with or endanger the
health, the intellect, or the remaining prin-
ciples of any, even the worst, of its mem-
bers ?  It requires no metaphysical exam-
ination of the reasons on  which the just
and necessaiy power of society is found-
ed, to answer  m the negative.  All feel
that the proper adaptation  of the means
to the just end of punishment ought to be
constantly kept hi view.  A striking illus-
tration of the truth of this remark may be
found in  the  universal outcry  of hor-
ror   and   indignation,  which was  heard
throughout  the  civilized  world,  when
Howard disclosed the misery every where
suffered  by  the prisoner; in the  guilty
consciousness with which those who exer-
cised control  over prisons universally 
PRISON DISCIPLINE.                        343
shrunk from the disclosure of the atroci-
ties committed under dieir authority, or,
at best, allowed by their negligence; and
in the immediate formation of associations
to promote  the necessary reform in the
construction and government  of prisons.
From the year 1777, when Howard's work
on the state of the prisons in England and
Wales was  first published, may be dateel
the origin of the study of the best system
of pris< 11 i discipline.  There were, indeed,
previous  noble examples  of attention to
those who were sick and in prison,  but it
then became a subject of general interest.
The effect of Christianity hi softening the
character, and meliorating the condition
of men, had been perceptible, even in the
treatment ofthe culprit; and, from time to
time, there had arisen in  die world men
distinguished for the kinebiess they exhibit-
ed to those to whom kindness was almost
unknown. The names of Carlo Boreomeo,
Claudius Bernard, and St Vincent de Paul,
ought never to be forgotten among those
who  have shown  mercy  to the captive.
But Howard deserves still  greater venera-
tion for his persevering philanthropy and
entire devotion to his noble object.  The
sphere of his exertions was not limited to
his inunediate neighborhood, but extended
firet throughout his native land, afterwards
to  adjoining kingdoms, and embraced, at
length, the whole of Europe.
   Nothing more was  necessary than to
witness the  state of abject misery existing
in prisons, in order to perceive the neces-
sary remedy, in many cases.  Thus the
evils arising from  crowded  anel filthy
rooms,  and from  want of circulation of
ah*, could be prevented only  by a better
construction ofthe buildings^ while those
arising from the exaction of fees from the
prisoner,  and from the sale of liquors by
the officers, could be remedied only by a
new system of  discipline.   Many of the
ideas, therefore, which have  been since
acted upon, in  the constmction and gov-
ernment  of prisons,  were suggested  by
Howard, while experience has produced
some improvements in his plans.  It can-
not be said that any  regular system of
prison discipline was introduced by How-
ard ; nor has it even yet been carried to
the perfection which  may reasonably be
expected; but the progress  already made
affords the  greatest encouragement  It
would not be easy to  trace this progress
with exactness,  assigning  to each laborer
 in the cause his due share of merit; nor is it
necessary; for there is no great difficulty hi
discovering the general remedies for  the
various evils of imprisonment.  The essen-
tial requisites in a  prison are obviously
security of construction and  healthine^B
of situation;  and, in its management, clas-
sification, oversight, labor, and instruction.
It is in the previous arrangements for se-
curing these advantages, and in the prac-
tical application of these  general  princL
pies, that the  difficulties lie; and so nu-
merous are these difficulties diat great di-
versities of feeling and opinion have aris-
en ; and  very  few  have been found to
agree in the details for carrying into effect
a general system.  The very first attempt
in England to introduce a practical reform
in the  constmction and  management of
prisons failed,  for want of unanimity in
the commissionere appointed by  parlia-
ment as to the location of the new estab-
lishment, though Howard himself was one
of the  board.   From that  time  to  the
present, no uniform plan has been gene-
rally adopted  in England; and,  though
somewhat more progress has been made
in diis country, there is  still  an ardent
though amicable  controversy  between
diose who urge the expediency  of solita-
ry toil  and the advocates of united labor.
Something may be learned even from the
failure of any scheme;  but as the results
of a more successful system are still bet-
ter sources of instruction, we shall pre-
sent our readers with a view of the  rise
and progress of the plan which is now
beginning to be generally adopted in the
U. States, and which affords such encour-
agement to the hopes of the philanthropic.
   At the very time when  Howard was de-
voting eveiy power of his mind and body
to die discovery and disclosure ofthe evila
of imprisonment, the society of Friends
in Philadelphia, acting on the principles
of the wise and  benevolent  founder  of
their sect, were endeavoring to abolish the
use of some of the cruel  and injudicious
modes of punishment then practised (such
as the pillory,  the scourge, &c), and to
substitute for them,  as well as for capital
 fiunishment, the nulder, and,  as they be-
 ieved it  would prove,  more  efficacious
measure of imprisonment for a longer
or shorter period, according to the nature
of the offence.   Their efforts were inter-
rupted by the revolutionary war;  but, af-
ter the adoption of the Federal constitu-
tion, they again urged  their views upon
public attention with so much persever-
ance as to succeed in a great part of their
object; and it is said, by one well qualified to
 judge, diat, " so mature were the views of
the early reformers, that, had they been fol-
ly carried into effect^nany ofthe evils after-
 wards experienced would have been avoid- 
344
PRISON DISCIPLINE.
ed."* They so far succeeded as to impress
upon the community the propriety of com-
muting the system of punishment previous-
ly in use for imprisonment, excepting in the
case of a few of the most atrocious crimes,
for which  death was still to be inflicted.
For some years this scheme was regard-
ed as a triumph of humanity.   It saved
the  lives of many, and the infliction of a
gross and  unwise  corporal punishment
upon more.  It was at first much dreaded
by the criminals  themselves; and the la-
bor, which was intended to constitute part
of their punishment, was found to relieve
the  state from  a great portion  of the ex-
pense which was anticipated,  and had
been regarded as the greatest objection to
the  plan.  It extended gradually through
most of the states of this Union, and was,
on all hands, applauded as a cheap and
efficient substitution of correctional dis-
cipline for cruel inflictions.  After a time,
however, it became apparent  that the
guilty were not reformed;  the dread of
the  state prison wore off;  recommitments
multiplied; and from the facilities of com-
munication  which  existed  among the
prisoners, most of them came out worse
than they went in; while  the  system of
stint and over-stint, by which  they were
permitted to labor for their own benefit,
after performing a  certain task for  the
state, enabled them to leave  the prison
supplied with the  means of new roguery,
or with a  fund  for subsistence till  the
approach of winter, perhaps, rendered  it
convenient to secure a comfortable main-
tenance  in  confinement by the commis-
sion ofa state prison offence.  As prison-
ers increased in number, and became, by
their mutual action,  more anel  more cor-
rupt, and, by  a  natural influence upon
the  character  of many of the inferior
officers, were allowed  more   extended
privileges, the expense of these establish-
ments increased, so as to become greatly
burdensome.   It was generally acknowl-
edged that crime had not diminished; it was
believed by many, and feared by most per-
sons, thatthe penitentiary system had failed.
Still the public mind revolted againstrecur-
ring to  the old system of punishment, or
relinquishing a scheme which, for twenty
years, had been the  subject of general en-
comium.  There was, perhaps, a morbid
sensibility  upon  the subject, which was
disposed to make  the condition of the
guilty too desirable in many respects; but
this served the purpose of stimulating the
efforts ofthe wise and discerning to pro-
  * A Treatise on State Prison Punishments,  by
honorable S. M. Hopkins,
duce some plan which should crwnh'ne a
proper degree of lenity with a just and
necessary severity.   Much  was  -"vritten
upon the subject, both in England and in
this  counUy ;  many experiments  were
tried by our legislatures, and the  general
current of opinion seemed to be inclining
to a system of strict solitary  confinement
On this, idea, the construction of the Au-
burn prison was begun in 1816; and, in
1821, an act was passed by the New York
legislature for subjecting convicts, either
wholly  or partially,  to  solitary  confine-
ment, according to  their degree of de-
pravity, and also requiring that each  pris-
oner  should be lodged in a  separate cell,
as soon as there was a sufficient number
of cells.   This was,  perhaps, the  most
important step in the introduction of an
improved prison discipline.   It is, at  least,
one which is indispensable wherever any
attempt is to be made towards the intro-
duction  of any valuable plan of correc-
tional punishment   The means of solita-
ry confinement at  night, and either of
solitary labor, or of labor in small classes
together during the  day, are essential to
the existence of the system of prison dis-
cipline, which is now most highly valued.
Other things are also necessary, but these
lie at the foundation of the system.
  In  the  year  1824,  Messrs. Hopkins,
Tibbets and  Allen were appointed com-
missioners to visit the state prisons of
New York, to examine the state of their
discipline, and  to  report  upon any im-
provements, w Inch, in their opinion, ought
to be introduced.  The result of the wise
labors  of these  excellent  men was the
perfecting of a scheme of  prison disci-
pline, which  had been partially begun al*
ready at Auburn, and which is substan^-
tially the  model on  which  the  reforms
attempted in most ofthe other states have
been conducted.  It consists, principally,
of the solitary confinement ofthe convicts
during the night, and the  time of taking
their meals; of labor during the day; and
of silence  at all times, except for the pup
poses of communication with their keep-
ers ; they are never allowed to address each
other, not even by signs or looks.  The
strictest supervision is, of course,  necessa-
ry, to secure uninterrupted and industrious
labor, and to prevent the evil communi-
cations which would otherwise  abound.
The  advantages of this system are,  that
it affords opportunity alternately for silent
and  solitary  reflection,  for  the  salutary
action of the mind upon itself, and for that
mental activity upon other objects, and that
relaxation from the severer task of think- 
PRISON  DISCIPLINE.
345
ing, which is at once necessary to preserve
the healthy state ofthe mind and body, and
to give efficacy to the meditation which
is thus encouraged.  But this alternation
of labor and  reflection  is not the only,
nor, perhaps, the greatest advantage of
the plan.  The unaided thoughts of the
.corrupt anel hardened might recur to top-
ics  which would  be any thing but salu-
tary; but, in die silence  and  darkness of
night, the voice of religious instruction is
heard ; and if any circumstances can be
imagined calculated to impress the warn-
ings, the encouragements, the threats, or
the hopes of religion upon the mind, it
must surely be those of the convict in his
cell, where he is unseen aud unheard,
and where nothing can reach him but the
voice which  must come to  him,  as  it
were, from another world, telling him of
things which, perhaps,  never before en-
tered into his mind; telling  him of God,
of eternity,  of future  reward  and future
punishment, of suffering far greater than
the mere physical endurances ofthe pres-
ent life,  and of joy infinitely beyond the
pleasures he may have experienced.—
These instructions frequently discover to
the guilty tenant of the  cell, what seems
often not to have occurred to him, the
simple fact  that he has a spiritual nature,
that he  is not the mere animal which his
habits and hitherto uncontrolled propensi-
ties would indicate.  And this is a discov-
ery which, alone, may and does  effect a
great change  in a man's  whole character.
1 Fe feels that he is a being  superior to
what he had thought himself, and that
he  is regarded as one  having higher pow-
ers than he had supposed.  This first stop
in  the path of improvement is a prodi-
gious one; a new ambition is  awakened,
and the encouragement of it is the principal
thing now needed.  This encouragement
it is part ofthe system to give.   The spirit-
ual guide of this outcast flock must stutly
the character and previous circumstances
of  every individual; he  must adapt him-
self and his instructions to  their wants;
he  must teach the ignorant,  arouse the
careless, touch, if it be possible, the impen-
itent, lead the willing, and be  "all things
to all men, if  by any means he may save
some."   To the morning and evening ser-
vices of devotion are to be  added the
more tlirect and elaborate instructions of
the Sabbath, and the no less important in-
fluences  which may be effected in private
intercouree with the convict  The Sun-
day school  may  communicate the  most
valuable  information on  many subjects;
and every improper influence may be,
 and ought to be, absolutely excluded.  It is
 this system of addressing the intellectual
 and moral qualities of man, of treating the
 convict as a being of a compound nature—
 both physical  and spiritual—that  consti-
 tutes the peculiar merit of the prison dis-
 cipline,  which is  now about to be intro-
 duced.   No  new discovery  has been
 made, unless  it be considered one  that
 criminals may sometimes  be made  sus-
 ceptible  of moral  influences.   It is only
 the adaptation of well-known  principles
 to a new class of subjects.  It is  merely
 carrying to the lowest, the most ignorant,
 and the  most degraded class, that plan of
 education which is nearly universal among
 us, and which should be entirely so every
 where.   The  exercise  of  mere force,
 which has been 60 long considered  the
 only means of punishment, is at length
 yielding to the rapidly strengthening con-
 viction of the superior efficacy of moral
 influence.* There are yet mauy to whom
 this notion appears strange; who  are not
 convinced that the hardened criminal can
 be persuaded  by any  thing  but stripes or
 chains;  by physical suffering, in short, in
 some one of its many hideous forms.   To
 this it may be replied, in the firet place,
 that if nothing else can affect him, corpo-
 real  inflictions  alone  certainly  will not.
 Bodily  suffering,  imposed by  his fellow
 mortal, has rarely  awakened in the crim-
 inal any thing but fear, hatred,  the obdu-
 rate spirit of  revenge, or despair, sullen,
 dark and terrible.   In the next  place,  ex-
 perience has  proved that  those who are,
 apparently, the most hardened in a course
 of crime,  may be operated on, may be
 positively reclaimed,  by the use of moral
 and intellectual means. For the evidence
 of this fact, we refer to the Third  Report
 of the Boston Prison Discipline Society,
 where  it  is stated in a manner  which
 seems to us conclusive.  Again, it may be
 remarked, that even on the supposition
 that the experienced villain could  not, by
 any possibility, be  reformed,  that  the
 crimson dye could not be  washed out. it
 by no means follows that moral influ-
 ences may not be usefully applied within
 the prison walls.  The class of incorrigi-
' ble reprobates is small.  The great major-
 ity have committed their offences, either
 through  deplorable ignorance, which may
 be removed; through the power of temp-

   * It may be proper to  say,  that, by the term
 moral influence,  we  mean not merely the ef-
 fects which may be produced by the inculcation
 of correct moral principles, but the  influence of
 every motive that can be addressed to the under-
 standing or the affections. 
346                         PRISON  DISCIPLINE.
tation, against which they may be strength-
ened ; or through the inexperienced rash-
ness  of youth,  which  may  be  better
trained.*
  It may be imagined by those to whom
the subject is new, that the application of
these  means must be expensive.  But, in
fact, the direct expense  of prisons, con-
ducted upon the former system, is ten-fold
greater; and the indirect cost,or that which
arisesfromthe educationin crime,given by
that plan of mutual instruction in villany,
is  incalculable.   The  labor, which  is an
essential ingredient in the scheme,  may,
by proper management, be made so pro-
ductive, that the prison shall support itself,
including the salaries of all the officers ;
and in many  cases, in this country, much
more  has  been  done, a large revenue
accruing  to  the state  from  the labor
of its convicts.  We say  in this country,
for we have often seen and heard  the re-
mark, that such effects are not to  be ex-
pected in other countries, where the value
of labor does not bear so high a propor-
tion to the necessaries and luxuries of life.
We are inclined to think that this differ-
ence is exaggerated in the minds of many;
but allowing  it to exist to the  fullest ex-
tent,  we should  still say that, wherever
the labor of an able-bodied man v/ill sup-
port him without,  it  may be made, by
judicious management, to  support him
within, the walls ofthe prison.  The dis-
tinction which is made between the pro-
ductiveness of voluntary and  that of in-
voluntary labor does not hold; for it  is
  * " After spending much time among prison-
ers," says Mr.  Hopkins, " and seeing much of
the desolations of crime, 1 have not  ceased  to feel
that, bad as these men are, there is much in their
condition to call for our pity, even without look-
in? to  the realities of a future retribution.  Cer-
tainly their very crimes deserve our commisera-
tion.  When we see some left without guidance
or instruction in youth; others stupid and gullible,
or decoyed into vice by lures of which they could
not be aware, or, in possible cases, driven into
criminality by pressing want or danger; it is im-
possible to withhold  from them the tear of com-
passion.  I have visited those who, in an agony
of grief, told the story of their own ruin.  Very
few of them  are without the  sympathies of our
common  nature.   Many at  Auburn are often
melted to tears under the preaching of an elo-
quent and able minister there; one who  has told
me, that, of all  congregations, he delighted most
to preach to prisoners.  I  have also heard them
sobbing in great numbers, at a few words spoken
to them in public, by  Mr. Powers, in which he
alluded to the situation  and feelings  of their
friends.  We must avoid extremes in judging of
them.  They are not the innocent victims of un-
just laws j but neither are they all demons.  They
are men,  though greatly fallen.  They  deserve
punishment.  They  ought to receive it, not less
for their own benefit than for that of society."
one of the effects of the Auburn  disci*
pline, to make the labor voluntary ;  and
we venture to say, that under no circum-
stances, not even where  the stimulus of
profit is applied in its greatest  extent, is
there better evidence of active and willing
industry than in our well conducted pris-
ons.  What is done in one  place may be
done in another, by skilfully adapting the
labor of the prisoners to the wants ofthe
community, of which they form a part,
and to the personal powers and knowledge
of the convicts.   But it is not  upon its
economy  that we  should choose princi-
pally to rest the  claims of the Auburn
system of discipline to general favor.  It
certainly should not be forgotten or omit-
ted, in the enumeration of its advantages,
and it may be an important inducement
to its introduction.  But of what moment
is it, compared with the great object of re-
lieving society from  insecurity of life and
property ? Of what importance is it, com-
pared with the still more glorious purpose
of reclaiming the wandering, the lost, the
outcast wretch, who may yet be  made the
source of the joy which is  felt  over the
repenting sinner ?  It is not a mere fiction
ofthe imagination, that such effects may
be produced.  They have been proeluced.
It is well  known that rogues have a great
dread of the prisons where  this  system is
introduced; that they resort to other places
to commit theoffenceswhich wouldexpose
them to its restraints; and that many have
been restored by it from habits of profligacy,
to those of, at least,  comparative virtue.*
Such results as these are of incalculable
value. They cannot well be estimated by
the cost of the means of producing them ;
smd were it more expensive than other
systems, this would  be but  a trifling ob-
jection to a plan which resulted  in the at-
tainment of such  beneficent ends.   But,
as the facts are, no sufficient objection can
be made  to the endeavor to introduce a
system which, after ten  years'  trial, has
produced no evil and much good.   The
more it is extended, and the more faith-
fully it is  carried into execution, the more
will its excellent tendencies be developed;
and it is only from the imperfection of the
agents, or the slight degree of attention
which is  given to the subject, that  any
doubt can arise as to its utility, or its prac-
ticable nature. The most important requi-
site to its  successful  execution is, the suit-
able qualification of the superintendent \
and it is no ordinary combination of pow-
ers and qualities, which will render a man
  * See Fourth Report of Boston Prison Disci-
pline Society. 
PRISON  DISCIPLINE.
347
fit to take charge of the refractory sub-
jects of legal punishment   He must be
one whose moral  correctness of deport-
ment is above  suspicion; he must unite
to sagacity in the discernment of charac-
ter, knowledge of the world, and an ac-
quaintance with the most suitable species
of mechanical  labor, the best manner of
executing it, and the proper results to be
obtained from it;  he must combine firm-
ness  with  essential kindness of disposi-
tion ; he must  be  a man of an exact and
methodical mind ;  and, above all, he must
be willing, in  the  spirit of Christian be-
nevolence, to devote himself exclusively,
and with singleness of purpose, to the
great objects which may be attained by
his agency.  These  are, certainly,  high
qualifications; but they are not  so un-
common as to justify any thing like de-
spair of obtaining  them.  The end to be
gained is worth the exertion necessary to
secure the means.  The subordinate offi-
cers of a penitentiary should also be men
upon whose integrity and competent ac-
quaintance with the department they have
undertaken, unshaken reliance may be
placed; men whose characters have been
proved tmstworthy.  By officers of such
merit, much may be done  towards intro-
ducing a valuable state of discipline, even
under unfavorable circumstances.   But in
order to secure the great advantages ofthe
best  system of prison discipline,  it is
equally necessary that the buildings should
be constructed with a view to its introduc-
tion.  For this purpose, the plan which
seems to us the best,  is that which was
firet adopted at Auburn,  and has since
been imitated in  many places.   One of
the  best  applications  of  this plan  has
been made in the new state prison at
Wetherefield,  Connecticut,  of  which a
plan  is subjoined.  (See  plate, &c. p.
348.) The workshops connected with the
dormitories may be arranged according to
the kind of labor to be exercised, and the
judgment of the managers or superin-
tendent.   We have  observed that  this
is the  plan which appears to  us the
best;  but  in order that the reader may
have some means of judging of the com-
parative merit of this scheme, and that of
solitary labor, we shall  also state the plan
of the prison which has been begun, upon
a vast scale, at Philadelphia, with the in-
tention of confining every prisoner to  his
cell, excepting for a little time daily to be
given to exercise  in the  open air, in a
court connected with his cell.  The fol-
lowing account and observations are taken
from the Third Report ofthe BostonPrison
Discipline Society :—" Construction. The
yard wall, which is built of stone, thirty
feet  high, encloses nearly twelve  acres.
The building for the  keeper's house, and
the offices of  the  prison  government,
makes a part of the  south wall, on each
side ofthe centre.  The magnificence of
this  part  of the prison may be inferred
from tne fact, that the yard wall cost about
$200,000.  On  the centre of the yard is
erected  the  observatory, and  on   seven
lines, diverging from the observatory to-
wards the wall,  the blocks of cells.  Two
rows  of cells are  arranged on each of
these lines, with a passage between them.
The cells are one story high.  Connected
with each cell, on the outside, is an exer-
cising yard.  The entrance  to the  cell is
through the exercising yard.   The place
of observation  for the keeper over the
prisoner, is through a small orifice open-
ing from the cell into the passage, which
may be  closed at pleasure by the keeper,
and which is intended to be kept generally
shut  The only mode of seeing the pris-
oner, while  confined in  his  cell, if the
doors are shut, is through   this  orifice.
When he is let out of his cell into the ex-
ercising yard, he  may be seen  either by
opening the door of the exercising yard,
or by walking on the top of the wall over
the exercising yard.   The wall of the ex-
ercising yard is so high, that he  cannot
be seen from the principal observatory, in
the centre of the large yard,  unless tho
observatory is raised to a height far above
that contemplated  in the original  plan.
The entrance to the cell, from  the exer-
cising yard,  is  secured by double   doors,
one  on  each  surface of the  wall; the
inner door of grated iron, and the outer
door of plank.  The orifice between the
cell  and  the passage,  which is  large
enough  to admit the face  of a man, is
secured  by  double  doors  of plank."—
"The estimated expense of the  whole
establishment, when completed, on the
original  design, is $500,000.  And when
it is completed, it will accommodate only
250 prisoners.   The expense of the new
prison in  Connecticut, for the accommo-
dation of 136 prisoners, was estimated  at
$30,000,  and three fourths  of the work
has already been done within the estimate."
An obvious remark upon these statements
is, that economy is decidedly favorable to
the Auburn plan; and although, as we
have  remarked, economy is not to  be re-
garded as its principal recommendation,
yet, unless some decided advantage is  to
be gained by a more expensive system,
it ought to be preferred.  Many evils were 
348           Ground View of the new State Prison at Welhersfield, Conn.
                                                 I
QidmU   4J
^UmuQ
J
    n
r.ir

*|   d

\-\U   i
fi
            9        9       q       q       q
  a,  front door; 6, entry, 10 feet wide  and 20 feet
deep; c, keeper's private room, 20 feet square; d,
keeper's dining-room,  20 feet  square ; e, keeper's
kitchen, 20 feet by 25; /, guard-room, 25 feet by 25 ;
 , chapel, 35 feet by 40  ; ft, A, ft, area around the cells,
 0 feet wide, and open  from the  ground to the roof;
t, t, t, cells, 7 feet by 7, and 3J feet wide ; j,j, shops,
36 feet wide and 160 feet long; A, yard, 160 by 124 feet;
I, yard gute ; m, m, sentinel boxes, extending from one
side  of  the shops  to the other, and commanding a
view  of the  external  walls, of the interior of the
shops, and ofthe interior ofthe yard; n, it, doors ; o,
oven; p, baker's stand ;  q, q, q, q, q, q, windows ; r,
r, r, r, points of observation and inspection ; s, t, s,
8, s, water-closets, &c.; o-o-o, steam cooking appara-
tus ; the well and rain water cistern  to  be placed
under the guard-room, keeper's kitchen, and  that
part  of  the shop containing the oven, so as to admit
pumps and furnish the  water to all these apartments
at the same  time; that part of the shop containing
the oven and cooking apparatus to be used as a kitchen
for the prisoners ;  the shops, j,j, to be  entirely open
from the ground floor, or  pavement, to the roof, and
from the main building  to the sentinel boxes, so  that
the inspection may be uninterrupted from the points
of observation, r, r,  r, and also from  the sentinel
boxes, m, m ; these shops are intended to accommo-
date either shoemakers, tailors,  coopers, or weavers,
all of whom in one shop may be  inspected from the
guard room, and all in the other from the point of ob-
servation in the main building ; to be 200 feet  long
and 40 feet wide; the external wall of  this building
2£ feet thick at the foundation ; the centre wall be-
tween the cells 2 feet thick, having a ventilator 4
iaches in diameter in the wall from each cell to the
garret or roof; the partition walls between the cells,
1 foot in thickness; the wall between the cells and
the area 18 inches in thickneu : the doors, either of
    q        q           q   q    q    q  a
 oak plank or rolled iron,  6 feet high and  20 inches
 wide,  having  an open grate, in  the top,  16 by 18
 inches, with orifices 2 inches in diameter, between
 bars of round iron, 1 inch in  diameter, crossing each
 other  at  right angles ; the windows in the external
 wall and the windows of the  guard-room to be 3£ feet
 by 6, secured with a grate made of iron bars, 1 inch
 in diameter, crossing each other at  right  angles, 2
 inches  asunder j  the height  of tho external wall of
 the main building  to  depend on the height  of  the
 breast-work of cells, which  may be 4 or 5 stories ;
 each story of cells to be entered from a narrow gal-
 lery 3 feet in width, to  be connected with a  stair-caso
 at the side of the chapel; the hospital to be over  the
 guard-room, of the same dimensions with it, to be
 entered from a stair-case at the aide ofthe chapel;  the
 apartment for females to be in the 3d story, over  the
 guard-room and keeper's kitchen,  containing a room
 for  labor over the guard-room, and as many small dor-
 mitories over the  keeper's kitchen as are necessary,
 of the same form  and size with the other cells; the
 entrance  to the  female apartment  to  be  from the
 hall of the keeper's house ; the orifices in the guard-
 room door, in the  hospital door, in the wall from the
 keeper's private room to  the  chapel, in  the wall  be-
 tween  the female apartment and the chapel, and in
 the door from the main building into the yard, and in
 the wall  between the main  building and  the west
 Bhop, to  be 12 inches  square, secured by an open
grate, like those on the cell doors, and to bo closed
 with an iron slide ; the windows of the shops, in the
                                             and
                                             and,
                                     ._ continued
row of 7  by 9 glass ; the interior wall of the shops
to be 7 feet in  height, and the yard  wall  20 feet
in height  and 2 feet in thickness.  Scale, 1 inch  to
50 feet.                               '
witn an iron slide ; the windows of the shops, in
wall towards  the  yard,  to be 4  feet  square,
two feet asunder,  and 2i feet from  the floor,  i
also, in  the roof towards  the yard, one  contin 
PRISON DISCIPLINE.
349
anticipated as likely to arise from impris-
onment on the Philadelphia system, which
was originally that of absolute solitude
without labor; but the introduction of la-
bor remedied some of these, and others
seem  not  to  have occurred.   We leam
from the last  report of the Inspectore of
the  prison,  dated  January,  1832,  that
" the general  health of the prisoners has
been good,"  and that  " the opinion here-
tofore expressed, that the practical opera-
tion of this institution is beneficial to the
moral, and not injurious to the physical,
powers  of the prisoners, has  been  con-
firmed  by another year's experience anel
observation."  It  is thought,  also,  that
"the prisoners  can generally  maintain
themselves by their labor in solitude."  In
all this, however, we perceive no advantage
of this system over that of united labor.
What is here said  of the Philadelphia
plan may be said also of that of Auburn,
and, in some respects, with much greater
force; and there are some obvious points
of inferiority, besides  that of increased
expense, the effect of which is not coun-
teracted, so far as we con yet perceive, by
any decided advantage.   Thus, for in-
stance, there is no chapel,  and there can,
of couree,  in  conformity with the plan of
total seclusion, be none of those public
services of religion, which, by judicious
management, may be rendered so service-
able in the great cause of the reformation
of the unhappy  convicts.   Many excel-
lent kinds of hard labor cannot be prac-
tised in solitude; and thus the chances
of  preserving health* are  diminished,
as well  as the revenue arising from  the
labor of the prisoners.  The difficulties of
supervision are also much greater.   Per-
haps further experience may  show some
great benefit which will be derived from
absolute  solitude,  that will  more  than
counterbalance these and other disadvan-
tages, which might be  enumerated.   But,
as far  as  our information  now extends,
we are disposed to recommend  the Auburn
plan, as possessing  superior  advantages
of economy, and greater facilities for in-
struction, discipline and healthful labor.
  It would  extend this  article beyond
all  reasonable limits, were we to go into

  * From the same report of the inspectors of the
Philadelphia prison above referred to, we learn
that the average of deaths that have occurred,
from all  causes, during the last year, is raiher
less than six per cent, on the whole number of
prisoners.   This exceeds  the  average of some
ether prisons,  for the  same period; thus at
Charlestown (Massachusetts), and Auburn, the per
centage is two and a half, and at Welhersfield,
Connecticut, and Sing Sing, it is three.
  VOL. x.            30
the details  of the system  of discipline
which may  be most advantageously prac-
tised.  Many  of these  details, too, may
and  must be varied by the circumstances
that  occur in  the prison, or in the com-
munity ;  and much must, in all cases, be
left to the wisdom and the ingenuity of
the superintendent, combined with there-
suits of his  practical experience.  For all
the details which can be usefully commu-
nicated in writing, we must refer to the
reports of the Boston Prison Discipline
Society, which contain a veiy great amount
of most  valuable information,  and are
highly honorable to  the intelligence, the
perseverance,  and the elevated principles,
of their author.f  In  conclusion, we shall
refer to some of the points which are either
material to,  or intimately connected with,
the improvement of the system of prison
discipline, and which require more atten-
tion than  has  hitherto been bestowed ou
them.  The first and most essential is, the
provision  for the religious and intellectual
instruction of  the convicts.  There is not
a prison in this country, and we know of
none elsewhere, in which what we should
consider  adequate provision is made, to
secure the entire  services of an able and
faithful clergyman.   Yet it  cannot  be
doubted,  that  the labors of such  a one
may be,   must be, considered likely to
contribute as  much  as  any thing  in the
whole scheme, to that reformation of char-
acter which  is contemplated as the great
object of all the means of prison disci-
pline.  And is it too much to ask, is it
too costly an  effort,  to furnish a faithful
teacher of the best principles and highest
motives to the sunken and degraded sub-
jects of the  authority of the laws ?  The
discipline of the penitentiaries ought to be
regarded  merely as  a part of the great
system of public instruction, which it is
the boast of this country to have extended
farther than others.  And as the subjects
of this discipline  are advanced, not only
in life, but in  vice; as they have learned
much which they ought to unlearn,—the
difficulties of instructing  them are  in-
creased, and even a more liberal provision
should be made for them than for others.
We  lament to say it is,  in fact, the  re-
verse ; and the best system of prison dis-
cipline cannot be said to have been fairly
tried, till  the  scanty  pittance provided for
the support ofa clergyman shall be so aug-
mented as to  secure the whole time and
talents of competent laborere  in this im-
portant field.  The effects of this plan, as
  t The reverend Louis  Dwight, secretary of the
society. 
350
PRISON  DISCIPLINE—PRIVATEER.
a system, cannot be justly exhibited, till it
shall have been vastly more extended.  It
should be  carried not only  into all our
penitentiaries, but into  those scarcely in-
ferior seminaries  of iniquity,  the county
gaols.  It should  be  maele, as far  as the
nature of the case will admit, universal,
and then it may be judged of fairly; and
hardly till then.  Its benefits may be made
immeasurably greater than have yet been
experienced from it, and in a vastly greater
ratio of increase than is indicated by the
mere number of similar institutions.  Con-
nected with the system of internal  disci-
pline is the length of time for which every
criminal is to be under  its influence; and
this brings us directly to the criminal code.
It would be highly desirable,  and  in the
United States,  not very difficult to  effect,
that each crime  should receive the same
degree of punishment  in different  states
and countries; from which there should
be little chance of escape, and after con-
viction no hope of pardon.  Tb.e power of
pardoning has been so much misused, and
the  danger  of its abuse  is  always  so
great, that  we  look  upon it  as a  thing
which might  very safely be  dispensed
with.  As a part of the same grand sys-
tem  of  universal instruction,  and a part
most highly important to the general wel-
fare, the houses of reformation for juvenile
offenders ought to be favorably regarded.
They are conducted on the same general
plan as the prisons for older violators  of
law, with  such modifications as  adapt
it to the tenderer years, and more  docile
dispositions of these youthful subjects  of
punishment  Nothing can have a greater
tendency to reduce the number both of
criminals and  prisons,  than  the general
establishment of  houses of reformation.
It may not be improper to add^that  the
reputation of our systems of prison disci-
pline is high in Europe, and soon after
the great changes made  in the French gov-
ernment by the revolution of July, 1830,
two  commissionere  were sent  by that
government to examine the prisons  in the
United States, with a view to the improve-
ment of those in France.
  Privateer;  a vessel of war owned and
equipped by private individuals to seize or
plunder the ships of  an enemy.  Such a
vessel must be licensed by government, or
she  is a  pirate.   It  is a matter of just
astonishment that a species of warfare so
repugnant to all our better feelings, and so
inconsistent with the  respect  paid to pri-
vate property in warfare on land, should
so long have prevailed. It is  a relic  of
the plundering habits of barbarous  times.
For several ages after the in-uption of tiia
northern  barbarian?, war  and  jilunder
might almost be consideretl as individual
rights.  Every one might seek his fortune
by predatory incursions upon the  enemy,
by land or sea.   The infidel powers  bor-
dering on the Meditenanean covered that
sea with  small piratical  vessels, and the
Cliristian states,  partly  in  self-defence,
partly from  hope of gain, fitted out small
cntisere, or armed their merchant ships.
No public commission was reriuired. The
firet check to the practice of private plun-
dering upon sea was by  confining the
right  to  those  who received lettere of
marque or reprisals.  These were issued
upon  die petition of a subject who com-
plained of injustice done him by some for-
eign prince or subject, and they empow-
ered the party  to obtain satisfaction  by
seizing the  goods of any subject of the
offending state.   It does not seem to have
been considered necessaiy to be provided
widi lettere of reprisals till the fourteenth
century, and no mention is made of them
in treaties prior to that time.   It is proba-
ble that, in the fifteenth century, commis-
sions  began to  be issued to private sub-
jects in time of war similar to these which
were  granted for making reprisals in time
of peace ; but  the practice  of granting
commissions to privateers did not become
general before  die  end of the  sixteenth
century.   The first instance in which
their aid appears to have been considered
important in carrying on war was in the
contest between Spain and her revolted
provinces of the  Low Countries, which
began in 1569.  In 1570, the prince of Or-
ange, in the hope of replenishing his im-
poverisheel finances, by  seizing  on  the
money sent from Spain  to the  Nether-
lands, issued commissions to many of his
adherents,  audiorizing  them to cmise
against the ships of Spain.  A considera-
ble  fleet was equipped,  and, increasing
daily  in numbers, they soon became terri-
ble  by their depredations, not only on the
commerce of Spain and the  Netherlands,
but on that  of their own  and of other
countries.  It is said that  their country
suffered from them not less than from die
despotism  and   cruelty of  Alva.   The
French, however, were probably the  first
to send out in considerable numbers these
scourges of the sea.  Then code exhibits
the most ancient regulations concerning
privateers, and their maritime laws have
always been the most severe against the
commerce of neutrals.  In 1555, the peo-
ple of Dieppe  fitted out nineteen ships
and six brigantines, in  consequence of 
PRIVATEER—PRIZE.                         351
having received a commission to attack
several Dutch ships of great burthen, re-
turning from Spain.   Fpain and England,
shortly after the depredations committed
under the commissions of the prince of
Orange, issued commissions to great num-
bers of privateers.   The expeditions of
Drake  and  Frobisher are said to have
been of diis nature.   The Dutch war for
independence, which began  in 1509, did
not end till 1648.  In that long  contest,
the use of privateers became familiar, and
has remained so since in all wars between
maritime countries, imd governments have
greatly encouraged them.  The evils suf-
fered from them and  the  complaints of
neutrals have been so great,  that various
expedients have been  resorted   to  for
checking their excesses; but it has been
hitherto  found  impossible  to  impose
effectual restraints upon forces called into
action by motives so sordid.  Considering
the injustice and immorality of privateer-
ing, the many seamen thrown by  it into
prisons, and thus taken from the service
of their country,* anel the distress thus
brought upon dieir families; the difficulty
of procuring sailors  to man die fleets, or
defend the coasts, when they are lured by
the hope of plunder to embark in long and
distant cruises;  the  ill will anel jealousy
excited in neutral nations by the vexation
to which their commerce is exposed from
it; the murders and piracies which it
inevitably produces, and the injury done
to the morals ofthe communities engaged
in it,—it is strange that the example ofthe
U.  States, in  their treaty with Prussia, in
1785, has not been  more imitated.  That
treaty  provides that " neither of the con-
tracting powers shall grant or issue any
commission to any private anned vessels,
em powering them to take or destroy U-ading
vessels."  (For the  laws respecting cap-
tures by armed vessels, whether public or
private, see Prize.)
   Privet (ligustrum vulgare); a Europe-
an  shrub, allied  to the lilac, now natural-
ized in some parts of the U. States.  The
leaves  are lanceolate, entire, opposite, and
smooth ; the flowers small, white, slightly
odorous, having two stamens and a single
style, and disposeel  in tenninal panicles.
The ben-ies are usually small  and  globu-
lar, purple or black, and remain  on the
tree during die winter season.
  Privilege; any kind of right, preroga-

  * It is said thai, at ihe close of the war termi-
nated by the peace of Amiens, there were 30,000
French  sailors  in English prisons.  It  is well
known what numbers ofour seamen were thus lost
to us for the time, ia the late war with England.
rive or advantage attached  to  a certain
person, condition  or employment, exclu-
sive of others.—PrivUegium cano7iis is the
protection of a Roman Catholic clergy-
man, by which eveiy person  is excommu-
nicated who strikes him.  The pope only
can suspend this excommunication.  The
word privileged was very frequently used
in the French republic, as the odious priv-
ileges of certain orders mainly contributed
to produce the revolution.
  Privy Council in Great Britain.  (See
Council, Privy.)   Orders in council are
orders issued by the king, by and with the
advice of  his privy council, either by vir-
tue ofthe  royal prerogative, and indepen-
dently of any act of parliament, or by vir-
tue of such act, authorizing the king in
council to modify or dispense with certain
statutoiy provisions, winch it may be deem-
ed expedient, in particular conjunctures, to
alter or suspend.   When a permission  is
to be given to a particular indir  dual, it is
usual  to grant it by license;  but oruere in
council are of a more general nature, and
contain  tlispensations or  prohibitions ex-
teneling to a whole branch of commerce.
  Prize.*  By the term prize is generally
understood any thing captured in virtue of
the rights of war (jure bdli).  Property
captured on lanel is usually called booty,
and is generally disposed of at once by the
commanding general, or reserved for the
disposal of his sovereign, who is accustom-
ed to bestow anel distribute it according to
his discretion.   Few rules are therefore to
be found in treatises of public law on the
rights of  war, in regard to captures  on
land.  The  conqueror, indeed,  generally
respects private property from motives of
policy or clemency.   He   observes, or
ought to observe, the terms of capitulation,
if there are any;  and, ordinarily, he does
not give up any place which is conquered
to pillage or sack.  But property captured
in battle ofa general or movable nature is
commonly subjected to immediate distri-
bution ;  and the principal question which
arises is how it is to be treated upon recab-
ture.  Is it to be restored by the law of
postliminy (jus postliminii) to the original
owner, or  does  it  belong to the  recaptor ?
In general, upon  principles of strict law,
if the  capture has been absolute, and the
possession complete by the  enemy, it  is
deemed his property, and the title of the
original owner is divested, so that he can-
not reclaim it.  But most nations  have
introduced into their own laws some moel-

  * The importance  of this subject lo a commer-
cial community is our apology for the length of
the following article. 
359
PRIZE.
ifications of this principle, and, in regard
to dieir own subjects, have given a right
of restitution  to the original owner, upon
his making some compensation.  For the
most  part, however, these moelifications
are  applied more extensively to captures
at sea than to  captures on land.   In re-
gard to maritime captures, a veiy elifterent
couree has been pursueel by all nations, in
modem times, from that which governs in
cases of captures on land.  As all  nations
have on equal right to navigate the ocean,
and to carry on commerce with each oth-
er, belligerents  are bound to respect the
rights and property of neutrals, whether
navigating the ocean or engaged  in trade
in foreign ports.  The right of belligerents
to capture die property of then* enemies
on the sea is admitted, as  well as dieir
right  to prevent any frauds, or violations
of the  law of nations on  the part of
neutrals.  But  these  rights are  limited,
and must be so  exercised  as not to trench
upon the independence or rights of other
nations.  Now  it is obvious that it is ex-
tremely difficult, if not wholly impractica-
ble,  to  ascertain,  with entire certainty,
what ships and cargoes sailing  on the
ocean, or found  in belligerent ports, belong
to enemies, and what to neutrals.  Yet it
is the duty of  the belligerent sovereign,
who  exercises  die power of captvwe,. to
abstain from  seizing the one, while he
may  lawfully  seize  the  other.    Some
mode of ascertaining the character and
genuineness of each  must therefore be
devised, in order to prevent the abuse of
the power, and to secure to neutrals a just
protection. The  belligerent  acts  at his
peril, and is responsible for every abuse;
and, if the wrongs are at once flagrant and
frequent,  they  inevitably produce that
state  of  national irritation  and national
injury which  are the general causes of
war.  Hence  arises the necessity of insti-
tuting some tribunals to take cognizance
of maritime captures, to ascertain their va-
lidity, and, after suitable proceedings, to
pronounce a  decree  of condemnation or
acquittal.  Accordingly, in modem times,
it is settled, as a part ofthe law of nations,
that every belligerent has a right to estab-
lish tribunals of prize, to examine  into all
maritime  captures, and judicially to de-
cide upon their validity.  The final sen-
tence, when  pronounced, is deemed the
act of the sovereign, deliberately adopted,
and  he  thereby becomes responsible to
all l..; jign nations for its correctness. But
this right would be of little practical value,
ifothc"- nations were not bound, so for as
the property in  controversy  is  concerned,
by such a sentence.  Hence, as a corollary
flowing from this principle, it is another
well-settled principle, that the courts of
prize of the captors have exclusive juris-
diction over all matters touching captures
made under the  authority of dieir sove-
reign; and the courts  of other nations
have no jurisdiction, or authority to in-
quire into, or to adjudicate upon them.
And the  sentence ofa court of competent
jurisdiction  once  pronounced  becomes
conclusive,  and obligatory upon all the
world.   It  changes the  property,  and
devests die former title of the owner, if it
is a sentence  of condemnation; and all
nations are bound to respect the new tide
acquired under it.—I.  It being, then, a
fundamental principle that, in  matters of
prize, exclusive jurisdiction belongs to die
prize courts of the  captors, whose  sen-
tence is conclusive upon all the world, we
are  next to inquire, under what circum-
stances this exclusive jurisdiction attaches.
It is not permitted to any nation to assume
to  itself  die final adjudication upon all
rights of property in which the subjects of
other nations are concerned, whenever a
court of prize has undertaken to pass  sen-
tence upon  it.   Such a sentence is not
obligatory,  unless  a rightful jurisdiction
has  attached to such court; and, there-
fore, in all. caees where property, captured
and condemned as prize, comes afterwards
iu  judgment before  the courts of other
nations, and the  title is controverted, die
first question  is, whether the court of
prize pronouncing die sentence had juris-
diction over the property.  The founda-
tion of its jurisdiction is, that the property
has been captured, and is in the  possession
of  the  captors, and capable  of being
reached directly or indirectly through die
process of the  court.  Every court of
prize, therefore,  proceeds in   rem,  and,
m   order to maintain its jurisdiction,  it
must be capable of asserting its claim over
the thing or over its proceeds.   The juris-
diction, then, gained by  capture is lost by
a recapture, escape, or voluntary discharge
ofthe property before the  court has  adju-
dicated upon it; and if, notwithstanding,
it should attempt to  bind die properly by
any  subsequent  proceedings, its  sen-
tence becomes a mere nullity.   Upon this
ground, it was formerly held that, in order
to entitle a court of prize to  proceed  to
adjudication, it was essential  diat the
property or proceeds should be brought
within the ports of the  capturing power.
But this rule was soon found, in practice,
to be too narrow and hiconvenient; and
it is now well established, that  it is  suffi- 
PRIZE.
353
cient that the property is in the possession
ofthe captors in the ports of an ally in the
war, or even in the ports of a neutral; for,
by the capture, the captors acquire such a
right and possesskm as no neutral nation
is at^ liberty to devest or impugn.   This
rule is so inflexible that, even if a belliger-
ent captures a neutral vessel and cargo, and
brings it  into the ports of the neutral na-
tion to which the vessel and cargo belong,
the ceieuts of die  latter are bound to ab-
stain from all exercise of jurisdiction over
the property, except so far as to inquire
whether  the captors are entitled to make
the  capture, or are mere pirates.  And
this leads to die remark, that die capture
must be made in a place where it can, by
the law of nations, be rightfully made by
the belligerent.  Eveiy neutral nation has
a right to an exclusive jurisdiction within
its  own  ports, and over its temtorial seas
to die extent of a marine league on its
sea-coast.  A  belligerent has no right to
make any captures within  those  limits;
for it is undertaking to cany on war with-
in the  neutral territory, which is a plain
violation of neutral rights: so a belligerent
has no right to equip, or arm, or man, his
ships  for   war in any  neutral  port;
and,  if  he eloes,  it  is the  duty of" the
neutral  to  vindicate  his own exclusive
sovereignty.  If,  therefore,  in  either of
these cases of violation of temtorial sove-
reignty,  or of illegal equipments, the cap-
tured  property is brought within the neu-
tral' jurisdiction,  it is  the right and duty
of the neutral to  restore it to the original
owner.—A prize  court  may not  only
lose its  jurisdiction by  circumstances oc-
curring after it has once rightfully attach-
ed, but  it may be  incompetent from the
locality of the exercise of its jurisdiction.
Thus a prize court must sit in the country
ofthe captors, or, at least, in  the tenitoiy
of a co-belligerent; for, if it sits in a neu-
tral country, its sentence of condemnation
will be  deemed  invalid,  and, of couree,
will be  disregarded as a violation of the
proper duty ofthe neutral sovereign.
   II.  The next inquiry is, Who are enti-
tled to make captures ?   In general, every
belligerent  sovereign reserves to himself
the exclusive right to grant  commie-ions
to  make captures in time of war.  The
object of this regulation is, in the first
place, to secure neutrals against predatory
warfare  and piratical attacks; and, in the
next place, to enable the sovereign to limit
the operations of war, and control the per-
sons who are engaged in it so as to secure
a perfect responsibility to himself for any
misconduct.   But unless  the sovereign
                    30*
actually  prohibits any uncommissioned
subjects  from engaging in the war, they
are not absolutely mcompetent to make
captures; for all the subjects ofthe hostile
nations are deemed enemies to each odier.
But such captures are always made at the
peril ofthe parties; and the uncommission-
ed captors acquire no interest therein,but the
same are at the free disposal ofthe sovereign.
Indeed, the general principle of the law of
nations is, that all captures are for the sove-
reign ; and no beneficial interest can be ac-
quired therein by the captors, except by the
grace and bounty  of their sovereign. It is
usual for die sovereign, in  cases of public
ships of war, as well as in  cases of private
commissioned ships, to give  the captors,
after adjudication, die whole  of the pro-
ceeds of" prizes, according to some stipulat-
ed mode  of apportionment and distribu-
tion.  But this is a mere act of grace, and
not of duty.  In cases of non-commission-
ed vessels, captures may certainly be made
by them in self-defence, if they are attack-
ed ; and they are usually permitted to make
hostile attacks and captures, which are not
in mere  self-defence.  Indeed, so far as
other nations are concerned, such captures
are to be deemed  lawful, and not piratical ;
though, if not authorized  by tiieir sove-
reign, the captors may incur an onerous
responsibility to him.  And,  with a view
to the  exigencies of war,  it  is a general
policy among sovereigns not to allow any
rights to vest in the  captors until after a
final sentence of condemnation, so that,
if any intermediate negotiations take place,
the prizes may be restored wid'out any in-
fringement  of  the  vested rights of the
captors.
  III.  In the next place,  Who are to be
deemed enemies ?  and what property is lia-
ble to capture ? In general, it  may be laid
down that all the  subjects  of  the bellige-
rents are  to be deemed enemies to  each
odier, and their property is deemed to be-
long to enemies;  but  the  rule  has some
qualifications.  In  cases  of  prize, the
question of enemy or not, depends, not up-
on the native or adopted country of the
party,  but  upon  his  actual  residence or
domicil.  (See Domicil, appendix, end of
vol. iv.)  He is deemed  to belong to the
country  in  which he has his actual resi-
dence  or domicil. Hence a neutral domi-
ciled in an enemy's country is deemed an
enemy, and a subject of a belligerent
domiciled in a neutral  country is deemed
a neutral;  and the  masters and officere
and crews  of ships are deemed to belong
to the country, and to possess the national
character of the  ships in  which they are 
354                                PRIZE,
employed,  during the  time of dieir em-
ployment.  And the hostile character may
be impressed upon a person who goes in-
to a belligerent country originally for tem-
porary purposes, if other objects ofa more
permanent nature become engrafted upon
that original purpose.  Ambassadors and
public  ministers are always deemed to re-
tain die national character of their sove-
reigns ; and so consuls, while they confine
themselves to dieir mere official duties.
But if they engage in  commerce, so far
as then commerce is Concerned, they par-
take of  the  national character of their
place of domicil.  A national character
which is acquired solely by domicil ceases
with the change of that domicil; and the
native character of the  party is resumed,
the moment he  puts himself upon his
journey (in itinere) to return home.  Thus
a belligerent subject, domicded in a neu-
tral country, ceases to hold  the character
of a neutral as soon as he is on his return
to his native country, and becomes an en-
emy ; and, e converso, a neutral deimiciled
in an enemy's country ceases to be an en-
emy upon his return to his own  counuy.
But mere residence in a  neutral country
is not always sufficient to protect die prop-
erty of a party from being  deemed hos-
tile ; for there may be a hostile character
impressed upon the property by the mere
nature of die trade in which the party is
engaged. Thus if a party reside in a neu-
tral country, but has an agent stationed in
the enemy's country, who carries on trade
there  on his account, upon the same foot-
ing as a resident merchant and privileged
trader, he will, as to such trade, be deem-
ed an enemy. So if a neutral person is a
partner in a house of trade in the enenty's
country, the  partnership  is  deemed hos-
tile ; and his neutral residence  will not
save his share in the concern from being
liable to confiscation as enemy's property.
But here the principle of reciprocity is not
applied; for if an enemy be a  partner in
a house of trade in a neutral country, his
share in the concern is not  protected by
the neutral character of the partnership ;
but his  character as enemy  attaches to
it.  There  are many other cases in which
traffic  alone, independent  of  domicd,
stamps upon die party engaged in it a hos-
tile character. Thus if a party be engag-
ed in the navigation of an enemy, or his
ships sail under die  flag, and pass, and
papers of ;ui enemy, the property so em-
ployed partakes, of the hostile character.
There are certain species  of trade which
are ordinarily confined to the  subjects of
a nation; and no foreigners ore permitted
to take part in such trade.  Thus,  before
the late South American revolution, Spain
prohibited all foreign intercourse with her
continental colonies.  In  such cases  of
colonial monopoly, if, by special privilege
or license, a foreigner should, pro hoc vice,
be  allowed to carry on the trade ; or if,
under color of the names  of subjects, he
should secretly embark in it, Ins property
so  engaged  would be deemed  hostile.
Great Britain has attempted to maintain a
further principle, that neutrals shall not be
allowed to carry on any trade  widi colo-
nies in time of war, which is not allowed
them  hi time of peace, contending that if
the ports are generally opened during war
so as to ward off its pressure, it ought to be
deemed a privileged trade, and subject the
property to confiscation.   America has re-
sisted this extension of the doctrine,  as-
serting it to be new, anel  not founded in
the law of nations.  So the coasting trade
ofa country is so generally confined to its
own subjects diat it is deemed a privileged
trade; anel  the property  of neutrals en-
gaged in it is treated as  hostile.   And
the produce of an estate situated in a hos-
tile colony has been held to be impressed
with the  character of the sod, although
the owner of the  estate  is  resident in a
neutral country; and, as to such produce,
he is deemed an enemy.  A peculiar nde
has been applied to certain European fac-
tories established in the Eastern and Asiat-
ic nations.  These factories are deemed
to possess  the national  character  of'the
countries to which they  belong, and not
that of the  countries where they are situ-
ated.  The same rule has been applied to
European establishments in Smyrna and
other  Turkish  provinces.  But the proper-
ty of  enemies  is not always liable to cap-
tore,  for the government itself may limit
the operations  of war; and certain prop-
erty is, by the law of nations, exempted
from  capture.   Thus vessels which are
cartels, or  are sailing  under the license
flag and pass  of the government, cannot
be seized as enemy's property; for they
are protected by  the express  or implied
authority ofthe government itself.  And it
is not uncommon for the  government,  by
special  instmctions, to  limit hostilities.
Thus  fishing vessels  are often exempted
from capture, though belonging to the en-
emy.
  IV. Under what circumstances neutral
property becomes subject to capture.   1.
Belligerents having a right to capture the
property of their enemies  on  the  ocean,
wherever it can be founel, this right would
become utterly  ineffectual  unless diey 
PRIZE.                                355
were permitted to visit and search vessels
on the ocean, in order to ascertain whether
they and their cargoes were neutral or hos-
tile.  The right of search is therefore gene-
rally admitted as an incident to the right of
capture.   It has been, indeed, occasional-
ly resisted; but it seems now finnly estab-
lished  as a part of the  law  of nations,
though it is often used as an  instrument
of vexation to neutrals.  Sweden, in  die
war between France and England, from
1793 to 1802, attempted to establish an ex-
ception, where her own ships, being neu-
tral, were navigating under the convoy of
her own  public ships. But England made
captures  of them  for  resistance of  the
right of search; and, though much urita-
tion  existed  at  the time,  the  doctrine
maintained by England seems now gene-
rally admitted.   Neutrals taking  the  ad-
vantage of belligerent  convoy will, it is
said, not be liable to confiscation, unless
they receive convoy orders and cooperate
in resistance of die  right  of search.   But
this doctrine seems questionable ; and  the
judicial opinions in England and America
on this subject are irreconcilable.   It may,
then, be laid down as a general rule, that
neutrals are bound to submit  to the right
of search ; and, if they resist it, the prop-
erty is liable to confiscation.  2. And  the
right of search  draws after it  a  right to
capture and send in the  visited  ship  for
adjudication, whenever (though the ship
and cargo are under neutral papers) there
are circumstances of just suspicion as to
their real character.  The neutral, under
such circumstances, is bound to  submit,
and wait the regular result of the  adjueli-
cation of the proper prize tribunals.  If,
after the capture, die neutral  crew rise,
and regain the neutral ship from die pos-
session of the captors, that alone is a hos-
tile act;  and however innocent in other
respects  the ship  and cargo  may   be,
they are justly  subjected  thereby  to con-
fiscation.   3. Another cause of the just
confiscation of neutral property is that it
is contraband of war.  (See Contrabatut.)
Goods contraband  of war are generally
diose which are peculiarly and exclusive-
ly adapted to war,  such  as military  and
naval equipments and stores, such as guns,
muskets,  auununition, and  other articles
usually appropriated to  war.  So ships
built  for  war,  and going to the enemy's
country for sale, are contraband. Neutrals,
being  bound to abstain  from taking any
part in the war, are justly deemed to iden-
tify themselves with the enemy by any in-
terposition in it, or by any act against their
duty;  and if they commit any such acts,
they are treated as enemies.  Many arti-
cles of commerce are of promiscuous use,
both in war and peace ; and, in general,
such articles are treated with indulgence,
and furnish no ground for capture.  And,
especially,  articles  which  constitute the
produce and export of a  neutral nation
are, at all tunes, though applicable to war,
treated with indulgence.  But if such ar-
ticles are directly destmed for the military
or naval use ofthe enemy, they will then
be subject  to confiscation, although they
are of promiscuous use.  Thus ship tim-
ber and naval stores, destined to the ports
of military  equipment of an  enemy, are
deemed contraband.   So  provisions  in
general are not deemed contraband  (al-
though there has been  much conflicting
discussion on the subject), being of pro-
miscuous use;  but provisions destined to
the military or naval use ofthe enemy, or
sent to his ports of naval and military
equipment,  are deemed contraband.   In
modern tunes,  by the  conventional law
between nations, provisions have been of-
ten excepteel from the list of contraband,
and are subjected to the right of preemp-
tion.  4. Another just  cause of the con-
fiscation of neutral property is the breach
of  blockade.   Every  belligerent has  a
right to invest the ports of his enemy, to
cut off Ins supplies, and to endeavor thus
to compel  him to a surrender.  And a
neutral can have no right to interpose, and
relieve the  besieged from the pressure of
superior force.   It is therefore  a general
rule that a violation ofa blockade, by any
neutral, subjects his  property engagetl in
it  to  capture and  condemnation.  But
veiy important questions grow out of this
subject, which have been the occasion of
many heated discussions between neutral
nations and  belligerents.  What consti-
tutes a blockaele in the  sense of the law
of nations,  has  been a disputed emestion.
The principles  now established on this
point seem to be, that a mere paper block-
ade (as it is sometimes called)—that is, a
blockade by proclamation,  without any
investing force—is not a legal blockade :
there  must be an actual naval or military
force,  competent for its object, on  the
coast and in the vicinity.  The port must
be actually, and not nominally, invested.
If the blockading squadron be withdrawn,
or be elispereed by a storm, or, voluntarily
relax the siege, the blockade is, for  the
time, intermitted; and an entry by a neu-
tral, at such a time, ought not to involve
any penalty.  France and England, dur-
ing the late continental  war, attempted—
the former by the Berlin and 3Iilan de- 
356
PRIZE.
crees, the latter by orders in council—to
declare whole countries in a state of block-
ade, and to  interdict all traffic with them
by  neutral  nations.   But  neutral  na-
tions  resisted  these  pretensions,  with a
most  decided  expression of public opin-
ion, as gross  usurpations j and the persist-
ence of Great Britaui in  enforcing these
orders of council, was one of the main
causes of the late war between her and
die U. States of America.
  V.  Another inquiry is, What  consti-
tutes a breach of blockade on the part of
a neutral ?  A blockade may commence,
and be  made known by a proclamation
or notification  of the belligerent govern-
ment  to neutral nations;  or it may com-
mence de facto, without any such  formal
notice.  In order to affect a neutral with
the consequences of a breach of blockade,
it should be duly notified to him. Where
a blockade is merely de fado, the neutral
is not in default by approaching the port,
if he has no  knowledge of the blockade,
or if, knowing it, he  comes bona Jide to-
wards the port  for the purpose,  not of
entering in  breach of the blockade,  but
merely of ascertaining, in the  neighbor-
hood, if it still exists.  But if he is warn-
ed off by the blockading squadron, and
afterwards attempts to enter the  port, that
is a breach  of blockade.  But a mere
persistence in this intention, without any
act done after such warning off, is not of
itself a breach of blockade.  There must
be some overt act, such as sailing again
towards the port,  or hovering near it,
with an intent to take advantage of some
opportunity  to enter, to  constitute  the
offence.  But where a blockade  is  known
to the neutral, the sailing from  the neu-
tral port, with an intent to break it, is of
itself a breach of the blockade.  In such
a case, nothing wjll save the neutral from
the penalty of confiscation, but the fact,
that the blockade,  though unknown to
him, was, at the time of his sailing, with-
drawn ; for both intent and breach must
concur.  A  blockade by proclamation or
notification  may be  presumed  to be in-
tended to endure ; and, therefore, notice
of such a proclamation  is more binding
upon the neutral than a mere blockade de
facto, whose continuance may well  be
deemed uncertain, temporary, and liable
to sudden changes  of intention.  In re-
spect to cases of contraband and  breach
of blockade, in  order to justify the cap-
ture  and condemnation of the  neutral
vessel or cargo, or either engaged therein,
it is  indispensable  that they should be
caught  in delicto.  The penalty,  therefore,
attaches (generally speaking), only while.'
the vessel is engaged in the same voyage.
If that is  terminated, the offence is ele-
posited with it,  and  ended.  The  rule,
however,  has  been held in a somewhat
larger extent by Great Britain, and proba-
bly will be adopted by other nations.  In
cases of  contraband,  if the  vessel has
sailed under false papers and disguises,
the penalty is inflicted  on  the return
voyage.   In cases of breach of blockade,
the penalty, if  not inflicted  before, is
applied in the next succeeding voyage,
but not beyond that.  There are other
acts which are  deemed  violations  of
the duty  of neutrals, and  subject  their
property   to  condemnation.   All these
acts may  be  resolved into one general
proposition, that if the act be in aiel of tho
objects or interests of the  enemy, or if
they amount to an actual interposition in
the war, they are deemed hostile.  Thus,
if the neutral is  guilty of any fraudulent
conduct to  defeat belligerent rights; or
if he, directly or indirectly, assists in car-
rying on  the war, prejudicing the rights
of the other party, he is treated, so far,
as a party.   Hence, if he is guilty ofa
spoliation  of the ship's papers, or a fraud-
ulent suppression of  enemy  interests;
if he  carries enemy  goods under  false
papers ; if he carries despatches, or mili-
tary passengers for the enemy ;  if he en-
gages in the transport service of the ene-
my ; if he sails under the special  license
and pass of the enemy ;—these, and other
acts of a  like nature,  will subject his
property  thus employed  to confiscation,
and he will  be thus  far held  an enemy.
And if the neutral mixes up and covers
his own property designedly with that of
the enemy, the whole will be condemna-
ble.  A court of prize will  not assist him
to unravel the transaction, but will deem
the whole forfeited by his own  miscon-
duct.
  VI. The question  has often been  dis-
cussed by publicists, how far a  neutral
has u right to carry enemy's goods,  and
in such case whether the neutrality of
the ship gives a  neutral character to the
cargo; or, in other words,  whether free
ships make free  goods, and enemy ships
make enemy  goods.   There have been
many struggles,  in modern  times, on the
part of neutrals, to incorporate  into the
law of nations  the  principle,  that  free
ships shall make free goods. But tiiey have
wholly failed  of their purpose; and the
right, whenever it exists  at all, is the  re-
sult of treaty stipulations, and binds those
nations only which are parties to them. 
PRIZE.                               357
The general principle now acknowledged
in the practice of nations is, that enemy
property found on board of neutral ships
is liable to capture and condemnation.
The neutral flag does not protect it.  And,
on the other hand,  that neutral property
found en board of enemy  ships is  not
liable to condemnation; but the neutral
is entitled to restitution.  In  all these
cases, the belligerent is understood, upon
the capture, to succeed to the rights of Ids
enemy, and no  more,  unless tiiere  has
been some misconduct on the part of the
neutral, to  make  him forfeit the protec-
tion of the law of nations.   If enemy
property is found on board a neutral ship,
und die conduct of the neutral is bona
fide, he is entided to receive the stipulated
freight of carriage from the captors.   If
neutral property is found on board  an
enemy ship, the neutral must, if tine cap-
tors are willing to  complete the voyage,
pay to the captors  the stipulated freight
upon due delivery and restitution.
   VII.  As to the nature and proofs of
proprietary interest  in  ships anel cargoes.
In the ordinary course of things, the pro-
prietary rights must be judged of by the
documents anel evidence found on board,
and the  general principles  of national
jurisprudence applicable to such subjects.
No nation has a right to decide such ques-
tions by its own mere municipal regula-
 tions, as to the rights of property, but must
deckle them upon  the  general doctrines
 of the law of nations.   Every ship navi-
 gating the ocean is expected to have on
 board some papers, which, under proper
verifications, shall  establish her national
character.  The usual  papers,  therefore,
 which the laws of her own country  re-
 quire as evidence of that character, ought
 to lie on board; and if they are not, that
 very circumstance  creates a suspicion of
 a false and assumed  character.  The
 like rule applies to cargoes; for these are
 expected to  lie accompanied by suitable
 documents to  prove the ownership and
 national character, and to be verified by
 some public or customary authentications
 of public officers.  The general criterion,
 therefore, adopted  by the law of nations
 to  distinguish the property of different
 nations found on the sea, is to require the
 production of  such  documents as  the
 laws  of  the  nation  itself require,  as
 evidence  of proprietary interest.   But
 these  papers are not deemed conclusive,
 but only prima facie, evidence, until they
 are  impeached.   There are,  however,
 some peculiar rules of evidence adopted
 hi prize courts, which require to be men-
tioned.  In the first place, it is a rule of
prize courts, in all cases of capture, diat
the burden of proof is on the claimant to
prove a neutral proprietary interest.  If
he fails so to do, the  property is deemed
hostile.  One reason for this rule is, the
difficulty of the captors establishing the
contrary, as they have  no privity with
the shippers; and another is, the extreme
facility and frequency of covering bel-
ligerent property under neutral disguises
in time of war.  Another rule is, that the
circumstance of prope-iy being found on
board of au enemy's ship  affords  a pre-
sumption, that  it is  enemy's  property ;
and that presumption will prevail, until
it is clearly displaced by satisfactory evi-
dence to the  contrary.  Anodier rule is,
that where a party claims under a title
by capture, he must  show a sentence of
condemnation ;  for though, as between
belligerents, the property  is, or may be
changed by  mere capture,  neutrals or
others purchasing from them, must show
a good title under the sale, which can only
be by such a sentence.  Goods are usual-
ly accompanied by bills of lading, invoices,
and lettere  of consignment.  But  a mere
consignment  to a party is no absolute
proof of property;  for he may  be the
mere agent of the shipper.  It is, therefore,
a  rule, that,  in such a case,  the goods
must appear by  the documentary evi-
dence to be really shipped on account and
risk of the consignee.   The consignment
must amount to an  absolute  transfer of
the property to the consignee ; for if it is
contingent, or dependent upon future oc-
curences,  it is deemed to remain still in
the shipper. Thus, if the shipment is made
on the joint accountofthe shipper and con-
signee, or on the sole account ofthe con-
signee, at his option, the property, during
the voyage, remains in the shipper, and may
be captured as his, for, until the option is
made, there is no absolute transfer: so, if a
sale made  during war be conditional or
contingent, or dependent upon  future acts
or circumstances, die proprietary interest is
deemeel to belong to the vendor: so, if the
goods are sent  by die vendor to the ven-
dee without orders, though en account of
the latter, die interest remains  in the
vendor.  It is also  a rule of the  prize
court, diat property  cannot,  in  time  of
war, be transfen-cel  in transitu; so that,
for all the purposes of capture, it is treat-
ed as belonging to the same party, during
 the whole voyage, to whom it belonged at
its commencement.  Anodier rule is, that
 no lien upon enemy's property by way of
 pledge, or hypodiecation, or for advances 
358
PRIZE.
made by the consignee, or in virtue of a
general balance of accounts due to the
consignee,  as  factor, is regarded in the
prize court as  sufficient to defeat the
rights of captors; nor,  indeed, any liens
except such known hens as accompany
the very goods by the universal commer-
cial law, such  as a lien  for freight.  The
reason for this  rule is, that die liens creat-
ed by private  persons must be essentially
dependent upon and connected  with the
municipal laws ofthe countries where the
parties live, and th«r courts of prize would
be involved in endless perplexity hi the
examination of them,  and  they would
open a wide door for the introduction  of
false and fraudulent claims,  which  such
courts could have no adequate means to
detect.
  VIII. Anodier inquiry is, how far the
property of belligerent  subjects engaged
in trade widi  their  enemies, is liable to
capture and condemnation.   The declar-
ation of war puts (as has  been seen) all
die subjects ofthe different nations at war
with each  other, as well as the nations
themselves  in  their sovereign capacity:
hence  all traffic between such  subjects,
being enemies, is prohibited by the law of
nations, and not only all traffic and com-
merce, strictly  so called, but  all commer-
cial  elealings.   Therefore, entering into
contracts with  an enemy, making remit-
tances to him, or paying debts to him, during
the war, is deemed an illegal intercourse,
which may interfere  with  the national
policy, and, in some cases,  paralyze the
operations of die war.  A belligerent has
no right to go into the enemy's country at
all without  the license of his  own govern-
ment, even for the  purpose of bringing
away goods which were purchased before
the war commenced. The same principle
applies to the  subjects  of an ally in the
war; for the duties of each are the same.
Hence the property  ofa subject, or  of an
ally, found engaged hi commerce with the
enemy, is liable to capture, and treated as
enemy's property; for no person can be
permitted to set up in a court of prize a
claim to property founded  on a violation
ofthe law of"nations. And it matters not
whether the trade be carried on  directly
or indirectly with  the  enemy,  directly
with the enemy's  ports, or  indirectly
through a neutral port; or 'whether there
be an actual trade, or only an attempt to
o-ade, for the voyage is itself illegal.  And
if a belligerent  be engaged in any trade in
violation ofthe municipal laws of his own
country, and the property so engaged is
captured, he cannot maintain any  claim
for it in the courts of prize of ihs own
country; for he cannot be  permitted to
set up his own offence against the laws to
protect his property from  condemnation;
and his claim being rejected, the property
is of course confiscated, as enemy proper-
ty, for want of a  proper claim.  If a
vessel is captured during die same voy-
age in which the offence of  illegal traffic
is committed, although after it  has been
committed, she is still deemed  in delicto,
and subject to confiscation.  And perhaps
the same nile of confiscation  woulel be
apphed to the return voyage, as  is applied
iu cases of breach of blockade and con-
traband of war.
   IX. It  is often an  important question,
how far the acts of die master of the ship
bind the owner ofthe  ship and the owner
of the cargo.  In respect to the  owner of
the ship, the general rule is, that the acts
ofthe master bind him as much as if the
acts were  done personally  by himselfl
This rule is established upon the doctrine
that the principal is answerable  for the
acts of his agent, not only civilly, but pe-
nally, to the extent of the property intrust-
ed to  him.   It would  be difficult, in any
other way, for a court of  prize  to reach
the proprietor himself, however guilty he
might  be.   And,  if the rule savors  of
hardship, it  should be remembered, that
it is indispensable for the  exercise of tho
just rights of war, and to enforce the just
duties of neutrality.  If the master has
acted in contravention of the instmctions
of the ship-owner, he  will be responsible
to the  latter.  If,  therefore, the mas-
ter deviates  into  a blockadeel  port, the
owner is bound by his act, and is not per-
mitted to aver his ignorance, or that the
master acted against orders. The some
principle applies to the carriage  of contra-
band goods.  Grotius, and Bynkershoeck,
and Pothier, have contended for a more
favorable nile, where  the  owner is igno-
rant that contraband goods are  taken  on
board.  The rule,  however,  has been
established by  modem practice  against
their opinions.  But the acts of  the mas-
ter of the ship do  not bind the  owner of
the cargo, unless he is also owner of the
ship, or he has knowledge ofthe unlawful
intention, or the master is his agent.   In
cases of blockade, the deviation into the
blockaded port is  deemed to be in the
service,  and for the benefit of the owner
of the cargo, and therefore he will  be
bound by the act, if he had knowledge of
the blockade at the time of die sailing  of
the ship: so if, at die  time of the sailing
ofthe ship, the master puts himself under 
PRIZE.
359
convoy ofthe enemy, it will be presumed,
that it is done with the consent  of the
owner of the cargo.  But where, from
the  nature  of the  act occureing  during
the voyage, upon an  emergency  which
could  not  have  been foreseen  by the
shipper,  it   is  clear  that  it  is  done
without the consent of the latter,  the act
will not bind him, although the master is
his agent.  But it will  be different when
the act might have been in the contempla-
tion ofthe parties at the beginning of the
voyage; for,  in  such  a  case,  ignorance
will  not be allowed  to  excuse the
shipper from the  legal results of the act
of  his agent.  There are many cases
hi which the acts of the  master will bind
the  owners,  both of  the  ship  and the
cargo : such  are die resistance  of the
right of search, the rescue or recapture of
the ship by  the  master  and crew after
capture,  and the fraudulent  suppression
and spoliation of papers.  It has been an
agitated question, whether the  resistance
ofa right of search by a belligerent mas-
ter binds  neutral property on board, al-
though it is admitted that the resistance
of a neutral master -will bind all goods on
board, to whomsoever belonging.  The
English prize courts have adhered to the
affirmative,   and   the  American  prize
courts to the negative.  And where a per-
son is the general agent ofthe whole car-
go, and he covers enemy property in the
ship  with his principal's property, the
whole will   be  liable  to  condemnation,
aldiough  his principal had no knowledge
ofthe illegal act; so if he uses simulated
papers;  for the carriage of such papers is
emphatically said to be au  efficient cause
of condemnation.
   X.  The rights and duties of captors.
1.  From what has  been  already stateel, it
is manifest that, in many cases, it will be
impossible to ascertain, from die examina-
tion  of the  papers on board of a ship,
which is visiteel  at sea, whether she is a
neutral or belligerent, and whedier she
is  condemnable  or  not.   The captors
therefore make die seizure at their peril;
and if it turns out to be unjustifiable, they
are responsible for all damages and costs
arising from dieir act.  If, on  the other
hand, the capture is justifiable, die captors
are exempted from all  liability for dam-
ages and costs, whatever may be the event,
and even though die property may be re-
stored by the prize court as neutral. They
may even be entitled,  in case of  restitu-
tion, to  be paid  their own costs and ex-
penses, where their conduct has been en-
tirely correct.  The captors, upon a justi-
fiable capture, are considered as having a
bona fide possession ;  and they are not re-
sponsible for any subsequent losses or in-
juries to the property from mere accident
or casualty, as from sn-ess of weather, re-
capture by the enemy,  shipwreck, &c.;
but they are responsible for all losses to
neutral property which are properly attrib-
utable to their own negligence.   Probable
cause of capture is a perfect justification
to captors, even though ultimately a resti-
tution may be decreed.  It hence becomes
a veiy important point to ascertain what
facts and circumstances constitute such
probable cause.  These may be almost in-
finitely varied, and it would be impossi-
ble to enumerate all of them ; but some of
the more  common  cases may be stated.
If the ship pretend to be neutral,  and has
not the proper and usual documents on
board to verify her own character and that
ofthe cargo ; if  the  cargo  be without  a
proper custom-house clearance ; if die des-
tination be falsely stated; if the papers on
board be  false or colorable, or  be sup-
pressed, mutilated or spoliated ; if the neu-
trality  of the  cargo  does not clearly ap-
pear; if the voyage be to or from a block-
aded port; if the traffic be not legal to the
parties engaged in it; if the cargo be of an
ambiguous character, as to conttaband, or
its destination be to a port of an ambigu-
ous character, as a port of military and na-
val equipment;  if the conduct of the of-
ficere and crew ofthe vessel give rise  to
just suspicions of their good faith,—in all
such cases (and many others of a like na-
ture  might be mentioned), there  is suffi-
cient probable cause  of capture to justify
the captors.   If any part of the property
is condemnable as prize,  though the bulk
of the  cargo may be  restored, that consti-
tutes not merely probable but justifiable
cause of capture. But even probable cause
of capture will not excuse captors  from li-
ability for any loss or damage accruing af-
terwards from their own  negligence or
misconduct;  for the title of a bona fide
possessor may be forfeited by tuch negli-
gence or misconduct.  If, therefore, the
prize be lost by the negligence or miscon-
duct of the prize officers and crew, from
neglect to take a pilot, or from want of a
proper prize crew, or from unskilful navi-
gation, or from any impropriety ofa simi-
lar nature,  the captors are responsible to
the full amount ofthe damage.  But mere
irregularity alone will not make the cap-
tors liable for damages, unless there is an
irreparable loss properly attributable there-
to.   2. Next as to the duties of  captors.
As soon as the  capture  of a neutral  is 
360
PRIZE.
complete, it is the duty of the captors to
put a proper prize crew on board, and to
send the prize into some convenient port
for adjudication.  The neutral crew, or a
part of them, at least, are to be kept on
board, and are not to be treated with se-
verity, or handcuffed, or put in irons, unless
from extreme necessity.  If the  neutral
crew  voluntarily undertake  (which tiiey
are not bound to do) to assist in the navi-
gation, that may dispense with the neces-
sity of putting on board a full prize crew.
Captors are bound to state to the master
ofthe neutral vessel the cause of die cap-
ture, so as to give him  an  opportunity to
make suitable explanations,  and to show
the insufficiency of the reasons to send
her in for atijudication.  Some stratagems
of war are permitted in order to secure cap-
tures, as sailing and chasing under false
colore; but the law of nations does not per-
mit firing or capturing under false colore.
It is the duty, also, of the captors, after cap-
ture, to prevent all spoliation and damage by
die prize crew, and to abstain from break-
ing bulk, or removing any ofthe property,
unless in cases of necessity. If any acts of
this nature occur, the court of prize will re-
quire at their hands a fulljustification. Upon
arrival in the proper port, it is the duty of
captors, without delay,  to cause proceed-
ings to be instituted in the  proper prize
court, so that the legality of the capture
may be immediately ascertained. In case
of any undue delay, they will be made li-
able  for  demurrage, if restitution is  de-
creed.  And the neutral may himself) by
a proper application to the  prize court,
compel  the captors to  proceed to adjudi-
cation, if they  unreasonably delay.  In
cases of illegal capture, the inquiry often
arises, Who are  responsible for the dam-
ages and costs ?  In  respect to  public
ships, die general rule is that the actual
wrongdoer, and  he alone, is responsible.
By the actual  wrongdoer is  meant  the
commander who has directed the capture ;
for the subordinate officere anel crew, who
have only acted in obedience to his orders,
are not responsible.  However, when any
unauthorized act has been done by a prize
master, or by a part of  his  crew, such ac-
tual wrongdoers, thus acting without au-
thority,  may, perhaps, be made directly
responsible.   The rule  in relation to  the
actual wrongdoer is so inflexible that, if
the capture has  been made by a captain
under the instructions  of the commodore
or admiral commanding the  squadron, or
the station, who is not present at the time
of the  capture,  the   sole  remedy  lies
against the actual captor alone, although
 he may hare his own remedy against his
 superior officer, under whose instructions
 he has acted.  In respect to private anned
 vessels, a different rule prevails.   There
 the commander is not only responsible, but
 the owners of the ship also, for all the illegal
 acts of the commander and crew. And, for
 the purpose of making this responsibility
 effectual,on the grant of couunissions to pri-
 vateers, bonds are usually taken, with sure-
 ties, as a guaranty against their misconduct.
   XL Recaptures. A recapture may be of
 the property of a fellow-subject, or of an
 ally in the war, or of a  neutral.  It  may
 be from the hands of a pirate or of an en-
 emy.  In respect to  captures  by pirates,
 no property can be acquired by them, and
 consequently   the  capture  creates no
 change of ownership.  It is, therefore, to
 be restored to the original owner, upon the
 payment of a suitable compensation, com-
 monly called salvage, to the  recaptors.
 But, in respect to captures by enemies, the
 change of property is complete from the
 time when the capture is deemed firm and
 secure, whether this be as soon as the sur-
 render(deditio)and possession are perfected,
 or by pernoctation, as holding the possession
 after capture for a night, or by possession
 during any other stipulated period, or by
 carrying the property within  the  ports
 and territory  (injra prasidia)  of the  cap-
 turing power, or by a sentence of condem-
 nation.   Various doctrines have, at differ-
 ent times, prevailed among nations, appli-
 cable to each of these preeficaments of the
 captured property, the general rule being
 admitted, that the property is changed as
 soon as  the capture is firm  and secure,
 anel the question still  remaining open as
 to the time at  which it is to be deemed
 firm and secure.  The right of postliminy
 (jus postliminii) is deemed to  attach to all
 property captured, of which  there is not
 such a finn and secure possession.  And,
 therefore, different nations will withhold,
 or will grant  restitution of property  cap-
 tured, according to the principles adopted
 hi their  own codes of practice  on this
 subject.  The ordinances of many nations
 have made special provisions on the  sub-
ject of recaptures. By the law of France
 (ordinance of 1681), if a French vessel is
 recaptured from the  enemy after twenty-
 four hours' possession, she is a good prize
 to the recaptors ;  and if recaptured before
 twenty-four hours' possession, she is re-
 stored to the owner upon the  payment of
 one  third of the value  as salvage.  But
 this  rule  is construed to  apply solely to
 recaptures by private armed ships; for if
 made by public ships, restitution is decreed 
PRIZE.                                361
without ^payment of any salvage, whether
the recapture be before or after the twen-
ty-four  hours'  possession.   France  ap-
plies  a  similar rule to the recaptures of
the vessels and propeity of her allies from
the enemy.   The law of Spain, in regard
to recaptures from the enemy, is similar
to that  of France.  By the law of Den-
mark, in  the code of Christian V, if the
recapture be before  twenty-four hours'
possession, the property is equally divided
between the original owner and the recap-
tors ;  if afterwards, the recaptors take the
whole.  By the law of Sweden of 1667, the
recaptors are entitled to a salvage of two
thirds of  the value,  and the  remaining
third  is to be  restored  to  the  original
owner, whatever length of time the vessel
may have been in the hands of the ene-
my.  Some alterations have been admitted
into the regulations of diese nations, in
more  modern times, either by positive or-
ilinances,  or by the  practice of  their
courts, indicating a considerable fluctua-
tion of opinion; but it is not necessary,
and scarcely  would be useful, to trace out
these  alterations in detail.  Great Britain
and the U. States of America have adopt-
ed the rule, that the property ofthe own-
er is not devested, except by a sentence of
condemnation.   In respect to recaptures
from  the  enemy of  ships  belonging to
their  own subjects or citizens, diey are to
be  restored, upon payment of salvage, if
there has been no such  sentence.  And,
by  recent statutes  (43 Geo. 3, ch.  160,
and 45 Geo.  3, ch. 72), British vessels and
goods are, upon recapture from the ene-
my, restored, upon the payment of one
eighth  of the value, if recaptured by a
public ship,  and one  sixth if recaptured
by a privateer or other vessel, without ref-
erence to the consideration, whether  the
property has been condemned by a court
of prize or not.  There is an exception of
vessels which have been set forth by the
enemy as ships of war.  So that, in Great
Britain, the right of postliminy continues
forever, or, at least, until the  return of
peace.  In the U. States of America,  the
act of congress of 1800 has adopted a rule,
similar to that of Great Britain, in all cases
where there  has not been a sentence of
condemnation.   With us, dierefore,  the
right  of postliminy is extinguished by
such  a sentence.  The  salvage is one
eighth  to public   ships,  and  one  sixth
to  private ships, in cases of restitution.
But, if the vessel has been set forth and
armed for war  by the enemy before  the
recapture, then the salvage is one moiety
ofthe value.   In respect to the recapture
  vol. x.           31
of vessels,  and other property belonging
to allies, the rule adopted by Great Brit-
ain is the rule of reciprocity.   If the ally
would restore British vessels and proper-
ty in  a  like predicament, then restitution
is decrecel: if" the ally would not restore,
then  the  recaptors are  entitled  to the
whole property. And, in the absence of
all  evidence  of any rule adopted  by an
ally, the British rule is applied in favor of
the ally, untd it appeare that such ally
acts towards British propeity on a less lib-
eral principle.  When the rule ofthe ally
is ascertained, Great Britain then adopts
the rule of the ally.  America has adopt-
ed an equally liberal couree.  In all cases
of recaptures from the enemy of property
belonging to nations or their  subjects in
amity with the U. States, where there has
been no sentence of condemnation, resti-
tution is decreed, or not, according to the
rule wliich is adopted  by such nation in
like circumstances towards the U. States.
But no restitution  is  decreed after the
property has been condemned by the sen-
tence  ofa competent tribunal.  In respect
to recaptures of neutral property, the gen-
eral rule is to restore the property without
the demand of any salvage, if the taking
by the enemy was without any reasonable
cause, and was merely wrongful.  But, if
the capture was rightful,  and  the neutral
property was  liable to condemnation, or,
from the known couree of practice of the
enemy,  was in danger thereof,  then, as a
beneficial service is rendered to the neu-
tral, salvage is demandable.  The ground
of this distinction is obvious. If the origi-
nal capture be wrongful, the neutral is
entitled to a  decree of restitution,  with
damages and  costs  at  the  hands of the
captors; and it is  no benefit  to him to
make  a recapture   But  if the  con-
duct of  the neutral  vessel, or the nature
of the cargo, would subject, or might
probably subject, them to condemnation,
then the recapture is a benefit to the neu-
tral, and entitles the recaptors to remunera-
tion.  So, if the enemy is in the habit of
disregarding the law of nations, and vio-
lating'all the  just rights of neutrals, and
refusing them suitable redress, or harassing
them  with unjust  litigation, as, in  such
cases, there is danger of loss to the neu-
tral, a like remuneration should be paid
to the  recaptors.  Principles of a simi-
lar  nature are applicable to a rescue of
a prize  by the original crew, or others in
aid of them, or by mere  strangers.  The
rescue may  be by citizens  or  subjects
of the belligerents, of property belonging
to fellow-subjects or fellow-citizens, or by 
362
PRIZE.
foreigners, of property belonging to for-
eigners, or by citizens or subjects, of prop-
erty belonging to foreigners, or by for-
eigners, of property belonging to citizens
or subjects of the belligerents. In all these
cases, salvage  is due where it would be
due in cases of recapture.  In cases of
derelict by the enemy after capture, the
salvors are also entitled to salvage upon
restitution; and in like manner upon do-
nations made bv  the enemy before con-
demnation, where the donees have brought
the property into  port, and it is restored
(as  it ought to be) to  the original owner.
Where a hostile  ship  is captured, and  is
afterwards recaptured by the enemy, and
then is recaptured again from the enemy,
the original captors are not entitled to
restitution upon payment of salvage; for
all their rights were devested by the first
recapture.  The same rule applies where
the original captors have voluntarily aban-
doned  their prize,  but not  where  the
abandonment has been involuntary, and
occasioned by the  terror  of a  superior
force of the enemy.  In all  cases where
the amount of salvage is not  expressly
provided for by law in cases of recapture,
the power of courts of prize to award  it
is discretionary.
  XII. Connected with the subject of re-
capture, that of ransom may properly find
a place.  It has been already stated that,
during war, all intercouree, and right of
making contracts, are suspended between
belligerents, as interdicted  by the law of
nations.  But an exception has been uni-
formly recognised in  the practice of na-
tions  as  to  contracts  of  ransom.   This
contract  arises when the enemy, having
made capture of a prize, consents to re-
store  it, upon receiving a suitable  com-
pensation; and the contract so entered
into between the parties is, upon princi-
ples of public faith and policy, held valid.
It is usual,  in such cases, to retain the
master, or some of the  officers of the
prize, as hostages for the strict fulfilment
ofthe contract.   The death or escape of
the hostages, they being merely security,
does  not discharge the contract.  And
although, upon strict principles of law, it
has been thought,  by the British courts,
that actions upon ransom bills cannot be
brought against the owners (who, as well
as the hostages and master, are bound by
the contract) during the war, yet it seems
difficult upon principle to  perceive why a
court of prize might not properly enforce
it as a contract of prize excepted from the
general rule of hostilities.   The effect of
a ransom is, that it amounts to a virtual
safe-conduct to the  vessel  and  cargo
during die remainder of the voyage, so as
to prevent the property from  a second
capture  by another  belligerent cruiser
of the same  nation.   If it were otherwise,
the ransom  contract would  scarcely be
entered into;  and,  since the validity of
the contract is conceded, there is an im-
plied consent on the part of the sovereign
of the captors, that it shall be a protection
from subsequent capture during the voy-
age.  If die prize, however, deviates from
the voyage, she  forfeits this protection,
and will be liable again to capture.  And
if she is lost during the voyage,  the ran-
som contract is still obligatory upon  the
parties; for  it is  not on the part of  the
captors a contract for the risk, unless they
expressly so engage, but a simple surren-
der of their  own rights acqulreel by cap-
ture.  If the prize be a  neutral, still, if
the  capture  is not utterly wrongful, but
founded upon justifiable cause ofcapture,
such as breach of blockade) carrying con-
traband, or other violation of neutral du-
ties, or even  if it is upon probable cause
of capture, and sending in for adjudica-
tion, a ransom bill given by the neutral  for
a release is good, and will be enforced in
the  tribunals ofthe neutral country. But
suppose, after the ransom bill is taken, the
capturing  ship, together with the bill,, is
captured,  what becomes of the ransom
bill, and to whom does it belong ?  The
answer is, that the ransom bill is a part of
the  capture,  and the debtors upon it are
thus discharged from  all claims by the
enemy upon it.  But it does not necessa-
rily follow, that the recaptors, succeeding
to the rights  ofthe ransom holders, might
not be entitled to salvage for the benefit
rendered to the debtors upon the ransom
bill.  Pothier says  (De Propriiti, n. 139,
n. 140) that,  in cases of deviation after the
ransom, if a second capture takes place,
the  ransom  holders are  entitled to the
amount out of the proceeds of the prize,
and the second captors can only take the
residue.  And, under such circumstances,
he deems  the debtors on  the ransom bill
discharged  from  their  obligation.   His
reasoning  does not seem very satisfactory.
In England, ransom bills are prohibited,
and declared by statute to be void, unless
in cases of extreme necessity, to be allow-
ed by the  court of admiralty.   In Ameri-
ca,  no  statute  regulations exist; and,
therefore,  the doctrine stands on the gen-
eral law of nations.
  XIII.  Joint captures.  Captures may
be made by  a single vessel,  or by an asso-
ciated force  acting together  by preconcert, 
PRIZE.
363
 c-r accidentally cooperating, or by a  de-
 tached ship belonging to  a squadron, by
 privateers, or by public ships  of war, by
 naval forces alone, or by the conjoint op-
 eration  of land and naval forces.  1.  In
 relation to public ships, the general mle
 is, that all public ships  in sight  at  the
 time ofthe capture are deemed to  be as-
 sisting, and are, therefore, entitled to share
 in the capture.   It is otherwise in relation
 to privateers, for  their  being  in sight is
 not sufficient, unless  they  are purposely
 and previously associated together;  but
 there  must be actual  intimidation, an
 actual  or constructive  assistance.  The
 reason of this  distinction is, that  public
 ships are under a constant obligation to at-
 tack the enemy; and, therefore,  from  the
 mere circumstance of their being in sight,
 a presumption  arises that they  have an
 intention to capture.  But, in the case of
 privateers, no such obligation exists;  and
 the law does not, therefore, give them  the
 benefit of a like  presumption.  Besides,
 in cases of public ships, the mle ensures
 harmony in the service; and in  favor of
 public ships, the rule prevails even when
 the actual capture  is made by a privateer.
 There  are exceptions,  however, to   the
 rule, even in relation to public ships, where
 the circumstances of the  case repel  the
 presumption of constructive  assistance.
 Thus, if the public ship be pursuing a
 course inconsistent with  any  notion of
 capture, or if she have given up the chase,
 or otherwise abandoned all intention of
 cooperation or pursuit, the claim of joint
 capture  will be repelled.  But,  even  in
 cases of public  ships, the rule of  being  in
 sight  is  strictly  construed.   The  ship
 must, at the time of capture, be actually in
 sight;  it  is not sufficient that  she  has
 been so the day before:  she must also be
 in sight at the commencement  of the  en-
 gagement, or chase, or during its  continu-
 ance.  A convoying ship, notwithstanding
 her special employment, may be  entitled
 to share as joint  captor, if, by chase or
 intimidation, she aids in a capture, with-
 out interfering  with convoy  eluty.   In
 captures  made  by boats,  it is a general
 rule that the ships to which they belong
 are entitled to share.   In respect  to pub-
 lic ships associated in the same service, or
 engaged in a joint enterprise, the general
 rule is, that they are entitled to  share in
 each  other's prizes made while  in such
 service or  enterprise.   Thus, Avhere a
 fleet is engaged  in a blockade, the service
 is considered as joint, and all the  fleet are
entitled to share in captures made by any
one of the  ships.   But  it will be other-
 wise as to vessels previously  detached
 upon  a separate  service, or to captures
 made in another service,  for which they
 were not associated.  In regard to con-
 junct operations by land and naval forces,
 how far captures  made by  the latter are
 to be shared by the former, depends upon
 circumstances.  A mere general coopera-
 tion for the same general objects  is not
 sufficient.   But  an  actual cooperation
 is clearly sufficient.  So an ally cooperat-
 ing by land or sea in a capture is entitled
 to  share in it.  In respect to joint cap-
 tures by public  ships, the rule, as to the
 proportion in which they are to share, is
 generally settled  by statute.  In  the  U.
 States of America:, it is provided by an act
 of congress, that  capturing ships shall
 share  according  to the number of men
 and guns on board each ship in sight.  In
 respect to joint captures by  privateers, no
 statute regulations exist; and the general
 mle of the prize law, in such  cases, is,
 that they are to  share in  proportion to
 their relative strength.  In Great Britain
 and the U. States of America, this relative
 strength is  measured by the number  of
 men  on board assisting in the capture.
 The rule is the  same where an  ally co-
 operates in the  capture,  and in  cases
 of joint  capture  by  a public  ship and
 a  private  ship, wlrether   commissioned
 or not.
   XIV.  The  effects of a suspension  of
 hostilities, and a treaty of  peace.  An ar-
 mistice, tmce, or other suspension of hos-
 tilities,  is binding lietween the  parties
 from its date;  and all captures made sub-
 sequently thereto must be restored by the
 sovereign.  But die actual captors, if they
 have no notice,  are not  to be deemed
 guilty of a wrongful act to the extent  of
 being liable for vindictive costs and dam-
 ages, at least, if they have not been guilty
 of gross misconduct or wilful negligence.
 There may, indeed,  be special  cases  in
 which ignorance of a treaty of peace, or
 of a suspension of hostilities, either gen-
 erally or in particular places, might not
 excuse a party from  responsibility  for a
 capture, or other wrongs done to  the  in-
jured party, and  in which  the sovereign
would be bound to indemnify him.  But
 such cases are rare, and are  governed by
their own  circumstance's.   To  avoid  in-
 conveniences of this  sort, it is customary
to fix certain distant periods at which hos-
tilities shall cease  in  different places,  so
that all parties may have suitable oppor-
tunities of notice.  In cases where such
stipulated periods are fixed, subsequent
captures  are   deemed utterly   invalid. 
364                                PRIZE.
But  as to captures  antecedently made,
especially after notice of the existence of
the peace, some diversity of opinion exists
among writers on public law.  The better
opinion, however, seems to be, that if the
treaty does not otherwise provide, the rule
of idi possidetis  prevails.  A treaty  of
peace has the effect  of quieting all  titles
of possession  acquired during the  war,
unless a different stipulation is made.  It
therefore operates as conclusively between
the belligerents as the most formal sen-
tence of condemnation.   And whatever
defect may exist in the title, the infirmity
is cured, or at least  it can no louger be
insisted on.   And  neutrals,  who  have
acquired property from belligerents, under
defective titles, have a right to avail them-
selves of this confirmatory  operation, by a
treaty of peace.   Whatever rights existed
antecedent to hostilities between the sub-
jects of the bclligereutSjif no confiscation or
action upon them has takeu  place during
the war, are revived,  and may be pursued
and claimed, upon the return of peace.
  XV.  Such is a brief outline of some
of the more important principles of prize
law,  applicable to maritime captures.  A
full examination of all of  them,  in  their
details, could be made oniy in a large and
voluminous treatise.  This sketch will be
closed by a summary of some ofthe prin-
ciples which regulate the general practice
of the English anel  American courts  of
prize.  1. As  soon as the captured ship
anives in port, the prize-master is bound
to give notice thereof to the proper court
of prize, and to deliver, upon oath, into the
registiy of the court, all the papers found
on board ofthe ship.  It is the  duty ofthe
captors to send in, with the ship, the mas-
ter or some of the principal officere and
crew of the ship, iu  order that their testi-
mony may be  taken,  upon standing inter-
rogatories,  which  are prepared under the
direction of the prize court.   The prize-
master accordingly  gives notice  to the
commissionere appointed to take  the ex-
aminations of the master and crew of the
captured ship, so brought in,  upon these
interrogatories ; and these examinations
are made immediately after the anival in
port; and in order to prevent frauds and
concealments, the witnesses,  before exam-
ination, are not allowed to have any com-
munication with, or  to be instructed by,
counsel.   Each witness  is separately ex-
amined and his answers written down, and
the  whole are then  subscribed by  him,
and  verified by the  commissioners,  and
then certified, under seal,  to the  prize
court.  These examinations being  com-
pleted, a libel is filed  iu die prize court,
alleging the fact:* in the most geueral form,
and  asserting the  property to belong to
enemies; and a monition is thereupon is-
sued  and duly  published, requiring nil
persons who  have any interest or claim
to appear,  at a given day, in  court, anil
show  cause  why the ship  and  goods
should not  be condemned as prize.  This
is the American practice, which differs, in
the order of the proceedings,  from the
English, the latter issuing the monition
before the filing of the libel.  2. Upon the
return of the monition, the parties who
have any interest, and mean to assert any
claim, appear and put in their claim, un-
der oath; and  as soon as such claim is
put in, the cause is ripe  for  a hearing-
If the ship or  any part  of the  cargo is
neutral, the master usually puts in a claim
in behalf of the owners, or it is put in by
the consul of his nation, or by the accred-
ited correspondents or agents of the claim-
ant.   If the captors have  been guilty of
any delay in  instituting proceedings, the
claimant may procure a monition from the
court, requiring them to proceed to adju-
dication.  If no claim is put in on the
return day of the process, the default is
entered on  the records ; but it is not now
usual to proceed to a final decree  of con-
demnation  until a year  and a  day alar
the return ofthe monition, except in cases
where,  from the  evidence,  there is a
strong presumption that the property be-
longs to the enemy.  But after a year and
a day, condemnation goes of course, un-
less a claim is interposed.  3.  No claim is
permitted to be  put in, unless by the mas-
ter, or  correspondent, or agent,  of the
owner, or by the consul ofthe nation. A
mere stranger,  having no interest, is not
permitted to claim.  It has been  already
stated, that a claimant  in a  prize court
must  be the general owner of the property.
If he has but a lien, or is a mere insurer,
or a mortgagee  not iu  possession,  he can-
not maintain any claim, for reasons which
are founded in the incompetency  of such
a court satisfactorily  to investigate such
claims.  There are certain other cases, in
which claims will not be allowed to be in-
terposed, hut are rejected as incompetent:
thus no claim is admitted which stands in
direct opposition to the ship's papers and
documents on   board, and  preparatory
examinations, at  least after the war has
commenced ; no person  is permitted to
claim, where the transaction is in violation
ofthe municipal laws of his own country;
nor in a ense where the trade is prohibited
by the law of nations, or the law of na- 
PRIZE.
365
ture; or is a gross violation of his duties
as a belligerent;  in all such cases, the
claimant is  held  not to have a persona
standi in  judicio; and, his claim being
rejected, the cause stands as if there were
no  claim  at all  interposed.  The ship's
papers, and examinations upon the stand-
ing interrogatories, are never allowed to be
seen until after the claim is filed,  so that
the party may not have an opportunity to
frame it to meet the exigency of the  evi-
dence.  4.  Supposing  the  claim to be
intenposed by a competent party, and in a
valid manner, the cause is then to be heard.
The hearing is, in the first instance, con-
fined altogether to the  ship's papers and
documents on board, and the preparatory
examinations taken upon the standing in-
terrogatories.  No extrinsic evidence is
admitted on either side;  for it is a general
role ofthe  prize courts, that the evidence to
acquit or condemn must, in  the firet in-
stance, come from the papers  and  parties
found on board.   5. If, upon the hearing,
a case for condemnation or  acquittal is
satisfactorily made out, the court  will at
once proceed  to make the proper decree.
But if the case be doubtful, and the evi-
dence  unsatisfactory, then it becomes  a
case for further proof.  The captors are
rarely  allowed, unless under special cir-
cumstances, to make further proof; but
the claimant is alloweel to  make  further
proof unless he has forfeited this privilege
by  his own misconduct, or that  of his
agents, or the posture of the  case  shows
that he cannot safely be trusted with fur-
ther proof.  The claim to  make  further
proof is a  matter not of strict right,  but of
sound discretion in die court.  It  is usu-
ally allowed where the party has acted
with good faith and propriety; it is al-
ways denied where he  is guilty of gross
misconduct or fraud.  If further proof is
denied  in a case which requires  it, the
result  is, that a decree  of condemnation
follows; for the burden of showing  that
the property is not good prize re6ts on the
claimant.   And  where further proof ia
allowed, it is usually made  by affidavits
and testimony taken under commission;
and if then it proves still unsatisfactory, it
is deemed conclusive evidence that the
property is hostile, or that there has been
some misconduct, which justifies condem-
nation.  Further  proof  is never allowed
where there are  false or colorable papers
on board; or where any papers are thrown
overboard; or where there has been a spo-
liation of papers;  or where there has been
a oovering and concealment of enemy in-
terests; or where the  master and crew,
                  31*
upon the preparatory examinations, have
been guilty of gross prevarication or false-
hood ; or where there is a false destina-
tion ; or where there is a want of good
faith  in the claimant; or where  the case
appears to be incapable of any fair expla-
nation.  (>. During the pendency of the
proceedings,  which  are  sometimes pro-
tracted to a great length  of time, owing to
accidental circumstances, an unloading of
the cargo often  becomes necessary.  This
may be procured upon a suitable applica-
tion to the court, for  the court has a vir-
tual custody and possession ofthe proper-
ty,  from the  moment of the  proceedings
in rem being commenced.  If the prop-
erty be perishable, the court has  also au-
thority  to decree a  sale of it, upon the
application of either party; and  it often
proceeds to direct a sale  upon  the consent
of both parties, where the property is not
perishable.   And where  a sale has been
made, the proceeds are subject to the order
of the court, as a substituted  fund for the
original property; and if not brought into
court, they may, in the  discretion of the
court, be ordered to be deposited in the
registry. In cases of the capture of neu-
trals, application is often made for a de-
livery of the  property upon bail, or secu-
rity, by way of stipulation for the value;
and when  so given, the bail becomes  a
substitute for the property, and is subject,
in the same manner, to the orders of the
court; but no such delivery will be made,
according to the practice of the prize
court, until after a  hearing of the cause,
unless upon the consent of both parties.
If,  upon the  hearing, the case i6 one for
further proof, and the neutral  has not dis-
abled himself from  producing it by his
own misconduct, the court is then in the
habit of allowing a delivery ofthe proper-
ty to the claimant, upon an appraisement,
aud giving bail.  And if the claimant will
not take it, it is sometimes delivered, upon
an  appraisement and bail, to  the captors.
7. After the cause has been finally heard,
a decree is entered, either of  acquittal or
condemnation, of the whole  or  of part.
A decree of acquittal will be with  or with-
out damages and costs  to the claimant,
according to circumstances.  If there was
probable cause of capture (as has been
already  stated), no damages or costs will
be given to the claimant;  but costs and ex-
penses are usually,  in such cases, decreed
the captors.  If the capture  is  widiout
probable cause, costs and damages to the
claimant usually follow.  If a decree of
condemnation is pronounced, the claimant
is made responsible for the expenses and 
366
PRIZE—PROCESS, FORMS OF THE CIVIL.
costs  of the captors by  reason  of the
claim.  8. A decree of condemnation be-
ing pronounced, it often remains a ques-
tion to whom the condemnation is to be,
whether to the government or to the cap-
tors.  In cases of captures by public ships,
or by  non-commissioned  vessels, the de-
cree of condemnation is  to the govern-
ment  generally.  In cases of captures  by
privateers duly commissioned, the condem-
nation is to the captors.  In England, the
lord high admiral is,  in  certain cases, en-
titled to the proceeds of captured property,
which are called droits of admiralty.  But
in modem times, this office is usually held
by the king,  or for his benefit, and there-
fore the distinction is, for  the most  part,
now nominal.   In the U. States, no  such
distinction exists.  It is no objection  to
proceeding to a decree, that any of the
parties have died;  for, the proceedings
being in rem, they are not interrupted by
such  occurrences.   Time, however,  is
usually allowed  for the  legal representa-
tives of a deceased claimant to appear, if
there is any necessity; and in proceedings
in personam, a monition  always issues  to
the legal representatives, if any, before a
decree. 9. A decree of condemnation is
usually pronounced by  an interlocutory,
in the nature of a final  decree.  But the
case rarely ends here; for the prize court,
as an  incident  to the possession of the
principal cause,  may, and usually does,
in cases of controversy, upon the applica-
tion of any party in  interest, proceed  to
decree distribution ofthe proceeds. If the
proceeds are not in  court, it  also acts
against prize agents  and  others  having
possession of the proceeds of  prize,  or
bound to respond for them, by way of
monition, and orders  them to be brought
into the registry for distribution.   Such is
a summary  sketch of some of the most
important  principles  of prize  law and
prize practice.   It is necessarily imperfect,
for a full discussion of these subjects would
be incompatible with the design of a work
of this nature.
   Probabilists ; those philosophers who
maintain that certainty is impossible, and
that we  must  be satisfied with what ia
probable.  This was  the doctrine of the
new academy,  particularly of Arcesilaus
and Carneades.  In  morals, probabilists
are those who teach that,  in our actions,
we must follow what seems to  us most
probably right;  because, in questions  of
morality, demonstrative certainty is not to
be attained.  Among the Jesuits, there
were some who taught that a man  may
follow what is probably right, or what has
been decided to be so  by teachers of au-
thority, although it may not be the most
probably right,  or may not seem probable
to himself.  (See Jesuits.)
    Probability.   In the  doctrine  of
chances, the probability of any event is the
ratio of the favorable cases to all the possi-
ble cases, which, in our judgment, are sim-
ilarly circumstanced, with regard to their
happening or failing; and it is greater or less
according to the number of chances by
which  it may happen, compared with the
whole number of chances by which it may
either happen or fail.  The calculation of
chances in games of hazard, and the theoiy
of insurance, whether of property or life, are
founded on die  laws of probability, as de-
veloped by mathematical analysis.  The
doctrine of probabilities forms, of itself, a
science, embracing a vast number of com-
plicated and delicate questions.   The sub-
ject is treated of in Bernoulli's Ars Conjec-
turandi, Condorcet's Essai sur la Proba-
biliti des Decisions,  Lacroix's Traiti, La-
place's  Essai philosophique sur les Proba-
bUitis, and Traiti analytique,  and in other
works by Price, Halley, Simpson, &c.
  Probate  Courts.   (See  Courts, vol.
iii, p. 60L)
  Process,  Forms of the  civil.  Mo-
mentous as this subject is, it has not re-
ceived its due share of attention from phi-
losophical minds, compared with that be-
stowed on numerous other branches of ju-
risprudence ; few of which deserve more
serious consideration, though many may be
more attractive.- As to the history of the
civil process, so  important a test of the po-
litical condition  of a society, the work of
Mr. Meyer, Esprit, Originc et Progrte des
Institutions judiciaires des principaux Pays
de I'Europe (6 vols. 1820—23), has by no
means  exhausted the  subject.   The four
most important  forms of civil  process or
civil procedure now existing, are the Eng-
lish, French, the common  German and
Prussian.   I.  The English is so  well
known  to most  of our readers, thatwe
need not enter into the details  of it hex.
(See the articles  Courts, Jury, Evidence,
Assizes, &c.)   The general  principle is,
that the court takes no further part in the
couree ofthe proceedings, than to see that
the law is observed, and that nothing un-
fair is done by  either  party,  &c.;  but it
has nothing to do with the  investigation
ofthe truths in the pending case.  This ia
left to  the parties, or the skill of their
counsellors.  This, the oldest  of the above
four forms of procedure, is the opposite
ofthe Prussian, the most recent. II. The
French system is founded on  the proce- 
PROCESS, FORMS OF THE CIVIL.
367
dure of the spiritual courts, with the ap-
plication of the Roman law: it has been
formed  since the fourteenth  century by
the usage of the parliaments,  particularly
that of Paris (stylt du parlement), and by
several royal ordinances,  among  which,
that of 1539 is distinguished.   (See Ber-
nardi, De FOrigine et des Progres  de la
Legislation Frangaise, 1816.)   Louis XIV
caused a regular form of procedure  to lie
issued in 1G67, of which the most recent,
that of Napoleon, in 1806,  is but a modi-
fication.   The oral statement  of the par-
ties  in open court, is the  chief point in
this  system.  The  introductory proceed-
ings, the setting forth of  the complaint,
the answer, rejoinder, &c, go on entirely
without  the interference of the court, by
means of a correspondence between the
attorneys.  The real points of the case are
not fairly brought out, in this stage of the
proceedings, and it  would seem, there-
fore,  that the whole  process  fails of its
firet  requisite, a firm basis: the position
and claims of the parties remain change-
able  and  indefinite  until  the sentence.
Nay, the true cause of action  is not  fully
stated (prendre ses conclusions) till the last
audience,when the sentence is given.   In-
cidental questions must be decided, before
the parties  can proceed, by which great
delay is caused, though much  pains  have
been taken to shorten the process  in diis
respect   The uncertainty  caused  by the
want of precision in  the preparatory pro-
ceedings, is,  in a degree, avoided by two
circumstances, which are extremely ben-
eficial; 1st,  the right of a party  to de-
mand, in any stage of the process, precise
statements  respecting particular alleged
facts from the opposite  party (interroga-
toire  sur fails et  articles), which are not
given on oath, indeed,  but under strict
obligations to veracity \ and, 2d, the right
of die judge to order the parties to appear
in court,  that he may question them him-
self respecting the  facts.   The second
chief part of the process, the mode of
proof, is, like every order emanating from
the  court, introduced by  an  interlocu-
tory judgment, against which the common
legal remedies are admissible; and, lastly,
the third part, the arguments of the advo-
cates are presented orally  in  open court.
In civil cases, as is well  known, there is
no jury in France.   III. Since  the reforms
of the sixteenth  century, and particularly
the last  decree of the diet of 1654, the
German (excepting die Prussian) process
is chiefly characterized  by the cautious
and  complete statement of the cause of
action ; the obligation of the defendant to
answer thereon immediately and  fully,
bringing together all  his objections; and
the skill with which the examinations of
the evidence are conducted.   The judge
is bound to see that the written statement
of the plaintiff's cause of action possesses
the necessary qualities to make a safe
basis for the whole of the future proceed-
ings.   But this is  a duty which he can
fulfil but  in  an  imperfect manner.   The
great disadvantages accruing to the parties
themselves, from an imperfect exposition
of the cause of action, are the sU-ong mo-
tives which induce the greatest caution in
drawing up  these statements.   Yet the
most skilful lawyer is  not always able to
avoid the dangers to which he is exposed;
and as, in Germany, the practice of the
law is, generally speaking, the preparatory
step to public office, and as very few men
of talent remain permanently in the  pro-
fession, which stands in a veiy subordi-
nate relation to the court, it is easy to
perceive what injury is done to the parties
by  inexperienced,  incompetent counsel.
The great art is, to say as little as possible,
to admit as little as possible; and an hon-
est, plain  exposition by the parties is, of
course, very rare.  The proof can be at-
tempted but once.   A failure  is irremedi-
able.   Often, therefore, u  party  with a
good cause of action fails, after a tedious
process and great expense, and is obliged
to begin  his cause anew; and it  often
happens, that a well founded  claim is lost
forever, by an attempted proof badly con-
ducted.  (The right of parties to produce
better  proofs, after  having presented in-
sufficient ones,  is  to be found as yet in
but few systems of civil procedure.)  The
third part ofthe process, also, viz. the argu-
ments of the counsel, are in writing; and,
as they are  only intended for the judge,
little care is generally bestowed upon their
style  of execution, except in some of
the higher courts.   IV. In order  to pre-
vent these evils, and to exclude as much
as possible the arts of advocates, the Prus-
sian process returns to the ancient provis-
ions, found in the Roman and canon law,
and retained in the French system of pro-
cedure, which require the judge himself
to examine  the parties respecting the
facts; and it has even gone one step far-
ther.   Its foundation was laid as early as
the system  of  procedure of the high-
chancellor Cocceji,  in  1748;  and the re-
form of Carmer, in 1780, fully established
the rule,  that the judge himself should
hear the allegations of the  parties against
each other,  bring the  points  of dispute
into a connected form (and, if the parties 
368        PROCESS, FORMS OF THE CIVIL—PROCONSUL.
wish it, himself write down the complaint
and answer), then collect the  proofs re-
specting the essential facts,  and, particu-
larly,  hear the witnesses himself.  Hence
arises the  important consequence,  that
each party  can constantly complete and
correct his  own statements, and is not
obliged to  bring  together,  with anxious
care, in the beginning of the  action, ev-
ery thing which  may become  necessary,
nor  to  weigh  every  word   in a  bal-
ance.   No   complauit  can be rejected
merely for informality or mistake in re-
gard to  the legal mode of bringing the
action, because such defects can be reme-
died by order of the judge.  Hence the
conduct of a cause requires, in general,
incomparably less time and exertion  than
in the common German  process, and that
of France,  because  interlocutory judg-
ments do not take place; and  the whole
couree ofthe cause is directed by decrees.
The greatest advantage, however, is  con-
sidered to be the little influence of mere
forms, and  the  paramount importance
which is always given to the tnith.   The
third  part of the process has nothing pe-
culiar, as here, also, only  arguments in
writing take place.  The remarkable char-
acter  with  which the Prussian judge is
thus invested, has been censured  by a
number of the firet jurists  in  Germany.
We have not space  to show the advan-
tages  of the system;  the Prussians them-
selves are attached to it, and consider jus-
tice as strictly administered in their coun-
try.   The last part of the Prussian process
and the final sentence have been consid-
ered,  even in Prussia, the most objection-
able  part  of the system, and might,
perhaps,  be remedied by substituting for
them  oral public proceedings.   To a free
country,  always  more or less  subject to
party excitement,  such  a system could
hardly be  adapted.   A curious conse-
quence of  the  Prussian process is, that
the career of the lawyer begins by being
attached to a court, where he works under
the superintendence of  the judges, hears
witnesses, draws  up a  statement of the
circumstances, and afterwards becomes a
judge, or some  other officer of govern-
ment, or one of the counsellors, the num-
ber of whom is limited in each  court.
   Procession, in the  Roman Catholic
church ; a solemn march of the clergy and
people, attended with religious ceremonies,
prayers,  singing,  &c, around the  altars
and churches, or in the streets, for the pur-
pose  of returning thanks for some divine
blessing, or averting some  calamity, &c.
(See  Pilgrimage.)  Processions, as a part
of the symbolical worship of nature, were
in use among the ancient heathens;  thus
they formed solemn processions about the
fields, which had been sowed, and sprin-
kled them  with holy water to increase
their fertility, and to defend  them from
injuries.  The festivals in h'onor of Bac-
chus, Ceres, Diana, and other divinities,
among the Greeks  and  Romans,  were
solemnized with  processions,  in  which
die images of the  gods were borne about;
and similar rites  are still  found among
most heathens*  (See Juggernaut.)  They
appear to have been  introduced into the
Christian church  in the time of St Am-
brose (q. v.), bishop of Milan, in the fourth
centuiy.   In Protestant  countries,  pro-
cessions,  as well as  pilgrimages,  have
ceased.
  Procession  of  the  Holt Ghost.
(See Creed, and Ghost, Holy.)
  Procida, Giovanni di.    (See Sicilian
Vespers.)
  Proconsul and Propretor.  The ad-
ministration of the Roman provinces was
originally intrusted to pretore (q. v.),  but
at a later period, to  proconsuls and pro-
pretors,  with  their  assistants,  the ques-
tors (q. v.) and legates (q. v.).  The con-
sul and pretor received  the  name,  the
former of proconsul,  the latter of propre-
tor, at the expiration of their offices, when
they weift into the provinces, as govern-
ors.  After the Roman empire had been
extended over many countries, it was pro-
vided  by a law of C. Sempronius Grac-
chus, that,  at the consular and pretorial
comitia, the senate should  distribute  the
provinces   into  two  provincias  consu-
lares, and six  praitorias,  for  which  the
consuls  and pretore  should cast lots or
divide them among themselves by agree-
ment, a few days after their entrance upon
office, after the expiration of the term of
which, they became the governors of the
provinces allotted to them. The  duties
of these  provincial magistrates  were the
administration  of justice,  the supervision
of other affairs of the province, and the
command of the  troops which were  sta-
tioned in it.  The term of office was usu-
ally a year, sometimes two,  and  rarely
three or more.  Within thirty days after
his return to  Rome,  the  provincial  gov-
ernor was bound to make a report ofthe
acts of his  government and of the state
of the province.  If he had permitted any
acts of injustice or oppression, he could
be impeached therefor; as for extortion
(repetundarum), peculation or embezzle-
ment of the public money {peculatus), or
for abuses in regard  to the army (crimen 
PROCONSUL—PROFILE.
369
majestatis).  Notwidistanding these pre-
cautions, the provinces were subjected to
various oppressions and exactions.  (See
Province.)
  Procopius, of Caesarea; a Greek histo-
rian, a native of Cassarea, in Palestine;
imperial counsellor of Anastasius, also of
Justin  and  Justinian,  and  secretary to
Belisarius, whom  he attended in his ex-
peditions,  of which he wrote the history ;
a senator  and prefect of Constantinople,
where  he is supposed to have died, about
•r>60.  His works are, a History of his Own
Times, in eight  books,  the  first two re-
lating to the Persian war, the two follow-
ing to the  war with  the Vandals, and the
remaining four to the Gothic war; and a
History of the Edifices  built or repaired
by Justinian.  A kind of scandalous chron-
icle of the court of Justinian, including a
most degrading account  of  the personal
history of the emperor, the empress The-
odora,  and many other individuals, and
entitled Anecdota, has been  attributed to
him by some writers.   His  works were
published  at Paris (1662, folio).
  Procris; daughter of Erechtheus and
wife of Cephalus. (q. v.)
  Procrustes;  a  celebrated robber  of
Attica, who had two bedsteads, one short
and the other long.  The monster placed
bis short guests in the long bed, and then,
under  pretence of fitting the bed to the
occupant, stretched the latter till he died.
If his  guest  was tall,  Procrustes placed
him in the short bed, and reduced him to
\\v,  proper dimensions by  cutting  and
clipping.  Theseus finally served him  as
he  had served others.
  Proctor (from procurator), in the doc-
tors' commons.   (See  College of Civil-
ians.)   In  the  English  universities the
proctors  are two  officers chosen  from
among the masters of arts, to superintend
the  scholastic exercises, to  enforce the
statutes, and to preserve the  public peace.
  Procurator, among the  Romans; an
agent, an overseer of an estate; at a later
period, the title of a provincial officer, in-
ferior to the governor (see Province, and
Proconsul),  who  managed  the  revenue.
In some of the small provinces,  or in a
part of a large province, the procurator
discharged the office of a governor, and
had the power of punishing capitally,  as
was the case with  Pontius Pilate, in Ju-
daea, which was attached to the province
of Syria.   In the civil law, the procurator,
or  proctor, answers  to  the attorney  in
the eommon law.   (See Advocate of the
Crown.)—Procurator, or proctor, in mon-
asteries, is the conventual, to whom is in-
trusted the care ofthe temporal concerns.
—Procurator di San Marco was the title of
the chief officers or senators in the Vene-
tian  republic.   Besides the nine actual
procurators, from among whom the doge
was chosen, there were also many titular
procurators, who paid a great sum for this
title, which was much coveted by the Ve-
netian patricians on account ofthe rank it
conferred.
  Procureur General, Procureur du
Roi.  (See Advocate of the Crown.)
  Prodicus.  (See Sophists.)
  Production. (See Political Economy.)
  Prietus ; twin brother of Acrisius, king
of Argos.   They  quarrelled with each
other in  their  mother's womb.   Acrisius
banished Prcetus from Argos.  He fled to
Jobates or Amphianax,  king of Lycia,
married his sister, and, by his aid, con-
quered the city of Tirynthus, and founded
a small kingdom.  Here Bellerophon (q. v.)
took refuge with him.  His daughters, die
Proetidse, wandered about through Argolis
and Arcadia, having  become  mad, either
on account of their contempt of the myste-
ries  of Bacchus, or  of their derision of
the statue  of  Juno.  According to later
traditions, they imagined themselves cows,
and wandered through the fields with wild
lowings; the same frenzy seized the other
women of Argos also.   Melampus cured
them, and received a  part of the kingdom.
Perseus changed Prcetus into stone, by
showing him the head of Medusa.
   Profane ; an epithet  applied, in ancient
times, to uninitiated pereons who were not
allowed  to be present  at the sacred ser-
vices,  particularly those of  Ceres and
Bacchus,  but  were  obliged  to  remain
outside ofthe temple.  The Romans used
the word in a wider sense, applying it to
the  vicious, in general.   When  every
thing was prepared for the sacrifice, the
priest  exclaimed,  Profani sacris  exeste.
The word  was afterwards used by Chris-
tians in contradistinction from sacred, as
profane literature.  It  was also  applied
to pereons  who treat sacred  things with
irreverence.
   Professed.  (See Jesuits.)
   Profession ; the act of taking the vows
by the member of a  religious order, after
the  novitiate  is finished.   (See Monastic
 Vows.)
   Profile ; in general, the  view of an
object from one of its chief sides, at which
more or less of the  other side is hidden
from the eye;  in particular, the contour of
the  human face, viewed from  one side.
The traits of character are often expressed
with peculiar  strength  in the profile.  A 
370
PROFILE—PROGRESSION.
face which, when seen directly in front,
attracts  us by its rounded outline, bloom-
ing color, and  lovely  smile, is often di-
vested of its charm, when seen  in profile,
and strikes only as far as it has an intel-
lectual expression.  On the other hand, it
is often the eye alone which expresses the
character strongly.  It requires practice to
judge accurately in viewing a profile, in
which the marked often strikes too strong-
ly, the soft too slightly.  Only where great
symmetry exists, connected with the  pre-
ponderance of the intellectual over the
sensual, will the profile appear finer  than
the front face.  In  the profile  the facial
angle appears.   (See Facial Angle.)   It is
comparatively easy for the artist to draw a
likeness in profile, yet he must be careful
not to exaggerate the  peculiar traits,   lest
he approach caricature,  nor to weaken
them, lest he detract from the expression
ofthe face.  As the profile indicates more
particularly  the intellectual  character of
man, it is natural that in children it should
be insignificant  In 1818, professor  Blu-
menbach received, from the present  king
of Bavaria,  a skull of an ancient Greek,
found in a  tomb of Magna  Graecia. It
may be  considered as a model of the an-
tique Greek profile, in respect of beautiful
form.  The nose is connected in a straight
line with  the forehead, and  thus would
contradict the theory recently started,  that
the profile, exhibited in vvorks of ancient
Greek art, was not an imitation of nature,
but, as  De Pauw asserts, merely a style
adopted arbitrarily in various schools^  In
the case of buildings, mountains, &c, the
outline,  viewed from  one  side, is  also
called the  profile.   In regard to the profile
ofa mountain, which is a subject of much
importance  to the engineer,  we may re-
mark, that every  mountain admits three
different views; one, from the summit or
one of the declivities; another,  from the
opposite declivity; and a third,  from  the
adjacent country, when it is seen in  pro-
file.   The last view is the best for obtain-
ing a correct estimate of the angle of
declivity,  and  representing it in a plan.
The profile of  a  mountain is of impor-
tance to the architect, the farmer, anel to
die soldier,  in the building of roads  and
aqueducts, in the cultivation ofthe soil, in
the march and  especially in the disposi-
tion  of  troops,  particularly  of  artillery,
which is more  or less difficult according
to the greater or less steepness of a coun-
try.  In architecture,  the importance of
the profile of heights has been  long un-
derstood ;  but,  in the military art,  it  was
first  fully understood in modem  times,
that a correct view of the country is of
the greatest importance, alike to the artil-
lerist, the  engineer,  and  the general of-
ficer; and  much precision has been ob-
tained,  by taking the  horizontal  level,
shown by standing water, as a basis, by a
comparison with which, or with its paral-
lels, the angle of eveiy declivity must be
determined.  Small differences are gener-
ally neglected, and the declivity marked
only in divisions of five elegrees.  Major
Lehmann,  who  has  highly distinguished
himself by his labors in this branch, has
gone still further;  he has  invented a pro-
jection, so that what could formerly only
be  represented by drawing the profile of
a mountain,  viz. the angle of the decliv-
ity, and the kind of troops it will allow to
act, is rendered  immediately evident by a
projection,  in which the observer is sup-
posed to be stationed perpendicularly over
the object  represented.  He obtains this
end by making the lines, which represent
the declivity of a mountain on a plan,
blacker and closer together, if the decliv-
ity is great, and finer and farther apart, if
it is slight.  Total white represents a per-
fect  plain; total  black a declivity of 45°,
as the steepest that can be met with, un-
less it be a wall of rock, and consequently
impassable;  fine widely  separated lines
indicate a slope of 5°;  broader and closer
lines one of 10°; still  closer lines one of
15°, and so on for every 5°, to 45°.  The
whole is founded on mathematical princi-
ples, and on the  fact, that, to an observer,
the declivity  in  a  landscape will appear
shaded in  proportion  to  its inclination,
while a  level plain will appear  in  the
strongest  light,  without  shade.   Plans
projected in this manner are ofthe great-
est  service in the  field, because they ap-
pear to a  practised eye  like  a perfect
picture.  It is even possible to draw the
profile ofa mountain  from a  plan well
executed in Lehmann's manner.
  Proof., Procne.  (See Philomela.)
  Prognosis ;  the foretelling  the event
of  diseases from  particular symptoms.
Those symptoms which enable the phy-
sician to form his judgment of the cause
or event  of  a disease  are called prog-
nostics.
  Progression,  in arithmetic  and alge«
bra; a series of numbers advancing  Or
proceeding in the same  manner, or ac-
cording to a certain law.  &c.   Progres-
sion is either arithmetical  or geometrical.
—Arithmdical progression is a series of
three or more quantities that have all the
same common difference; as 3, 5, 7, &cH
which have the  common  difference 2.— 
PROGRESSION—PROMETHEUS.                  371
 Geometrical progression is a series increas-
 ing by  a common multiplicator, so that
 each term contains the preceding a certain
 number of times.
   Prohibitive System.  (See Political
 Economy.)
   Projectile ; a heavy body, which, be-
 ing  put in motion by an  external force
 impressed upon it, is dismissed  from the
 agent  and  left to  pursue its   course ;
 examples  of  projectiles  are   a  stone
 thrown  from the hand, a bullet  from
 a  gun,  &c.   The theory  of  the  mo-
 tion of projectiles is a part  of higher me-
 chanics, and  is of great  importance in
 the science of gunnery.  Bodies maybe
 projected perpendicularly, horizontally or
 obliquely, and are acted upon both by the
 force of projection and the  force of grav-
 ity ; the path which they describe  must
 therefore depend upon the ratio of these
 forces.   Besides these  two elements, a
 third is presented by the  resistance of the
 medium (as, for instance, the air) through
 which the  projectile is driven.   When
 the direction of the projecting force is per-
 pendicular, the path of the projectile is a
 right line; if it be downward, the motion
 is accelerated by the force of gravity ; if
 upward, it is retarded, and finally annihi-
 lated, and the body then falls by its mere
 gravity.   But in the case of horizontal or
 oblique  projection, when the direction of
 the projecting force and that of the force
 of gravity form an angle with each oth-
 er, the result is a curvilinear motion; and,
 according to the laws of falling bodies,
 discovered by Galileo, the path ofthe pro-
 jectile, setting aside  the  resistance of the
 air, is  a parabola.   The principles  de-
 duced from the laws of Galileo consti-
 tute the  theory of the parabolic motion of
 projectiles, in which they are considered
 as moving  in  a  non-resisting  medium.
 The problem to  determine the effect of
 the  resistance of the air is, however, of
 great practical importance, and  was firet
 solved by Tempelhof in his Bombardier
 Prussien.   (See the articles Mechanics,
 and Parabola.)
   Projection, in perspective, denotes the
 appearance or representation of an object
 on the perspective plane.  (See Perspec-
 tive.)
   Projection of the Sphere in Plano
 is a  representation of the  several points
 or places ofthe surface ofthe sphere, and
 of the circles described upon it, according
 to the places which their images occupy,
 upon a transparent plane placed between
 the eye and the sphere,  or such as they
appear to the eye placed at a given dis-
tance.  The principal use of the projec-
tion of the sphere is in the construction
of planispheres,  maps and  charts, which
are said to  be  of this or that projection,
according to the several situations of the
eye and the perspective plane, with regard
to the  meridians,  parallels, and other
points  or places so represented.  The
most  usual projection  of  maps  of the
world is that on the plane of the  meridi-
an, which exhibits a right sphere, the firet
meridian being the horizon.  The next is
that on  the plane of the equator, which
has the pole in the centre, and the merid-
ians the radii of a  circle, &c.  The pro-
jection of the sphere is usually  divided
into orthographic  and stereographic, to
which may be added gnomonical.   Or-
thographic  projection is that  in which
the surface of  the sphere is drawn upon a
plane cutting  it  in  the middle ; the  eye
being placed at an infinite distance verti-
cally to one of the hemispheres.   Stereo-
graphic projection of the sphere is  that in
which the  surface  and circles  of the
sphere are drawn upon the plane of a
great circle, the eye  being in the  pole of^
that circle.   Gnomonical projection of the
sphere is that in which  the surface of the
sphere is drawn upon  an external plane
commonly  touching it,  the  eye being at
the centre ofthe sphere.
  Prolegomena   (Greek) ;  preliminary
observations,  serving as an introduction
to a work, to which they are  prefixed, and
containing historical, critical, &c. illustra-
tions of its contents, language, form, &c.
  Prologue, in dramatic poetry; an ad-
dress to the audience, which precedes the
piece itself, that is, the proper action.  It
may be  either in prose or verse,  and
is usually  pronounced  by  one  person.
Among the ancients, the player who de-
livered this address was called  the prolo-
gus, and was usually considered as a per-
son of the drama.   Thus in the Amphit-
ryon ofPlautus, Mercury appears  as pro-
Ugus.  Prologues sometimes relate to the
drama itself, and  serve to explain to tho
audience some circumstance  of the action,
sometimes  to  the situation  in which the
author or actor stands to the public, and
sometimes have no immediate connexion
with either of these persons or subjects.
(See Epilogue.)
  Prometheus, a Titan, son of Japetus
and Clymene, a  daughter  of Oceanus;
iEschylus  makes Themis,  Apollodorus
Asia, his mother.   He was  the father of
Deucalion.   Cunning and fertile in expe-
dients, he opposed Jupiter, the founder of
the new race of the gods, whom he had at 
372
PROMETHEUS—PROPAEDEUTICS.
first supported; and when some of the Titans
proposed to expel Saturn from the throne,
and elevate Jupiter in his place, Prome-
theus advised them to work by cunning,
as it had been revealed to hira by Themis
and Earth,  that cunning, and not force,
would be victorious.  But they neglected
his advice, and Prometheus went  over to
the side of Jupiter, who  became victori-
ous through his counsels.  Jupiter, who
despised poor mortals, determined  to ex-
tirpate them, and to create a  new race.
But Prometheus prevented  him, by se-
cretly bestowing on men the fire which
had been concealed by Jove, and teaching
them the arts.   To punish  this  offence,
Jupiter sent down Pandora (q. v.), who
brought  all  kinds of diseases into  the
world.  He  caused Prometheus  himself
to be chaineel by Vulcan on a rock of the
Caucasus (the eastern extremity  of  the
world, according to the  notions  of  the
earlier Greeks),  where his liver,  which
was renewed every night, was torn by a
vulture or  an  eagle.   But Prometheus,
knowing that from Io's race would spring
a man (Hercules), who, after having  en-
countered innumerable hardships, would
deliver him from his chains, suffered with
heroic firmaess;  he was even acquainted
with the future fate of Jove, which was
unkown to the god himself.   When  the
irresistible enemy  of  Jupiter,  generated
by  himself  and Thetis,  should  appear,
then Promedieus was to  find a termina-
tion of his sufferings.  Jupiter must then
be reconciled  to him, because  Ins  fall
could only be prevented by the counsels
of Prometheus.  These are evidently two
traditions  united  by  iEschylus.  The
cause of Jupiter's anger against mortals,
and determination to destroy them, is thus
related by Hesiod. The gods once attempt-
ed  to  make an agreement with  men at
Mecone, the object of which was to de-
termine what honors the gods should en-
joy,  and what  duties men  should owe
them for their  protection.   Prometheus
appeared for men, that the  gods might
not impose  too  burdensome  duties up-
on  them, in  return  for their  protec-
tion.  A bull  was  brought  as an offer-
ing,  from which the gods were to select
what portion they chose  for their share.
After it was cut up, Prometheus  formed
two heaps; in the one he placed the flesh
and the fat entrails, wrapped  in the skin
of the  bull, and covered with the stom-
ach ;  in the other pile  he placed the
bones, artfully concealed in the fat  Ju-
piter, who did not see  through the  trick,
chose  for the gods, and selected the fat,
 in which  he was indignant to  find only
 the bones.  Hesiod adds,  that from  that
 time it became the custom to offer to the
 gods  bones without flesh.  In  Lucian's
 dialogue,  called  Prometheus,  Promethe-
 us is accuseel not only of this division of
 the flesh, and of stealing the  fire, but also
 of having created  man.  According to
 Apollodorus, he formed man of clay and
 water, and bestowed on him fire, by kin-
 dling dry wood at the sun.  Plato  relates
 that the gods had made the races of ani-
 mals  from earth and  fire, but that they
 left to Prometheus and his brother, Epi-
 metheus (the husband of Pandora), to ar-
 range the  proportion in which these ma-
 terials should be  assigned to each.  Epi-
 metheus had distributed the best powers
 among the  irrational animals,  and Pro-
 metheus, that man might not be left alto-
 gether  helpless,  obtained for  them by
 stealth,  from Vulcan and Minerva,  the
 arts of fire.  Others, poets as well as phi-
 losophers,  have modified this mythus, ac-
 cording  to their particular object  (See
 Welcker's Die JEschylische  Trilogie und
 die Kabirenweihe zu Lemnos.)
  Promissory Note.  (See Bill of Ex-
 change.)
  Pronoun (pronomen);  a word which
 stands instead of another word, or of a
 sentence, and the use of which is to pre-
 vent repetition.   Pronouns are  of several
 sorts.  Personal pronouns indicate direct-
 ly a person or thing, as I, thou, he, it:  de-
 monstrative  are  those  which relate to a
 present subject, as this, that: relative refer
 to some  subject previously mentioned, as
 who, which: interrogative refer  to some
 unknown   subject:  possessive   indicate
 possession, as mine, his.  Other divisions,
 as reciprocal, indefinite,  &c, are some-
 times made.
  Pronuba.  (See Juno.)
  Prony,  Gaspaid Clair Francois  Marie
 Riche de;  a French geometrician and me-
 chanical philosopher, member of the acad-
emy of sciences and of the legion of honor,
and for some time professor in the poly-
technic school, and first engineer of roads
and bridges.  He is the author of many
valuable works.   Among  them  are  the
Nouvdle  Architecture hydraulique; Re-
cherches physico-mathAmatiques sur la Thi-
orie des  Eaux couranies; Legons de Me-
canique, &c.
  Proof.   (See Evidence.)
  Proof Impression.  (See  Impression,
and Avant la Lettre.)
  Propedeutics (from nponai&dw, to pre-
pare for instruction); a term used by the
 Germans to indicate the knowledge which 
PROPAEDEUTICS—PROPHETS.                  373
is necessary or useful for understanding
or practising  an art or science, or wiiich
unfolds its nature  and extent, and the
method  of learning  it.   It is applied,
therefore, not only to special  introduc-
tions to particular branches of study, but
also to auxiliary sciences, logic, philology,
&c, and the encyclopaedic views of jiar-
ticular branches of science which  facili-
tate  an insight into the relations of the
parts.   Such a survey can be presented
only by one who has studied a science in
all its ramifications.  The term propaedeu-
tics is often, of course, merely relative:
thus philology belongs to the propaedeu-
tics of history, whde it is itself the main
study ofa certain class of scholars.  The
term, however, in its common use, is gen-
erally restricted  to the body of knowl-
edge, and of rules necessary for the study
of some particular science—rules which
originate in the application ofthe general
laws of science or art to a particular de-
partment Thus we find in the catalogues
of lectures to be delivered in German
universities  medical propaedeutics,  &c,
enumerated.
   Propaganda ; a name generally given
to those  institutions by which Christian-
ity is propagated  in  heathen countries,
more particularly  to  those  which  were
established in the  seventeenth centuiy,
and especially that  erected by the papal
court, for the extension of its own power
and  the Catholic  religion  among those
who were not Christians or Catholics.  It
was called the congregatio de propaganda
fide (society for propagating the faith), and
was founded by Gregory XV, in 1622. It
consisted of eighteen cardinals and some
papal ministers and officers of the college;
and its object  was to  arrange and  direct
all measures relating to the  extension of
the Catholic faith and the extirpation of
heretics. Connected with this was the col-
legium seu seminarium de propaganda Jide,
instituted by Urban VIII, 1627, for the edu-
cation of missionaries.  Each society met
once a week, in the presence ofthe pope, in
a palace built for the purpose. Converts to
the Catholic church,  who  had come to
Rome, were instructed and supported by
them.   Bishops, and  other clergy  who
had been expelled, were also received and
supported.   The Roman propaganda had
a press celebrated for the numerous works
which issued from it   Thence breviaries
and  missals were sent to all  parts.   Mis-
sionary societies for the  propagation of
the Christian rehgion have been fomied in
Protestant countries on this model.   (See
Missions.)  In the  time  of the  French
   vol. x.          32
revolution, secret societies, whose object
was the propagation of democratical prin-
ciples, were called propaganda.  Propa-
 fanda has therefore come  to signify any
 ind of institution for making proselytes.
  Proper Names.  (See Names.)
  Propertius, Sextus Aurelius, a  Latin
elegiac poet, bom at Mevania, in Umbria,
was the son ofa Roman knight, who had
been  banished by Augustus, on account
of  his attachment to Antony.   He did
not possess the natural ease and grace of
Ovid  and Tibullus, but is distinguished
for  his art and ingenuity, and the brillian-
cy of his style.   He is particularly happy
in Ins descriptions of heroic scenes.  We
have four books of his elegies.  The last
of  the fourth book  is the most highly
esteemed, and is often called the " queen
of  elegies;"  yet it  is not wholly free
from  the  usual fault of  the  author—a
straining after originality  of expression.
Love  is the subject of many of his ele-
gies, but not a noble, spiritual love, which,
indeed, we must not look  for in any Ro-
man poet  of  that age, although all were
not so entirely abandoned as Propertius to
licentious descriptions.   There are also
in the fourth book several poems which,
although written in the elegiac measure,
yet, from their  subjects,   belong to the
class of didactic aud narrative poems. He
makes a display of his learning when he
handles subjects of mythology, and there-
fore affects our feelings less.  In general,
he imitates the Grecian elegiac poets, par-
ticularly Callimachus  the Alexandrian.
We know nothing more of his life than
that,  after the  end  of  the  civil war,
he found a patron at Rome in  Maecenas,
through whom he obtained the favor of
the emperor.  He appears to havj been
the bosom friend of Ovid, to have lived
mostly in Rome, in the  enjoyments of
love and poetry, and to have nied there
in die prime of life (about 12 years B. C).
The  elegies  of Propertius  are  usually
published with die poems of Tibullus and
Catullus.   The  best  editions  are  by
Brouckhusius (Amsterdam,  1702  and
1727, 4to.), Vulpius (Padua, 1755, 2 volsA
and Burmann and Santen  (Utrecht, 1780,
4to.).   The latest large critical  edition,
with a commentary, is by  Kuinol  (Leip-
sic, 1804—5,  2  vols.), and by Lachmann
(Leipsic, 1816).
  Property, Literary.   (See Literary
Property, and Copyright.)
  Prophets ; among the Hebrews,  in-
spired teachers sent by God to declare his
purposes to his people.   The  Jews dis-
tinguish the authors of the sacred books 
374
PROPHETS—PROPORTION.
into the older and  later prophets.  The
fonner  are the authors of the books of
Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings  and
Chronicles; tiie latter are Isaiah, Jeremi-
ah, Ezekicl, and the twelve minor proph-
ets.  David and Daniel they do  not call
prophets, because they did not live in sol-
itude.   Moses they  do not include in this
classification, but  rank  him  apart  by
himself!.  Besides the writers of the sa-
cred books, we  find mention  of other
prophets among the Hebrews, who were
sent to  warn or instruct  diat wayward
race, and who were sometimes  not  only
enelowed  with die  gift of prophecy, but
with the power of working miracles, such
as Elijah, Elisha, iScc.  Samuel, the last
•of the judges, founded the school ofthe
prophets, in which young men of all the
tribes were instructed in the law and sa-
cred poetry.   From these schools  pro-
ceeded  the preachers mentioned  in the
•Old Testament, who purified and exalted
the religious and moral system of their
nation,  defended  the Mosaic theocracy
against  the encroachments of the kings
and the  laxness ofthe priests (who were
occupied merely with religious rites), and
foretold the fate of states, with warnings,
denunciations, and consolatory prophecies.
The deep sense and  religious fire of these
men, so far before  their age, present a
phenomenon that can  be  explained only
iiy the special action of divine influences.
They appear, therefore, as messengers of
(>od, divinely  inspired seers; and their
preachings and songs were preserved by
the Hebrews as the word  of God, and
among them were renelered more impress-
ive by their connexion with poetiy and
music.  Their constant object was the
preservation of the doctrines of revelation
in their  purity.  The originality, richness
and sublimity of their writings still awak-
en the admiration even of those who deny
them the  character  of prophecies.  The
writings of the prophets form one  of the
three canonical divisions ofthe Old Tes-
tament,  and  consist  of  sixteen  books.
(See Bible.) Four are the books of Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel, called the
'; greater prophets,"  from  the length of
their writings;  the  other  twelve, of the
"minor" or "lesser prophets," so called
from  the shortness  of  their writings,
namely, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jo-
nah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Haggai,
Zechariah, Zephaniah and Malachi.  [See
the articles.)  Although  most Christians
consider the  prophecies of the Messiah
contained in  these  books  as one  of the
evidences ofthe truth of Christianity, yet
some reject this argument  Among the ■
latter are the German  rationalists of the
present day.   (See  Sherlock,  Newton,
Faber, «Scc, on the prophecies; and the
vvorks of Eichhora (Die Hebraische Pro-
pheten, 1812,2 vols.) and Rosenmuller.)- In
modern times, religious fanatics have fre-
quently pretended to be  prophets, with-
out being able to demonstrate their claims
to the title.  The seventeenth century, in
particular,  was fruitful in prophets and
prophetesses ; and, even in the beginning
ofthe eighteenth centuiy, the prophets of
the Cevennes excited a temporary atten-
tion.   (See Cevennes,  and Camisardes.)
They  were  called, in   England,  the
"French  prophets."   The  subjects of
their  prophecies  were the  appearance
of Antichrist,   judgments  against  the
city of London, &c.   They  were con-
demned, as false prophets and disturbers
of the public peace,  to< fines, and to the
pillory.
  Propolis.  (See Bee, vol. ii, p. 30.)
  Propontis (so  called by the ancients,
from the bordering kingdom  of Pontus);
the sea lying between  the jEgean  and
the Black seas, and connected with them
by the Hellespont and the Thracian Bos-
phorus ; now called, from the largest of
its islands, the sea cf Marmora.
  Proportion is the equality of two ra-
tios.   The comparison of two magnitudes,
in mathematics, may be effected in  two
different ways:  it may be determined by
how many units the one is greater than
the other (difference); or  one magnitude
may be taken as the measure ofthe other,
and it may be determined how often it  is
contained  in it (quotient).  The former
relation is called an  arithmetical propor-
tion, the latter  a geometrical  proportion.
The difference  in the  arithmetical, and
the quotient in the geometrical propor-
tion, are called the ratio ofthe proportion.
Every proportion consists of four terms,
two extremes and  two means.  A propor-
tion in which the two means are equal  is
called  a continual  proportion ;  one in
which they are unequal, a discrete or in-
terrupted proportion.  As, in  every arith-
metical proportion, the sum  of the ex-
tremes is equar to that ofthe means, and,
in geometrical proportions, the product of
the means is equal to the  product  of the
extremes, either extreme  (or mean) may
be found in the former,  by subtracting the
given extreme (or mean) from the sum of
the given means (or extremes); in the lat-
ter, by dividing the product of the means
(or extremes) by the given extreme for
mean).  The mean of a continued arith- 
PROPORTION—PROSE.
375
metical  proportion is found  by taking
half of the sum of the extremes; an ex-
treme, by subtracting the  given  extreme
from double of die mean.  In a continued
geometrical  proportion,  the  mean  is
found  by extracting the square root of
the product of the extremes; and an ex-
treme, by dividing  the square   of the
means by the given  extreme.   If we
make the fourth  term of the proportion
the mean ofa new continued proportion,
and so on, as, for instance, 8 :11 = 11:14;
11 : 14 = 14 : 17; 14 : 17 = 17 : 20, &c,
or 4 : 8 = 8 : 16; 8 :16 = 16:32; 16:32
= 32 : 64, the numbers 8, 11,  14, 17, 20,
form an arithmetical  progression, and 2,4,
8, 16, 32, &c, a geometrical progression.
  Propretor.  (Sec ProconsulA
  Propvl^a (Greek rp<inxAai«);  the splen-
did entrance to  a temple  among the
Greeks, a square before the temple, sur-
rounded with a portico; on the square in
the open air  stood the altar.  The term
was employed particularly in speaking of
the superb vestibules,  or porticoes, con-
ducting to the Acropolis,  or citadel of
Athens, which fonned one of the  princi-
pal ornaments ofthe  city.   This magnifi-
cent work, of the Doric order, was con-
structed by Pericles,  after the designs of
Mnesiclcs, one of the most celebrated
architects of his  age.  Pausanias says it
was covered  With white marble,  remark-
able for the size of the blocks  and the
beauty of the workmanship.  Stusrt, in
his Antiquities of Athens, Le Roy, in his
Ruins of Greece, and the Travels of Ana-
chareis the Younger, mention the relics
of  the propykea.
   Prorogation,in England; the contin-
uance of parliament  from  one  session to
another, as adjournment is a continuance
of the session from one day to another, or
for a longer period.  Prorogation deter-
mines thesession; but adjournment,though
for a fortnight, month, &c, does not After
a prorogation, any bill which has previ-
ously passed  both houses, or either house,
without receiving the royal sanction, or the
concureence  of the odier house, must be
taken up de novo.  Parliament is prorogued
by  the royal authority, either  by  the
lord chancellor, at the king's command,
or by proclamation.  In France, the king
also prorogues (proroge)  the  chambers
(art. 42 of the charter of August, 1830).
In the U. States, die  tenn  adjournment is
used bodi for prorogation  and adjourn-
ment,  properly speaking.   Congress  is
adjourned (prorogued) by the concurrent
vote of the two houses; but, in  case of
their disagreement, the president is au-
thorized  by the constitution to adjourn
them.
  Proscenium (npoaKtivnv), in the Roman
theatres ;  the  place  before the  scene,
where the  actors appeared.  It was also
called pulpitum, and was colored red, by
being sprinkled with crocus-water, for the
sake of the perfume.  It was somewhat
lower than  the scena,'but higher than the
orchestra, which was in front of it.  The
place behind the scene where the  actors
dressed and undressed was  called post-
scenium.  (See Tliedtre.)
  Prose (generally derived from prorsa
(oratio), the reason of which will be given
in the  couree of the article).   The true
character of prose can be clearly conceiv-
ed only by considering it in relation to
poetiy. (q.  v.)    Their difference lies in
the essential difference of certain states of
the  mind and  feelings.  The two chief
states of the inward man may be  called
the  thinking and the poetical states, and
depend upon the predominance of the
understanding,  Or the  imagination  and
feelings.  If we think  (in the  nan-ower
sense ofthe word),we  combine ideas ac-
cording to the laws of reason; and prose,
which is the language  of sober thought,
is characterized by the abstractuess, gen-
erality or precision which belongs to the
ideas  that  occupy  the  understanding.
When the mind is in a poetical state,
that is, when the imas^nation qv feelings
^TC strongly Cxcited, then it seeks for lan-
guage  which  shall  affect  immediately
the  imagination and feelings of others.
Warmth, livelii;ee«,  individuality, there-
fore,  characterize the  language of the
poet.   A full consideration of the distin-
guishing features of prose, whose prov-
ince  is fact and opinion,  and of poetry,
which deals with emotions, would afford
room for much interesting discussion;
but this our limits preclude.  Two ofthe
chief instruments of poetry are imagery
and rhythm.  It calls in beauty of sound
to aid beauty  of sense.  Clearness  and
precision are the chief aim of prose; and
every thing else must, if necessary, be
sacrificed  to them ;  yet man, striving
always to combine the beautiful with the
useful, does not entirely dispense  with
musical sounds in prose; and, though he
does not subject it to the strict rules of me-
tre, yet he arranges the words so as to please
the ear by their measured cadence (nume-
rus).  It is wrong, however, to make verse
the distinguishing feature of poetry.  How
much  versified prose  exists!  and  how
much poetry, unadorned by metrical lan-
guage !  Metre is a mere consequence of 
376
PROSE—PROSERPINE.
the character of poetry, and does not
constitute it.  Prose and poetry cannot
be  strictly defined, but often run  into
each other, and many compositions which
are called prose have much of a poetical
character; for instance, some ofthe proc-
lamations  of Napoleon to  his  army.
Prose, however, in the most common ac-
ceptation of the word, is used in contra-
distinction to metrical composition; hence
it is called, by the Romans, oratio soluta.
The external form naturally strikes first,
and, in the early stages of society, strikes
most; hence the  term prose, which, as
we have  already stated,  is generally de-
rived from prorsus, prorsa oratio (progress-
ive speech),  opposed  to verse, which  ia
deriveil from versus (backwards), return-
ing always to the  selected metre.  The
Greeks called prose 6 ni£oj Xoyos, winch
the Romans translated pedestris oratio;
and St. Evremond compares prose writers
to modest pedestrians. Some have added
to the divisions poetry and  prose a fur-
ther division, eloquence, considering the
third either as partaking of the nature of
both the others, or as essentially differing
from both.   From what has been said of
the elifference betweeen prose and poetiy,
it is clear that poetry must be much earli-
er developed than prose, because feeling
and imagination prevail most with na-
tions in their early periods.   We do not
Cic»«i inereiy mat poetical compositions
preceded  prose  compositions, but  the
common  way of viewing things and ex-
pressing  thoughts, in  early periods, was
in images.  Histories,  laws  (*<>/«><),  and
philosophical maxims, were first convey-
ed in verse with  the Greeks, and many
other nations, and, with all, certainly had
a symbolical, poetical character.  Pliny
says that Pherecydes  of Scyros (a con-
temporary  of Cyrus) first  fonned the
Greek prose (prosam primus condere in-
stituit); but  perhaps  ne was only the
first who wrote on philosophico-mytho-
logical subjects in prose.  Fine prose  is
among the latest attainments both of na-
tions and individuals; and it  would ap-
pear  that,  with most  nations, classical
prose writers are fewer than classical
poets.
   Proselyte (Greek, a stranger; new-
comer), in  religion; he who leaves one
religion for the profession of another;  in
general,  he who   changes  his religious
party, <or any other party.  The Jews had
two "classes of proselytes, viz. the " prose-
lytes of the gate," as  they were termed,
and the " proselytes of righteousness," or
of the .covenant   The first were those
who renounced idolatry, and worshipped
the only true God, according to the (so
called) seven laws of the children of Noah,
without subjecting diemselves to circum-
cision and the other commands of the Mo-
saic law.  They were only admitted to the
court ofthe temple, and stood at the door
of the  inner  temple, whence their name.
They  had  the right of dwelling in the
land of Israel,  but  only  in suburbs and
villages.   Under  Solomon, there  were
150,000 such proselytes,  who  labored in
building the temple, and  were descended
from die Canaanites (2 Chron. ii, 17, 18).
The proselytes of righteousness were per-
sons who had been fully converted from
paganism to  Judaism, had  been  circum-
cised, and  bound themselves to  observe
the Mosaic law.   Before their  circum-
cision, they were examined respecting the
grounds of their conversion;  after thair
circumcision, they received baptism, being
immersed,  with their  whole body, in  a
cistern  full of water, on a festival, in die
presence of three judges.  This baptism,
known under the name of proselyte bap-
tism, was repeateel in  the case of those
children ofa proselyte, who had a heathen
mother.  Boys under twelve, and girls
under thirteen, could not become prose-
lytes without the consent of their parents,
or, in case of their  refusal, the  aid of the
magistrates.  By the baptism,  every one
was considered as born anew, so  that his
parents Were no longer regarded as such,
and slaves  thus baptized  were set free.
Respecting the antiquity of Jewish prose-
lyte baptism, there has been much con-
troversy.    The rabbins  taught that the
proselytes  of righteousness received from
heaven a new soul and a new essential
fonn.   The Mosaic laws, moreover, ex-
cluded  some  persons from the privileges
of proselytes, sometimes  for ever, some-
times  for  a certain period  (Deuterono-
my xxiii, 1-^-5).  That  there wore prose-
lytes ofthe  firet kind, in the time of Jesus,
seems  to be  intimated by  the fact  that
Jesus objected to the Pharisees that they
compassed  sea and land to make  one
proselyte, and made him a greater sinner
than before (Matthew xxiii. 15).
  Proserpine (Greek, Persephone, Perse-
phoneia); according to some, the daughter
of Jupiter and Styx; or, according to the
more usual tradition, the daughter of Ju-
piter and  Ceres.   Pluto  carried  her off,
with the consent of Jupiter, and made her
his wife.  This fable has been  treated by
several poets, and  adorned in different
ways.  According to the  Homeric hymn
to Ceres, Proserpine was once dancing in 
PROSERPINE—PROSODY.
377
the choir of nymphs, led by Minerva and
Diana, in a grassy meadow.  Leaving the
dancers, she went with some of her com-
panions to gather flowers.   At the prayer
of Pluto, and with the consent of Jupiter,
the earth produced a hundred blooming
narcissuses, from one root, and gods and
men were astonished at their beauty, and
delighted by their odor.  The maid eager-
ly gathered them, and,  beguiled by their
magic power,  she wandered from  her
companions.   Suddenly the earth opened,
and Pluto rose from the chasm, with his
immortal steeds,  seized Proserpine, and
carried her,  in a golden  chariot, to the
lower world.  She called loudly on her
father for protection, but in vain ; no one
heard her cries except Hecate and the Sun.
Claudian is  still more  circumstantial in
his account.  He sings that the beauty of
Proserpine  had inflamed all the gods with
love,  particularly Mare  and Apollo.   In
order to  deliver her daughter from  the
importunities of her lovers, Ceres  con-
cealed her  in a cavern  in Sicily, where,
with her nurse Calligena, she was watched
by dragons.  Pluto begged her of Jupiter
for a  wife;  he consented, and ordered
Venus to entice the maid out of the cav-
ern by artifice.   Venus went to Sicily in
company with Minerva and Diana, and
not finding the watchful mother at home,
they  easily persuaded the girl to  go to
walk. She went out, therefore,  in com-
pany with  the nymphs and zephyrs, to
pluck flowers  in  the  blooming  fields.
Suddenly  the earth opened,  and  Pluto
bore  the astonished maiden to the  lower
world, while Jupiter signified  his appro-
bation by his thunder.  In vain did Jupi-
ter attempt to obtain her mother's consent
to  her marriage with  Pluto,  and  he at
length granted her permission to return to
the upper  world,  provided she  had not
tasted any of the food of the gods.  But
while walking through  the  lovely fields
of Elysium, she had eaten  a pomegranate,
and all  that Jupiter could grant to the
prayers of  her afflicted  mother was, that
she should spend the spring and summer
of each  year in the upper world.   (See
Ceres.) The Orphic hymns call her the
mother of  the  Eumenides and  Ehuleus
(Bacchus), the only begotten, the venerable
wife of Pluto, the queen  ofthe shades, the
avenger of perjury, the companion ofthe
Hours, the  all-ruling maid, the fruitful, the
nourisliing, the  goddess of spring.  She
brings all things to light,  amuses herself
in  the fragrant meads, and adorns her
sacred bosom with green herbs; she is the
resplendent and homed goddess; she is
                  32*
also celebrated, under the name Mise, as
the mother of Bacchus, the chaste,, holy,
the ineffable queen, having the form both
of man and woman.  In  the mysteries,
Proserpine was  also the symbol of the
soul confined iii the body.  She  had no
children by  Pluto; but by Jupiter, who
had intercourse with her in the form of a
serpent, she had Zagreus.  Jupiter gave
her the island of Sicily, and the city of
Agrigentum, in this island, was peculiarly
sacred to her.  She  is represented sitting
on a throne, by the side  of her husband,
with narcissuses or a pomegranate in  her
hand, or  alone, holding the  two-forked
trident of her husband.  She was also
worehipped  in Locris and at Megalopolis,
and she had a celebrated grove near the
lake of Avernus; in Rome, as at Megalop-
olis, she had a temple in common with
Ceres, which  men  were  permitted to
enter  only once a year.  As goddess of
the infernal  regions, a black,  sterile cow
was offered to her;  the pomegranate, the
bat, and the winter, were sacred to her.
She was worehipped, together with Ceres,
in .the Eleusinian  mysteries.  Pirithous
and Theseus  (q. v.), who attempted to
carry  her off, were obliged, according to
some, to remain in the infernal  regions.
To Proserpine is ascribed the office of
cutting off the lock of hair by which the
dead  were devoted to  the lower world.
At funerals  of the dead, it was usual to
smite the  breast, as a mark of honor to
her.   The friends  and  servants  of  the
deceased cutoff their hair and threw it on
the pile,  to  appease  Proserpine.   She is
often  confounded  with  Hecate,  (q. v.)
Gerhard has collected the ancient repre-
sentations  of  Venus Proserpine, in  his
Venus Proseipina illustrata (Fiesole, 1826).
   Prosody  (from npos, to, and oMij,  song)
treats of quantity,  accent, and the laws
of versification, and of all that affects the
harmony  of verse  or  prose.    If  we
consider  the elements of language (the
vowels and  consonants), we find  that the
sound dwells upon the vowel, and longer
if several vowels stand together and com-
bine to form one sound.   Double  vowels,
therefore, and diphthongs, render syllables
long.   Further, as to consonants; if sev-
eral follow each other, they  also  require
the voice to dwell on them, and, therefore,
likewise render the syllable long.   Conso-
nants  following each other, without inter-
mediate vowels, affect the length of the
syllables by position, as it is called.  The
proportion of vowels  and consonants is
very different iu different languages. (See
Consonants.)   Idioms,  the principle of 
378
PROSODY—PROTEST.
which is euphony \e. g. the  Italian and
Spanish),  give  a preponderance  to  the
vowels,  and  avoid  successive  conso-
nants.  In the northern languages, on the
other hand, the consonants prevail, and
too often follow each other; but three in
succession are less frequent, and prolong
the sound still more.  Three consonants,
in German, would render a syllable long
by position.  Such  a determination  of
the time, according *o the proportionate
weight of syllables, is«called quantity, and
languages, in which vowels predominate,
incline  more to quantity;  on the other
hand, idioms, in which consonants prevail,
incline more to accent, as they determine
the duration  of the tone more by  the
logical priority ofthe syllables. The Ger-
man language is of the latter sort, though
the meaning or derivation does  by no
means always determine the length of die
syllables in this language.  The Germans
have, moreover, distinct long and short
syllables, like the Greeks and  Romans,
and of late have very much settled their
prosody, so that they are enabled to write
in all  the ancient  metres.   The  other
modern languages of Europe,  west  or
south of Germany, have not long or short
syllables, properly speaking.  The Eng-
lish language has no prosody, in the an-
cient sense of the word: its verse depends
upon accent and the number of the sylla-
bles.  (See Rhyme, and Versification.)
   Prosopopieia.  (See Personification.)
   Protagoras ; a  Grecian  philosopher,
bom at Abdera, in the middle of the fifth
century B. C.  He taught principally at
Athens.  He may be considered one of
the first Sophists (q. v.) who travelled in
Greece, reading his writings, holding pub-
lic disputations, and giving instruction for
pay.  He was accused  of  atheism, and
banished from Athens, and his writings
were  publicly burnt   He is said to have
denied that there was any such thing as
absolute truth,  and  to have  applied his
doubts of human  knowledge  to the most
sacred and important subjects,—virtue and
the existence of God,—maintaining that
they  might  as  well exist  as not exist
How far this is true cannot be determined
with certainty, because his writings are lost
   Protector, Cardinal.  Every Catho-
lic nation and religious order has a pro-
tector, residing in Rome, who is a cardinal,
and is called cardinal protector.
   Protector, Lord.  (See CromwelL)
   Protector of Slaves. An officer en-
tirely novel, and intended to give some legal
protection to slaves, was created  by  the
English ministry of earl Grey, by a British
order in council, of Now 2,1831, consti-
tuting  in  the  colonies of  Trinidad, St.
Locia, the Mauritius, British Guiana, and
the cape of Good Hope, certain officers,
called protedors of slates.  They are never
to be proprietors of slaves; are to receive
complaints of slaves against their masters
and others; may  summon the  latter to
appear before them; and institute a prose-
cution  against them  before the proper
tribunal.  If a slave is prosecuted before
a court, notice must be given to a protec-
tor, who personally, or by an  assistant
protector, must be present at the trial, in
order to protect the interest of the slave.
The protector also  keeps a register of ali
the slaves of his district; has the power
to enter any plantation or building, where
he believes slaves are ill-treated;  to grant
them marriage licenses, and to attend, in
various other ways, to the preservation of
good order among them.
  Protector  of  the  Confederation
of  the  Rhine.   (See  Napoleon,  and
Confederation of the Rhine.)
  Protesilaus, one of the Grecian heroes
at Troy, was the son of Iphiclus, king of
Phylace, in  Thessaly, and  of Diomedea.
His  original name  was  Iolaus, and  he
received the surname of Protesilaus,  be-
cause he was the first of the Greeks who
leaped ashore on  their  landing before
Troy; but he was immediately killed  by
a Trojan warrior, according to some  by
Hector.  His  tomb was on  the Sigeean
promontory.  He was honored as a hero
after his death, and had an oracle at Elaeii9
in the Chereonesus,  particularly for athle-
ta?; he also healed several diseases.
  Protest; a solemn declaration of opin-
ion, commonly against some act, particu-
larly a formal and solemn declaration, in
writing, of dissent  from the proceedings
of a legislative body, as a protest of the
lords in parliament,  or a like declaration
of dissent  by  a minority of any  body,
against the proceedings of the majority.
—In  commerce,  a formal  declaration,
made by a notary public, under hand and
seal, at the request of the payee, or holder
of a bill of exchange, for non-acceptance
or non-payment  of the  same, protesting
against the drawer  and others concerned,
for the exchange, charges,  damages and
interest   This protest  ia  written on  a
copy of the bill of exchange, and notice
is  given to the endorser of the same, by
Which  he  becomes liable  to  pay  the
amount of the bill, with charges, damages
and interest (See Bill of Exchange.)  The
name of protest is  also given to a like
declaration against the drawer of a note 
PROTEST—PROTOCOL.                       379
of hand, for non-payment to  a banking
corporation, and ofthe master of a vessel
against seizure, &c.  A protest is  also a
writing, attested by a justice of the  peace,
or a consul, drawn by a master  of  a ves-
sel, stating the severity of a voyage,  by
which the ship has suffered, and showing
it was not owing to the  neglect or mis-
conduct of the master.
   Protestantism includes the Protestant
religion in its various forms, and the histo-
iy of its developernent, as well as the influ-
ence which it has had on mankind.   This
name, like many others in history, owes
its origin to a circumstance comparatively
insignificant  It originated in Germany,
when those members of the empire who
were attached  to the reformation, pro-
tested  (April 19, 1539), before the assem-
bled princes,  against  the  following re-
solve of the diet  at Spire: " that, until a
general council should be held, further
innovations in ecclesiastical affairs should
be avoided; the mass should not be any
■further abolished,  nor  its  celebration  be
prevented  in  those places whither the
new doctrine had already spread ;  no in-
flammatory sermons should be preached;
and  no vituperative writings be printed."
In consequence of this protestation, they
were called Protestants, and soon adopted
this name themselves.  To this protesta-
tion  was added (April 25) a formal appeal
to the emperor  against  every  measure
hostile to their faith.  The word Protes-
tant was afterwards adopted, also, in for-
eign countries; and when, in  1817, the
^centennial celebration of the beginning of
the German reformation caused several con-
troversies in Prussia, the government pro-
hibited (June30,1817) the further useofthe
term Protestant in the country, as being ob-
solete and unmeaning, since tiie Protestants
did not any longer protest, and ordered the
word  evangdical to be substituted for it
The numberless sects which have sprung
up among the secedere from Catholicism,
since  the  time of the reformation, and
which are comprehended under the name
of Protestants, all agree (however different
their opinions  on some important  points
may be) in rejecting human authority in
matters of religion, taking  the Holy Scrip-
ture as the sole  rule  of  their faith and
life,  and adhering to particular creeds on-
ly as expressing the convictions in which
all their members agree. (SecRe/brmafion.)
The  present number of  the Protestants
and Catholics is given in the article Eccle-
siastical Establishments.
   Proteus, according to  the old Grecian
mythology, a deified mortal, a soothsaying
and wonder-working old man of the sea,
who fed the phocoz of Neptune  in the
JEgean  sea, and was said by wandering
mariners to sun himself with his  sea-
calves, and  to  sleep at mid-day, some-
times on the desert island of Pharos, near
the western mouth of the Nile, and some-
times on the opposite side of the Medi-
terranean, in Carpathus (the modem Scar-
panto), between Crete and Rhodes. He
prophesied only when compelled by force
and art.  He tried  every means to elude
those who  consulted him, and  changed
himself, after the manner of the sea-gods,
into  every  shape, into beasts, trees, and
even into fire and  water.  But whoever
boldly held him fast, to such a one he re-
vealed whatever  he  wished  to  know,
whether past, present, or future.   Thus
Menelaus surprised him (Odyssey, iv, 351),
and  compelled him to  aid  him by his
prophecies and his counsek  Homer calls
Proteus Egyptian, either in  the   literal
sense, or to  signify that he lived  in the
neighborhood of the river Egyptus.  Later
writers represented Proteus as a king  in
the time of the Trojan war, who, either by
divine skill, or  by  an  artful  change of
the ornaments of his head, could assume
various  forms.  According to other ac-
counts,which, perhaps, Virgil had in view,
Proteus was a deified sorcerer of Pallene,
a peninsula of Emathia or Macedonia. Dis-
turbed by the  profligacy of his  sons, he
went, in the time of Hercules, under the
sea to Egypt, and  in that unfrequented
part of the  sea  kept the sea-calves  of his
master Neptune, who had given him the
wonderful power  of prophesying.   The
later mystics made him an  emblem of
primeval matter, and he is thus represent-
ed in the 24th Orphic hymn. This mortal-
bom sea-god now became a son of Nep-
tune and Pheenice,orof old Oceanus him-
self and Tediys.  Psamathe was his wife,
by whom he had many sons and daugh-
ters, whose names  are differently  given.
Any one who hastily changes his principles
is, from this old sea-god, called a Proteus.
  Protheeite ; a new mineral, found in
the valley of Zillerthal, in the Tyrol.  It
occurs in rectangular prisms, with faces
longitudinally striated ;  color chrysolite-
green ;  lustre between glass and diamond;
heavy; scratches  glass; infusible before
the blow-pipe, and is electric by friction.
   Protocol (from the Latinprotocollum);
a record or register.  In French, protocol
means the prescribed formula for instru-
ments accompanying certain transactions,
and in German it  signifies the minutes  of
any transaction.  In the latter  sense the 
380                 PROTOCOL—PROVENCAL POETS.
word has, of late, been received  into in-
ternational law, and we hear much ofthe
London protocols respecting  Greece, Bel-
gium,  &c.  The word comes from die
Greek, and is used as early as in the fortieth
novel of Justinian, which forbids  the cut-
ting the protocollum of charters—a short
note, showing the year in which the paper
or  parchment was made,  and the officer
commissioned for the delivery of the in-
struments, by means of which frauds were
frequently detected.   (See Du  Fresne's
Glossary.)
  Protogenes ; a Greek painter,  contem-
porary with Apelles, according to some,
born in Rhodes, according to others, in
Caria.   (See Apelles.)   Several  master-
pieces of his are mentioned, particularly
a picture of Jalysus, who is  said  to  have
been the founder of the city of  Rhodes.
In  this picture  a hound was represented
panting, and with  froth  on  his mouth.
Pliny relates, that for a long time the
painter was unable to satisfy himself in
the execution of the froth; but that, at
last, in a fit of anger, he threw the sponge,
with which he used to wipe off the colore,
on  the painting, and thus accidentally pro-
duced a natural representation of it   This
picture saved the city of Rhodes, when it
was besieged by Demetrius.   In  the time
of Cicero  it was still in that city,  but Cas-
sius carried it to Rome, and placed it in
the temple  of Peace, in which it was
burnt during the reign of Commodus.
  Protractor. An instrument for lay-
ing down and  measuring angles on paper
with accuracy and despatch, and by which
the use of the line  of chords is supersed-
ed.  It is of various forms—semicircular,
rectangular or circular.
  Provencal  Poets  were romantic po-
ets  of chivalry,  in the  twelfth and  thir-
teenth  centuries, in the south of France
and in Spain.  These southern countries
at that time bore the common name of
Provence,  which included,   beside  the
country situated  between  the Rhone and
the Var, Languedoc, Gascony, Auvergne
and Burgundy.   They were united in the
beginning  of the twelfth  century, under
Raymond  Berengarius   IV, previously
count of Barcelona or Catalonia, and by
marriage,  count  of Provence (as such,
Raymond  Berengarius  I),   and after-
wards comprehended also Arragon, and a
great part of the south of Spain.   The
people were called  Provengaux, and were
separated from  the less polished  French
by the Loire.   Southern France,  already
refined by colonies from  Greece, and by
its vicinity to the Romans, favored with a
milder climate and a freer government,
was, until the eleventh century, far in ad-
vance  of the north in  civilization, and
possessed a language composed of Ro-
man and Teutonic words, and so much
distinguished for  clearness,  tenderness,
sweetness  and copiousness,  that it was
spoken by the higher classes even in Cat-
alonia, Valencia, Majorca,  &c.  The lan-
guage, the cultivation  of the nobles by
their intercouree with the East, particu-
larly with the poetical Arabs, an imagina-
tion awakened, and an understanding en-
larged by travel and adventure, a romantic
spirit, and the wealth produced  by com-
merce,—all these  circumstances contrib-
uted  to  foster  genius  and  to  produce
poetiy.   The poet sang of war and adven-
tures, religion and love, and found encour-
agement and applause,  particularly  from
the ladies, who  were celebrated  in his
verses.   The taste for poetiy became gen-
eral among  the  nobles and cultivated
classes in Provence, and  the princes, par-
ticularly  Raymond Berengarius  III  and
V,  favored  the  poetical  art.  In  their
court, at that time  the  most  refined  and
splendid in Europe, it was customary to
collect a circle of  noble  poets.  Poetry
and song, accompanied  by the lute, harp,
or viol, were demanded at every feast, and
many pereons therefore  wandered about
to enliven festivals with  such accompani-
ments.   The words Provengal and poet
became almost synonymous.  Their songs,
which were in rhyme,  and which often
proceeded less  from poetic  inspiration
than from a spirit of imitation, are divided
into three principal classes : 1. Canzonets,
love songs and  joyful  (soulas),  plaintive
(lais), pastoral (pastourdles), and  religious
or didactic songs; 2. Sirventes, songs in
honor  of heroes  and  princes, in which
class  were  included  patriotic and war
songs; 3. Tensons, sometimes on ques-
tions of gallantry,  which were recited in
the courts of love (cours d'amour).  The
favorite subjects  were  love  and ladies  ;
and  the  poets endeavored to rival  each
other in the praises of  tinir  mistresses;
but they  were less tender and chaste than
the German  Minnesingers, (q. v.)   Al-
though their poems, as  a  whole, are not
much to our taste, they contain occasion-
al fine passages  (which  must be read in
the original, its their principal charm con-
sists in the expression), and although they
have little tme poetical merit, as they con-
sist rather of fantastic conceits and hack-
neyed  rhymes, than of  the outpourings
of an elevated soul, yet it is not to be de-
nied that they were of great advantage to
that age,by forming the mind, enriching the
language, exciting men to  action, and la- 
PROVENCAL POETS—PROVERBS.
381
dies to make themselves worthy of love.
The Provencal poets were also called Ro-
mans,  and the Provencal language was
called the Romana, as it was derived prin-
cipally from the Latin.  These poets were
likewise called Troubadours (q. v.; in Ital-
ian, Trovalori), while the Norman-French
poets of a somewhat later period, who
wrote iu  French the nonsensical, conceit-
ed and absurd romances (the firet of which
was the tedious, but then popular, Roman
de la Rose), heroic  poems (of the  twelve
peers  of Charlemagne, of  the knights
of  the round table, and  of the Ama-
disses),  Contes  and  Fabliaux, and who
were particularly favored by  Charles VI,
■were called Trouveres, or Trouveurs. (See
France,  Literature  of,  division Podry.)
The oldest Troubadour, whose name and
poems are known to us, is William, count
of Poitiers and Guienne (bom 1071), who
sang the  adventures of his  crusade, al-
though there must have  been others who
sang before him.  Raynouard discovered
a  Provencal  poem  of the year 1000, in
rhyme.   The flourishing period  of this
school of poetry extends  from 1090 to
1290, and its popularity was at its  height
about 1140, and at the time when  Beren-
garius III received the investiture of Pro-
vence from the emperor Frederic I.  Not
only the  nobles and  many ladies in Pro-
vence, but many celebrated foreign princes
(e. g. Richard the Lion-hearted), and  the
Italian nobles, partook of the enthusiasm
tin its favor.  The charms of  the Proven-
cal poetiy and language were more early
widely felt in Italy (where Folchetto was
the firet  known  poet of this  school), and
in  Spain (the country  of the Limousin
Provencal poets), where many princes
were poets (Alphonso II, Peter III and
IV), and later in Sicily.  The history of
Romeo de Villeneuve (the Pilgrim), who
was minister of the tenth count of Pro-
vence, Raymond Berengarius (from 1206
to 1244), and  who  is praised by Dante,
deals in  the marvellous, and  was consid-
ered by Baudrier  (1635) as  a  romance.
These materials have been worked up in
a new form in the Peregrinazionied Avan-
ture del nobile Romeo da Provenza  (Turin,
1824).   The  decline of the Provencal
poetry began in the  fourteenth century, in
the firet half of which, prizes were offered
(at Toulouse golden violets, afterwards
silver marigolds and roses), for the encour-
agement of poets.  The last  whom Mil-
lot, the  author  of  the principal work on
this subject,  Hist. Littiraire des Trouba-
dours (Paris, 1774, 3 vols.), cites is Jean
JSsteve de Biesteres (about  1286).   At
length  this  amusement became weari-
some, the understanding took the place of
fancy, the nobility lost their splendor, the
princely patrons of poetiy became extinct,
the French line of kings who succeeded,
favored  the French  language instead of
the Provencal, and materials failed when
the adventures of chivalry ceased to exist;
no powerful  Petrarch  arose among the
Provencals, and instead of the singers,
who, if they really  were  Troubadours,
were called minstrels (q. v.),  succeeded
actors and jugglers, who disgraced the
name of Troubadours,  and whose mean-
ness soon caused the  earlier and better
poets to be forgotten.  We have still much
of the   Provencal poetry left.   Some of
the pieces  are religious romances.   Seo
Raynouard's Choix des  Poisies  originates
des Troubadours (Paris,  1816*—21, 6 vols.),
to which collection  is  prefixed a Gram-
maire Romane; see also A. W.  Schlegel's
Observations  sur  la  Littirature Proven-
2ale (Paris, 1818).
  Provence ; one ofthe old provinces of
France, lying in the  south-eastern part of
die country, on the Mediterranean, bound-
ed on the north by Dauphiny, and on the
west by Languedoc.  Its natural bounda-
ries were the sea, the Rhone, the Var and
the Alps.  The capital was Aix, and the
province was divided into Upper and Low-
er Provence.   The departments of the
Mouths of the  Rhone, tho Lower Alps
and the Var, with a  part of that of Vau-
cluse, have  been formed from it. Greek
colonies were founded here at an early
period (see Marseilles); and the Romans,
having conquered the country (B. C. 124),
gave it the name of  Provincia  (the prov-
ince), whence its later name was derived.
After the division of the empire of Louis
le Debonnaire, it fell to Lothaire, and was
afterwards a separate kingdom,  under the
name of the kingdom of Aries.  In 1246,
it passed to the house of Anjou by mar-
riage ;  and, in 1481,  on the extinction of
the male  line of that  house,   Louis XI
united  it to the dominions of the French
crown.  (For its language and  literature,
see France,  division Language, and the
article Provengal Poets.)
  Proverbs are the  flower  of popular
wit and the treasures of popular wisdom;
they give the result of experience in  a
form made impressive by rhyme, allitera-
tion, parallelism (q. v.), a pointed turn, or
a comparison drawn from the most ordina-
ry scenes anel occurrences of life, which,
by the  force of association, makes their
effect strong and permanent   Proverbs
may he unassiuning, hvely, grave, or even 
382                      PROVERBS—PROVIDENCE.
sublime; their general character is naiveti.
The habit of men, at the present day, to
communicate so much with each other by
writing, which, exciting the feelings  less
than conversation, leads to a less animated
mode of expression,  and the disposition
to avoid what is common, springing from
the pride of intellectual cultivation inc;-
dent to an advanced stage of society,  anil
various causes connected with the prog-
ress of civilization, make proverbs every
day more  unfashionable with the most
civilized  European   nations,  particularly
the  English, with whom  the use of a
proverb (except it be one of a foreign na-
tion) is considered almost vulgar; and the
same contempt for these jewels of the
multitude has spread  to us.  Another rea-
son for proverbs going out of fashion may
be, that the better a proverb is, the more
trite it becomes; and what is trite is vul-
gar, and what is vulgar is inelegant. Thus
a public speaker could not use the prov-
erb, " 'Twixt cup and lip is many a shp,"
at least, not without some apology for its
triteness, although the  very triteness in
this, as in most other cases  (such as often
quoted verses), proves  merit; and even
this homely proverb undoubtedly has often
led to care and thoughtfulness.  Proverbs
often save long explanations by  present-
ing a striking image;  and many a lecture
has probably  been  superseded by  the
French adage, " One spoonful of honey
attracts more flies than a hundred bareels
of  vinegar."  So they may be often used
with effect to  point the conclusion of a
discourse. A period on the failure of men
who strive beyond their capacity, might be
well closed by the Arabian  saying which
Burckhardt mentions,  " If God purposes
the destruction of an ant,  he gives  her
wings;"  and the vanity of human resolu-
tions could hardly  be  set in a  stronger
light than by the  Portuguese proverb,
" Hell is paved with  good intentions"—a
proverb which,until it has become fanuliar,
is awfully impressive.  It requires skill to
apply proverbs elegantly and judiciously
in common life.  As to the general worth
of proverbs, we would say, with one  of
their number,  Voxpopulx, vox Dei   Yet
there are many directly opposed to others,
and they must always  be  received cum
grano salis; they are general views  ef
things, and "no  mle  without an excep-
tion."  Proverbs are plain spoken.   In
their view,  as  hi the eye of the law, all
are equal.  They take cognizance of the
virtues, and vices, and follies, of all classes,
without respect of persons.  They pierce
die object at which they aim; and this, in
fact, gives them currency, and makes them
what they are.  Boileau speaks of happy
expressions,
   Qui, par le prompt effet d'un set rtjouissant,
   Deviennent quelquefois proverbes en naissant.

Such a phrase  is Napoleon's, "There is
but one step from the sublime to the ridicu-
lous," which may be almost said to have
become a proverb, as is  the case with
many other expressions struck out in hap-
py moments, or proceeding from conspic-
uous persons.  The proverb is nearly  re-
lated to the  motto, symbol, device, sen-
tence, apologue, fable, &c.; and the limit
cannot always be easily drawn.   Burck-
hardt gives us the following as Arabic prov-
erbs : The wolf was asked,  " For what art
thou following those poor little sheep ?" He
replied, " The dust upon which they tread
is good for my poor little eyes." And this:
one man said to another, " O slave, I have
bought thee."  "That is thy businos,"
replied he.  "But wilt thou nin away?"
"That is my business,"repliedh\ These,
having at once a narrative character, and
a concise, pointed expression, partake of
the nature of the apologue and the prov-
erb.   Certain  sallies of popular humor,
ludicrous personifications, &c, which are
frequendy repeated, are sometimes called
proverbs;  as, "What  a dust we kick up,
as the fly said to the cart-wheel."  Prov-
erbs, being the offspring of popular feel-
ing and experience, often serve,of couree,to
keep alive the recollection of peculiar views
and  customs;  and a collection of the say-
ings of different nations would  form  an
exceedingly useful and interesting work.
Burckhardt collected,  at Cairo, a number
of Arabic proverbs,  which have been
published, in a quarto  volume, under the
title  Arabic Proverbs, or the Manners and
Customs of the Modern Egyptians (Lon-
don,  1830).   Sailer  has published the
Wisdom of the Streets, or the Meaning
and  Use of Gennan Proverbs (Augsburg,
1810, in German).  Many other collec-
tions of German proverbs exist, but none
veiy complete.  The East, the region of
imagination and metaphor,  abounds in
proverbs; and the southern countries of
Europe, Portugal, Spain and Italy, have
many more than the cool, reflecting North.
   Proverbs, Book of.  (See  Solomon.)
   Providence, the largest place and only
city  in Rhode Island, is situated at the
head of the  tide-waters of Narraganset
bay, about thirty miles from  the Atlantic
ocean, and  is forty  miles  south-south-
west of Boston, fifteen north-north-west
of  Bristol,   thirty  north  of Newport, 
PROVIDENCE.
383
fifty-eight  north-east of  New London,
seventy east of Hartford,  190 north-east
of New York, 394 north-east of Wash-
ington ; lon. 71° 26' W.; lat.  41° 51'  Nk:
population, in  1820, 11,767;  in 1825,
15,941; in 1830,  16,832; in 1832, about
20,000.  It is  thus the  second town in
New England, in point of population. It
is built on both sides of what is  usually
styled  Providence river, which is only an
arm of the bay reaching to the mouth of
Mooshasuck river, at the upper part of tho
city, its two sections being connected by
two bridges, one ninety  feet in  width.
Vessels of nine hundred tons burthen can
come to the wharves.  The buildings are
chiefly wood, uniformly painted  white,
though there  are many  of granite  and
brick.    Some of  the dwelling-houses
are spacious and  elegant,  and those on
the high ground on the eastern side of
the town are remarkable for beauty of sit-
uation.   The chief public buildings are
the state-house, of brick; the arcade, of
granite ; fourteen houses of public wor-
ship ; the halls of Brown university ; the
Dexter asylum ;  the Friends' boarding-
school ;  five public school-houses,  and
several large  manufacturing establish-
ments.  The arcade is the most splendid
building ef the kind in the Union  ; it has
two fronts, of hammered granite, each
seventy-two feet wide,  presenting colon-
nades, of the pure Grecian Doric,  of six
columns each.  The columns are twenty-
five feet high,  the shafts  being twenty-
two feet in length, each of a single block.
The body ofthe building is of split stone,
covered with cement, and extends from
street to street, in length 222 feet.  It was
finished in 1828,  and the whole cost was
about 130,000 dollars.  Of the churches,
the first Baptist, the two  Unitarian,  and
one of the Episcopal (St.  John's^  are
handsome  structures.   Brown university
(originally  founded at Warren, in 1764,
and removed to Providence in 1770) takes
its name from Nicholas Brown, its most
munificent benefactor.  It has two halls,
both of brick, viz.  University hall, four
stories high, 150 feet long, and forty-six
feet wide,  containing fifty-one rooms for
officers and students, besides  a chapel, li-
brary and philosophical room ; and Hope
college, built in 1822, four stories high,
120 feet long, forty wide, with forty-eight
rooms  for  officers and  students.   They
are placed on some of the highest ground
in the city.  The college library contains
about 6000 volumes. Three other hbraries
within the walls, belonging to hterary so-
cieties, present an aggregate of 6000 vol-
umes, in addition.  The government of
the university is vested in a board of fel-
lows, consisting of twelve membere, eight
of whom, including  the president,  must
be Baptists ; and a board of trustees, of
thirty-six membere, twenty-two of whom
must be Baptists, five Friends, five Epis-
copalians, and  four Congregationalists.
The acting officere of instruction, at pres-
ent, are the president, three professors, and
two tutors. There are 114 students. The
philosophical apparatus, which  has  re-
cently been largely increased by private
munificence, may be considered very ex-
tensive and complete. Annual commence-
ment on the first Wednesday of Septem-
ber.  There are three vacations ; one, from
commencementjfour weeks ; one, from the
last Friday of December, six weeks; and
one, from the second Friday of May, three
weeks.  Whole number of graduates to
1827, inclusive, 1119.  The present con-
dition  of the  institution is prosperous.
The Dexter asylum for the poor of Prov-
idence, finished in 1828, is a brick edifice
of three stories, 170 feet long and forty-five
feet wide.  The Friends' boarding school,
established by, and belonging to the yearly
meeting of New England, is also a  spa-
cious structure,  of brick, with a basement
of granite, under the care of a superin-
tendent, five male and four female teach-
ers.  There are 117  male and 70 female
pupils.   It  has a small library.   The
public schools were  established  in  1800,
and now consist of five grammar schools,
five  primary schools,  and  one  African
school.  They  originated with  the me-
chanics' and manufacturers' association.
The Providence library contains about
1600 volumes; the mechanics'  appren-
tices' library about 1000; and that of the
athenaeum (an  institution just  commen-
ced), about 1500.  Providence was early a
place of much commercial enterprise. In
the first half of the year 1791, the duties
paid on imports and tonnage amounted to
59,766.14  dollars; in the year 1831, the
whole amount collected was 227,000 dol-
lars, notwithstanding the diminution of
the rates of duties on many articles, which
reduced the sum 36,000 dollars, at least.
The imports in 1831 amounted to 457,717
dollars; the  exports,  domestic  $199,193,
foreign $130,441, total $329,634.   The
amount of shipping registered  is 12,362
tons; enrolled, 4788 tons. There are four
insurance companies, with an  aggregate
capital of $360,000; and fifteen banks,
with an aggregate capital of $4,502,800,
besides  a branch of the U. States bank,
with a capital of $800,000, and  the  sav- 
384
PROVIDENCE.
ings bank, capital $100,000.  The Black-
stone canal, extending from Providence to
the town of Worcester (Mass.), was fin-
ished in 1828; whole cost about $700,000.
It is navigated by thirty boats, from twen-
ty-five to thirty tons each.  There are ten
newspapers published in Providence, two
of which are daily.  Providence is most
distinguished for its manufactures. There
are in  Providence  four  cotton  factories,
two moved by steam and  two by water
power,  employing a  gross  capital  of
$327,489.   They contain 11,194 spindles,
and 244 looms.   They give employment
to 352 pereons directly, besides 739 others,
dependent, more or less,  on them, with
an aggregate annual  amount  of $45,801
wages.  They consume  annually 434,971
pounds of cotton;  spin 382,875 pounds of
yam, and weave 1,458,000 yards of cloth,
mostly of the finest and  most valuable
quality, to the estimated value of $247,860.
There are also two extensive bleacheries,
in which  very large quantities of cotton
cloth, from many ofthe factories in Rhode
Island and other states, are bleached, cal-
endered and beetled; and a third one is
erecting.  The two in operation employ
a capital of $175,000, and 195  pereons,
whose annual wages amount to $49,000;
and the annual quantity  of cloth bleach-
ed and finished at  these  establishments is
3,300,000  pounds,  or  13,200,000 yards.
There are also four dye-houses, and a fac-
tory for making  candle  and  lamp wick,
and cotton webbing.  There are four iron
founderies and seven machine shops, em-
ployed principally  in building cotton ma-
chinery, and estimated to constitute  one
diird of the whole amount of this busi-
ness carried on in the state.   These em-
ploy a capital of $250,000, and 414 per-
sons.   They work  up annually about 1390
tons  of iron and steel,  manufacturing
machinery to the  value of 309,000 dol-
lars.   There are, besides, one file factory,
and one of steam  engines, one of steam
boilers, and three brass founderies, all on a
considerable scale.  There are seven prin-
cipal  establishments for working in tin,
sheet-iron, copper, brass, &c, in two of
which the manufacture of stoves, pipes,
and grates for anthracite coal, is carried
on very extensively ; one comb factory,
which annually consumes $4000 worth
of stock, and manufactures combs to the
value  of $9500 ; twenty-seven jewellers'
and goldsmiths' shops, employing a capi-
tal of $100,200, 282  persons, and manu-
 facturing goods to  the value of $228,253;
 also one factory for  hat bodies of wool,
 very extensively operating on a most use-
ful patented invention;  one of sperm and
one of linseed oil; one mill  for cutting
and grinding  dye-stuffs.  A  large glass-
house, for the manufacture and cutting of
flint-glass, has been in operation  about  a
year, employing a capital of $36,000, fifty-
eight  men and fourteen boys,  whose
wages amount to $21,000 per annum, and
turning out manufactured goods to the
value  of  $1400  per  week,  or  about
$70,000 per annum.  Besides the above,
there  is au extensive manufacture of leatii-
er, boots and shoes, soap and candles, cab-
inet furniture, hats, &c, and pickers, and
sundry articles used in  other departments
of the manufacturing business.  The cap-
italists of Providence  have,  besides, an
amount equal  to  $2,000,000  invested in
cotton, woollen, and other  factories, in
other towns of Rhode Island and! the ad-
joining states, agencies of  which are
established within die city.  For the con-
sumption of the town and its vicinity, in-
cluding, as diis does, many manufacturing
villages, diere were imported, in the year
1830, 45,166 bales of cotton, and, hi the
year 1831,55,707 ; and of bread-stuffs, in
1830,  68,473  barrels of  flour,  358,181
bushels of com,  and  16,967 of rye; in
1831,  71,369   barrels  of flour, 216,662
bushels of corn, and 7772 of rye..—This
town was  founded by Roger Williams,
who was born in  Wales, and educateel at
Oxford.   He  removed to  America in
1631, and, after preaching at Salem and
Plymouth, was settled at the  latter place,
as pastor of the congregational church, in
1634.  He diere preached  against the
king's patent  to the Plymouth colonists,
on  the ground that the king had no au-
thority to grant and dispose of the  lands
of the natives, without their consent. For
this course, together with his peculiar re-
ligious tenets, and  particularly his  open
and fearless declaration of the principles,
not of toleration merely, but of entire and
unrestrided  religious freedom,  and his
avowal that the civil magistrate had no
right " to deal in matters of conscience
and religion," he was banished, and order-
ed  to depart  the  Plymouth jurisdiction
within six weeks.   This sentence  was
passed in the autumn of 1635; but he
was  afterwards  informed that permis-
sion was granted him to remain until the
ensuing spring.   So great, however, was
the fear of his influence, that an officer was
sent to apprehend and carry him on board a
vessel at Nantasket, in order that he might
be conveyed to England. Before the arri-
val of the officer, Williams, having intima-
tion of this design, had departed for Re- 
PROVIDENCE—PRUDHON.
385
hoboth.  Being there  informed by gov-
ernor Winslow that he was still within the
bounds of the Plymouth patent, he cross-
ed  the Seekonk  river,  in the spring of
1636, and commenced a new  settlement
in the wilderness, near the mouth of the
smaU river Mooshasuck, giving it, in ac-
knowledgment of the  divine protection,
the name of Providence.  The first settle-
ment of the town was thus made  on the
point of land between the  Seekonk or
Blackstone river on the east, and the arm
of  the  Narraganset  bay on  the west.
The latter was afterwards  gradually con-
tracted  by  the extension  of the land hi
the present westerly part of  the town,
until the two parts were,  at length, con-
nected by Weybossett bridge, now nearly
in the centre of the town.   The sheet of"
water remaining north of this bridge was
thus formed into a beautiful cove, which,
at  its  northern  extremity,  receives the
Mooshasuck river, and forms the basin of
the Blackstone  canal.  In  1676,  during
the war wliich was made, at the instiga-
tion of king Philip, for the extermination
of the  New England colonists, an attack
was made on Providence by the Indians,
and about  forty  houses burned  and de-
stroyed.   In 1801, it suffered severely
from an extensive fire.  In 1807,  a vio-
lent storm and  flood  destroyed  nearly
all the bridges, and a  great number of
buildings, in the town and  its vicinity. In
the great stonn of September, 1815, about
500 huildings were destroyed by the wind
and the water of the bay.  The loss of
property on that occasiem was then esti-
mated at more than $1,000,000 ; but that
eventually proved of much benefit to the
place, by removing a great number of old
and  comparatively   useless  buildings,
whereby an opportunity was afforded for
new and commodious streets in those sec-
tions which are  devoted to commercial
business.  In October, 1831, Providence
was incorporated  as a city,  divided into
six warels.   Its municipal  government is
vested in a mayor, a board  of six alder-
men, and a common  council of twenty-
four members.
  Providence, or New Providence ; the
second island, in point of size; among the
Bahamas, being thirty miles in length and
eight in breadth ; lat. 25° 2' N.;  lon. 77°
20/ W.  A part  of it is very fertde; but
its principal business arises from the nris-
fortunes of diose ships which are compel-
led to seek it for a harbor.  The port is
called  Nassau,  and  is situated  on the
north  part  ofthe island.   Its harbor is
rather shallow; but it is the capital, and
  vol. x.           33
far the most commercial town of the Ba-
hamas.  The population of the island  is
supposed to be about  8000,  the  greater
part of whom are slaves. (See Bahamas.)
  Providence Plantations.  (See New
England, and Providence.)
  Province (provincia),  among  the  Ro-
mans ; a district of conquered  country,
governed by a proconsul or propretor
(see Proconsul), and called therefore pro-
vincia consularis, or pradoria.  But  this
name was only applied to lands lying be-
yond  the  boundaries  of Italy.   In the
time of Augustus, they were divided  into
the provincial senatorial, or populares (the
people's provinces), and the provincial im-
 {teratoriai (the emperor's provinces).  The
 atter  comprised those which were most
exposed to hostile inroads, and the admin-
istration of which was left entirely to the
emperor, under the pretence of sparing
the senate and people the trouble of man-
aging them, but in reality to keep the ar-
my in his own hands.  They  were differ-
ent according to circumstances.  In mod-
em times, the term has been  applied  to
colonies,orto dependent countries, at a dis-
tance from  the metropolis,  or to the differ-
ent divisions ofthe kingdom itself.  Thus
the Low Countries belonging to Austria
and Spain were styled provinces (see Neth-
erlands) ; and the same term  is applied to
some of the English colonies.  The dif-
ferent governments  into which France
was divided, previous to  the revolution,
were  also called provinces. The name has
sometimes been retained by  independent
states.  Thus the republic of Holland, af-
ter it  had thrown off the  Spanish yoke,
was called  the United Provinces; and the
Argentine republic has assumed the name
of United Provinces of the Plata. In Eng-
land, the jurisdictions of the two  arch-
bishops are styled provinces.—Provincial is
a monastic  officer who has the superinten-
dence of the monasteries of his order with-
in a certain province or district, and is him-
self subordinate to the general of his order.
  Provost (from propositus); in some  of
the Scotch  cities, the title of the  chief
municipal  officer.   (See  Prevot.)   The
heads of several of the  colleges  in the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge are
also styled  provosts.
  Provost marshal of an army is an offi-
cer appointed to arrest and secure desert-
ers and other criminals, to hinder the sol-
diers from  pillaging, to  indict offenders,
and to see sentence passed  upon them
and executed.  He also regulates weights
and measures.
   Prudhon, Pierre Paul; a French paint- 
386                        PRUDHON—PRUSSIA.
er, bom in 1760, at Cluny, where he was
educated by the monks of the celebrated
abbey ofthe place.  The sight ofthe pic-
tures here awakened his taste for painting,
which being observed by the monks,  die
bishop of Ma con had him instructed in
drawing at Dijon.  After having studied
in Rome, windier he was sent by the Bur-
gundian estates,  Pmelhon  returned  to
France  in 1781',  and lived some time in
obscurity hi Paris, but finally gained rep-
utation  by his celebrated allegorical pic-
ture, Crime  pursued by Divine  Justice.
He died in 1823.  His  principal produc-
tions are Psyche bome away by the Zeph-
yrs, Zephyr sporting over the Water, an
Assumption, and a  Dying  Christ.  Some
have censured Iris design, and the same-
ness of  his heads; but his  brilliant color-
ing, and the fine expression and grace of
his pencil, are generally admired.
  Prunes.   (See Plums.)
  Prussia ;  the smallest ofthe (so called)
great  powers of Europe;  a country  hi
several respects singular, being composed
of very heterogeneous  parts, several of
them not connected by any common feel-
ing or common interest, not even by geo-
graphical situation, but  merely by arti-
ficial political  system;  and  yet it  holds
an influential station among the European
powers.  Another very striking feature of
this monarchy is the care which it  be-
stows on science and  education.  The
sciences are no where fostered with more
care, and there are few countries in which
common schools are more widely difiiised.
Notwithstanding the  effect  which  this
must have hi enlightening the people, and
notwithstanding the attention which has
been paid, for several generations, to  the
administration of justice, there is an almost
incomprehensible backwardness in every
thing  which belongs to a civic  spirit,
chiefly,  it is probable, from three reasons:
1. that die greatness of Prussia proceeded
from, and has been supported by, mihtary
power, the power of standing armies, and
the whole system of government has been
carried  on with something of a mihtary
spirit by numerous officers  in regular gra-
dations, who execute  the orders received
from their superiors.  2. That many of
the various  parts  composing the  mon-
archy have  no national interest, as Prus-
sians, in each  other; so that the noblest
germs of civd virtue remain undeveloped
in the breasts of the people, whose inter-
ests are diverse.  We may add here, by
the way, that Prussia, of late, has neglect-
ed the  most important means  of giving
coherency to her population, namely, the
assembling of representatives from all the
various provinces in one legislative body.
Notinng  would have  united the  people
more  strongly than  thus  awakening  a
national  feeling  for  a common  insti-
tution.  3. That, since the time of Fred-
eric the Great, Prussia has felt obliged to
seek a strong ally in Russia to strengthen
herself against Austria—an alliance which
has much retarded her civil advancement
We shall now proceed to the Statistics
and Geography of Prussia.   The Pnissian
monarchy, which contained 3,000,000 of
inhabitants, on 46,428  square miles, with
an  army of 76,000 men,  when Frederic
the Great ascended the throne, contained,
in 1804,  without reckoning Neufchatel,
9,977,497 inhabitants, upon 120,395 square
miles (with 38,000,000 of Prussian dollars
income, about 32,000,000 Spanish),  and
at the end of 1828,12,726,823 inhabitants,
upon 106,852 square miles, with  3,316,459
buildings, to which is  to be added Neuf-
chatel, Avith 51,580 inhabitants, upon 296
square miles; and, at  the  close of 1830,
the number   of   the  inhabitants  was
12,939,877.  The whole  increase of the
population in 14 years  has been 2,247,082.
In 1826, the population stood thus:—
  Germans,...........10,038,457
  Of Sclavonic origin, ....   2,028,500
  French Walloons,.....     87,600
  Jews,.............    153,687

The numbers belonging to the chief reli-
gious denominations, in 1826, were,

  Evangelical (comprising Lu-
    therans and Calvinists), . .  7,495,815
  Catholics,...........4,689,808
  Jews...............   154,620
  Mennonites,..........    16,271

The mihtary consisted, in 1829, of 165,000
regular troops  (of which 17,908 were
guards, 19,132  cavalry, 15,718  artillery,
and 104,712 infantry of the  line), and of
359,248 Landwehr (q. v.), of which 179,624
were ofthe firet class,  and 179,624 of die
second class:  the whole  military force,
therefore, comprised 524,248 men.  Rev-
enue  for 1829 about 36,190,000  Span-
ish dollars ;   national debt,  in  1820,
135,370,000.  The revenue, for 1829, was
levied thus:—

  Domains and royal forests,  $3,223,350
  Sale of domains,........712,500
  Mines, salt works,.......712,500
  Manufactures of porcelain, .  .   9,975
  Post department,........773,750
  Lotteries,............487,350
  Salt monopoly,........3,307,887 
PRUSSIA.
38?
  Balance from Neufchatel,  . .  .  18,525
  Tax on real estate,......6,880,612
  Tax called class-tax,.....4,537,200
  Tax on occupations,.....1,236,900
  On excise, duties and stamp, 13,347,262
  Highway  toll,..........408,262
  Extraordinary revenue,  .... 426,070

The  army  cost,  in 1629,  $15,692,562.
The number of students at the  universi-
ties stood thus in the following years:—
	Founded.	Year.	Students.
	. 1810	1829	1706
Halle,	. 1694	1828	1185
Breslau, . . .	. 1702	1828	1021
	. 1818	1829	1002
Konigsberg,.	. 1544	1829	523
Greifswalde,.	. 1456	1829	154
Minister,. . .	. 1631	1827	284
(For the schools of Prussia, see the article
Schools.)  The chief cities are
                              Inhabitants.
  Berlin (the capital).......236,830
  Breslau,.............  . 90,090
  Cologne,............  . 64,499
  Konigsberg,...........67,941
  Dantzic,..............61,902
  Magdeburg,............44,049
The peace of 1815 did not give compact-
ness to the  irregular  territory of Pmssia.
It consists (Neufchatel not included) of an
eastern and a western part:  the fonner,
which is much the larger, is bounded by
Russia, Austria, the kingdom of Saxony,
the small  states in Thuringia, the electo-
rate of Hesse, Hanover, Brunswick, Meck-
lenburg, and on the north by the Baltic.
The latter is separated from the former by
the electorate of Hesse, Hanover  and
Brunswick, and is bounded by the  Nedi-
erlands, France, Bavaria, Lippe-Detmold,
Nassau, Waldeck, and other small territo-
ries.  The country is mostly  level, with
small elevations.  The  island of Rugcn,
with its promontoiy Stubbenkammer, is the
highest point in  the lands on the Baltic.
The principal chains of mountains are
the Sudetes, with the Riesongebirge  (the
Schneekoppe, 4950 feet high); the Hartz
(q.v.), with the Brocken; the Thuringian
forest;  the Westerwald, with the Sieben-
gcbirge; the Hundsriick, with the Hoch-
wald; and the Eifel, a continuation ofthe
Ardennes. The rivere are mentioned be-
low. The  climate is, on die whole, variable,
and severe rather than mild and wann;
yet, in  the valleys of  the Nahe,  Moselle,
Saar and the Rhme, it is very fine.  Since
1815, the monarchy has been divided into
ten provinces and seven military  districts.
The provinces are subdivided into two or
three governments, of which the smallest
in point of population contains 148,948
inhabitants, and the largest in this respect,
that of Breslau, contains 942,307 inhabit-
ants.  A government is under the control
ofa president and a number of counsel-
lors and assessors, who have  the charge
of every thing except the  administration
of justice.   Each province has a high-
president  The ten provinces are as fol-
lows :—
                             Inhabitants
                              in 1828.
  Brandenburg,.........1,539,602
  Pomerania,..........  877,555
  SUesia,.............2,396,551
  Saxony,............1,409,388
  Westphalia,..........1,228,544
  Cleves-Berg,.........1,075,025
  Lower Rhine.......... 1,127,297
  East Prussia,.........1,216,154
  West Prussia,.  . .  •......  792,207
  Posen,............. 1,064,506

Neufchatel has 51,580.  Though the geo-
graphical character and financial resources
of Prussia were much improved by the
peace of Paris, the first still gives rise  to
many inconveniences.  Prussia has  an
unguarded frontier from  Seidenberg,  in
Upper Lusatia, to  Wittichenau; an open
frontier towards Russia (as a Russian ar-
my may, at any time, come within three
days' march of Breslau, and to fortify the
Prosna  would cost  millions), and  her
Rhenish provinces compel her to keep
up always a strong military force in the
direction of France—all which shows,  if
we may use the phrase, the artificial ex-
istence of Prussia, her unnatural position.
Prussia can only partially overcome these
disadvantages by immense expense; and
nothing but the establishment ofa general
government for the whole of Germany
can afford an adequate barrier against the
threatening  power of Russia.  Prussia,
which has but a third part ofthe popula-
tion of France, has yet 712 miles more of
frontier.  At one  extremity she touches
the gates of the French  fortress Thion-
ville  on the Moselle, while the other  is
watered by the Memel and the  Niemen,
and we seek in vain for a body to unite the
two arms, which are connected only by
the double military road running through
Hanover.  There  are, properly speaking,
three Prussias, one in Poland, one in Ger-
many,  one between  the Meuse and the
Rhine.  The kingdom has three vulner-
able  parts, towards Russia, Austria, and
France; hence its situation is dependent.
The  commerce is various, yet would be
much greater if  those coimtries  which 
388
PRUSSIA.
now form  Prussia  formed part of one
great state, comprising all  Gennany, be-
cause her trade with the interior of Ger-
many is now obstructed.  The Prussian
territory extends 522 miles on the  Baltic,
anel has  several bays and  ports.  Its in-
land trade is promoted by the rivere Oder,
Vistula, Elbe and Saale (the two latter of
which are connected  by seven  canals
with the  two former), the Rhine, and also
the Memel, Pregel, Warta, Netze,  Havel,
Spree, Weser, Ems,  Ruhr, Lippe  and
Moselle, which either flow through Prus-
sia, or belong  entirely to it.  There are
rich  lands along the  banks of most of
these rivers.  The  mineral treasures of
the  country,  which  are   considerable,
with the  exception  of the  nobler metals,
are much  wrought.  Amber is  found
almost exclusively on the coast of Hinder
Pomerania  and East  Prussia.   Cattle
of all  kinds are raised: horses are bred
chiefly in East Prussia.  Agriculture and
the raising  of sheep (Prussia  has more
than 15,000,000 of sheep) have attained a
high degree of perfection.  Manufactures
are carried on in the mountainous part of
Silesia, in Ravensberg, the Mark, Berg, and
the other Rhenish  provinces,  chiefly of
articles of domestic production; for ex-
ample, manufactures of linen, amounting,
in Silesia, annually to 11,000,000 of Prus-
sian dollars  (above 7,400,000 Spanish), of
wool  (in Silesia, Brandenburg, Saxony,
the Lower Rhine, Aix-la-Chapelle, Burt-
scheid, Stolberg, &c), and manufactures
of various kinds of hardware.  Iron and
steel  wares are  largely  made  at Berlin,
Solingen, Remscheid,  Iserlohn.   The
value of  all these manufactures was esti-
mated, in 1804, at 51,000,000, and, includ-
ing all sorts of articles for consumptions,
at more  than 85,000,000 of Prussian dol-
lars,* and  this year may  be taken as a
standard.  Dantzic, Stettin, Konigsberg,
Memel, Elbing, Pillau, Colberg, Stralsund
and  Swinemunde  (q.  v.) are  seaports,
some of them not unimportant.  Though
Prussia employed many thousand  sailors
before the introduction of the continental
system, yet  it  has no navy to protect its
commerce;  and some forced attempts of
die government to carry the Prussian flag
to distant parts of the world, have by no
means tended to the benefit of commerce.
By a law of Sept. 21, 1821, a small coin
(silver grosh|,  of which thirty make one
Pmssian  dollar,  was introduced.   Gov-
ernment  gain  by it fourteen per cent.—
Most of the inhabitants of Prussia are Lu-
  * A Prussian dollar is equal to about sixty-
eight cents of our money.
therans:  the  reigning family are Calvin-
istic. In 1824, the king introduced a new
liturgy, which, in 1825, 5343 of the 7782
evangelical churches in the Prussian mon-
archy  had accepted.  According to the
concordate with the pope, in the bull De
Salute  Animarum, of July  16, 1821. the
bishops of Munster, Treves and Pader-
bom are under the archbishop of Cologne,
and the bishop of Culm is under the arch-
bishop of Gnesen and Posen.   The bish-
oprics of Breslau and Ermeland are under
no archbishop.  The eight chaptere elect
their bishops; the pope confirms the elec-
tion, and the chapters inquire, before the
election,  whether the persons  proposed
for  their votes would be agreeable to the
king.   The members of the chapters are
elected by the pope in  the months one,
three,  five, seven, nine, eleven;  in the
other months by the bishop.  In the first
case, respect  is paid to the wishes of the
king; in the latter, the election is subject
to the royal confirmation.  The following
orders  of knighthood exist in  Prussia:
the order of the Black Eagle, founded in
1701, at  the coronation of Frederic I,
consisting of but one class; the  order of
the Red Eagle, originally an order of the
house of Anspach and Baireuth, and con-
firmed in 1791, by Frederic William 11,
and, in 1810, divided into three  classes;
the  Louisa order, founded in 1814, for
females;  the  order  of Merit, founded in
1740;  that of the Iron Cross, with two
classes, for those who fought in the cam-
paigns of 1813—15; the order of St. John,
besides various other honorary designa-
tions, medals, crosses, &c.  In 1823, the
king established provincial estates  both
where  they had previously existed, and
where  they had not.  This was to pass
for a fulfilment of his  promise made in
1815, to give a constitution to  his people,
but was, in fact, an  evasion and a mock-
ery.  The  estates consisting of nobility,
citizens and peasants, have the right to
give their ophiion when they are consult-
ed, and in questions relating to taxation,
they are  always to be consulted; but in
no case is their opinion binding on the
government  Though Prussia  is an ab-
solute monarchy, all pereons  are equally
subject to the laws,  and justice is impar
tially administered (except in the case of
accusations for political offences); all are
equally bound to do mihtary duty,  and
the way to office is nominally open to all.
Feudal services were abolished or render-
ed redeemable by  the  edict of Oct. 9,
1807, which must be considered as a con-
sequence ofthe principles introduced by 
PRUSSIA.                              389
the French revolution.  The internal or-
ganization ofthe state rests on the edict
of Oct. 9, 1707, and the administration
was settled by the law of April 30,1815.
A general presides over  each military
division, and a high president (Oberprasi-
dent) over  each  province.  The conduct
of public affaire belongs to the govern-
ments ; the administration of justice to the
high courts of the country (Oberlandes-
gerichte). Each " government" has a pres-
ident and two chief divisions, the firet of
which attends to the police, the  estates,
the mihtary, and the general affairs ofthe
government, and is under the minister of
the interior.  The second division, under
the minister ofthe police, has the charge
of all financial affairs.  Each province  is
divided into  circles, superintended by a
counsellor (Landrath), the organ of both
divisions.  The  high presidents are per-
manent deputies of the ministere.  To
them are intrusted all those matters of
political  regulation, whose effect cannot
be restricted to  a single  government; in
particular, they are the presidents  of the
consistorial and  medical  authorities, and,
at the same time, presielents of the gov-
ernment in the capital of the province.
At the head of the state stands the mon-
arch, who issues through his " privy cabi-
net"  cabinet orders,  signed  by himself.
March 30, 1817, a council of state was
established: it  is the highest deliberative
authority, but has no part in executive
business.   It examines all plans,  propo-
sals, grievances, &c.  The king presides,
or the chancellor of state, or a member tem-
porarily substituted.   In  1819, this coun-
cil consisted of sixty-six persons, including
the  princes.  Under the  " ministiy of
state" (consisting of the princa-royal, nine
ministere of state and  six reporting coun-
sellors) stand immediately the privy state
anel cabinet archives, the high committee
of examination, and the board of statistics.
The ministiy of state  consists of,  1. the
ministry ofthe royal household; 2. of for-
eign affaire; 3. of justice; 4. of finances;
5. of manufactures, commerce and public
works; 6. ofthe army; 7. the interior and
the police; 8. of ecclesiastical affairs, ed-
ucation  and  health ;  9.  of  accounts
(StaatsbuchhaUerei). Independent of these
is the general  post-office.  The general
directory of foreign commerce has formed
a separate department since 1820.  The
same is  the  case with the chief bank at
Berlin.  (For the Prussian law, and the
administration of justice, sec the end of
this article.)  The Prussian government
has fulfilled its pecuniary obligations with
                  33*
scrupulous exactness:  thus it  behaved
honorably in its new provinces to the pub-
lic creditors, who were so  long ill-treated
under the confederation, and acknowledg-
ed the whole debt in  Westphalia, which
had been reduced to a third by the king
of Westphalia.  The  reigning  house in
Prussia  is  the  house  of  Hohenzollem.
The present king is Frederic William III
(q. v.) His son, the prince-royal, Frederic
William, was born Oct. 15, 1795.  Ofthe
previous kings,  Frederic  I died  1713,
Frederic William I  in  1740, Frederic II
(the Great) in 1786,  Frederic William II
in 1797.—History of Prussia.  The Teu-
tonic knights received, in 1226, a strip of
land on  the Vistula from Conrad of Maso-
via (see Poland), in  order that they might
protect Poland from the heathen inhabit-
ants of Prussia.  From 1230 to 1283, they
carrieel  on a war of  extermination with
eleven Prussian tribes.  These at last be-
came Christians, and adopted the German
customs.   The  power of the  Teutonic
knights  increased rapidly,  and, in the fif-
teenth  century,  their  territory  extended
from the Oder, along the Baltic, to the bay ol
Finland, and contained cities like Dantzic,
Elbing,  Thom, Culm, &c. About 1404,
they ruled over 2,500,000  of people,  and
had an  annual income of 800,000 marks.
But the knights became tyrants, and the
nobility and cities had no means of escap-
ing their oppression but by submitting to
Poland.   A  terrible war  ensued, from
1454 to  1466, and the country was filled
with bloodshed and devastation. In 1511,
the knights elected Albert of  Branden-
burg, son ofthe margrave of Anspach, to
the office of grand master, with a view of
strengthening  themselves.  In  1525, the
order was abolished entirely in Prussia,
and  its  territory  was  converted into an
hereditary duchy, under prince Albert and
bis male descendants or brothers, as a fief
of Poland.  The republic of Poland ac-
knowledged the sovereignty ofthe elector
of Brandenburg in  the duchy of Prussia
by  the  treaty  of Welau,  Sept  19, 1657.
Towards other  powers,   and  especially
Sweden, the great elector Frederic Wil-
liam (q. v.) also maintained a respectable
attitude.  His son Frederic III placed the
royal crown upon his head, Jan. 18, 1701,
as" Frederic I, thereby elevating  Prussia
Proper  to a kingdom.  Vanity probably
led him to take this step, but, under him,
the monarchy increased in territory, and a
desire  for further  increase—a  necessary
consequence ofthe  scattered condition of
its component parts—and the assumption
of a station winch required augmented 
390                              PRUSSIA.
power to support it—became an early, and,
it may be said, a ruling trait of Prussian
policy, and the desire is still strong, for
the original motive still  remains.  Fred-
eric William  I  (q. v.) received Stettin in
1720, by the peace of Stockholm, and also
Prussian Gueldres.   He was a tyrannical
soldier, but sagacious, a friend of justice
when it did not interfere  with  his caprices
or plans. His  desire to keep on foot a stand-
ing army of 60,000 men, led  him to the
enlisting of foreigners.  He  was  frugal,
and under him began the system so much
developed by Frederic II, of making the
internal government as much as possible a
machine.  His  love of justice not unfre-
quently led him to infringe the indepen-
dence  of the judiciary.   With many re-
sources which waited only for develope-
rnent, Prussia came to Frederic the Great,
who made it one of the first powers  of
Europe.   Claims upon  parts of Silesia
were used as  a pretext for the invasion of
that province.  After  several ware, he re-
mained in possession  of the chief  part of
it  East Friesland was united with Prus-
sia in 1743.   From the year 1763, Fred-
eric's chief care was  directed to the inter-
nal government, almost  all the  branches
of which  he improved;  but the  great
number of ttoops which  he kept on foot
induced him  to make the increase  of rev-
enue the chief object of his government,
and the whole system of internal admin-
istration was regulated  widi a view to
make it a productive machine.  Square
miles and population  were then the meas-
ure of power and happiness in the policy
of the European cabinets; the firet parti-
tion of Poland, in 1772, was  the  conse-
quence ; aud, from  that time, Prussia sac-
rificed Poland to Russia, to secure  its aid
as an ally against Austria.  The monarchy
was almost doubled  under Frederic the
Great.  He left to  his nephew, Frederic
William II, a territory of 71,670  square
miles,  with 5,800,000 inhabitants, and  an
army  of 220,000 men (which, however,
consumed almost four fifths of the reve-
nue  of the state), and a  treasure of 50
million Prussian dollars (about 34  million
Spanish).  Frederic the Great had  no true
love  for his  nation;  his ruling passions
were the love of fame and of power.   He
regarded the Prussian nation as a foreign
general regards the army uueler his com-
mand.  More than any other prince  he
undermineel the German empire, which, it
must be owned, had  become  worse  than
worthless.  He  separated  entirely   the
army  and the citizens—a  system  whose
natural termination was  the punishment
of an insolent nobility on the field of Jena.
Under his  government  industry was  en-
couraged ; the press enjoyed considerable
liberty ; Frederic  was, in general, a lover
of justice.   With him died the principle
which had given motion to the whole sys-
tem, and Mirabeau, in his Histoire secrete,
calls  Prussia pourriture avant maturiti.
His successor, Frederic  William II, was a
profligate and  weak man ; the country
was   badly  governed;   the finances ex-
hausted, and her politics became waver-
ing, because Frederic the Great had ele-
vated her to such a rank among the Euro-
pean states, that she was obliged to take a
prominent part in the most  important af-
fairs of the continent; but after she  had
lost the aid of his genius, she had not suffi-
cient  power to act independently.  This
wavering character continued for a long
series of years.  With Frederic the Great,
also, or, at least, under him, began a  sin-
gular  contradiction  in  Prussian politics.
While her government  promotes  with
great  liberality the diffusion of knowledge,
and manifests a real enthusiasm for sci-
ence,  and several of her most eminent
public men are  among the friends of free
institutions,  yet histoiy finds  her siding
with  Russia, and, of late, also, with Aus-
tria, all three opposing with a  vain olisti-
nacy  the irresistible progress of liberty.
At Reichenbach  (q. v.), in  1790, Prussia
appeared as mediator in the peace with
the Porte,  and in August,  1791, became
connected again with the court of Vienna
by the convention of Pilnitz. (q. v.)  The
profligate extravagance  of the court of
Frederic William II required large sup-
plies of money  ; and Prussia and Russia
seized upon the remainder of Poland, un-
der the  pretext  of putting down Jacobin-
ism, although Frederic  William had as-
sented to the new Polish constitution of
May 3, 1791.   The  cabinet,  which sur-
rounded the imbecile king,  was without
principle; it took  possession of the terri-
tory of Nuremberg; it shared, in 1793 and
1795,  in the partitions of  Poland,  and
made a secret treaty (August 5,1796) with
France.  After many  inconsistent  steps
caused by her artificial  situation,  Prussia
resolved upon the maintenance of a strict
neutrality, which,  in the state of Europe
at that  time, was impossible.  In 1803,
France occupied Hanover. In 1805,whena
third coalition was forming against France,
Prussia wavered  more  than ever.  The
emperor of Russia,  Alexander, appeared
at Berlin, and brought about the conven-
tion of Potsdam, Nov. 3,1805; but, after the
battle of Austeriitz, Pmssia sought for 
PRUSSIA.
391
  peace,  and concluded with  France the
  treaties of Dec. 15, 1805, at Vienna, and
  of Feb. 15, 1806, at Paris.   April 1, 1806,
  she was obliged to occupy Hanover, and
  was severely reproached by Fox.  After
  Napoleon had concluded the confederacy
  of the  Rhine,  Pmssia thought  herself
  called upon to form a counterpoise against
  France ; but she could not effect a confed-
  eracy ofthe states of Northern Gennany.
  A war ensued, and a single battle—that of
  Jena, Oct. 14,1806—disclosed to the world
  the rottenness of the system of Frederic
  the Great (to rest the whole power of the
  state on the army, and to separate the
  army as much as possible from  the citi-
 zens, by taking for soldiers foreigners, and
  for officers  noblemen only, whose arro-
 gance has never been surpassed, and had
 no solid basis, not even that of large prop-
 erty).   The peace of Tilsit,  July 9, 1807,
 reduced Prussia to half  its former dimen-
 sions, and this half had to support 150,000
 French  soldiers  until  December, 1808,
 and to pay 120 millions of francs; French
 garrisons remained in  the  fortresses of
 Stettin, Kiistrin and Glogau.  The minis-
 ter Von Stein (at the head of affaire since
 Oct 5,1807,) strove to  regenerate Prus-
 sia, and, though  he was a  most uncom-
 promising enemy of France,  established
 by the edict of Oct. 9,1807, new relations
 between the landlords and the cultivators,
 and  introduced  several results  of the
 French  revolution.  The  peasants were
 to be in future free, and might become
 owners of the soil; and, Nov. 19, 1808, a
 municipal constitution, called the Stadte-
 ordnung, was  established, by  which the
 minister Stein seems to  have intended to
 lay the foundation of a civil spirit, and to
 adapt  the  state of  Pmssia  to the spirit
 of the age.*  In 1808, Stein was  obliged
 to leave  Germany, in consequence of the
 persecutions  of the  French.  June 6,
 1810, baron Hardenberg was placed at the
 head of  the government as state-chancel-
 lor.  His administration is a  most impor-
 tant one for Prussia.   (See Hardenberg.)
 The continuance  of French oppression,
 instead of weakening Prussia, strengthen-
 ed her to a degree which would have been
 thought  impossible.  Her energy broke
 forth with a wonderful effect in 1813,
 when the king called on " his people" to
shake off the French yoke.  The nation

  * The Stadteordnung gives the cities the con-
trol of their  pecuniary affairs, and, in some
measure, of their police.  It was revised in 1831,
and extended to cities acquired since its intro-
duction.  It does not, however, confer much real
liberty.
 was then in a state of excitement, which
 the government gladly made use of, but
 did not understand, or, if it did under-
 stand, labored to check as soon as the oc-
 casion  for  turning it to profit had passed
 by.  We have given, in  the firet division,
 Statistics,  &c.  of Prussia, the  increase
 which  this monarchy received from the
 Vienna congress.  Its political  station  is
 much the same as it was before 1806,
 though Prussia has become more influen-
 tial than it wns during the reign of Fred-
 eric William II, and is closely connected
 with Austria  and Russia, and instead  of
 rallying round her the constitutional por-
 tion of Germany, and making herself the
 champion of order and  civil  liberty  in
 that  country, she shuts her eyes to the
 noble opportunity, and joins to the barba-
 rous might of Russia and the withering
 despotism of Austria the light of science
 and civilization, and thus, in case of a
 general war, will compel  the  constitu-
 tional states of Germany again to join
 France.
   Administration  of Justice  in Prussia.
 At the head of it is the minister of justice,
 whose  office extends to the organization
 of the whole department, all the appoint-
 ments in the same, &c, and to  decisions
 in cases unprovided for,  and the remedy-
 ing of what appeare defective or contra-
 dictory by  the  authority of the  king.
 Under  him, in the  ancient Prussian do-
 minions, are the high courts of the coun-
 try (Oberlandesgenchte);  under these the
 lower courts, particularly  the  inquisito-
 riats, which  have  charge of  criminal
 cases; the country and town courts; royal
 "justice-offices," courts of the mediatized
 princes, counts  and barons, patrimonial
 courts; commissioners of justice  (advo-
 cates) and notaries.  There are also ec-
 clesiastical and commercial courts.  Since
 the new organization of justice  in Prus-
 sia, it has always been the plan to appoint,
 even for courts  of the firet instance, sev-
 eral judges with  collegiate  power, for all
 cases where  the question is one of real
 legal  investigation;  whereas,  in former
 times,  in  Germany, there  was  but one
judge in all the courts ofthe first  instance.
 The same principle lies at the foundation
 of  the  new French organization.  The
judicial system in Prussia is as follows:—
A.  In the German  countries between the
 Rhine and the Weser, the Elbe and Oder,
including  East  Prussia, there is a con-
siderable variety in the courts of the first
 instance, particularly in Silesia and West-
 phalia, on account of the many lordships
 and principalities which have independent 
392                               PRUSSIA.
courts ofthe first instance:  some of them
even possess courts of  the  second in-
stance.  In the Catholic parts of the coun-
try there are, also, the ecclesiastical courts
of the  archbishops  and bishops.   The
courts  of the second instance comprise
sixteen  high courts  of  the  country, of
which the one at Berlin is called court of
the chamber (Kammergericld).   These are
permanent courts, and  all the  time in
session.  Every high court  ofthe country
is divided into two senates (three only ex-
cepted), of which the second  forms gen-
erally  the  court  of appeal,  and at the
same time attends to affaire of guardian-
ship, &c.  The division into senates exists
also  for  criminal  cases.  These  high
courts of the country consist of 330 pres-
idents,  counsellors  and  assessors  (all
judges).   Above  them stands the privy
supreme tribunal at Berlin,  as a court of
revision  for important cases.  Civil cases,
according to the ancient German custom,
pass successively  through  three  courts,
criminal cases through two;  but all de-
cisions in  important criminal cases are
sent  to  the minister of justice, and gen-
erally are laid by him before the Kammer-
gericld for  its opinion.   For the conduct
of investigations there is a division, called
Inquisitonat, in the high  courts of the
country.   This  organization  exists  in
East  and  West Prussia,  Brandenburg,
Pomerania, Silesia,  Saxony,  Westphalia,
and  Juliere-Cleves-Berg.    B. The prov-
ince of Posen had, during the  existence of
the duchy of Warsaw, a judicial organiza-
tion  entirely French, which, with certain
modifications, has been  retained by the
ordinance of Feb. 9, 1817.  There are in
that province thirty-one courts ofthe peace,
for much the same objects as  the French
courts of this sort, namely,  to effect com-
promises, to decide in actions for the re-
covery  of small debts, contracts of hire,
insults, &c.  As courts of the second in-
stance for cases decided by  the justices of
die peace, and ofthe firet instance for oth-
er cases, there are seven " country courts"
(Landgerichte),  corresponding  to  the
French tribunaux de premiere  instance. In
some cases, the oral pleading has been re-
tained in civil cases, but with an extension
ofthe power ofthe judge, and a curtailing
of the irregular writing, which the French
process  permits to the advocates.  (See
Process.)  For criminal cases there are
four inquisitoriats, entirely in the Prussian
form.  A high court of appeal at Posen,
with two presidents and eight counsellors
(judges), forms the  court  of highest in-
stance in all cases.  The  first appeal is
made from one countiy court to another J
so that these courts  exercise mutually an
appellate  jurisdiction over  each  other.
The high  court of appeal is not merely a
court of cassation (q. v.), but goes  into a
consideration of the whole  case, and de-
cides it upon the merits.  The courts of the
peace consist of a judge and an assessor
(assistant). The country courts comprise
sixty-two  presidents, directors, counsellors
and assessors.  C. In the province of the
Lower Rhine, the French administration
has  been retained  entirely,  as well in
respect   to   the  organization  of  the
courts  as to  the nature of the process.
(Only the Eastern  Rhenish part  of the
district of the country court of Coblentz
has the Prussian organization.)  In this
province, there are 123 courts ofthe peace.
Above them stand six countiy courts, with
ninety-one presidents, counsellors and as-
sessors.    The  court of second  instance
(in regard to courts ofthe peace the third)
is the Rhenish court of appeal,  with two
presidents, twenty-six counsellors, and two
assessors.  There are in these courts, col-
lectively,  thirty-three advocates  of the
crown.  At Aix-la-Chapellc, Coblentz, Co-
logne, Crefeld, Elberfeld and Treves are
commercial courts.   Appeals of cassation
(q. v.) go to the court of cassation at  Ber-
lin.  D. The principality of Neufchatel
and Valingin has its own ancient judicial
system.   The lower judicial  authorities
are the mayors and  castellans; the  higher
are two sovereign  courts,  in  which the
governor  presides,  and  to which  each
estate (nobility, officers and communities)
sends four members. The supreme tribu-
nal at Berlin is the highest court of justice
for that part ofthe Prussian monarchy, in
which  the Prussian judicial system pre-
vails. It decides only as the highest court
of appeal, the court of third instance, in
causes in  which the amount in dispute is
at least 2000 German dollars, with the ex-
ception  ofa few kinds of cases which be-
long to it, without regard to the amount,
and of some which  are excepted from its
juriseliction, without regard  to the amount.
It acts only on the reports carried up to it
from the  lower courts, and, whenever a
disputed fact remains  to be settled, the
cause is sent back to  the  inferior court.
The numerous other courts, which possess
final jurisdiction, have  prevented this tri-
bunal from contributing so  much to give
completeness and uniformity to the juris-
prudence ofthe country, as other supreme
tribunals in other countries; for example,
the parliament of Paris, the court of cassa-
tion, the court of the imperial chamber, 
PRUSSIA-PRUSSIC ACID.
393
 the Roman rota, &c  The regulation of
 the  judicial system  has hitherto  fallen
 principally to the minister of justice. The
 supreme tribunal, in the year  1824, con-
 sisted of a president (bearing the rank of
 minister)  and  twenty  counsellors, who
 were chosen from the most distinguished
 members of the supreme tribunals of all
 the provinces.  In addition to these, there
 was established, in 1819, for the adminis-
 tration of justice in the Rhenish provinces
 of Prussia, a court of revision and cas-
 sation at Berlin.   For the grand duchy of
 Posen there is a supreme court of appeal,
 consisting of a president and eight  coun-
 sellors at  Posen.    Swedish Pomerania
 also has its old system  of justice, a court
 of five members, and a supreme court of
 appeal, composed ofa president and three
 counsellors, both established at Greifswald.
   Prussian  Code  (Allgemeines  Landrecht,
 that is, universal law ofthe countiy, called
 also, sometimes, by foreigners,  Codex Fri-
 dericianus).  All the kings of Prussia and
 Brandenburg, since the elector Frederic
 William of Brandenburg, have zealously
 endeavored to improve the system of law
 and legislation; but  none of them have
 understood so  thoroughly the  real  wants
 of the people, and none have  had such
 success as king Frederic II, who was, in a
 great many respects, a benefactor  to his
 country.  Immediately after the conclu-
 sion of his first war, he gave to the  courts
 a more  simple and efficient constitution.
 The minister of justice (high-chancellor),
 Samuel V.  Cocceji, a celebrated lawyer,
 began a  Corpus Juris  Fridericianum, in
 which the Roman law was brought into a
 natural order, general principles laid down
 and  conclusions  deduced,  all  subtleties
 and fictions, and all rules not applicable to
 the  state of Germany, excluded, and all
 doubtful laws  settled (1st part 1749, 2d
 part 1751).   But this essay embraced only
 a small part of the system of law; and,
 although it was introduced in some prov-
 inces, still  the  proposed end was not yet
 attained.  After Cocceji's death (1755), his
 constitution of the courts fell into disuse,
 and the design of making a new code of
 laws was for the  time  abandoned.  But,
 in 1780, under the superintendence ofthe
 minister Von Carmer, the formation of a
code was undertaken, and prosecuted with
 unceasing activity.  It  was not intended
 to make an entirely new code of laws, but
to supply the defects  of the existing sys-
tem.  The Roman law was,  therefore,
taken as the foundation  of the work.  To
each  passage  was  prefixed  the  place
which it should occupy in the code, or the
ground  on  which  it was rejected,  and
whatever the new institutions made neces-
sary was added according to the prevailing
law.  This code was published from 1784
to 1788, in six parts.   The opinions of
those who understood  the subject were
requested, and prizes offered for the  best
commentaries on it; and the whole  was
completed  in June,  1791, under the  title
" General  Prussian  Code."  Some slight
faults which were pointed out having been
corrected, it was  promulgated  June  1,
1794, under the title Allgemeines Land-
recht. The work has, from the first, held
a high rank, and only one distinguished
voice has been raised against it, that of
John George Schlosser, in his Five Letters
on  Legislation, and particularly  on the
Plan  of the Prussian  Code (Frankfort,
1789—90, 2 parts), which, on the whole,
take the same ground  as Von Savigny
has lately done (Ueber den Berufunserer
Zeit zur Gesetzgebung, Berlin, 1815),* op-
posing all  modern  codes.  The reforms
which have been effected since 1808 have
greatly added to its value,  and the efforts
for its improvement are still  continued.
Among the commentaries  should  be  dis-
tinguished F. H. von Strombeck's Supple-
ment to the General Code for the Prussian
States (Leipsic, 1824, 2 vols.).
  Prussia Proper includes the two prov-
inces of East and  West  Prussia.   East
Prussia  is mainly made  up of the former
duchy of Prussia, and West Prussia is a
part of Poland, which  was taken in the
partitions.  Konigsberg is the capital of
East Prussia.  Dantzic and Marienwerder
are the  most important places of West
Prussia.
  Pbussian Blue.   (See Blue, Prussian,
aud Prussic Acid.)
  Prussic Acid, or Hydrocyanic Acid,
is procured by the following process:
To a quantity of powdered prussian blue,
diffused in boiling water, let red oxide  of
mercury be added in successive portions,
till  the  blue color  is destroyed.  Filter
the liquid, and concentrate till a pellicle

  * This work of Mr. von Savigny, whose objec-
tions against the aptitude of our time, not to make,
but to compile codes, we by no means share, nor
even consider very profound, is, nevertheless,
highly interesting, as might  have been expected
from the  reputation of the author.  We recom-
mend its perusal with reference to the history  of
the code  here in question.   It sets in a striking
light the  extreme care with which the Prussian
code was drawn up, in which respect it is much
distinguished from the French  and Austrian
codes. Savigny's work has been translated under
the title On the Aptitude of the present Age for
Legislation and Jurisprudence, by a Barrister of
Lincoln's Inn (London). 
394
PRUSSIC ACID.
appears upon its  surface.  On cooling,
crystals of prussiate (or cyanide) of mer-
cury will make their appearance. These,
after  drying,  are  put  into  a tubulated
glass  retort,  to  the beak of which is
adapted a horizontal tube, about two feet
long, and  fully half an inch wide at its
middle  part.   The first third part next
the retort is  filled with small pieces of
white marble, the rest with fused muriate
of hme.  To the  end of this  tube is
adapted a small receiver, which is im-
mersed in a freezing mixture.  Pour on
the crystals in the retort, muriatic acid in
rather less quantity than is sufficient to
saturate the  oxide of  mercury which
fonned them.  Apply a very gentle heat
to the retort.   Prussic acid will be evolv-
ed  in vapor, and  will  condense in the
tube.  Whatever muriatic acid may pass
over with it will be detained by the mar-
ble, while the water wUl be absorbed by
the muriate  of lime.  By means  of a
moderate  heat applied to the tube, the
prussic  acid may be made to pass suc-
cessively along;  and, after having been
left some time in contact with the muri*
ate of lime, may be driven over into the
receiver.  As  the carbonic acid, evolved
from marble by the muriatic, is apt to car-
ry  off some of the prussic  acid, care
should be taken so as to prevent the  dis-
tillation  of this  mineral acid.   Prussic
acid,  thus obtained, has  the  following
properties: it is  a colorless liquid, pos-
sessing  a  strong odor, somewhat resem-
bling that of peach blossoms; and the
exhalation, if incautiously inhaled, may
produce sickness or fainting.  Its taste is
cooling  at firet,  then hot, asthenic in a
high degree, and a true poison.  Its spe-
cific gravity, at  44£°, is 0.7058; at 64°,
0.6969.  It boils at 81d°, and congeals at
about 3°, becoming crystallized with the
fibrous form of nitrate of ammonia.  The
cold which  it produces,  when reduced
into vapor, even at the temperature  of
68°, is sufficient to congeal it.  This phe-
nomenon is easily produced by putting a
small drop at the end of a slip of paper,
or a glass tube.  Though repeatedly rec-
tified on pounded  marble, it retains die
property of feebly reddening paper tinged
blue with  litmus.   The red color disap-
pears as the acid evaporates.   The vapor
of prussic  acid is 0.9476.  It was analyz-
ed by Gay-Lussac by passing  it through
an  ignited  porcelain tube,  containing
coils of fine iron wire.  No trace of oxy-
gen  could be found in it.  The resplt
was as follows:—
   Carbon,.........., . . .  . 44.39
   Nitrogen,..............51.71
   Hydrogen,.............  3.90
                                100.

This acid,  when  compared with other
animal  products, is distinguished  by the
great quantity of nitrogen it contains, by
its small  quantity  of hydrogen, and the
total  absence of  oxygen.   When  this
strong acid is kept  in well-closed vessels,
even though all  access of the air is pre-
vented, it sometimes undergoes decompo-
sition in less than one hour.   It begins
by assuming a reddish-brown color, which
becomes deeper  and  deeper,  until  at
length it deposits a carbonaceous matter,
which gives a deep color to  both acid
and water, and emits an odor like  that of
ammonia.  When  potassium is heated in
prussic acid vapor,  mixed with hydrogen
or nitrogen, there  is absorption without
inflammation, and the metal  is converted
into a gray, spongy substance,  which
melts, and assumes a yellow color.  Sup-
posing the quantity of potassium employ-
ed  capable of disengaging from water a
volume  of hydrogen equal  to 50 parts,
we find, after the action ofthe potassium,
that the gaseous mixture has experienced
a diminution of volume amounting to 50
parts.   On  treathig this  mixture with
potash, and analyzing the residue by ox-
ygen, we find that  50 parts of hydrogen
have been produced, and, consequently,
that the potassium  has absorbed 100 parts
of prussic acid vapor; for there is a dim-
inution of 50 parts, which would obvious-
ly have been twice  as  great, had not 50
parts of hydrogen been disengaged.   The
yellow matter is pmssiate of potash, prop-
erly a cyanide of potassium, hi analogy
with the chloride aud iodide of potassium,
formed when the vapor of muriatic and
hydriodic acid is made to act upon potas-
sium.  The  base  of prussic acid  thus
divested of its hydrogen, to which it owed
its acidifying quality, is called cyanogen
by Gay-Lussac, in allusion to its being the
basis of the blue color of prussian blue.  It
is obtained by heating the cyanide of mer-
cury in a small glass retort. It soon black-
ens, and melts like  animal matter, at the
same time disengaging the cyanogen in
abundance.  This substance, which is the
true radical ofthe acid under consideration,
is possessed ofthe following properties: It
is a permanently elastic fluid, of a strong
and penetrating odor, and a density, when
compared  with air, of 1.8.  It is inflam-
mable, and bums with an intensely beau- 
PRUSSIC ACID.
395
tiful bluish  flame, bordering on  purple.
It consists of nitrogen 29.654, and carbon
25.418, and is, therefore,  a bicarburet of
cyanogen.   Though a compound body, it
has a remarkable tendency  to combine
with elementary bodies.   Thus it is capa-
ble of uniting with the simple non-metal-
he bodies, and evinces a strong attraction
for the metals.  It enters into direct com-
bination with a few alkaline bases only,
and these compounds are by no means
permanent;  hence it has no claim to be
considered as an acid.  To return to the
properties of prussic  acid, before we de-
scribe the other compounds of cyanogen.
Barytes, heated in prussic acid, yields its
barium  to the  cyanogen of  the acid to
form a cyanuret of barium, while the hy-
drogen ofthe acid and the oxygen of the
earth unite to form water.  Potash  and
soda behave in a sundar manner, as re-
spects  their bases.   Pmssic  acid is the
most violent of all poisons. When a rod
dipped into it is brought hi contact with
the tongue  of an animal, death  ensues
before the rod can be withdrawn.  Doc-
tor Magendie  has,  however, introduced
its employment into medicine. He found
it beneficial against  phthisis and chronic
catarrhs.  His formula is the following:
Mix one part of the pure prussic acid
with 8£  of water by weight.  To  this
mixture he  gives the name of medicinal
prussic acid.  Of this he takes 1 gros, or
59 grs. troy, distilled water 1 lb.,  or  7560
gre., pure sugar li oz., or 708$ grs., and,
mixing the ingredients well together, he
administers a table-spoonful every -morn-
ing and evening.  One ten thousanddi of
prussic acid may  be detected in water, by
the addition ofa few drops of solution of
sulphate of iron.  This test, though deli-
cate, is surpassed by another, in which
copper  is used,  and  which  will detect
one twenty thousandth of prussic acid in
water.  To  employ  it,  we must render
the  liquid  containing the prussic acid
slightly alkaline with potash, add a  few
drops of sulphate of copper, and, after-
wards, sufficient  muriatic  acid to redis-
solve the excess of oxide of copper.  The
liquid will appear more or less milky, ac-
cording  to  the quantity of pmssic  acid
present.   Pmssic acid is formed in a great
many  chemical  operations;  as,  for  in-
stance,  by  transmitting  ammoniacal gas
over ignited charcoal contained in a tube;
as also by heating in  a glass  tube, closed
at one end, a mixture of oxalate of ammo-
nia and oxalate  of manganese.   Pmssic
acid exists  in the  vegetable kingdom.
The  peculiar  smell of  bitter almonds,
peach flowers, and the leaves ofthe lauro-
cerasus, and of other vegetables, is owing
to this substance.  Pmssic acid is often
obtained from the peach and apricot ker-
nels.  The bark ofthe prunus padus con-
tains much of it, and water distilled from
it is capable of killing  animals.  Cyano-
gen unites with oxygen, and  gives rise
to a compound called cyanic acid.   It
consists of cyanogen 26 parts, and oxygen
16.   It crystallizes in oblique rhomboidal
prisms, which are  colorless and transpa-
rent, insoluble in cold water, but are dis-
solved in  hot water, as well  as in the
strong acids.  Its most  remarkable prop-
erty is, that it allows of being boiled with
the strong acids without undergoing de-
composition or change.   With the metal-
lic oxides it forms salts  that do not deto-
nate.  The cyanous acid contains just half
as much oxygen as the  cyanic,  and is
characterized by the facility with which it
is resolved by water into carbonic acid and
ammonia,  and by the  property of deto-
nation, when  in union with the oxides  of
mercuiy  and silver.  It  is, in fact, the
same substance as  the fulminic acid,
which is  essential in the  fulminating
compounds of these metals.  (See Fulmi-
nation, and Fulminating Silver, and Mer-
cury,  under  these  metals  respectively.) ,
We have also two compounds ofthe rad-
ical of prussic acid with chlorine, called
the chloride of cyanogen, and the bichloride
of cyanogen.  The former of these is solid
at 0 of Fahr.  Between 5° and 10° 5', it is
liquid, and also at  68°, under a pressure
of four atmospheres; but, at the common
pressure and temperature, it is a colorless
gas.  In  the  liquid state, it is as limpid
and colorless as water.  It has a veiy
offensive odor,  initates die eyes, and is
highly injurious to animal fife.  It  con-
sists of 36 parts chlorine and 26 of cyano-
gen.  The bichloride of cyanogen  con-
tains twice as much chlorine as the  pre-
ceding compound.   It is solid at common
temperatures; at 284°  it fuses, and boils
at 374°.  Its vapor is acrid, and excites a
flow of tears, and is injurious to life.  Its
odor is similar to that of chlorine.  When
boiled in water, it is converted into muri-
atic and  cyanic acid.  There  is a com-
pound of iodine and cyanogen  of some-
what similar  properties.  It has a caustic
taste and  a penetrating odor.   It is very
volatile, and sustains a temperature above
212°, without decomposition.  Bromide of
cyaiwgen has also  been fonned, and re-
sembles the  last mentioned  compound.
Cyanogen forms an acid compound by a
union with  hydrogen  and iron.   It is 
396                      PRUSSIC  ACID—PRYNNE.
neither  vblatile nor  poisonous  in small
quantities, and is destitute of odor.  It is
gradually decomposed by exposure to the
light, forming prussic acid and prussian
blue.  It decomposes  some salts  of the
more powerful acids:  peroxide of iron,
for example, unites with it  in preference
to sulphuric acid, unless the latter is con-
centrated.  As this acid contams no oxy-
gen, but simply consists of carbon, hydro-
gen, nitrogen and metallic iron, the name
of ferrureted  chyazic acid (chyazic, from
the initials of carbon, hydrogen and azote)
has been proposed;  but  the term ferro-
cyanic acid is more  generally  employed.
Ofthe salts formed by this acid, the most
important in chemistry is the ferrocyanate
of potash (formerly called the prussiate of
potash).   It is transparent, and  of a beau-
tiful lemon yellow color.  In large crys-
tals, it possesses a certain kind of tough-
ness, and in thin scales, a degree of elas-
ticity.   Its solution  is  not affected by
alkalies, but it is decomposed by almost all
the salts of the permanent  metals.  The
following table presents a view ofthe col-
ors of the  metallic  precipitates thus ob-
tained :—

     Solutions of            Give a
Manganese.....White precipitate.
Protoxide of iron. . (Copious white.
Deutoxide of iron . Copious clear blue.
Tritoxide of iron . . Copious dark blue.
Tin.........White.
Zinc.........    "
Antimony......    "
Uranium......Blood red.
Cerium.......White.
Cobalt........Grass green.
Titanium......Green.
Bismuth.......White.
Protoxide of copper    "
Deutoxide of copper Crimson brown.
Nickel........Apple green.
Lead.........White.
Deutoxide of mer-
   cury
a.,               S    "    passing  to
tellver.......\   blue in the air.
Palladium.....Olive.
Rhodium, platina ? ^r___
   and gold       $None-

Iron, though contained in the ferrocyanic
acid and all its salts, cannot be detected
in them by the usual tests of iron;  for the
liquid tests are fitted  only for detecting
oxide  of iron as existing  in a salt, and
therefore cannot  be  expected  to indicate
the presence of metallic iron, while form-
 ing one ofthe elements of an acid. The
beautiful dye, called prussian blue, Is & fer-
rocyanate of the peroxide  of iron, and is
always  formed when fereocyanic acid or
its salts are mixed in a  solution with a
persalt of iron.  The usual mode of man-
ufacture is by mixing together one part
ofthe ferrocyanate ofpotash, one part of
copperas and four of alum, each previous-
ly dissolved  in  water.   Prussian blue,
mingled with more or  less alumine, pre-
cipitates.  It is afterwards dried on chalk
stones  in a stove.   The  ferrocyanate of
potash employed in the process is prepar-
ed by  heating to redness  dried blood, or
other animal matters, with an equal weight
of pearlash, until the mixture has acquir-
ed a pasty consistence.  The sulphocyanic
acid is  a compound of cyanogen, sulphur
and  hydrogen.   Cyanogen  forms  two
compounds widi sulphur alone, and  one
with selenium.
  Pruth ; a river of Europe, which rises
in Galicia,  in the Carpathian mountains,
and empties into the Danube  below  Ga-
lacz.  By the treaty of Bucharest between
Russia  and the Porte (May 6, 1812), the
Pruth,  from its  entrance  into Moldavia,
was  recognised  as  the boundary of the
two empires, and all that part of Moldavia
lying on the left bank, was ceded to Rus-
sia. In 1711, Peter the Great (see Peter 1),
after three days' disadvantageous fighting
on  the Pruth,  was  surrounded by  the
Turkish forces, and extricated only by a
treaty,  concluded through the prudence
and  promptitude of  the  empress.  (See
Catharine I.)  By  the treaty  of Adrian-
ople (September, 1829) it was stipulated
that the Pruth should continue to form the
boundary between the Russian and Turk-
ish territories.
  Prynne, William, a learned  lawyer and
antiquary, was  bom at  Swanswick, in
Somersetshire, in 1600, and was placed at
Oriel college, Oxford, where he was grad-
uated bachelor of arts, in 1620.  He then
removed to Lincoln's-inn  to study the law,
and became barrister, bencher, and render
of that society.   His attendance upon the
lectures of doctor Preston, a distinguished
Puritan, strongly attached him   to  that
sect, and he began to write as  early as
1627, attacking  the  drinking  of healths,
love-locks, popery,  and  Arminiauisin,
which he deemed the enormities  of the
age.  In 1632,  he published his work
against theatrical exhibitions, entitled His-
trio-Mastix; which, although licensed by
archbishop Abbot's chaplain, yet, in con-
sequence of some reflections upon female
actors, that were construed to  be levelled
at the queen (who had acted in a pastoral 
PRYNNE—PSALM.
397
after the publication ofthe work), brought
a persecution upon the author in the star-
chamber, which condemned him to a fine
of £5000, to be expelled the university of
Oxford and Lincoln's-inn, to  be degraded
from  his profession of the law, to stand
twice in the pillory, losing an ear each
time,  and to remain a  prisoner for life.
Prynne continued writing against prelacy
in prison; until, for a virulent  piece,  en-
titled  News  from Ipswich, he  was again
sentenced by the star-chamber to a fine
of £5000, to lose  the  remainder  of his
ears  in the pillory, and  to  be branded in
each cheek with the letters  S. L. (seditious
hbeller).  This sentence  was  also execut-
ed, and he was removed  for imprisonment
to Caernarvon castle, and afterwards to
the island of Jersey.  His  spirit was not,
however, to be subdued, and he continued
to write until the meeting of parliament
in 1640, when, being chosen representa-
tive for Newport in Cornwall, the house
of commons issued an   order for  his re-
lease.  He  entered  London, with other
sufferers, in triumphant procession, and
petitioned the  commons  for  damages
against his prosecutors.   On the impeach-
ment of Laud, he was employed as chief
manager of the prosecution, and, when
the  parliament became victorious, was
appointed one of the visitors to the uni-
versity of Oxford, where he labored stren-
uously to advance the cause  of Presbyte-
rianism.   He warmly opposed  the Inde-
pendents when they acquired ascendency,
and used all his influence  to produce an
accommodation widi the king, being  one
of the members who were excluded and
imprisoned on that account   With  the
other excluded membere, he resumed his
seat in 1659, and displayed so  much zeal
for the restoration, that general  Monk was
obliged  to check  his impetuosity.   He
sat in the healing parliament as member
for Bath,  and on the restoration was ap-
pointed to the office  of chief keeper of
the records in the Tower.  He occupied
his later yeare in writings connected with
his office in the Tower,  and finished  his
life at his chambers in Lincoln's-inn, in
16Q9.  Prynne was a man  of extensive
learning and indefatigable industry,  but
wanted genius and judgment   His works,
of which  Wood has given  a  catalogue,
amount to 40 volumes,  folio  and  quarto,
the most valuable of which is his Collection
of Records (3 vol?., folio).
  Prytaneum; the building  in Athens,
in which the Prytanes (those senators who
£ resided in turn) held their meetings,  and
  ved at  the  public expense during  the
  vol. x.         34
thirty-five or thirty-six days of their pres-
idency.   The liberty of eating in the Pry-
taneum was one of the highest marks of
honor, and was conferred only on those
who had done important service to the
state. Napoleon established a school in Par-
is under the name of the prytanie, in which
some hundreds of scholars were educated,
mostly at the expense of the state.  They
were  educated together until they were
twelve yeare old, when they were tt-ained
for civil affaire (for which there were five
professors),  or for the military service (for
which there were  three professors).   At
the age of fifteen years, they left this insti-
tution, for the purpose of completing their
education in other seminaries.
  Psalm; in general, a song; in a nar-
rower sense, a sacred song (from the Greek
^aXXtiv, to play on a stringed  instrument,
to sing).  Psalm is used particularly to de-
note the sacred songs which are contained
in the collection of religious  lyric poems
in the Old Testament  They are mostly
ofthe time  of David, or of a  later period,
one only, perhaps (the 90th, the psalm of
Moses), being of more ancient date.  (See
Hebrew Literature.)   David, who arranged
the temple music, not only appointed from
the Levites a considerable  number of
singers and musicians, but also composed
for the divine worship sacred songs, which
served as a model for many others.  Sev-
eral of the  psalms that bear his name are
not,  indeed,  written  by him,  but only
composed in his manner, and therefore
called  by his name.   Seventy-one,  in
particular, are ascribed to him, but some,
even of  these,  are evidently of a later
date.   On  the other hand, the  contents
and style of some  which do  not bear his
name, and  the superscriptions of which
have,  perhaps, been lost,  show  him to
have been the author.  To  his times be-
long most  of the  psalms attributed to
Asaph, Heman, and Ethan or Jeduthun.
Twelve psalms bear Asaph's name, of
which several show traces of a later origin.
Asaph, son of Berachiah, was a Levite, and
(1 Chron. xvi,5) the firet of the chief musi-
cians appointed by David for the divine
worship.  The name of Heman is attached
to one only (the 88th psalm).  Heman, sur-
named the  Ezrahite,  seems to have been
a Levite,  and is named among the chief
singers of David.  Some  of  the  Psalms
were composed by Solomon, who, accord-
ing to the  First  Book of Kings (iv, 32)
wrote "a thousand and five  songs," but
whose name  is affixed, in our collection,
to two only (the 72d and 127th), and of
these the first seems rather to have been 
398
PSALM—PSALMANAZAR.
  written  for Solomon than by him.  But,
  on  the  other hand, some others,  of un-
  known  authors,  may be his; several are
  at least of his time, and refer to  events
  of his reign—the consecration ofthe tem-
  ple, &c.  The opinion  that some  psalms
  are of the time of Samuel, and written by
  the prophet himself, is  supported by  no
  historical testimony, but is not improbable.
  Most of those by unknown authors seem to
  be of later date; some fewapparently belong
  to the reigns of the kings immediately suc-
  ceeding Solomon, several to the mournful
  days of the Babylonish captivity  and  of
  the return, especially those headed " for
  the sons  of Korah," most of which are
  probably by  the same  author.  Of later
  elate,also, are probably those called  "songs
  of the degrees," which some have referred
  to the return from Babylon, others to the
  annual  pilgrimages to Jerusalem and the
  temple, and which others suppose  to have
  been sung on the steps ofthe temple.  Fi-
  nally, a few seem to belong to the age ofthe
  Maccabees. The psalms of David, wheth-
  er actually composed by him, or merely of
  his time, probably  constituted an earlier
  collection, which  extended to  the 72d.
  Those which follow are, for the most part,
  more modern.   Our collection  consists
  of 150 psalms, but the manuscripts are not
  all numbered alike. The  Septuagint and
  Vulgate unite the  9th  and 10th, and the
  104th  and 105th, while  they divide the
  116th and the 147th into two, so that their
  number differs in some respects from that
  of the English  translation.   The Maso-
  rites, without any sufficient reason, divided
  the  whole collection   into  five  books.
  The Psalms are lyric poems, chiefly odes,
  and didactic, elegiac  or idyllic.  (See
  Lowth's Hebrew Poetry.)  Most of them
  are in the form of  prayer, or begin or end
  with  prayer;  and, whether they  utter
  complaint, lamentation  or consolation, are
i. expressive of the  deepest trust in  God.
  Their morality is pure, except in some of
   David's martial or triumphal songs, or
   songs of lamentation, in which we find
   expressions of hate, cruelty, and national
   pride.  But they are all truly national, and
   most of them  of a pure religious  tone.
   They are among the highest and sublimest
  efforts  of poetry; and  the holy light of
   revelation, the inspiring belief in the eter-
   nal ttne God, spreads over them  a bright
   splendor, and fills them with  deep fervor.
   They  must not be compared with  the
   other lyric  productions of  the  ancient
   world; they are  altogether  the  peculiar
   growth of the holy land, where the voice
   of revelation resounded most loudly, and
was preserved the most purely.  Many
of their allusions are  historical, and must
be explained by histoiy; but it would be
going too far to attempt  to explain every
thing historically ; since it is evident that
much  is metaphorical, some,  though a
smaller portion, allegorical, and much pro-
phetical,  referring to the  future, rather
than to the past.  Some, on account of
their local allusions, are less instructive to
us; but most of them are rich in  encour-
agement, consolation,  filial  trust, joyful
confidence in God, evidences of humility
and patience, and are well adapted for the
sacred songs of Christians.  It may be
added that the collection in the Old Tes-
tament by no means  contains the whole
treasure of Hebrew  psalms.   Not only
are the songs of Solomon lost, but there
are many others  mentioned  in  the  Old
Testament which arc not  in our biblical
collection.
  Psalmanazar,  George,  the  assumed
name  of a man of lettere, who  is chiefly
known as a literary  impostor.  He  was
born of Catholic parents, in the  south of
France, in 1679.  His  mother, being aban-
doned  by her  husband,  sent her  son to
a school  kept  by Franciscan friars ; and
he was afterwards placed in a college of
the Jesuits.  He then studied among the
Dominicans, and having finished his edu-
cation, acted as a  private tutor.  Leaving
his situation, he engaged in several adven-
tures ;  and, at length, having stolen from
a church, where it had been dedicated,
the habit of  a pilgrim, he roved about  in
that character,  subsisting on charity.   He
afterwards became a common vagrant,
and then servant to the keeper ofa tavern,
whose house he left clandestinely, and, re-
newing his  wandering  mode of life, he
conceived the project of professing him-
self to be a Japanese convert to Christian-
ity, who  had found  his way to Europe.
As he did not find this scheme very profit-
able, he adopted the character ofa heathen
native of the island  of Formosa, and, in
order to support his  pretensions, he con-
trived  a  new  language, which he called
the Formosan.  At this time he became
acquainted with a clergyman named In-
nes, who, conceiving he could  turn  the
imposture to good account, persuaded the
pretended Formosan  to suffer himself to
be converted to  the  church of England;
and the clergyman and his new disciple
went  to London, where the latter was pre-
sented to bishop Compton and others, and
the former was rewarded for his zeal with
church preferment.    Psalmanazar  had
the effrontery to  translate the  Church 
PSALMANAZAR -PS YCHE;
399
Catechism into  his newly-invented For-
mosan language;  and  he published a
History of Formosa (1704), which passed
through several editions.  In the mean
time he was sent to study at Oxford ; and
a controversy was carried on  between his
patrons and doctor Halley, doctor Mead,
and  some  other less credulous persons,
who refused  to admit  his  pretensions.
The imposture  at length became  clearly
manifest;  and  the  culprit, deserted by
those whom he had deceived, was obliged
to rely on the exercise of his literary  abil-
ities for his support.  He settled in Lon-
don, where  he resided  many yeare, and
was employed by the booksellers, particu-
larly  in the former  part  of  the  Uni-
versal  History, published in  1747.  To-
wards the  close of  his  life, he drew
up an autobiographical Memoir, in which
he  expresses  much  contrition  for  the
deceptions  which he  had  allowed him-
self to practise.  His eleath  took place
in 1763.
  Psalmooy ; the art of writing, or com-
posing, divine  hymns,  or songs.   The
composition and performance of psalmody
appears to have been practised and en-
couraged in  Germany,  France,  and the
Low Countries, long before it was intro-
duced into England.  Most of the old mel-
odies now sung in the service ofthe paro-
chial churches were set by German mu-
sicians, and  it  seems  highly  probable,
from all that can be collected on the sub-
ject, that the practice of psalmody had its
origin in Germany.  It  does not, howev-
er,  appear that even  in  that country it at
first gained admission  into  public  wor-
ship;  but it was a long time confined to
family devotion, especially  among the
reformed.  Luther, who was a good mu-
sician, is known to have  regularly prac-
tised psalmody with  his  friends  eveiy
evening after supper, and is by some sup-
peised to have been the author  of the ex-
cellent melody  of the l&Oth psalm.  The
firet English version ofthe Psalms of Da-
yid, which took place soon after that  of
iIn:  French, was made in the reign  of
lieury VIII, by Thomas Sternholdlq. v.),
groom of the robes to that monarch, and
John Hopkins,  a schoolmaster, assisted by
William  Whittyngham, an  English di-
vine of considerable learning.   Soon after
the  publication of  this  version, vocal
psalmody was introduced into the churcii
service, and various musical manuals ap-
peared for  the  purpose  of facilitating its
practice.
  Psalter ;  a  collection of the  Psalms
(ij. v.); .also a large chaplet or rosary, con-
sisting  of 150 beads, the number of the
Psalms in the Psalter.
  Psaltery, or  Psalterion ; a stringed
instrument  much  used by the ancient
Hebrew^ and by them called nebel.   We
know but little of the uicicnt fonn of this
instrument, but have reason to conclude
that it resembled that of our  harp.   The
psaltery now in use is a flat instrument, in
the fonn of a  trapezium, or a triangle
truncated at top.  It is strong with  thir-
teen wire cords,  tuned in unisons, or oc-
taves,  and  mounted on  two  bridges. It
is performed with a plectrum, whence it
is usually ranked among the instruments
of percussion.
  Psammeticus.  (See Egypt.)
  Psara, or Ipsara (Psyra); an island
of the Grecian Archipelago,  seven  miles
north-west of Scio, about five and a half
miles iu length, and hs  many in breadth.
It consists almost entirely ofa rock, thinly
covered in  some places with a vegetable
mould.  The population is about 400.  It
was settled about a century ago, by a little
band of Greeks, who  fled  thither to
escape the Turkish yoke, and supported
themselves  by fishing.   In 1824,  it was
taken  by the Turks; 600 Psariotes, the
sole remnant  of a population  of  6000
which had perished under the Turkish
scymetar, after defending themselves for
a long time, in a mountain-fortress of the*
island,  buried   themselves  beneath ita
ruins.                                I
   Psecdo  (from the Greek ^cvSos, a false-
hood); a  term  or particle  prefixed  to
names and words,  to denote any  thing
spurious and  false.  Thus we call any
thing which has a  false name, as a book;
written under a  feigned name, pseudony-*
mous.  (See Anonymous.) Pseudo-Smerdis,
the false Smerdis.   (See Persia.)
   Pseudo-Demetrius.  (See Russia.)
   Pseudo-Isidore.  (See  Isidore, Decre-
tals, and Popes.)
   Psyche,  the  twofold signification of
whose name (^vxv, the soul, and a butter-
fly) added  much to the effect of the beau-
tiful  allegory  respecting  her,  was the
daughter of Sol  and Constancy.  Apulei-
us (q. v.)  makes her the daughter of a
king, and relates her histoiy thus: Psyche,
whose two elder sisters were of moderate
beauty, was so lovely, that she was taken
for Venus  herself, aud men  dared only to
adore  her as a goddess, not to love her.
This excited the jealousy of Venus, who,
to revenge herself,  ordered Cupid  to in-
spire her with love for some contemptible
wretch.  But Cupid fell in love with her
himself.   Meanwhile, her  father desiring 
400
PSYCHE—PSYCHOLOGY.
to see his daughter married, consulted the
oracle of Apollo, which commanded that
Psyche  should be conveyed, with funeral
rites, to  the summit of a mountain, and
there be  left, for she was destined to be the
bride of  a destructive monster, in the form
of a dragon,  feared by gods and meu.
With sorrow was the oracle obeyed, and
Psyche was left alone on the  desert rock,
when suddenly  Zephyr hovers  around
her, gently raises and transports  her to a
beautiful palace  of the god of love, who
visits her every night,  unseen and un-
known, leaving her again at the approach
of day.   Perfect happiness  would have
been the lot of Psyche, if, obedient to the
warning  of her lover, she had never been
curious  to know  him  better.   But  by
the artifices of her jealous sisters, whom
she had admitted to visit her,  contrary to
the commands of Cupid, she was per-
suaded  that she held a monster in her
arms,  and  curiosity  triumphed.   As  he
slept, she entered with a lamp to examine
him, and discovered the most beautiful  of
the gods; in  her joy and astonishment,
she let a  drop  of the heated oil  fall upon
his shoulders.  Cupid awoke, and, having
reproached the astonished Psyche  for her
suspicions, fled.  After  having tried  in
vain to   throw herself  into  a river, she
wandered, inconsolable, to all the temples,
seeking every  where her beloved, till she
came to the temple of Venus.  Here be-
gan her  severest sufferings.   Venus kept
her near  her person, treated her as a slave,
and imposed  upon her  the severest and
most trying tasks.   Psyche  would have
sunk under the burdeu, had not  Cupid,
who still  tenderly loved her, secretly assist-
ed her in her labors.  But in  the last dan-
gerous task imposed upon her, to descend
to the realm of shadows, and  bring away
Proserpine's box of cosmetics, she almost
perished.  She succeeded, indeed, in the
adventure; but, having opened the box, a
deadly vapor issued from it, and she sunk
lifeless   to  the earth.   Cupid now ap-
peared,  and the touch  of his arrow re-
stored her to life.   Venus was finally rec-
onciled ;  by Jupiter's command Psyche
became immortal, and was for ever united
with her beloved.   Her marriage was cel-
ebrated  with great festivities, but her en-
vious  sisters threw  themselves  from  a
precipice.  Raphael has  given  a most
beautiful representation  of the marriage,
in the Famesina at  Rome.
  Psychology (from 4>vxn> the soul, and
Xuyoj, doctrine); the science  of the soul,
or the  spiritual principle  in  man.  The
object of this science is to teach the laws
 and relations of the changes and phenom
 ena which take place in the mind during
 the intellectual operations; or to trace the
 causes  of these phenomena, and to dis-
 cover the nature of the  mind and its rela-
 tions to the universe; or, in short, to treat
 of the mind, either as it manifests itself,
 or as it is in itself.  Investigations of the
 latter class,  which have for their object
 that which cannot be discovered by obser-
 vation,  constitute  metaphysical or  tran-
 scendental psychology;  while those of
 the former class,  in which the soul be-
 comes a subject of observation, constitute
 empirical or experimental psychology.
 Empirical psychology may, therefore, be
 defined to be the scientifically conducted
 observation of the operations and changes
 of the human soul.  As a science,  it in-
 cludes all the phenomena of the  intel-
 lectual activity; as the science of the  soul,
 it forms a part of anthropology,  called
psychological  anthropology,  in  distinction
 from  physiology, or physiological  anthro-
pology.   It takes for granted the distinc-
 tion of the spiritual substance (the I, the
 self)  from the body, as  a matter of  con
 sciousness, and does not therefore attemp
 to explain it. It treats of the  mind, in-
 deed, in its operations, and in so far  as it
 is connected  with  the body, but neglects
 the mere physical phenomena.   It is,
 more strictly  than logic, an introduction to
 intellectual philosophy, since logic treats
 only of the laws of reason.  As the de-
 velopernent of the  human mind proceeds
 from  the particular to  the general,  em-
 pirical psychology  is the most proper in-
 troduction to  speculative philosophy; the
 more so, as it makes us acquainted  with
 the spiritual instrument which philosophy
 employs.  In this couree of investigation,
 the subject of attention is merely facts, of
 which every  one is conscious, and which,
 therefore, are intelligible by all, and of
 which a distinct and connected view may
 prevent many errore in philosophical spec-
 ulation.  Again, empirical  psychology is
 applied philosophy; for  it must not  only
 employ the  philosophical  forms in the
 disposition and explanation of facts, but
 also  certain  metaphysical  notions  (as
 power, cause, &c), and requires a philo-
 sophical spirit to give it the character ofa
 science; and it is thus distinguished from
 a  mere  natural history of the soul, the
 developernent of which is  prior in  point
 of time.  The latter merely records the
 facts  in  their natural order, while  psy-
 chology presents them in their connexions,
 and according to the laws which regulate
 diem; and in diis view  it is that part of 
PSYCHOLOGY—PUBERTY.
401
applied philosophy which teaches the or-
ganization of the human soul, according
to the external manifestations of its in-
ward  experience  (consciousness).   (See
Philosophy, and Metaphysics.)
   Ptolemaic System.  (See System of
the Universe.)
   Ptolemais.  (See Acre.)
   Ptolemy ; the common name of thir-
teen Greco-Egyptian kings, who reigned
in Fgypt, from  the death of Alexander till
it became a Roman province (about 290
yeare).  They  are more  properly called
Lagides (since  they did not all bear the
name of Ptolemy), from Lagu.\ the found-
er of the dynasty.  1. Ptolemaeus  Lagi
(i. e.  son of Lagus, a Macedonian; in
reality, the son of Philip), called also Soter,
die Savior (by the Rhodians, on  account
ofthe assistance which he rendered them),
at first governor of Egypt, reigned thirty-
nine years, and died 284 B. C.  He em-
bellished  Alexandria, and founded the li-
brary in that city.   His son and successor,
2. Ptolemy II (Philadelphus), a magnifi-
cent prince, is said to have founded Ptole-
irtais and several cities, and to have built the
Pharus(q. v.), which, however, is by some
ascribed to his father.   He died 247 B. C.
3. Ptolemy Euergetes died 221 B. C.   His
wife was Berenice.  These three first
Ptolemies were, in particular, the patrons
of learning at  Alexandria.  (Concerning
these and the other Ptolemies, see Alexan-
drian School, and Egypt.)  Vaillant wrote a
Historia Ptolemaorum (Amsterdam, 1701,
folio.)
  Ptolemy (properly Ptolemjeus, Clau-
dius), geographer, astronomer and mathe-
matician, bom at Pelusium in Egypt, A. D.
70, lived  at Alexandria during the reigns
of Marcus Antoninus and Adrian, and is
said to have reached the age of eighty
yeare.  He is considered the first astrono-
mer of antiquity.   He corrected Hippar-
chus's catalogue of the fixed stars, and
drew up tables for calculating the motions
ofthe sun, moon and planets.  The  scat-
tered  observations of the ancients were
first collected  by him, and  reduced to  a
system, which  is contained  in his work
MtyaXt, Twralti, 13 books (Basle, 1538, fol.).
The system of  the world which he here
exhibits is known under the name of the
Ptolemaic.  This work was translated into
Arabic about 827, and from this transla-
tion, which  bears the title  Almagest,  a
Latin version was made by the command
of the emperor Frederic II (1230).  There
are also other translations of this work,
from the  Arabic into Latin.  Another im-
portant work of Ptolemy is his Geography
               34*
(in eight books). He followed, in this work,
the geography of Marinus of Tyre, which
appeared not long before; but he enriched
his work with  important additions and
improvements, both in regard to the latitude
and longitude of places, and the bounda-
ries of countries and provinces,  and he is
the firet writer who  sought to determine
the situation of places in  this  way; his
work also contains the firet principles of
the projection  of maps (in Greek  and
Latin, with  maps, by Mercator, 1618).
Although necessarily imperfect, from want
of observations,  it is nevertheless impor-
tant to modem geographers.   Besides
these  principal  works, we have  other
works of Ptolemy, on chronology and
astronomy.
  Puberty ; that period of life  in which
childhood ceases and youth begins.  It is
much earlier in southern countries than in
northern.  In our climate, it is from the age
of thirteen to fifteen in the female sex, and
from fourteen to sixteen in the male, but,
in individual cases, is accelerated or re-
tarded by  various circumstances.   The
physical and intellectual changes which
manifest themselves at this  epoch  are
highly interesting.  The child is occupied
and satisfied with present objects, and all
the functions of the body  appear to ope-
rate merely for the preservation of the in-
dividual, while the sexual organs, which
are destined for the continuance ofthe spe-
cies, and therefore to direct the thoughts
to the future, are yet not  developed for
the performance of their proper functions;
but, at the period of puberty, a sudden
change occurs: the lively  and easily-
pleased boy,  the gay  and sportive  girl,
begin to appear thoughtful and  reserved,
and separate themselves from the childish
plays  in which the two sexes mingle to-
gether ;  the body grows  more rapidly
than before; the sexual parts are devel-
oped ; the breasts become fuller; and, in
both sexes, the voice becomes harsh and
disagreeable  before assuming  the  clear
metallic tone, deep in  man,  high in wo-
man, but in both very different from that of
childhood.   After this crisis is passed,  the
youth  and maiden  appear in  all  their
bloom; they  look upon the  world as if
with new senses; hope shines  over  the
future, in which they live more than in
the present; the region ofthe ideal opens
before them, and they are eager to realize it,
at the greatest efforts.  This period is often
attended with dangerous diseases: in some
individuals, it is retarded or checked in its
developernent, by former maladies, and in
this case the body is generally small and 
402                     PUBERTY—PUBLIC LANDS.
feeble, and the mind perverse; in others,
it  is  attended  with violent symptoms,
which, however, may depend upon acci-
dental causes,  thwarting  nature  in  her
functions.  Excess  of blood,  inflamma-
tions, bleeding, are  among  the common
complaints of this period, arising from the
irritable state of the vascular system; or
the nerves and mind are  too highly ex-
cited,  giving rise to epilepsy, St. Vitus's
dance, &c, or to mental aberrations, mel-
ancholy, enthusiasm,&c. (See Physiology.)
  Public  Debt.  [For  the amount of
die national debt of the different countries
of Europe, see the table in article Europe,
also given, in the early copies, after the in-
dex to vol. v.; for those of the American
countries, see the separate  articles; the
securities  of which   they  consist  are
described  in  the  article Public Stocks.]
The policy of contracting public debts is
good  or bad, according to circumstances.
In general it is not desirable for a govern-
ment, any more than for an individual, to
be in debt; and yet cases will justify  a
nation in drawing on its future  resources.
Iu pressing emergencies,  taxation is not
adequate to the necessary expenditures;
and even if it were adequate,  it may be
better to distribute a part of the burthen
through many successive years, by means
of loans, because the suddenly  levying of
an immense tax might  check the produc-
tive faculties ofthe people; and no wrong
is done to posterity by this, where the ob-
ject of the expenditure is as  important to
die future as to  the present, as  in case of
national defence  or public  works.   We
may add, that  increasing the  means of
public expenditure   usually creates  de-
mand  for  an increased  quantity of the
productsof the country, and thus stimulates
industry.  If, for example,  the  govern-
ment  has a large army  to maintain on its
own territory, and  the products of the
countiy can supply it with arms, clothing,
food,  and all other articles, the army will
be a stimulus to all the kinds of industry
concerned  in affording its  supplies.  It
may even  happen that the very burthen,
or what seems to be one, will,  in such
case, enable the people in general to be
better clothed, fed and lodged, since the
means of a people to produce the luxuries
and comforts of life depend  very materi-
ally upon the facility and  rapidity of ex-
changes of products of different sorts of
labor, and  great public expenditure often
creates a market by increasing consump-
tion, and thus stimulating  industry.   But
if the expenditure employs  only  the in-
dustry of a foreign country, as if an army
is to be maintained abroad by the supply
of articles wholly the product of foreign
industry, there is no  such compensation
for the burthen of the tax.  Another ad-
vantage of public debts is, their affording
a means of  investment,  and thus en
couraging the accumulation of property.
Lands, houses,  banks, canals, mines, and
all  other  species of permanent property,
afford a stimulus to industry and econo-
my, as they offer the means of enjoying,
permanently, the fruits of acquisitions, and
public stocks  have the same effect   An-
other effect ofa public debt is its attaching
the public creditors to the government
But before their number can be sufficient-
ly large to make their aid important to the
government, the national debt must, prob-
ably,  be increased to  an amount that will
render it  burthensome. Among the dis-
advantages arising from the facility of con-
tracting permanent public debts, one is the
facility which  it gives for the canying on
of ware, and the indulging in any other
expenditures.  The wars of Europe, since
the public debt of Great  Britain com-
menced, under William III, are attributed
partly to this cause.  Another disadvan-
tage is, the burthensome taxes, to which
the necessity  of paying the interest of
such a debt, may subject the people.  This
is the operation of the national  debt of
Great Britain,  at the present time.  It  is
impossible to  prevent the burthen of the
taxation from falling, directly or indirectly,
in a very great degree, upon the laboring
and active classes;  and, in Great Britain,
this has become so heavy to the mere la-
borer, who has no capital, thai his wages
will but just support, or will not support,
himself and his family, in the cheapest
manner of living; and  his life becomes
one desperate  struggle against want  and
starvation.
  Public Lands.  The property of the
soil of the whole vast region, compre-
hended within the limits of the U. States,
and not owned by the separate states or
by private individuals, vests in the govern-
ment of the U. States.   From the Atlantic
to the Pacific  ocean,  and between  the
northern and southern boundaries of the
republic, it is calculated that there is con-
tained a superficies of 1,400,000,000 acres.
The political  situation  of the different
parts  of this  superficies is exceedingly
various.  Dividing it  into  four  belts or
strips, parallel (or nearly so) with a merid-
ian  line, the first comprehends the Atlantic
states, in most of which, particularly in the
Middle and Northern states, the land ia
almost wholly  the property of individuals, 
PUBLIC LANDS.
403
and what does  not belong  to individual
  Kroprietore, belongs to the state.  Thus in
  faine there  is a considerable portion of
land belonging to the states of Massachu-
setts  and Maine, and, in Georgia, large
tracts in the occupation of the Cherokee
Indians  are claimed  by  the government
of that state.  The general government
possesses no land in any of the Atlantic
states, except small  portions which have
been ceded for forts, dock-yards, arsenals,
and other like national purposes.   The
second  belt  of  land  westward  compre-
hends the new states and territories ofthe
Union, in all of which, except Kentucky,
there are considerable, in most  of them
large, tracts of public domain ; these states
having been  formed since the revolution,
and their  population settled  on lands
either purchased of the U» States, or still
belonging to them.  The number of per-
sons of the latter class who  thus occupy,
without title,  lands still belonging to the
U.  States, is very  large, exceeding, in
some cases, that of the persons who have
acquired titles.   They  have, however,
generally settled  themselves with the pur-
pose of eventually  purchasing the  land.
The third belt lies westward ofthe organ-
ized states and  territories.   It  compre-
hends  lands  acquired by the Louisiana
treaty, and of which the  Indian  title has
been extinguished by  treaties with several
tribes of Indians.  As there is no organ-
ized civil government, there is no white
population in this region,  except hunters
and vagrants.  On  the southern portion
of this district, west of the territory of Ar-
kansas" and the state of Missouri, the tribes
of  Indians  removed from  the  Atlantic
states,  have been, or  are  proposed to be,
established.   The  fourth belt  compre-
hends  all the remaining district to the
Pacific ocean.  It lies on both sides ofthe
Rocky mountains.  The  U. States have
acquired the  title to it by the Louisiana
treaty (see Louisiana), by the discoveiy
of the coast, and by interior exploration.
The title, however,  to that part of this
region  which  is  west  of the  Rocky
mountains, is contested by Great Britain.
Great Britain claims,  not  that the title  is
in her,  but that the region is unappropri-
ated, and open  to  the first comer.  By
a convention  concluded in 1828, to last
twelve years, it  was agreed between the
U. States and Great Britain, that neither
government would take possession of it  or
occupy it, to the exclusion ofthe other, dur-
ing the period of the convention, which
either  party  might  renounce, on giving
twelve months'  notice to die other.   A
chain of trading posts, belongingto the Brit-
ish North-West Company, extends through
this region, to the mouth of the Columbia
river.  It is also visited by hunters  from
the U. States, but in numbers far less than
those from the British colonies.   The In-
dian title to this whole fourth belt of land
remains unextinguished ; and the soil of
that  part of it lying  east  of the Rocky
mountains, is supposed, for the most part,
to be too sterile to become the residence
of civilized man.  The title to these lands
was the subject of the first great political
controversy that divided the opinions of
the citizens of the U. States, after the dec-
laration of independence.  The ancient
charters of several of  the states extended
from sea to sea, or indefinitely to the west
They consequently crossed each  other,
and  threw the same territory  into the
limits of different states.   This was one
source of dissension; and another was,
that, as the greatest part of the western
region was wholly unsettled, and the war
was  carried on at the common charge, it
was deemed unjust by those states whose
western boundary was  ascertained,  that
they should have  no  interest or share in
the vacant lands.   The discontent of Ma-
ryland on this  subject was so  great  that
she refused to come  into  the confedera-
tion, and delayed  the ratification of that
instrument of government till 1781;  and
when she finally acceded to it, did so with
a reservation of her rights.  The serious
controvereies on this subject were put at
rest  by several acts of cession,  made by
the states interested to the U. States.  New
York set the example, by an act passed
on the 1st of March, 1781.  Virginia fol-
lowed, on the 1st of March, 1784, and her
cession was deemed of the greatest impor-
tance, as her claim extended over a vast
region  (the territory  north-west of  the
Ohio), and had been strengthened by the
military efforts of the colonial government
of Virginia to protect the territory against
the French in the former  wars.   Massa-
chusetts ceded her claim  on the 19th of
April, 1785, and Connecticut here on the
13th of September, 1786.  By these sev-
eral acts of cession, the U. States acquired
an undisputed title to  the territory north-
west of the Ohio. Out of this  territory
have been fomied the states of Ohio, In-
diana and Illinois,  the territory of Michi-
gan, and an extensive territory west of- it,
which it has already been proposed in
congress to organize  under a  separate
territorial government,  Connecticut, in
making her cession, retained a considera-
ble district in Ohio, known by the name 
404
PUBLIC LANDS.
of the "Western  (or  Connecticut) Re-
serve," which was finally ceded to the
U. States in 1800, and by the U. States to
Ohio.   The  foundation  of  the ample
school-fund of Connecticut was laid  in
the proceeds of this reserved tract  North
Carolina made a cession of the  tract of
country now forming  the  state  of Ten-
nessee, in 1789.   It was subject to a great
variety of claims, described in the act of
cession.  In 1806, congress ceded to Ten-
nessee a considerable part of the public
land in that state.   The title to the residue
is still vested in the U. States, but no land-
office has ever been opened by the  gen-
eral government in this state, nor have the
public lands been surveyed and  brought
into market.  It  has been represented to
congress that all the valuable  portions of
them have been long settled, and attempts
(hitherto unsuccessful)  have been made,
of late years, to obtain a donation of them,
or a sale  of them on very easy terms, to
the actual settlers.  South Carolina ceded
her claims to western lands by an act of
her state government of 1787.  The ces-
sion of Georgia alone was needed for the
amicable adjustment of this great contro-
versy.  This  took place, after a series of
highly embarrassing transactions, in 1802,
when a compact was entered into  between
the U. States and Georgia, by  which the
latter ceded to the U. States all her claim
to the lands west  of the present  western
boundary of Georgia,  and the U. States
contracted to extinguish the  Indian title
east  of that line,  as soon  as  it could be
done   "peaceably  and  on   reasonable
terms."   On the tract  of  land to which
Georgia  thus ceded her claim, the states
of Alabama and Mississippi   have  been
formed.   The expenditure directly  inci-
dent to the acquisition of the public lands
may be  stated as follows: but it must be
recollected that other public objects, ofthe
highest moment,  have been affected by
those treaties  with Indian  tribes and for-
eign  powers by which the various cessions
of land have been attained.  The Indian
treaties  have  been frequently  treaties of
pacification as well as territorial acquisi-
tion ; and the political  advantages of the
Louisiana and Florida treaties  vastly out-
weigh, in importance, the mere value of
the land  acquired.

   Expenses of Indian treaties,
    from 1776 to 1826, ....  $3,868,379
   Payment to  Georgia,  under
    the  compact of 1802, . . . 1,250,000
   Do.  on account  of  Yazoo
     Scrip,............4,950,000
Purchase of Louisiana, . . .  15,000,000
Do.        Florida,.....5,000,000
Expenses of  surveying  140
  millions of acres,......2,1(34,000
Do.  incidental to the sales of
  public lands,   up to June
  30, 1828...........1,435,197
                            $33,667,576

Since the date to which these  computa-
tions are brought, large expenditures have
been made, and much larger ones may be
expected to be incurred in extinguishing
the Indian title to lands in  Georgia, Ala-
bama and Mississippi.   The public lands
were  veiy  early looked  to as  a source
of revenue  to  the country.   As early
as  1776, Silas Deane, then a political
and   commercial   agent  of   the   U.
States in France, communicated to con-
gress  a  plan  for the sale and settlement
of the territory north-west of the Ohio ;*
and, as has  been  already  observed, the
calculations of  the future  value  of  this
region formed the first great subject of
collision between the several states of the
confederacy.   It  was, however,  a long
time before an  effective system was de-
vised, by which the lauds could be thrown
open  to settlement, or made available for
the purpose  of revenue.   Bounty-lands
having been promised,  by the continental
congress, to the officers and soldiere of
the continental army, it became  necessary
to redeem that pledge as early as possible.
The controversies between the  several
states,  and  between  them and the U.
States, retarded, for some time, the fulfil-
ment  of this pledge.   On  the  twentieth
of May,  1785, an ordinance was passed
by the congress of the confederation, for
ascertaining the mode  of disposing  of
lands  in the Western Territory ; and this
was the firet act of general legislation on
the subject.   This act may be  found in
the new edition ofthe Land Laws, p. 349.
Under it, very limited  sales were made,
not amounting, in the whole, to more than
121,540 acres. In  addition to these sales,
there  were three  considerable sales "by
special contract," as it  was called.  The
first was of " the Triangle," a tract of land
on  lake Erie.  This tract was  ceded to
Pennsylvania, September 4,1788.  It con-
sisted of 202,187 acres, and $157,640 ac-
crued from the sale.  The next sale was
to the " Ohio Land Company,"  of a tract
of  land  on  the Ohio and Muskingum
rivers, originally intended to include two
  * Diplomatic  Correspondence of the Revolu-
tion, vol. i, p. 79. 
PUBLIC LANDS.
405
 millions of acres, but afterwards reduced
 by agreement to rather less than one mil-
 lion.  The price of these lands was two
 thirds of a dollar an acre, receivable  in
 evidences of the public debt.  The Ohio
 Company commenced the settlement of the
 state of Ohio in 1788.  The third of these
 sales  was  also in Ohio, to John Cleves
 Symmes, of the tract of land between the
 Great and Little Miami rivers, eventually
 reduced to 248,540 acres.  On the tenth of
 May, 1800, an act of congress was passed,
 laying the foundation  of the land system,
 as it now exists.  It has received several
 modifications at subsequent periods, two
 of which are of great importance,  and
 will presently be stated.  Under this  law,
 the substantial features of the land system
 of the  U. States,  are  the following:—
 AH the lands, before they are offered for
 sale, are surveyed on a rigidly accurate plan,
 at the expense  of the government.   The
 surveys of die  public lands of  the U.
 States are founded upon a series  of true
 meridians. The first principal meridian
 is in Ohio, the second  in  Indiana, the
 third  in Illinois, &c, each forming the
 base of a series of surveys, of which the
 lines are  made to correspond, so that the
 whole  country  is  at last divided  into
 squares of one  mile each, and townships
 of six miles each; and these subdivisions
 are distributed with mathematical accu-
 racy into parallel  ranges.  The greatest
 division of land marked out by the survey
 is calleel a township, and contains 23,040
 acres,  being  six  English or American
 miles square.   The township  is subdi-
 vided into diirty-six  equal portions or
 square miles, by lines crossing each other
 at right angles.   These portions are called
 sections.   The section contains 640 acres,
 and is subdivided into  four parts, called
 quarter-sections, each of which, of couree,
 contains  one hundred  and sixty acres.
 The  quarter-sections  are finally divided
 into two parts, called half quarter-sections,
 of eighty acres each, and this is the small-
 est regular subdivision known to the sys-
 tem.  The sectional and quarter-sectional
 divisions  are designated  by  appropriate
 marks in  the field, which are of a char-
 acter to be easily distinguished from each
 other.   The  half quarter-sections are not
 marked in the field, but are designated on
 the plot ofthe survey, by the surveyor-gen-
 eral marking the distance on one of the
 ascertained lines, in order to get the quan-
 tity of such  half quarter-sections as ex-
 hibited  by his plot of survey.  The frac-
tional sections which contain less than one
hundred and sixty acres are not subdi-
vided.  The fractional sections, which con-
tain one hundred and sixty acres and up-
wards, are subdivided in such manner as
to preserve the  most compact and con-
venient forms.   A  series  of contiguous
townships, laid off from north to south, is
called a range.  The ranges are numbered
north and south from the base or standard
line, running due east and west.  They
are counted from the standard meridian
east  and west.   The superintendence of
the surveys is committed to five surveyors-
general.  One thirty-sixth part of all the
lands surveyed, being section number six-
teen in each township, is reserved from
sale, for the support of schools in  the
township, and  other reservations have
been made for colleges and universities.
All salt springs and lead mines  are also
reserved, and are  subject to be leased
under  the direction of the president  of
the  U. States.   The government  has
generally found it expedient to authorize
the surveying of forty townships of land
annually, in each land district,  so as to
admit of two sales  by public auction an-
nually, of twenty townships each.  The
general  land office  at  Washington is
under  the superintendence of an officer,
called " commissioner of the general land
office."  It is subordinate to the  treasury
department.  The  public lands  are  laid
off into districts, in each of which there is a
land office, under the superintendence of
two  officers,  appointed by the president
and senate, called the " register of the land
office,  and the  receiver of public mon-
eys."  There are at present forty-two land
offices.   The register and the  receiver
each receive a salary of five hundred dol-
lars per annum, and a commission of one
per cent, on  the moneys paid into their
office.   Till 1820, a credit was allowed on
all purchases of public lands.  In conse-
quence of this system, large quantities of
land had been purchased on speculation;
and also, in the ordinary course of pur-
chases, a vast amount of land-debt to the
government had been contracted.  To re-
lieve the embarrassed condition  of these
debtors, an act was passed, authorizing the
relinquishment  of lands  purchased,  and
substituting cash payments for the credit
system.  The most  beneficial effects have
resulted from this change, apart from the
relief of those who  were  indebted  to the
government.  At the same time the mini-
mum price of the land was  reduced from
two dollars to one dollar and twenty-five
cents an acre.   In  the first instance, the
public lands  are offered  for sale,  under
proclamations of the  president, by public 
406
PUBLIC LANDS.
auction, with the  limitation of the mini-
mum rate.  Lands not thus sold are after-
wards  subject to entry,  at private sale,
and at the minimum price.  A very large
amount of public land is in the occupa-
tion  of persons who have settled  upon it
without title.  This is frequently done in
consequence  of unavoidable  delays  in
bringing the  land into market, and  not
from any intention, on the part of the set-
tler, to  delay payment.  Laws  have been
passed, granting to settlers of this descrip-
tion a preemptive right in the acquisition
of a title, that is, the  preference over all
other pereons in entering the  laud at pri-
vate sale.   These laws afford  the actual
settler  no  protection  against  those who
might choose to over-bid  him at the pub-
lic sales; but it is believed that in most
cases, by  mutual agreement among pur-
chasers, the actual settler is enabled to ob-
tain  his land, even  at public  sale, at the
minimum price.  It is stated, however,
that great injury is done to the settlers, by
combinations of land speculators, who in-
fest the public sales, purchasing the lands
at the  minimum price,  and  compelling
bona fide settlers  to take them at an en-
hanced valuation.  Should the settler  re-
fuse such an agreement, the  speculators
enter into competition with him at the sale.
On the whole it would appear, that, on an
average,  the  government  obtains but the
minimum price for its lands, although the
quantity actually sold and occupied, being
the choice of die whole quantity brought
into market, is of course worth much more.
Five per cent, on all  the sales of public
lands within the states severally, is  re-
served  ; three-fifths of which are to be
expended  by congress, in making roads
leading to the states ; and two-fifths to be
expended by the states in  the encourage-
ment of learning.  The first part of this res-
ervation has been expendedon the Cumber-
land road; and the treasury of the U. States
is greatly in advance to that fund, on ac-
count of this public work.   It appears that,
up to the present time, about 150 millions
of acres ofthe public lands have been sur-
veyed.   Of these, thirty millions have not
been proclaimed for sale; twenty millions
have beeu sold, and as much more grant-
ed by congress for education, internal im-
provement, and  other purposes.  There
are,  then, 110 millions of acres surveyed,
but not sold; eighty millions of which are
in the market, ready for entry at the mini-
mum price, and thirty millions subject to
be proclaimed for sale whenever  there is
a demand.
  In a former article (Agrarian  Laws,
q. v.) we gave some account ofthe Roman
agrarian laws,  the  name  of which  has
long been  familiar  to every reader, al-
though  their real character  has, until the
investigations  of Mr. Niebuhr,  whose
death every scholar  deeply deplores, been
much misunderstood.  We there observed
also, that the republic of the U. Suites,
like that of Rome, had been much occu-
pied in  legislating on the  subject of its
public lands; and that, as  laws had been
made in some of the  states of the Union,
bearing a considerable resemblance to the
agrarian laws of Rome, we should make
some further remarks upon the subject iu
the present article.   The  nature  of this
work,  as we then observed, forbids the
full developernent of a subject  which par-
takes so much of a  legal investigation as
this does; but we think some illustrations
derived from our laws,  and the peculiar
circumstances of our new country, will
not be unacceptable.  The  laws and prac-
tice  of  the state  of  Massachusetts will
afford sufficient materials for our purpose.
This state has always  owned a large body
of public lands, situate in that part of its
original territory which now constitutes a
separate state, called  the state of Maine.
These lands,  both from the necessities of
the state government and the usual opera-
tions of capitalists,  became an object  of
speculation.  They  were accordingly sold
by the state,  from time to time, in large
tracts, to capitalists and speculators, who,
in general, resided in Massachusetts Proper
(as it was called before the separation of
Maine), at a great distance from the lands
thus purchased by them.   Their lands,
being thus entirely out of their view and
control,  were of course continually in-
truded upon, and possession taken, here
and there, of parcels of them by emigrants
from the more populous towns, who put
them under cultivation, and erected bouses
and other buildings upon them for the com-
mon purposes of agriculture.  These un-
authorized settlers  have been familiarly
called  by the cant term  squatters, a name
naturally derived from the  act of settling
upon lands in the manner practised by
them.   By the lapse of time the mere
possession of these settlers, without any
legal title to the land, ripened into what
they considered to be  a right, although the
proprietors of the soil were,  in general,
wholly  ignorant of such  occupation of
their property.  At length, after a long
series of yeare, it became impossible to
dispossess them, however wrongful their
possession, in its origin, may  have  been.
It is true that the proprietors  might, and 
PUBLIC LANDS.                           407
did institute legal processes, and recovered
judgment in our courts against the occu-
pants;  but still  the officere  of justice
could not execute the sentence of the law
and dislodge them from their possession.
Instances   not  unfrequently  occurred,
where the officere of justice and the pro-
prietors themselves, or their agents, were
shot at, or suffered other acts of violence
from  the occupants.   In this critical exi-
gency, which threatened so much mis-
chief to the public as well as individuals,
and which was perhaps exaggerated by
those men who wished to avail themselves
of the occasion to obtain popularity  for
political purposes, it was thought neces-
sary  by the legislature of Massachusetts
(in the year 1808) to pass a law, which
was in  effect, to a certain extent, similar
to the Roman agrarian laws, by depriving
the real propridor of a portion of  his
rights and transferring them to the wrong-
ful possessor of the lands sold by  the pub-
lic.  To make the subject intelligible to
persons who are not conversant with our
laws, it should be  observed, that under
our former laws and  usages, a title to land
by mere occupancy, could not be acquired
by a possession short of sixty years.  But
by the law of 1808,  this term was short-
ened  to forty years.   So far, therefore, as
it affected those  pereons who had previ-
ously purchased,  either of the state or of
others holdiug under the state, its opera-
tion was manifestly unjust   It compelled
the proprietore to relinquish at once their
claim to  all that portion of their lands
which they had been dispossessed of for
more than forty yeare, and  which  they
had purchased at the full value, under the
faith  of the ancient law of sixty years' pos-
session.   This essential change in the le-
gal rights  of the  proprietore, in  violation
of what they deemed to be the fair intent
and  meaning  of their contracts, caused
much excitementand dissatisfaction among
them.  In a very general view, it may be
said  that there was  evidently a  hardship
on both sides ; it was not equitable on the
ohe  hand, that the  proprietor should be
deprived  of his  land, nor on the other,
ih,d an innocent  occupant, who had been
suffered to remain in possession  for diirty
or forty years, undisturbed by die propri-
etor, should  be suddenly  expelled and
stripped of the fruits of the labor  of  a
whole  life.   By way of alleviating the
difficulties of the case, it was provided in
the same  law (1808), agreeably to a well
known principle of  the Roman code, that
 when the proprietor should institute  a
 process to recover bis land, the occupant
should have a right to claim an allowance
for the value of the improvements which
he had made upon the land thus occupied
by  him,  and which  were called  in  the
Roman law, meliorationes, or melioramenta,
and, by analogy, in the popular language
of New England, betterments.* Our law,
however, did not, like the  Roman, make
any distinction between the occupant who
did, and him  who did not, know that the
land was the private property of an indi-
vidual.   Notwithstanding  the supposed
injustice  of the  law, it  has remained in
operation, with some amendments,  to the
present day ; and the lapse of time is daily
rendering it less  and  less unequal anel in-
jurious in its effects.   In practice, its ope-
ration was the more unequal as respected
the proprietor of the land,  from another
circumstance;  for he,  being usually  a
non-resident or stranger, and the occupant
being an inhabitant of the  same  territory
from which the jury was taken, who were
to try the question of right between the
parties, the proprietor  was  in the more
danger  of  suffering injustice from the
prejudice or  hostility of the jury.  But
here  again the  law interposed  a useful
check, which was, that no pereon who
was interested in a similar question, should
be a member of the jury.   It is unneces-
sary to go  further into the  details of this
law.  In its origin and principle it was an
agrarian law, though in a more mitigated
form  than  those which  caused such vio-
lent commotions in ancient Rome.   A
little reflection will enable  us to reconcile
some differences  in respect to the Roman
laws, about which there has been some
confusion, even since Mr. Niebuhr gave his
new views of them.  Some readers have
inferred from his language,  perhaps in it-
self too unqualified, that the agrarian laws
of Rome only affected  the public lands,
and that there was no violation of private
rights—an  opinion quite inconsistent with
die strong  remark of Cicero (De  Offk.
ii, 21), quoted  in  the article  Agrarian
Laws.  From a consideration of our  own
laws respecting public lands, we can easily
see how the private  rights  of purchasers
under the  government and their sub-pur-
chasers,  might be invaded by mere occu-
pants, who should settle without permis-
sion upon the lands of those purchasers;
and after such  wrongful possession had
continued for a number of years, it would

  * Thi9 term was introduced because the word
improvement, which might  have been taken to
convey the idea of melioramenta, was  already
familiarly used in New England in  the  sense
of occupation. 
408                 PUBLIC LANDS—PUBLIC STOCK.
        become a popular measure with the lead-
        ers  of parties in Rome, to pass agrarian
        laws, in order to take away these occupied
        lands from the rich legal proprietors, and
        confirm them  to  those, who,  like our
        squatters, had no other claim to them than
        mere  possession.  Accordingly we  are
        told by writers  on  this subject, that  the
        leading provisions  in  the  agrarian laws
        were those which  affected the right  of
        possession,  and which were, in principle,
        like our laws on that subject.  From the
        unequal distribution of property between
        the  nobles  and plebeians of Rome,  the
        contest would be proportionably more vi-
        olent than in a  state of society like ours.
        The lands naturally fell into the  hands of
        the moneyed men, and they were almost
        literally the patricians alone.  We have
        here attempted  to illustrate our views of
        this subject by an example from  only one
        of our states; but similar laws have been
        made  in other states of the Union. The
        public lands belonging to the general gov-
        ernment of the U. States, and not under
        the control  of any individual state, being
        situate at a great distance from  the main
        body of our population, have not yet, we
        believe, been  subject to the same embar-
        rassments from conflicting rights, as those
        which  lie within the jurisdiction  of  the
        particular states of  the Union.
          Public Stock is property in  a public
        debt (see Public Debt); and the evidences
        of this property  are certificates issued  by
        the state, showing its obligation to its cred-
        itors.  These  public stocks now exist in
        almost all Christian states, and are so vari-
        ous, that it is a particular study to learn
        dieir nature, their different value, the  de-
        gree of their credit, the mode of  buying
        and selling them, of raising the interest on
        them, &c.   The shares in these stocks, in
        modern times, are  generally made trans-
        ferable, so  that they  have  become   an
        important article of commerce.  Various
        methods have  been adopted to  induce
        capitalists to lend their money to the state.
        The attraction consists in afforeling them
        a prospect of receiving  a greater income
        from their money in this way, than could
        be procured by any other  safe mode  of
        investing it, and in facilitating the transfer
        of the claims, and  exempting from taxes
        the income  arising from the property.   1.
        The firet was by means of annuities (q. v.),
        so called; that is, compacts in which  the
        state pledges itself to pay the lender a fix-
»       ed sum for his capital annually, which  he
        could obtain in no other way with equal
        ease and convenience.  These payments
        are either confined to a certain period, as
forty-nine or ninety-nine years, at the ex-
piration of which the capital is retained by
the state, because the lender has been suffi-
ciently compensated for it by the income
he has received; or else the payments are
continued till the state returns the capital
(perpetually).  In this latter case, howev-
er, the state is at liberty to refund the cap-
ital whenever it is inclined to do  so, or  to
retain it  forever.   The creditor has  no
legal  claim, except upon the stipulated
interest   2. Life  annuities and  tontines
were  another  invention to bring capital
into the public treasury.  The former se-
cure  to lenders a  certain  income during
their lives.  This income is regulated by
the age of  the  persons thus  advancing
their money, being greatest for the most
aged.   Many prefer this mode of dispos-
ing of their property, because,  with  a
small  capita], they  may enjoy a larger in-
come  than could be obtained in any odier
way.  Life annuities have been frequently
secured on the life  of another pereon who
had a prospect of long life, and who, being
generally  known, it was unnecessary to
furnish attestations respecting  his  age,
health, &c.  Thus  many annuities were
formerly taken out  in  France  on the life
ofthe king and other individuals of emi-
nence in the state.   Any person holding
such an annuity was at liberty to transfer
it to any one else, or to bequeath it Ton-
tines are stipulations by which a company
of shareholders  are to receive  a certain
interest from the state (somewhat higher
than can be otherwise obtained  on good
security)  for the whole capital which the
membere  of the company contribute  in
equal shares; so that, while they all live,
they enjoy this interest;  and,  when any
die, the whole interest goes  to  the sur-
vivors ; so that the  longest liver finally re-
ceives the whole interest during his life.
There may, however,  be  many varieties
in these  contracts.  Perpetual rents,  as
they are called on the continent of Europe,
that is, stocks which  the  government  is
under no obligation to redeem, have be-
come  the means to which states  most re-
sort, and which have found the most favor
both from states and people, and, by their
increase, and  the  facilities  which  are
afforded for their transfer, have  acquired
great  importance.  The value of all public
obligations rests fundamentally1 on  the
fact,   that  taxation  annually produces  a
revenue sufficient  to  pay the stipulated
amounts punctually, and diat the govern-
ment  has a love of justice, and prudence,
and skill in the administration, which will
prompt it to regular payment atthe appoint- 
PUBLIC STOCK.                          409
 ed time: thus all national  debts are de-
 pendent on the wealth and income of the
 people.   It would be very difficult to as-
 sign the amount of these stocks, in Europe
 alone, with any degree of accuracy.  In
 the German  Hermes, the interest which
 Europe has to pay every  year to its cred-
 itors is stated at 750,000,000 marks banco,
 or about 258,000,000 dollare.   Suppose,
 now, the rate of interest to be, on an ave-
 rage, five per cent.; then we shall  have
 more than 5,160,000,000 of dollars embark-
 ed in these  speculations.  If we fix  it at
 three  per cent, the amount  paid on the
 nominal capital ofthe public debt in Eng-
 land, the sum would be still greater.  As
 the traffic in these obligations is so impor-
 tant, and they often pass through numer-
 ous hands, and every commodity in circu-
 lation employs a quantity of the common
 means  of exchange proportioned to its
 value, it is not too much to assume  that,
 under common circumstances, from 40 to
 68,000,000 dollars in specie are requisite
 to maintain the yearly traffic.
   L  English  Stocks.   England has a
 greater public debt than any  other na-
 tion.  (See  Great Britain, and  the table
 in Europe, also given, in the early copies,
 after index to vol. v.) But the resources of
 that country are so great, and the punctu-
 ality with which its obligations are dis-
 charged so unfailing,and the moneyed men
 in the country so numerous, that its stocks
 are the most in demand.  The national
 debt of England consists chiefly in stocks
 redeemable at the pleasure of the govern-
 ment   They  are  variously designated,
 partly according to  the rate of interest
 which the government engages to pay; as
 five, four  and three per cent, stock;  and
 partly  from  the  financial  operations to
 which they have been subjected: thus the
 name ofreduced funds is given to those on
 which the interest has  been  reduced, in
 consequence of the option which the gov-
 ernment has offered to the public credit-
 ors to receive back their capital, or to  take
 a lower rate of interest—Consolidated an-
 nuities is a name derived from an opera-
 tion of the government,  commenced in
 1751, when  an act of parliament  was
 passed, by which the various loans, for the
 repayment of which particular funds  had
 been assigned, were united,  and all die
 funds, including the sinking fund, consol-
 idated  into  one.  These  various names
 convey no idea of important differences to
 the owners and  purchasers  of English
stocks.   Even the  distinction  between
funded and unfunded debts is connected
with no difference  in the degree of their
  vol. x.           35
 security.  For although a regular portion
 ofthe national revenue is appropriated to
 the payment ofthe former, yet the interest
 of the latter is equally secure; and they
 are changed into  funded debts whenever
 the state  finds it impolitic  to discharge
 them in the common way, and the credit-
 ors concur in the alteration.   For  the
 gradual reduction of the funded debts, a
 sinking fund was established, designed to
 diminish  the  debt  by repurchasing  the
 shares at their current price—a method
 which has  been adopted by many Euro-
 pean  states.  It has been lately  discon-
 tinued. (See  Sinking  Fund.)   In Eng-
 land, it has served, from the beginning, to
 keep  up  the  credit of stocks, as it  has
 maintained  a  constant demand for tbem
 in the market; and this  it has done  the
 more  effectually  in  proportion to  its
 amount;  for,  in  case the stocks should
 fall too low, the price may be raised again
 by extinguishing a part ofthe debt. This
 effect of the sinking fund, in  facilitating
 the sale of the public stocks, greatly con-
 tributes to recommend them.  For capi-
 talists feel it extremely convenient to hold
 certificates of  stock, which not only yield
 a  regular  interest, but may, at any mo-
 ment, be turned into money without loss,
 and perhaps with profit.  The history of
 the origin  of the various debts of England,
 their conditions, the measures adopted  for
 the payment of interest, or the repayment
 ofthe capitals, or the sinking them by  re-
 purchase,  may be found  in Greilier's His-
 tory of National Debt, and in Hamilton's
 work on  the  same subject  A concise
 view of the same has  been presented  by
 Bernard Cohen in his Compendium  of
 Finance  (London,  1822).   Although a
 large amount of the English stocks always
 remains stationary in the hands of compa-
 nies, public institutions, and many private
 persons who  retain them as  the safest
 source of income,  still a  large proportion
 are bought and sold every day; and they
 are a  very important article of traffic  in
 England.  As the three per cent, stock
is the most in the market, the priee in the
public  papers  relates to this, if the kind
of stock be  not particularly designated.
Moreover, it regulates  the price  of the
three and a half, four, five and six per cent
stocks, which vary proportionally with  it
Those public obligations which entitle the
holder to payment ofthe capital at a time
designated, or to an equal amount in the
public stocks, as exchequer bills, navy bills,
&c, naturally bring a price proportionally
higher.  The best standard of the credit
of the  public  stocks is the rent of land. 
410
PUBLIC STOCKS.
At present, land in England is generally
sold at thirty-six yeare purchase in times
of peace, and at thirty years purchase in
time of war; that is, capital invested in
landed property yields two and  seven-
ninths percent in time of peace, and three
and one third per cent, in time of war.
Within the last thirty yeare, the three per
cent stocks  have  been  worth from fifty-
eight to eighty-two per cent.; so that the
stocks, at the highest rate during this peri-
od, have yielded but about the amount of
land rents in time of war; for a man, who
purchases three per cent, stocks at eighty-
two per cent, receives but about three and
a half per cent, on his capital.   In buying
stocks in England, the purchaser does not
receive any  certificate; but his name is
merely registered in the  great national
debt books, together with all his character-
istic designations.  If he  ever  sells the
whole, or  a part of it,  this is transfened
from his name to that of  the purchaser.
Every proprietor can, indeed, have a cer-
tificate of what is due to him in the nation-
al debt books; but, in the stock-market,
this certificate is not considered of value,
and a person may sell  and transfer his
property in the funds without being asked
for  it.  Every stockholder must receive
his interest, or make his entryand transfer
of stock himself,  or by a  representative
regularly authorized.  It would be impos-
sible to conceive, how  the book-keepers
could be convinced, that the multitude of
claimants,  who appear  before  them, are
the true proprietors, if it were not known
that the greatest part of the business, both
the transfer of capital and the receipt  of
interest, is negotiated by  stock-brokers,
who are well known to the book-keepers;
and cases of imposition are, in fact, very
uncommon.   Moreover,  the direction  of
all the traffic in stocks is committed to the
bank of England.  The registry books are
arranged  alphabetically, and distributed
into several chambers, which are marked
with the initial letters and syllables ofthe
books they contain.  Thus every one can
easily find the place of the book which
contains his  account.   The payment  of
the dividends, which occurs at an appoint-
ed day, semi-annually, to the amount  of
more  than 68,000,000 dollars every time,
is completed in fourteen days.
  II. French Rentes and public Certificates.
The national debt of France was formerly
far  greater than that of England.   After
the death of Louis XIV, it was estimated
at 3,111,000,000 livres (about 550,000,000
dollars), when England had a debt of only
ibcut one diird of this amount, namely,
£45,000,000 sterling,  both  reckoned ac-
cording to their nominal capital.  But the
relative amounts arc now wholly changed.
The nominal capital of the national debt
of England was,  in 1823, about thirteen
and  two thirds that of France.  France
reckons its debt,  however, not according
to the amount ofthe capital borrowed, but
only according to the annual amount of
money  to be paid, which gives a  juster
idea of its extent, both kingdoms having
discharged themselves from the obligation
to pay back the capital, and being bound
to pay merely the interest  England, in
fact, pays annually to its creditors about
three and a half times  what France pays.
The nominal amount of the debts of these
two states will be found in the table  of
European states,  after index to vol.  v.
This is not the place to inquire whether
such a difference makes the condition  of
England more  unhappy than  that  of
France. We will only  remark, that the na-
tional wealth of England during that peri-
od has increased in a much greater ratio
than the wealth of France, and the Eng-
lish stocks have always borne  a  higher
price  than the French; for, while the
French five per  cent, stocks are worth
but ninety-seven percent, the English are
commonly  worth  145.  If we carefully
examine the histoiy of the  national debt
of France, we cannot help wondering how
the  French  stocks  stand so  high  as
they do.  Immediately upon the death  of
Louis XIV, the regent reduced the bor-
rowed capital and the interest arbitrarily,
and without consulting the  creditors, one
third; and both debt and interest still con-
tinued to be paid as  irregularly as ever.
In this state of things, Law (q. v.), a Scotch
projector, promised to  cancel the public
debt with paper.  But this project embar-
rassed the finances of the kingdom more
than ever.  Various measures were taken,
each more fallacious than the preceding,
to improve the state of the treasury, and
to diminish the national debt  They were
designed to quiet the clamors of the pub-
lic creditors, without   giving  them any
thing but the consolation that they should
not  lose the whole of their demands.
The revolution for a long time put an end
to all claims, and almost wholly destroy-
ed the value ofthe stocks;  so  that,  when
Bonaparte was in Egypt, a rente of five
francs might be purchased for  ten, five,
and even three  francs.  In 1798, a new
disposition was made of the public debt.
All the claims of the emigrants were can-
celled ; two thirds were stmck off from
the remainder of the debt; and  the third 
PUBLIC STOCKS.
411
which was left was changed into five per
cent annuities,called tiers consolides, which
compose a large part of the present stocks.
They amounted, in 1798, to 302,000 francs
a year.  Since that period, numerous ad-
ditions have been made to the debt by sub-
sequent loans, so that,  iu 1822,178,364,560
francs were annually required for the dis-
charge ofthe peipetual and funtled rentes.
But there are many uufunded rentes to be
piud besides;  and the sinking fund con-
sumes 40,000,600  francs every year.  In
1822, therefore, the whole amount of the
annual rentes was228,864,560 francs, exclu-
sive of four millions newly created for die
Spanish  war.  During the  last  war, the
rentes  were again paid irregularly, and the
arrears accumulated.   These  and  odier
debts,  which were contracted in the course
of the war, were paid in obligations bear-
ing five per cent, interest,  aiiel to be dis-
charged at their full nominal value, within
five years from 1821.   These  obligations
are called reconnaissances de liquidation,
and are likewise transferable. The nominal
amount of those remaining due in 1828,was
about300 million francs. At present, France
seems to be very punctual in the payment
of its  rentes ;  and therefore the  French
stocks, of late yeare, have brought a liigh
price, and did so, in fact, even during the
reign of Napoleon. The economical regu-
lations for liquidating  claims for the pay-
ment of interest and principal are a good
imitation of the  measures of England, so
far as relates to the funded five per cent
rentes.  They are all registered together in
the grandlivre desdeltes publiques, after the
manner of the books ofthe bank of Eng-
land.  Each  stockholder has a  distinct
leaf for  every rente he  possesses.  The
dividends of the five  per cent annuities
are paid twice a year,  March 22 and Sep-
tember 22.  The amount paid is stamped
on  the back  of the  certificate, and the
owner of it gives a  receipt  The divi-
dends can be paid not merely in Paris, but
likewise in the provincial towns.  Owners
who cannot receive their dividends person-
ally, and are unwilling to let their certifi-
cates go  out  of their hands, appoint a
special attorney to receive  what is due,
who is furnished with  a certified copy of
the original certificate.  Besides the con-
solidated five per cent inscriptions,  there
are other  stocks in  France,  of various
kinds,  with which an important traffic is
carried ou, and which are subject to differ-
ent regulations.  They include, 1. the be-
fore-mentioned reconnaissances de liquida-
tion.  2. Bank stocks.  The shares in the
bank of France  are 90,000, each  ofthe
value of 12,000 francs, paying yearly sixty
francs at least.  If the profits elo not yield
this amount iu any particular year, it i*
made up from the  reserved fund.  These
stocks are transferable. In 1822, they were
twenty-five per cent above their nominal
value.   3. The obligations of the city of
Paris.  The city  of Paris was authorized,
in 1816, to create stock to  the amount of
1,500,000 francs,  to defray the expenses of
the city. The sale was but small duringthat
troubled period, and the city was therefore
afterwards empowered to issue33,000cer-
tificates, worth 1000 francs each, and pay-
able to the holder, to be discharged within
twelve yeare, ending July 1, 1829.  These
certificates bear an interest of six per cent.
a year, to be paid quarterly.  4. Another
kind of paper  often found in the market
consists of actions des ponts.  They are
issueel by a company which ha3 built three
bridges over the  Seine, and comprise 3780
shares, at 1000 francs each. The dividends
are  fixed, every year, at  a meeting of the
proprietors.  The amount is regulated by
the  income of  the bridges, which is all di-
vided  among the shareholders,  except
one thirtieth.   This thirtieth is distributed
into three parts, of which one goes to the
support of the  bridges, and the others
form a capital  to pay off the stocks, June
30,  1897.  Besides, there is a multitude o)
shares of insurance companies.  5. There
is also  in Paris a caisse des depots et consig-
nations, where money, in com or notes, is
taken  by  the  bank of France, and three
per cent, interest paid upon it, commen-
cing after it has been in the treasury thirty
days.  The money deposited may be tak-
en out at any time by restoring the receipt.
  III.  Austrian  Stocks.  Austria has long
had a large debt, and, till the French rev-
olution  broke  out, punctually fulfilled its
obligations to  its creditors.  But,  during
the  war of the French  revolution,  its
finances fell into great disorder; and vari-
ous measures,  adopted to remedy the evil,
did  not contribute to the public credit.
Among these was the immense increase
of paper money  since 1797 ;  for, till that
time,  the  bank paper of Vienna, which,
for a long period, was the common medi-
um  of exchange, remained about on a par
with specie, it  being exchangeable, at any
time, for silver, on presentment  But, this
year, the payment of specie  was limited,
anel, the year following,  stopped entirely ;
and the paper  money so increased, that it
soon fell rapidly  below the value of silver.
The means resorted to as an  antidote for
the  consequent embarrassment were inef-
fectual.  One  ofthe most remarkable was 
412                          PUBLIC STOCKS.
adopted in 1708.   It was a forced loan, by
which the holders of public stocks were
compelled to add thirty per cent, to what
they had already paid, on pain of losing
the whole; in consideration of which they
were to receive five per cent,  instead of
four. As the  loan was all made in conven-
tion money, it was understood that the in-
terest should be  paid in the same.  But
this was extremely difficult for  the state,
on account of the continual  depreciation
in the value of the paper currency; and,
finally, it seemed to  be impossible, when
an attempt, made in 1802, to recruit its de-
clining strength by lottery loans and other
measures, failed.   In 1811, therefore, the
interest  was  reduced to half; and, in order
to make tiiis half still smaller, the existing
paper money was changed for redemption
notes<, so called, a note of one guilder be-
ing paid for  five old paper  guilders.  It
was hoped that these certificates would be
esteemed as valuable as specie.  Hence
the reduced  interest was to be paid in this
new paper,  and not, as before, in coined
money.   But these  notes never fulfilled
the design for which  diey were created;
and a large amount of new paper, under
the name of anticipation certificates, was
put in circulation, about equal in amount
to diat which the redemption  notes  had
been intended to supersede, so that, in a
short time, both kinds of paper sunk as
low as the old bank  notes.  In this way,
the early creditors of the state lost a large
part of their interest and capital. In 1816,
the finances of Austria  were  put under
better management.   The new adminis-
tration  devoted  their chief attention to
two objects:—First, to raising the value
of the paper money, and, as far as possi-
ble, abolishing it; and next to  fixing the
public credit on a new basis, by restoring
to the old claims a portion of their rights,
and by negotiating new loans on  a more
firm and solid basis. In 1816, a new bank
was furnished with funds  in specie,  and
empowered  to  issue  new notes, which
were to be paid to the holders on demand
in silver money.  This bank,  to which
was intrusted the  whole  business  of
amending die currency and public creelit,
commenced  its task by giving notice, June
1, diat any pereon might bring in any sum
in die old paper money, and receive for it
five sevenths in new  certificates, bearing
one per cent interest in convention money,
and two sevenths in new bank notes, which
every one might exchange at the bank for
then value in convention money.  Thus a
proprietor, who deposited 7000 guilders in
paper money, received for it 5000 gmlders
in certificates, bearing an interest of fifty
guilders in convention  money, and  2000
guilders in new  bank notes,  which  he
might exchange for convention money at
the bank, on demand.  But the pressure to
procure specie in exchange for the  bank
notes thus obtained was so great that the
supplies and resources of the bank would
have soon  been exhausted, so that die
whole system was abandoned a short time
after it was established.   Several millions
of one per cent, certificates were created
by this operation, and some of them are
still  in circulation.   Bank shares, at 500
guilders convention money, might be ob-
tained  for 2000 guilders in  paper money
and 200 in convention money.   The pa-
per money thus obtained was  to be de-
stroyed.  Both  measures, however, only
partially effected  the  desired object, and
they were soon abandoned.  October 29,
therefore,  of that  year, a measure was
brought forward founded on juster views.
This gave rise to the metalliques, so called.
A voluntary loan was opened, and the de-
posits were received partly in public cer-
tificates bearing interest and partly in pa-
per money.  For an old Austrian certifi-
cate of 100 guilders, and the  additional
sum of 80,100, 110,120,  130 guilders in
redemption or anticipation notes, accord-
ing as the old certificate yielded six, five,
four and a half, four, three and a half, or
three per cent, interest, a new state obliga-
tion was given of 100 guilders, bearing in-
terest at five per cent., both payable hi
specie.  A sufficient fund  was, at die
same time, provided for the punctual dis-
charge of the interest, and for the gradual
extinction of the capital by repurchase.
This gave assurance to the proprietore of
these certificates that they might sell them,
with scarcely any loss, whenever so  in-
clined.  These metalliques, therefore, soon
obtained extensive credit, and so confirm-
ed the  financial strength of the govern-
ment, that  it  boldly resolved to establish
the public credit on a broader basis. By a
patent of Jan. 22,1817,the sinking fund was
organized after the example ofthe sinking
fund of EHgland,and all the funds were unit-
ed in one for the payment of all publictlebts;
and, by a regulation of March 21,  1818,
the whole system of debt was  reduced to
such order that the proprietors ofthe old cer-
tificates began to be encouraged that their
rights would be restored; and this hope
gave the obligations once more a limited
circulation.  The  capital of the old debt,
of which the interest was reduced to half
in 1811, was divided into sections, each
of one  milhon guilders.  Five of these 
PUBLIC STOCKS.
413
were to be restored every year to the en-
joyment of full interest,  and as  many
more to be bought in by the sinking fund.
This plan has hitherto been very success-
ful.  By die gradual liquidation of the re-
demption and anticipation certificates, their
amount was diminished, June 30,1825, to
149,320,813 guilders (a  guilder is  about
forty  cents);  and,  June 30, 1828, the
amount in circulation in Austria was only
78£  million  guilders.   The  metalliques
have therefore come into the market in all
the principal commercial cities of Europe.
In the year 1821, the whole amount of the
new debt contracted since 1815, or the five
per cent, metalliques, was estimated at
207,960,290 guilders, and  the proportion
ofthe sinking fund to the debt at one fifty-
seventh—the same ratio which the sinking
fund in England bears to the public debt
The credit of these metalliques has  risen
very much. They stood, in 1817, at forty-
eight, but had  risen, in the beginning of
1823, to eighty-six, and  even during the
war between Turkey and Russia,  they
were at ninety-five.   Besides these metal-
liques,  the before-mentioned Rothschild
lotteries  are well known  in the  money
markets.  The Austrian government, in
1820,   negotiated,  through  a company
formed by Messrs. Parish and RothschUd,
a lottery loan of 20,800,000 guilders, and
soon after a second of 37,000,000 guilders,
convention money.  The shareholders in
the first loan were to receive back dieir
capitals, and,  instead of interest, premi-
ums at the time of the repayment  of the
capitals, which was to take place in the
couree  of the next twenty years.  The
smallest sum which an advance  of 100
guilders can yield, is 120 guilders, and the
largest 120,000.  In the most unfavorable
event, a man  must wait twenty years for
his capital and premium.   The  second
loan was openeel July  28, 1820, at four
per cent.;  and the government bound it-
self, within twenty-one years, to  pay off
the capital, with interest and premiums,
by  means of  fourteen  lottery drawings.
The proprietors received certificates, dated
January 15,1821, each  for 250 guilders.
Whether a share in such a lottery can pro-
duce more than four per cent interest, de-
pends wholly on the time of drawing, and
the premium  which chance may allot
The price of the tickets of the first loan
varies between 118  and 120, and of die
second  between  98  and   102.   On
an  average,  the  premiums  of  the first
and the interest and premiums of the sec-
ond loan are equivalent to an interest of five
and four fifths per cent.  This new order
                 .35*
 of things was accompanied,  in 1817 and
 1818, by an improved organization of tht:
 national bank.  The shares, which at fire:
 stood at scarcely 500 guilders in conven-
 tion money, have now reached nearly 1000,
 and are in great demand, for they yield an
 annual interest  of sixty guilders.  The
 bank is, at present, wholly independent of
 the government
   IV. Prussian Stocks.  Pmssia had no
 Smblic debt till 1787, but, on the contrary,
 lad a considerable treasure in specie, and,
 even under the reign of Frederic William
' II, till 1806, owed only thirty million dol-
 lars, wliich were to be  paid  off at  fixed
 periods.  But the unhappy French  war
 of 1806, and the more successful one of
 1812—15, augmented the public debt of
 Pmssia; and, after it had been reduced to
 order, her stocks came into the market in
 the principal cities  of  Europe, like the
 English, French, Austrian, and other pub-
 lic stocks. From  the statement of Feb-
 ruary 17, 1820,  it appeare that the capital
 of the debts bearing interest then amount-
 ed to something more than  180 million
 Prussian dollars (about 123 million Span-
 ish),  and the yearly interest, or rente, to
 7,637,177 Prussian dollare.   Several mil-
 lions have since been extinguished by the
 sinking fund.  At present, the following
 Prussian stocks are in the market:—1. the
 proper national stocks, which comprehend
 the greatest part of the  public debt, and
 the proceeds of which, in  1820,  were
 4,780,000 Prussian dollars (about 3,250,400
 Spanish).   They consist  in obligations,
 which bear four per cent, interest, and are
 to be completely  discharged within five
 years.  The interest is paid January 1 and
 July 1 of every year, both in Berlin and
 in the provinces.  Provision  has likewise
 been  made for their payment in specified
 places in foreign countries. The certificates
 promise that the capital shall be paid back
 by the annual extinguishment of one mil-
 lion  at par; but this regulation has lieen
 modified by a later one, ordaining that the
 stocks shall be diminished by being repur-
 chased, at the current price, till they stand
 at par, and then the repayment shall com-
 mence.  The market value of these notes
 varied, in 1820—23, between sixty-seven
 and seventy-five per cent., and, still later,
 rose  to nearly ninety;  in 1828, it was at
 ninety-diree.  Of a portion of these obli-
 gations, premium lotteries were formed,
 thirty  millions  being  sold, accompanied
 with  premium  certificates, at their  full
 value in Prussian currency.   The hope of
 receiving a great premium on the drawing
 of these lotteries  (ten drawings were to 
414
PUBLIC STOCKS.
take place, one each six months) produced
such a demand for  this species of stocks,
that they rose to 120—130 dollare and up-
wards.  2. The shares in the English loan
which was negotiated with Rothschild, in
London, in  April,  1818.   The nominal
amount is five million pounds sterling, at
five per cent,  and to be  repaid within
twenty-eight years,  a certain amount an-
nually, by repurchasing the notes, or re-
deeming them at par, if they are worth it.
The certificates are  expressed in English
money, and the interest is payable hi Lon-
don.  The unfavorable conditions, under
which this loan was obtained, are to be at-
tributed to the emergencies of die period.
Though the interest is five per cent, only
seventy-one  per cent,  of the nominal
amount ofthe loan was received; and the
government took the risk of the fluctua-
tion of exchange in the payment of inter-
est and principal. In London itself, lie-
fore the certificates were issued, they had
risen to eighty per cent.   Besides  these,
there  are  the obligations of the Electoral
Mark,  which are of an early date, and
the Hypothekscheine,  secured  on  mort-
gages of the public  domains, which were
not created till after 1806.   Both yield four
per cent, and form together a capital  of
nearly nine million Prussian dollars (above
six million Spanish), which, like the inter-
est, is paid according  to the original en-
gagement.  There are also the stocks of
the provinces and principal cities.  The
mortgage stocks (Pfandbriefe)  fonn a cap-
ital of perhaps fifty or eighty rmilions, the
shares of which are bought and sold, and
yield a secure income.  These are created
thus:—The landed proprietore, under the
authority ofthe government, have fonned
associations in  several of the Prussian
provinces, which borrow money  on the
security of their estates collectively, aud
make  loans to the individual  proprietors,
in consideration of mortgages of  their
separate estates.  There are five of these
provincial associations in Prussia.   To
the Prussian  stocks  belongs,  also, the
bank  paper, which is transferable.  The
circulation of these notes, indeed, is some-
what   difficult,   for  they  are  generally
made  payable to the particular individual
to whom they are issued,  and cannot  be
transferred without legal formalities. The
royal   bank  receives  money  at two  or
three  per cent  a year, and  repays the
money deposited, small sums on demand,
and larger ones at fourteen days, or four
weeks' notice.   Hence it is filled with de-
posits, trust money, orphans' money; and
many capitalists invest in it their unem-
ployed funds.   The violent measures of
Napoleon's administration rendered it ne-
cessary for the bank to  stop payment, in
consequence ofthe loss of all its resources.
The old system has been long resumed in           «
regard to all moneys deposited since 1808)
but  the pressure  of  circumstances • has
hitherto made it impossible for the bank
to fulfil its obligations in regard to the old
capitals.  The government has promised,
however,  that this debt shall be cancel-
led.
   V. Russian Stocks.   Previous to 1810,
Russia had no debt on which interest was
paid, and of which the stocks were in the
market, except 83,000,000 guilders due in
Holland; and the paper was hardly found
in the commercial world out of Amster-
dam.  For many years, this stock stood at
par.   In 1810, a loan  of twenty millions
was  opened in assignats at six per cent.,
for which  the government  pledged ten
million silver roubles, with six per cent in-
terest, to be paid  in five years to those
who should not prefer perpetual annuities
in assignats, or silver roubles. The design
was to diminish the immense  quantity of
assignats.   It was intended to have many
series of diese loans following one anoth-
er, to  destroy the paper roubles which
might be brought in by their means,  and
dius to raise the paper money gradually to
par, or perhaps to put  it wholly out of cir-
culation, and substitute silver money in its
place.   Although these loans never ac-
complished the desired object, and seemed
to be founded on mistaken principles, yet
they helped to confirm the credit of the
government, because every stipulation was
punctually fulfilled, and a regular financial
system was forming in regard to the pub-
lic debts.  The interest of the first loan in
silver^vas regularly paid; and the capital,
too, was repaid in the  way stipulated, not-           *
withstanding  the distress to which the
kingdom was reduced  by the war of 1812.
The  credit which the government thus ac-
quired was,  perhaps,  worth the sacrifice
of some millions; for  the state had hard-
ly any  other advantage from  this loan.
These stocks, during their five years' con-           *
tinuance, were in great demand, and their
price speedily rose above their par value
in assignats;  but this was not strange, for
paper roubles were not Worth in the mar-
ket one third of silver, and, by the terms
ofthe loan, a silver rouble was paid for ev-
ery two paper roubles  advanced.   Only a
few of these obligations are now in circu-
lation, for, in 1815, they were nearly all
cancelled.  This system, however,  was
continued under better  conditions as re- 
                              PUBLIC

 garded the government, and  to a much
 greater extent   The diminution of  the
 assignats was the pretext for every meas-
 ure.   But the deficit in the income, and
 the  expense occasioned by the war of
 1812,  were perhaps the principal causes
 ofthe successive loans.  There have been
 three or four since 1816.  The two first,
 made  in  1817, at Petersburg,  of seventy
 million roubles in assignats, were mostly
 reduced to silver money at a fixed valua-
 tion ; the third and fourth were in England,
 in 1820,  and amounted to  forty million
 silver  roubles.  All the stocks of this kind
 bear five per cent, interest, and are regu-
 lated  after the manner of  the stocks in
 other  countries, wherein   the  govern-
 ment  merely pledges itself  to  discharge
 the stipulated interest punctually.  The
 liquidation of  the  capital  by  the sink-
 ing  fund  is  effected by re-purchasing
 die certificates  or otherwise, as the state
 of the treasury renders most expedi-
 ent   The arrangements for the public
 debt  are   similar to  those in France
 and  England.  All the  debts since 1817
 have been registered, with the creditors'
 names in alphabetical order.  At the same
 time, the creditors receive notes (inscrip-
 tions),  which contain what  is written in
 the book  of registry,  and the  conditions
 and  stijiulations of the  government,  and
 are so  prepared that they may be endorsed
 in blank in a foreign country,  being veri-
 fied by a Russian consul, and in this way
 transferred to any one without difficulty;
 and  the directions, necessary  in case of
 transfer, are contained in the  inscription.
 An important traffic is now carried on, in
 all the markets of Europe, in Russian
 stocks. The interest on the English loan
 is payable, not merely in Petersburg, but
 in Hamburg and London, in the money
 of those places, at a fixed valuation,  and
 the income of the Dutch stock is payable
 in Holland.  The report of the minister
 of finance, January 1st,  1822,  made the
 whole debt of Russia to consist ofthe fol-
 lowing sums:—!. The Dutch,  48,600,000
 guilders;  2. the  domestic, in silver rou-
 bles, 53 millions; 3. the domestic, in pa-
 per roubles, 296 millions.  The fund des-
 tined for the liquidation of these debts is
 one million in silver roubles  and five mil-
 lions in paper—about in the ratio of  one
 to fifty.  Nearly ten million silver roubles
are necessary for the payment of what is
annually due on these stocks.
  VI.  Dutch Stocks.  Although the public
debt in Holland  has been very great from
the earliest times, yet, in consequence of
the regular fulfilment of all obligations,
STOCKS.                         415

 and the multitude of wealdiy capitalists in
 the country, the stocks have maintained a
 high credit, and, during  the  thirty-two
 years of tranquillity, from 1748  to 1780,
 they were in such demand, that, notwith-
 standing  their low rate of interest (two
 and a half per cent), they brought from
 eight to ten per cent above their nominal
 value.  But owing to the wars with Eng-
 land  and France, the finances ofthe coun-
 try were thrown  into disorder;  it is prob-
 able, indeed, that these wars only hastened
 a calamity which must, sooner or later,
 have fallen upon the people; for the de-
 ficit  in the income was increasing every
 year after 1786, and the public debt, of
 course,  was  Continually  accumulating.
 The  expenditures were multiplied by the
 oppression of France,  and  the deficit
 daily grew more enormous.   Under the
 administration  of Louis Bonaparte,  in
 1807,1808, and 1809, loans of forty, thir-
 ty, and twenty million guilders, to cover
 the deficit, were obtained on tolerable con-
 ditions, as Louis Bonaparte maintained
 the credit of the state  by  opposing with
 firmness,  on every occasion, the reduc-
 tions of the public debt,  which his brother
 {imposed.  When Napoleon  united Hol-
 and  with France in 1810, it was found
 that  the national  debt of this little king-
 dom  amounted to the enormous sum of
 1200 million guilders  (about  480 mill-
 ion  dollars).   Napoleon commenced a
 system of reform in  the financial de-
 partment,  by setting aside two thirds of
 the  debt,  as had already  been done  in
 France.  The remaining third was to be
 registered  in the great  book of  France,
 as a  part  of the general  national  debt,
 and,  like the rest, to pay  an interest of
 five  per cent.  This measure,  however,
 was never carried into  execution.  After
 the establishment of the kingdom of the
 Netherlands, subsequent to  the fall of Na-
 poleon, the  debt  was  newly organized,
 and,  by the  law of May 14th,  1814, was
 regulated by the following principles:—
 1. The two thirds of the debt abolished
 by Napoleon were again acknowledged,
 although  his measure was, in  a  degree,
 sanctioned, by the division of the new
 debt  into a real or active, and a nominal
 or dead one; the interest of the firet (the
 third retained  by Napoleon) was to be
 paid  from January 1st, 1815; and the in-
 terest of  the latter (the  two thirds abol-
 ished by Napoleon) was  to commence
 gradually; so that every year from four to
 five millions should be put on the same
 footing with the active debt, as to the pay-
 ment of interest  of the abolished  debt 
416
PUBLIC STOCKS.
All subsequent obligations were required
to be presented, and for an  advance of
six per cent in specie,  were changed
into new obligations, of which all were
fixed at two and a half per cent; in such
a  way,  however, that two thirds  of the
new notes were assigned to the dead debt,
which paid no interest, and only one third
of the amount was transferred to the new
debt, bearing interest from 1815.  Chari-
table institutions, holders of life annuities,
and  some  other  classes, however,  had
some particular privileges.  But the debts
contracted during the French administra-
tion were put under less favorable condi-
tions.  These obligations, frequently in-
creased  by new loans, formed the Dutch
stocks found in the money market, of which
those diat yielded an actual income, were
sold before the Belgic revolution for forty-
six to forty-seven per cent  Shares in the
nominal debt are regarded like shares in
a  lottery, and stand  at one quarter per
cent, or even  still  lower (five eighths);
this  is sufficient evidence, how little the
purchasers think  of soon obtaining any
income  from them.  In 1819, seventeen
million guilders interest were to be paid.
The sinking fund was fixed,  in 1821, at
2,500,000  guilders   annually.  Besides
these debts, which  include those of Bel-
gium, the government of Holland assumed
the responsibUity of paying a portion of
the Russian-Dutch  debt (of eighty-three
million  guddere), and 1,443,750 guilders
were devoted every year to the discharge
of the interest and gradual liquidation of
the capital.  These obligations belong to
the unfunded debt,  as does also the Aus-
trian-Belgic debt  of about  six million
guilders, and other obligations little known
out of the country.
  VII. Neapolitan Stocks.  The Neapol-
itan finances, on  the whole, have been
subject to no little  disorder; but, at the
close  of the last reign, measures were
adopted for the punctual payment of the
stipulated interest and rentes, even though
fresh loans should  be required.   The
occupation of the kingdom  by Austrian
troops added to the national debt upwards
of nine million ducats (about 7,200,000
dollars).  The  French  system  of man-
aging the public debt has been taken, to a
considerable degree, as a pattern, the shares
of the  creditors being registered, and
bought and sold in  the same manner as
in  France.  The yearly amount of income
from the debt was estimated, January 1st,
1821, at  3,882,000  Neapolitan  ducats
(about  2,928,000 dollars).  This income
is  five per cent.  The Neapolitan  stocks
have hitherto found purchasers in the Eu-
ropean markets at low rates.
   VIII.  Spanish Stocks.  The history of
the old  debt of Spain is a chao9 of con-
fusion.   It has been  always  loaded with
arrears  and unpaid interest.   According
to the statement of November 29th, 1820,
only a part of the Spanish debt bears in-
terest   The part which does not bear in-
terest consists of unpaid pensions, annui-
ties, and many other unpaid and floating
debts, but principally of paper money.
These were estimated in the  above men-
tioned year at  7205 million reals, or about
345,840,000  dollars.   The public  obliga-
tions bearing interest,  which consist partly
of old debts, new loans, &c, amount to
6,814,780,363 reals, or about  327,109,457
million dollars, of which the yearly inter-
est is estimated at  235,966,630 reals, or
11,326,390 dollars.   A plan was adopted,
during the constitutional government, for
paying, off a portion  of the debt  by the
sale of  the  estates of monasteries,  the
property of the inquisition,  and the pub-
lic lands; but the restoration of the abso-
lute monarchy in  1823, put a stop to its
execution, and the loans made by the cortes
were declared to be invalid.  Great deficits
have since taken place every year, and till
this day new loans have been utterly in-
sufficient  to  cover them.   The  stocks
which are most commonly found in the
market  at present are:—1. The Dutch-
Spanish  obligations of 1807,  created  by
means of the house of Hope & Co., each
of which is for 1000 Dutch guilders with
interest, payable annually.  The interest
of this loan of thirty million guilders, and
of several of the  other debts, has never
been paid since the French  invasion  of
1808. 2. The stocks of the Laffitte loan of
fifteen million dollare, which was  nego-
tiated in  Paris. Each certificate  is for          *
one hundred dollars.   A lottery ticket is
connected with every one,  by which the
certificate gains a greater or less premium
(from 18 dollars to 20,000) whenever its
number  is drawn.  The obligations are
to be paid within twenty years from 1825,
agreeably to the regulations for the annual          ^
extinction of a portion, with the  premi-
ums belonging to  them.  3. The cer-
tificates   of the loan of 1821, negotiated
by  the  house  of Ardouin, Hubbard  &
Co., fixed at  different  sums in dollare,
and with interest payable semi-annually
in Paris and  London.  4. The  certifi-
cates of the national loan of 1821, which
is connected  with  the last, or rather           i
forms a part of it.   Every certificate is for
150 dollars in  specie,  but the old obliga- 
PUBLIC STOCKS.                          417
 lions of the governments, as well as shares
 in stocks No. 1 and 3, and premium cer-
 tificates, are received by the  government
 in return for these new stocks, according
 to their market value.  These new certifi-
 cates were to bear five per cent, interest,
 paid annually at  Madrid,  Paris, or Lon-
 don, at the option of the holder.
    IX. Danish Stocks.  The obligations on
 account ofthe domestic loans, made for the
 sake of the liquidation and better regula-
 tion of the paper money, ore scarcely
 found at all in foreign markets.  But those
 that sprung from the  loans of 1818 and
 1819, in Hamburg, and from  the English
 loan of  1821, have  a  wider  circulation.
 The firet loan of  1813 gave rise to obliga-
 tions at five per cent each, of the amount
 of 3000  marks, Hamburg  banco (a mark
 banco is about 34£  cents), which  were
 sold  at par, because  they involved a pre-
 mium, in which  every certificate gained,
 at least, 400 marks banco, in stocks bearing
 six per cent interest,  and under the most
 favorable circumstances, 200,000.  After
 the drawing ofthe premiums,  the five per
 cent, obligations of this description stood
 at 78—83; the six per cent, at 91—96.
 The  loans of 1818 and 1819, in Hamburg,
 were concluded under similar conditions.
 The  English loan of 1821 amounted to
 three million pounds  sterling,  and the ob-
 ligations vary in amount from  100 to 1000
 pouuds sterling.   All these loans are enti-
 tled  to interest semi-annually, till all the
 capital is paid, provision being made for
 cancelling a portion of this capital annu-
 ally.   No loan could well rest  on a firmer
 basis than the Danish.  In regard to the
 premium notes, it is left with the govern-
 ment to repay the capital at pleasure.  All
 the rest are gradually paid in full, as  their
 numbers are drawn,  and all the stipula-
 tions have  hitherto been punctually ful-
 filled.
   X. Norwegian Stocks. They arise from
 the loan of 2,700,000 marks, concluded in
 1819, in Hamburg and Berlin,  by die king
 of Sweden and by the Norwegian states,
 and consist of obligations, which  vary
 from 3000  to 300 marks  banco.   The
 method adopted to repay the capital is, to
 re-purchase the certificates as long as they
 are below par.  Another Norwegian loan
 at six per cent was negotiated  in 1822, at
 Hamburg.   It  amounted   to   2,400,000
 marks banco.  It is to be entirely paid off
 in twenty-nine years, in semi-annual in-
 stalments.   The payments have hitherto
 been  regularly made;  and this circum-
 stance, together with the guarantee of the
states, seems to have given to  tiiese loans
 a high  degree of  credit, although  the
 guarantee given by the states, of their as-
 sociated kingdom, Sweden, to the stocks
 of the Frege loan, has not secured to the
 creditors a  regular  payment.  For this
 reason, Swedish certificates are not found
 in the money markets.
   XI. Stocks ofthe German Confederation.
 Nearly all the states  in  this body have
 public debts;  their  notes, however, are
 scarcely ever seen in the markets of i,on-
 don,  Amsterdam, Paris, Frankfort,  and
 Berlin; they remain chiefly in the states
 where they originated, and are monopo-
 lized by the capitalists and institutions of
 those states.  The certificates of the king-
 dom  of Saxony enjoy the highest credit
 of all.  Though the debts of this little ter-
 ritory amount to sixteen and a half million
 convention dollare (a Saxon dollar is about
 ninety-five and a half cents), the people
 believe the government to be so consci-
 entious and trustworthy, that they dread
 rather than desire die repayment of their
 capital, which is in the hands  of the state.
 From this cause the five  per cents have
 risen  to 110—111 per cent, and the three
 per cents to nearly 100; and the state has
 thus been enabletl to exchange the former
 for four per cents.   The new four per
 cents now stand at 104—105, and would
 stand still higher, if a small portion were
 not paid off semi-annually ; the three per
 cents stand at 101, and the two per cents
 at 90.  Next  in credit to Saxony  are the
 kingdoms of Wurtemberg  and Hanover,
 and the cities of Hamburg and Frankfort,
 whose four  per cent, notes are all nearly
 at par, or even above it   Not far below
 these  are the certificates of Bavaria, Ba-
 den, Mechlenburg and Hesse-Darmstadt;
 and it is a general rule that the credit of
 the German  states is  greater, and their
 certificates stand higher, in proportion to
 the smallness of the states.  These cer-
 tificates, however, are not proper subjects
 of comparison  with  those of the larger
 governments.   In  the  smaller states, al-
 most all debts are contracted on condition
 of being repaid within a limited time, and
 the measures adopted afford the creditors
good reason for believing that the prom-
ises will be fulfilled.
  XII. United States Stocks. In 1775, when
 hostilities commenced between the United
colonies and  Great Britain, the  Ameri-
 cans had no treasury, nor  any organized
system,  to direct their resources.  Con-
gress  authorized the  issuing of a  paper
currency, and loans were  obtained  from
foreignere, and from persons within the
country.  In  1783, the debts of the U. 
418
PUBLIC STOCKS.
States, as far as they could be ascertained,
amounted to $42,000,375, and the annual
interest was computed at $2,415,956.  No
provision had been made for the payment
of the interest, and there was no plan in
operation to  redeem  the  principal;  the
faith ofthe  government was doubted, and
the evidences of the public debt were re-
duced to about one eighth of their nominal
value. The estimated amount of the debt,
according to the report ofthe secretary of
the treasury, in  1790, was $79,124,464.
$25,000,000 of this were  proposed  to  be
assumed  on account of the several states.
$11,710,378 was the amount of the prin-
cipal  and  interest of the foreign  debt;
$40,414,085 was the principal and interest
of the liquidated  part of the  domestic
debt  The unliquidated part,  which con-
sisted chiefly of continental bills of credit,
was not ascertained, and was estimated at
$2,000,000. In 1790, the public debt was
funded. $600,000 were annually reserved
from  the duties on merchandise imported,
and  the tonnage  of vessels, or  so  much
diereof as  might be  appropriated  from
time to time for the support ofthe govern-
ment ofthe U. States, and their common
defence, and so much of the residue  ofthe
duties aforesaid as might be necessary
was   appropriated to  the  payment  of
interest on loans made in foreign  coun-
ties,  and also to the payment of interest
on such further loans as should be obtain-
ed for discharging the arrears of interest
thereupon,  and the whole or any part of
the principal thereof.  The appropriations
were to continue until these sums should
be fully paid.  The president was author-
ized to borrow $12,000,000 to discharge
the arrears  of interest, and the instalments
ofthe principal ofthe foreign debt   The
U. States reserved the right to reimburse
any ofthe sums so borrowed within fifteen
yeare after the same should have been
lent  To provide for the domestic debt, a
loau to its full amount was directed  to be
proposed.   The  sums  subscribed were
payable in the certificates issued for the
domestic debt, according to  their  specie
value, and computing the  interest upon
such as bore interest to the 31st of Decem-
ber, 1790, inclusively.  The subscribere re-
ceived two kinds of certificates, one  for
two  thirds  of the sum paid in the certifi-
cates just  mentioned, bearing an interest
of six per cent, payable quarter-yearly,
and redeemable at pleasure, in payments
not exceeding, in any one year, for princi-
pal  and interest, eight dollars for each
hundred mentioned  in the  certificate.
This first stock was afterwards  called old
six per cents.  The other certificate was
for the remaining third, which, after 1800,
was  to bear interest, and be  redeemable
on the terms just mentioned.  For such
of the sums subscribed as were paid in the
interest of the said domestic debt, or in the
certificates issued in payment of interest,
the subscriber received a certificate for u
sum equal to that  paid in, bearing three
per cent, interest, payable quarter-yearly,
and   redeemable  whenever  provision
should be made by law for the purpose.
This was called deferred six per cents.  The
stocks thus created were transferable only
on the books of the treasury, or on those
ofthe commissionere of loans, upon which
the credit of the same should exist at the
time  of the  transfer, unless  by  special
warrant from the secretary of the treasury.
The interest was made payable where the
credit of the  stock should exist at  the
time of its becoming due.  If not demand-
ed before the expiration ofa third quarter,
it was afterwards demandable only at the
treasury ofthe U. States.  To provide for
the debts of the respective states, a  loan
of $21,500,000 was authorized, to be  paid
in the evidences of debt which had been
issued by the states. For four ninths of any
sum thus subscribed, the subscriber receiv-
ed a certificate bearing six per cent, interest,
anel subject to the same conditions as those
ofthe first sort mentioned under domestic
debt; for two ninths, another certificate,
bearing  six  per cent interest after 1800,
payable quarterly,  and  redeemable  as
above-mentioned, and for the remaining
three ninths, a certificate bearing three per
cent interest, and redeemable when pro-
vision should be made by law  for the pur-
pose. Various stocks for small amounts
were created in 1795, 1796, 1798.  These
were reimbursed in 1806,1807 and 1808,
with the exception of $80,000 transferred
to the national debt.  In 1803, the Louis-
iana six per cent stock was created  for
the payment ofthe purchase of Louisiana
from France.  Certificates for $11,250,000
were issued, bearing an interest of six  per
cent The principal was made reimburs-
able in four annual instalments,  payable
the first in 1818, the last in 1821.  Besides
this sum, claims of American citizens on
the French government, to the amount of
$3,500,000, were also assumed by the  na-
tional government on account of"the Lou-
isiana purchase, and added to the national
debt.  Feb. 11, 1807, the  government of
die U. States proposed to the holders of
six per cent deferred and three per cent
stocks, to exchange the same for six  per
cent, stocks, redeemable at the pleasure 
PUBLIC STOCKS.                           419
of the government  This was done with
a condition  " that  no single certificate
should issue for a greater  amount than
$10,000,  and  that  no  reimbursement
should  be made, except for the whole
amount of any such new certificate,  nor
till after six months, at least, previous  no-
tice  of such  intended  reimbursement."
The holders of three per cent, stock were
to receive new certificates for sums equal
to sixty-five per cent, of the  principal of
the stock, bearing an  interest of six  per
cent  The  amount of unredeemeel  and
deferred six per  cent, stock subscribed
was $6,294,051, and the stock thus created
was called exchanged  six per cents;  the
three per cents,  subscribed  at sixty-five
per cent, produced $1,859,850, which  was
called converted six per cent, stock.  More
exchanged stock was created in 1812, by
the surrender of nearly 3,000,000 of  the
old and deferred six per cents.  In 1812,
additional stock was created by boreowing
money to the amount of $8,134,700 at six
per cent., reimbursable after twelve years
from Jan. 1,1813.   In 1813, more six  per
cent, stock, to the amount of $26,607,959,
was  created  by borrowing an additional
amount, reimbursable  after  twelve yeare
from Jan. 1,1814.  In 1814, six  per cent.
stock, to the amount of $15,954,619,  was
added, reimbursable  after twelve  years
from December,  1814.   Under acts of
congress of the yeare 1812,  1813, 1814,
and 1815, treasury notes were  issued to
the  amount  of  $36,680,794, of which
there had been paid  off, by December,
1816, $32,980,794, leaving unpaid in Jan-
uary,  1817,   $3,700,000.   The  whole
amount of the debt remaining unpaid Jan.
1,1817, was estimated  at $112,107,862, of
which $75,450,930 was contracted during
the war; the remainder, contracted before
the  war,  was  $36,656,932.   In March,
1817, congress passed  an act to provide
for the redemption ofthe publi#debt  By
this, all acts making appropriations for the
purchase or reimbursement of the princi-
pal, or for the  payment ofthe interest of
the funded  debt, are  repealed,  and  the
annual sum of f 10,000,000 is appropriated
to the sinking fund, and a further sum of
$9,000,000 is appropriated  for that year.
The act also provides that, after  the year
1817, any sum in the  treasury above the
annual appropriations shall be appropriat-
eel to the sinking fund, with the exception
of so much as will leave in the treasury at
the  end  of  the year  the  amount of
$2,000,000.   The debt now went  on di-
minishing till   1821,  when  it   stood at
$89,987,427; hut the purchase of Florida,
•n that year, for $5,000,000, increased it,
so that  it stood, in 1822, at $93,546,676.
In March, 1821, five per cent stocks, re-
deemable after January, 1835, were creat-
ed to the amount of $4,735,296.  In May,
1824,  four and  a  half per cents to  the
amount of $1,739,524 were created, re-
deemable after January, 1832, and, in  the
same  year, four and  a half per cent,  ex-
changed stocks were created to the amoun*
of $4,454,727, redeemable  after Decem-
ber, 1832 and 1833.  In 1825, the public
debt had been reduced to $83,788,432; in
1828,   to  $67,475,622;   in   1830,   to
$48,565,405;  in  January,   1832,   to
$24,282,879  funded, and  $39,355   un-
funded.
  XII.  South American Stocks.  The new
S. American states, as Buenos Ayres, Chile,
Colombia,  several years  ago,  obtained
loans in London.  These have greatly de-
preciated, or have merely a nominal value.
  Fraser's Magazine for January,  1832,
contains an article  entitled  the Stock Ex-
change, the object of which is to show the
enormous amount  of capital drawn from
England in nine  years, beginning, say,
with 1822, in the shape of loans and joint
stock subscriptions.  From the facts there
presented,  the following table has been
prepared.  The  firet column of figures
shows the amount loaned ; the second, the
rate per cent, at  which the loans were
made; the third, the present value  per
cent
Austrian,  .  .  .£2,500,000
Brazilian,  .  .  .  3,200,000
Buenos Ayres,  .  1,000,000
Colombian,  .  .  2,000,000
Colombian (second),4,750,000
              1,000,000
              3,500,000
               800,000
              2,000,000
              1,428,571
              3,200,000
              3,200,000
              2,500,000
              1,500,000
              1,816,000
              5,000,000
              3,500,000
              3,500,000
              6,500,000 J
Loaned at
not stated
75 per ct.
85 "
84 "
88J "
70 "
75 "
59 "
56J "
73 "
1,500,000  301 per ct
         Jfoio worth
         not Elated.
         43 per ct.
         nominal.
         13 per ct.
         13 a 14 do.
         17 a 19 do.
         66J per ct.
         22 a 24 do.
         22 per ct.
         nominal.
         29 per ct.
         35 a 36 do.
92| "     uncertain.
87 "     49 o 50 do.
88,82 & 78 -12 per ct.
70,72J&75 99al00do.
84perct.   99a 100 do.
83 "    99^ a 100 do.
54&68   14J per ct.

         14 per ct.
58
Chilian,
Danish,....
Greek,  ....
Greek (second)  .
Guatemala, .
Mexican,  .  .  .
Mexican (second),
Neapolitan,  .  .
Portuguese,  .  .
Peruvian,  .  .  .
Prussian,  .  .  .
Prussian (second),
Russian (known),
Spanish (about)  .
  or $31,000,000
Spanish (second),
Total,  .  .  .  £54,394,571

In addition  to  the above, the writer enu-
merates twenty-seven joint-stock compa-
nies, in  behalf of which  £6,145,065 were
"exported from  the national treasury to
distant climes, without the shadow of an
equivalent"
  It is  impossible to  give a  complete
view of all  public stocks.   We can here
only give a general idea, of those of the
larger states, and chiefly of those which
are now  important in  the commercial 
420
PUBLIC STOCKS—PUFENDORF.
 world.   States  have always labored to
 make their notes as easy to be obtained
 and used in remote countries, as at home;
 so that a capitalist in Prussia may lay out
 his money not only in all kinds of German
 stocks, but in those  of France, Denmark,
 England, Spain, and even America; re-
 ceive the interest of them with the same
 ease, and sell  them again with the same
 convenience, as those of his own countiy.
 In London, Amsterdam, Paris, Frankfort,
 Berlin and Leipsic, stocks of all  descrip-
 tions may be obtained, and the interest on
 them all paid.  Thus a branch  of trade
 has arisen, which, fifty years ago, was un-
 known ;  and one of the consequences  of
 this  has  been,  that stocks have  come
 into competition, like  other articles  of
 commerce, and those of equal goodness
 and security can be exchanged at an equal
 price; so that a state, whose credit is good,
 may at any time create  new stocks,  or
 dispose of them whenever a profit can  be
 made upon them.  Hence, if the stocks
 of one state are  higher than those of an-
 other, it may usually be attributed to one
 of the following  causes:  1.  that one state
 enjoys greater credit than another; 2. that
 the loans of one have been negotiated on
 better conditions than those of another, as
 regards  the prospect of gain, premiums,
 the payment of the capital at a time speci-
 fied, the facility of obtaining the interest,
 &c.; 3. that the  buying  and selling,  or
 procuring the  interest of foreign stocks,
 costs a certain  per centage, which, in the
 case of domestic  stocks, is saved.   Under
 certain circumstances, therefore, the price
 of stocks may be viewed as a standard of
 the comparative credit of different states.
 In May, 1823, the five per cent, stocks of
 the  following  countries,  created  with
 similar conditions, sold at the following
 rates:—
                              Per Cent.
 1. the Saxon stocks,.....at 140—150
 2. those  of England  and
    Hamburg,........" 125—130
3. those of Hanover, Wur-
    temberg, and other small
    German states,......"  98—100
4. the Prussian,........"  90
5. French,..........."  86
6. Norwegian,.........a  85
7. Danish,...........«  81
 8. Russian,.........."   80
9. Spanish,..........«  37 &c.

As the price of stocks is affected by vari-
 ous circumstances, even though the gov-
ernment punctually fulfils its obligations,
speculators are in the habit of buying
and selling with a view of turning these
 fluctuations  to  account  (See Stock-jab-
 bing.)
   Puck.   (See Mob.)
   Pudding Stone.  (See Sandstone.)
   Puddling Furnaces.   (See  Iron, vol.
 vii, p. 72.)
   Puebla, La, or La Puebla  de los
 Angeles ; a state  of  the Mexican con-
 federacy, formed of the  Spanish inten-
 dancy of the same name, lying between
 lat 16° and  20° 30' N., and lon. 96° 40-
 and 99° 30* W.; bounded  north by  the
 states of Vera Cruz and Queretaro,  south
 by that of Oaxaca and  the Pacific ocean,
 and west by the state of Mexico.  It is
 322 miles in length from north to south,
 and 140 in breadth ; square miles, 20,000.
 It is traversed by the Cordilleras of  Ana-
 huac,  and contains the lofty summits of
 Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl. The north-
 ern part is almost  entirely formed of an
 elevated  plateau,  6500 feet above the
 ocean,  and fertile  in  corn  and fruits;
 cotton and sugar also thrive here.  Popu-
 lation  of the state  in  1793, 508,000; in
 1803,  813,300.  On the  arrival  of the
 Spaniards it  was the seat of a  powerful
 republic (Tlascala), which had maintained
 itself independent of the Mexican empe-
 rors.  The capital of the state, of the  same
 name, is in lat 19° N., and is one of the
 handsomest cities of North America: the
 streets are broad, straight, and well paved;
 the houses large and well built; and  there
 are uumerous large  squares.  The church
 of Nuestra Sefiora  de  Guadalupe is one
 of the richest and  most splendid in the
 countiy.  Puebla contains  sixty churches,
 twenty-two convents, and  several literary
 seminaries and hospitals; its manufacto-
 ries,  particularly its  potteries, are exten-
 sive ; population, 67,000. The pyramid of
 Cbolula is five miles distant from the  city.
 Puebla was built by  the Spaniards in 1533.
 (See Mexico.)
   Pufen©orf,  Samuel, baron  von, one
 of the  first and greatest expounders of
 natural  law,  publicists,  and  historians
 of Germany, was  born  in 1632,  near
 Chemnitz,  in  the Erzgebirge, in a vil-
 lage  where  his  father was a preacher.
 After  having studied  at  the school of
 Grimma, and at the universities of Leipsic
 and Jena,  he applied  himself to public
law, making  philosophical or natural law
the foundation of his studies.  Being un-
able to procure  a situation in his native
country, he accepted, in 1658, the place of
tutor in the house of the Swedish ambas-
sador  at the  Danish court, and repaired
with his pupil to Copenhagen; but a war
breaking out between Denmark and Swe-
den, he was arrested, with the whole  fam- 
PUFENDORF—PUFFIN.
421
 ily of the Swedish ambassador.  In this
 situation,  which  continued  for  eight
 months, he employed himself in studying
 the works of Grotius and Hobbes on law
 and government  The result of his labors
 appeared at the Hague in 1660 (Elementa
 Jurisprudeidia universalis).   The learned
 elector ofthe palatinate, Charles Louis, to
 whom  it  was dedicated, was so much
 pleased with this work,  that he founded
 for the author, in 1601, a professorship of
 the law of nature and nations, the firet  in
 Germany.  Here he taught till 1670, when
 the king  of Sweden, Charles XI, offered
 him the professorship of natural law in the
 new university at Lund.  He there wrote
 his work on natural law (De Jure Naturat
 et Gentium, Lund, 1672), which supereeded
 the former, and is characterized by perspi-
 cuity, method, and sound reasoning; soon
 after appeared the smaller compendium, or
 rather abstract ofthe above work, De Offi-
 cio Hominis et Civis (Lund,  1673), which
 has passed through innumerable editions,
 and been translated into several languages.
 Pufendorf, in these vvorks,  deviated  still
 further  than  Grotius from the scholastic
 method of philosophizing,   and, conse-
 quently, excited violent opposition.  How-
 ever different opinions may be respecting
 these works  of Pufendorfj it is not to be
 denied that he made an epoch in the his-
 tory of natural law.  He had a more dis-
 tinct conception than Grotius of a science,
 which,  independently of positive law or
 theology,  should determine  the  rules of
 right  solely by the laws  of  reason.  His
 law of nature was a philosophical moral-
 ity, settling the mutual relations of justice
 between men,  and which still remained
 dependent on  die  Christian  morality.
 With Grotius, he laid the foundation of
 law in the social instinct, which is nearly
 allied to the Christian precept of love of
 our neighbor, and with  Hobbes, he  de-
 rived law from the state of fallen  nature,
 Pufendorf also  made  an epoch in  the
 German public law.  While professor in
 Heidelberg, he wrote, at the suggestion of
 the elector, under the name of Severinus
a Monzambano, the celebrated book, De
 Statu Rcipublicai Germanicee, which he
 sent to his brother, then Swedish ambas-
sador in Paris, to be printed.  It repre-
sents  Gennany as a  republican  body,
whose clumsily joined parts formed an
anomalous whole.  This book was vio-
lently attacked, and Pufendorf, who  de-
fended it  with energy, did not think it
advisable to avow himself as the author.
He afterwards went to Stockholm, where
he was appointed secretary of state, royal
  vol. x.         36
 counsellor and historiographer. There he
 wrote, in Latin, the History of Sweden,
 from the campaign of Gustavus Adolphus
 in Germany, to the abdication of queen
 Christina (De Rebus Suecicis—1676), and
 the History of Charles Gustavus (De Re-
 bus a  Carolo Gustavo gestis—2 vols., fol.,
 1696), and, in German, his Einleitung zur
 Geschichte der  vornehmsten  Reiche  und
 Staaten  (1682, 2 vols.), subsequently con-
 tinued by CEhlenschlager  and translated
 by Martiniere into French.  These works
 so much increased  his reputation, that, in
 1686,  he received from  Frederic  Wil-
 liam, elector of Brandenburg, an invita-
 tion to Berlin as counsellor, historiographer
 and judge of the supreme court of judi-
 cature, with the charge to write the life of
 that prince, which  he finished under the
 reign of his son, Frederic III.  In 1690,
 he was made privy counsellor of the elec-
 tor of Brandenburg, and, in 1694, was cre-
 ated baron by Charles XI, king of Swe-
 den.   He died at Berlin, in 1694.
   Puffin (puffinus).  These birds, which
 also bear the name of petrel, are com-
 pletely aquatic,  living constantly at  sea,
 and  scarcely ever seen on shore; they,
 however, fly well, and keep on the wing
 for a long time; they chiefly seek for then-
 prey, which is exclusively fish, at twilight
 or in stormy days.   They breed socially,
 forming their nest in the ground, which
 they excavate by means of  the sharp nails
 of their  feet.  The female lays one egg.
 The  young, when  excluded from  the
 shell, is covered  with a long down.  They
 are found  in all the high  latitudes, fur-
 nishing the wretched inhabitants of these
 frozen climates  with food  and clothing.
 Three species are  found in America;—
 P. cinereus  (petrel  or puffin); bill more
 than two inches long, depressed at base,
 compressed  where the point  swells;  tad
 cuneiform; tarsus two inches long; color,
 light cinereous; wings and tail blackish ash,
 beneath white; common on the banks of
 Newfoundland, but also found in all parts
 of the  world: P. anglorum (shear-water
petrel); bill  an inch and  three quarters
long, very slender;  tail rounded;  wings
reaching beyond its  tip;  color,  glossy
black,  beneath pure white; inhabits the
northern seas of both continents; rare in
the U. States, but very common in the
Hebrides:  P. obscurus  (dusky peft-el);
bill an inch and a quarter long, very slen-
der ;  tail rounded; the wings reaching to
its tip; tarsus little more than an inch
long;  color, glossy brownish black, be-
neath white.  This species,  which it is by
no means easy to distinguish from the two 
422                           PUFFIN—PULCI.
others, inhabits the temperate and torrid
zones, aud is never found to the  north; it
is very rare in the U. States.
  Pugatscheff, Jemeljan; the  son of a
Cossack, born at Simoweisk, a village on
the Don, in 1726,  played, for a short time,
an  important part in Russia.  War and
robbery  were  the  employments of his
youth, and he became the leader of a pred-
atory band.   He  afterwards entered the
Prussian service during the seven years'
war; then  joined the  Austrians, served
against the Turks, and was present at the
siege of Bender (1770).   Returning to his
native country, he attempted to sow the
seeds of rebellion  among his countrymen,
but  was soon areested  and  confined at
Kasan.   Having made his escape, he was
joined by some restless spirits,  and  was
encouraged, by his personal resemblance
to the lately deceased emperor, Peter HI,
to attempt to pass  himself off for that em-
peror.  His adherents pretended that the
corpse which had  been exposed as Peter's
was in fact that of a soldier resembling
him; that the emperor had escaped in dis-
guise, and  had at last appeared  in  the
midst of his faithful Cossacks, by whose
support he expected to be restored to the
throne. The insurrection began inthe mid-
dle of August, 1773, when a manifesto was
issued in the  name  of the pseudo-Peter.
The number of his followers, which was
at first only nine,  had increased  in Sep-
tember to 300.   He  was every where
joined by his countrymen and the peas-
antry, to  whom he promised deliverance
from their oppressions.  His force was in-
creased by 500 deserters from the garrison
of Jaizkai,  and many Roskolnicks (q. v.),
and  he took several fortresses, practising
the  most shocking  cruelties.  His army
now amounted to 16,000 men,  and  was
gaining strength by the concourse of Bash-
kirs, Watiaks, Tartars, &c.  He  captured
Kasan, the old capital of the  empire, and
passed the Volga. He was at length defeat-
ed, at the  moment that Moscow was threat-
ened, betrayed by his followere to Suwar-
roff, and, June 10,1775, executed, together
with the other rebel leaders, at Moscow—
the  only instance of capital punishment in
the reign of Catharine. Thus ended this re-
bellion, which cost more than 100,000 lives.
  Puget, Pierre,  a celebrated French
sculptor,  architect, and  painter,  born at
Marseilles in  1622,  was at an early age
placed with a ship-builder, but soon after
went to Italy, and displayed  such marks
of talents as to attract the notice of Cor-
tona (q. v.), who instructed him in paint-
ing.   He returned to Marseilles  in 1643;
and there  are several pictures from his
pencil at Aix, Toulouse, and  Marseilles,
which are  much  admired.   His design is
correct, and his  figures graceful,  but his
coloring is  cold.   In 1655, being  obliged
by  his health  to abandon  painting,  he
thenceforward devoted himself to sculp-
ture  and  architecture, in which  he  re-
ceived  no  instruction.   His  success  in
these departments of art was complete.
He lived some time at Genoa, where he
executed numerous works iu statuary and
architecture, and, in 1669, was recalled to
France by Colbert, as director ofthe orna-
ments of ships of war, in which capacity
he was employed in carving figures, bass-
reliefs, &c.   But he soon returned to labors
more worthy of his genius, and  produced a
great number of vvorks in marble, which
have gained for him the appellation ofthe
Michael Angelo of France.  Puget died at
Marseilles in 1694.
  Pugilism.  (See Gymnastics.)
  Puglia.  (See  Apulia.)
  Pulawski, count Joseph ; a distinguish-
ed Pole, who, after attempting in vain to
restore the  independence of his own coun-
try, entered the American service. Pu-
lawski had  followed the profession of the
law, and, in 1768, was at the head  of the
patriots who fonned the confederation of
Bar.  Eight noblemen  only constituted
the first assembly of that confederation,
and of these three were the sons and one
the nephew of Pulawski. (See Poland.)
In 1771, at  the head of a few accomplices,
he seized the person of the lung (see Po-
niatowski) ;  but, the latter having procur-
ed his liberation, Pulawski was condemn-
ed to death, and  obliged to save himself
by flight   He soon after came to Ameri-
ca, and offered his services to the U. States
against the  mother country.   Being  ap-
pointed brigadier-general in the American
service, he served both in the northern and
in the southern army. October 9, 1779,
he was mortally wounded in the attack on
Savannah, and died two days afterwards.
  Pulci, Luigi, an Italian poet, born at
Florence in 1431, was the youngest  of
three brothers distinguished for their tal-
ents and learning. Ofthe circumstances
of his life we know nothing  but that he
lived in tenns of  intimacy with Lorenzo
de' Medici and Politiau.   His epic poem,
IlMorgante Maggiore, in which he relates
the adventures and  exploits of Rinaldo
and the giant Morgante, is said to have
been written at the suggestion  of  Loren-
zo's mother, and to have been read, as an
entertainment, at  table.   Pulci  cannot
bear a comparison with Ariosto and Tas- 
PULCI—PULMONARY CONSUMPTION.
423
so; he cannot be denied to possess fancy,
but  he wants taste and judgment.  His
mixture of the grave,  lofty  and sacred,
with the mean and burlesque, which is
offensive to modern taste,  was in accord-
ance widi the spirit of his age. His style
is rich in pure Tuscan modes of expres-
sion, but his versification is rude  and
clumsy. Lord Byron translated this work
of Pulci's—His brother  Bernardo  was
the author of some elegies and short po-
ems.—Anodier brother, Luca, wrote some
heroic epistles, a pastoral  romance (Dri-
adeo (PAmore), and au epic romance, proba-
bly the firet in Italian (R CHriffo Calvaneo).
   Pulcinella.   (See Punchinello.)
   PtJLLEr.  (See Mechanics.)
   PulmonaryConsumption, or Phthisis
(from (pOiu, to consume); a disease known
by emaciation, debility, cough, hectic fe-
ver, and  purulent  expectoration.   The
causes which predispose to diis disease are
very numerous.   The following are, how-
ever, the most general: hereditary  dispo-
sition ; |Kirticular formation of body, obvi-
ous by a long neck, prominent shoulders,
and  narrow chest;  scrofulous diathesis,
indicated  by a fine clear skin,  fair hair,
delicate rosy complexion, large veins, thick
upper lip, a weak voice, and  great sensi-
bility ; certain diseases, such as syphilis,
scrofula, the small-pox, and measles;  em-
ployments exposing  particular  artificers
to dust, such  as needle-pointers, stone-
cutters, millers, &c, or to the fumes of
metals  or minerals  under a confined and
unwholesome air; violeut passions, exer-
tions, or affections  of the mind, as grief,
disappointment, anxiety, or close applica-
tion to study, without using proper exer-
cise ; frequent  and  excessive debauche-
ries, late watching, and drinking freely of
strong liquors: great evacuations,  as di-
arrhoea, diabetes, and  the continuing  to
suckle too long under a debilitated state;
and, lastly, the  application of cold, either
by too sudden a change of apparel, keep-
ing on wet clothes, lying in damp beds, or
exposing the body  too  suddenly to  cool
air, when heated by exercise; in short, by
any  thing  that gives a considerable check
to the perspiration.   The more immediate
or occasional causes of phthisis  are, hae-
moptysis,  pneumonic inflammation pro-
ceeding to suppuration, catarrh, asthma,
and  tubercles, die last of  which  is by far
the most  general.  The incipient  symp-
toms usually vary with  the cause of the
disease; but when it arises from tubercles,
it is usually thus marked:  It begins with
a short, dry cough, that at length becomes
habitual, but from which  nothing is  spit
up for some time, except a frothy mucus
that seems  to  proceed from the  fauces.
The breathing is at the same time some-
what impeded, and upon  the least bodily
motion is much hunied: a sense of strait-
ness, with oppression at the chest, is expe-
rienced:  the  body  becomes  gradually
leaner, and  great languor, with indolence,
dejection oi* spirits, and  loss of appetite,
prevail.  In this state die patient  fre-
quently continues  a considerable length
of time,  during which  he is, however,
more readily affected than usual by slight  '
colds; and  iqion one or other of these oc-
casions, the cough becomes more trouble-
some and  severe,  particularly by night,
and it is at length  attended with  an ex-
pectoration, which towards  morning  is
more free and  copious.  By degrees the
matter which  is expectorated  becomes
more viscid and opaque, and now assumes
a greenish  color and  purulent  appear-
ance, being on  many occasions streaked
with blood. In some cases, a more severe
degree of hcemoptysis  attends,  and the
patient spits up a considerable quantity of
florid,  frothy  blood.  The breathing at
length becomes more difficult,  and the
emaciation  and weakness go on increas-
ing.   With these the person begins to  be
sensible of  pain in some part of the thorax,
which, however, is usually felt at first un-
der the sternum, particularly on coughing.
At a more advanced period ofthe disease,
a pain is sometimes felt on one  side, and
at times prevails in so high a degree, as to
prevent the person from lying  easily  on
that side; but it more frequently happens,
that it is felt only on  making a full inspi-
ration, or coughing.  Even where no pain
is felt, it often  happens that those  who
labor under phthisis cannot  lie on one
or other of their sides, without  a fit  of
coughing being excited,  or the  difficul-
ty of  breathing being much  increased.
At the firet  commencement ofthe disease,
the pulse is often  natural, or perhaps is
soft, small,  and a little quicker than usual;
but when the symptoms which have  been
enumerated have subsisted for any length
of time, it  then becomes full, hard, and
frequent   At  the same time  the  face
flushes, particularly after eating, the palms
ofthe hands and sole6 of the feet are af-
fected  with burning heat; the respiration
is difficult and  laborious;  evening exacer-
bations become  obvious, and by degrees
the fever assumes the hectic form.   This
species of fever is evidently of the remit-
tent  kind,  and has  exacerbations twice
every day.  The firet occurs usually about
noon, and a slight remission ensues about 
424               PULMONARY CONSUMPTION—PULSE.
  five in the  afternoon.   This last is, how-
  ever, soon succeeded by another exacerba-
  tion, which increases gradually until after
  midnight;  but about  two o'clock in the
  morning, a remission takes place, and this
  becomes more apparent  as  the morning
  advances.  During the exacerbations, the
  patient is very sensible to  any coolness of
  the air, aud often complains of a sense of
  cold when hirf skin is, at the same time,
  preternaturally warm.  Of these exacerba-
  tions, that of the evening is by far the most
  considerable.  From the  firet appearance
  ofthe liectic symptoms, the  urine  is high
  colored, and deposits  a  copious  branny
  red sediment.  The appetite, however, is
  not greatly  impaired ; the  tongue appears
  clean, the mouth is usually moist, and the
  thirst is inconsiderable. During the exa-
  cerbations, a florid, circumscribed redness
  appears on  each cheek; but at other times
  the face is pale, and the  countenance
  somewhat dejected.  At the commence-
  ment of hectic fever, the  belly is usually
  costive ; but iu the more advanced stages
  of it, a diarrhoea often comes on ; and this
  continues to  recur frequently during the
  remainder  of the disease; colliquative
, sweats likewise break out, and these alter-
  nate with each other, and induce vast de-
  bility.  Iu the last stage of the disease, the
  emaciation  is so great, that the patient has
  the appearauce of a walking skeleton; his
  countenance  is altered, his  cheeks  are
  prominent,  his eyes look hollow and  lan-
  guid, his hair falls off, his  nails are of a
  livid color, and much incurvated, and his
  feet are affected with oedematous  swell-
  ings.  To the end of the disease, the senses
  remain entire, and the mind is confident
  and full of  hope.  Those  who suffer un-
  der it are seldom apprehensive or  aware
  of any danger; and  persons  laboring un-
  der its most advanced  stage often  flatter
  themselves  with a speedy  recovery,  and
  form distant projects under that vain hope.
  Some  days before death  the extremities
  become cold.  In some cases a delirium
  precedes  that event, and  continues until
  life is extinguished.  The morbid appear-
  ance most frequently to be met with on
  the dissection of those who die of phthisis,
  is the existence of tubercles in the cellular
  substance of the lungs.  These are small
  tumors, which have the appearance of indu-
  rated glands, are of different sizes, and are
  often found  in clusters.  Their firmness is
  usually in  proportion  to  dieir size, and,
  when laid open in this state, they are ofa
  white color, aud of a consistence  nearly
  approaching to cartilage. Although indo-
  lent at first,  they at length become inflam-
 ed, and,  lastly, form little abscesses or
 vomica;,  which,  breaking  and  pouring
 their contents into the bronchia, give  rise
 to a purulent expectoration, and  thus lay
 the foundation of phthisis.  Such tuber-
 cles or vomicae  are  most usually situated
 at the upper and back part of the lungs ;
 but, in some instances, they occupy the
 outer part, and then adhesions to the pleu-
 ra are often formed.  When the disease is
 partial, only about a fourth of the upper
 and posterior part of the lungs is usually
 found diseased; but,  in  some  cases, life
 has been protracted till not one twentieth
 part of them appeared, on  dissection, fh
 for performing their function.  A singu-
 lar observation,  confirmed by the morbid
 collections of anatomists, is, that  the  left
 lobe is much oftener affected than  the
 right  The diet, iu this disorder, should
 be of a nutritious kind, but not heating, or
 difficult of digestion.   Milk,  especially
 that of the ass ; farinaceous vegetables ;
 acescent fruits ; the  different  kinds  of
 shell-fish ; the lichen islandicus, boiled
 with milk,  &c, are  of this description.
 Some  mode of gestation, regularly  em-
 ployed, particularly sailing, warm clothing,
 removal to a warm climate or to a pure
 and mild  air, may materially concur in
 arresting  the  progress  of .the  disease
 in  its  incipient stage.  With regard to
 urgent  symptoms, requiring  palliation,
 the cough may be allayed by demulcents,
 but especially  mild  opiates,  swallowed
 slowly; colliquative sweats by acids, par-
 ticularly the mineral; diarrhoea by chalk
 and other  astringents, but most effectually
 by small doses of opium.
   Pulo Pinang.  (See Prince of Wales's
 Island.)
   Pulque, or Octli ; a favorite drink of
 the Mexicans, extracted from the maguey,
 or agave Mcxicana.  At the moment of
 efflorescence, the flower-stalk is extirpat-
 ed, and the juice  destined  to form  the
fruit flows into  the cavity thus formed,
and is taken out two or three times a  day
for four pr five months.  The sap in  this
state is called  aguamiel  (honey-water),
and, when  allowed  to  ferment about
twelve or fifteen days, fonns madrepulque,
or mother of pulqiic.  This is used as a
leaven.  A small quantity, being placed
in a vessel  of the aguamiel, produce? a
fenuentation, and renders it pulque, in the
best state  for drinking,  in twenty-four
hours.   It is a cool, refreshing drink,  and
its intoxicating qualities are slight
  Pulse (from the Latin pulsus,  a beat-
ing, a blow); the  motion of an artery,
consisting  of its  alternate expansion  and 
PULSE-PULTENEY.
425
contraction, which, in practice, is consid-
ered as a beating.  This  motion is the
strongest in the heart, which is the cen-
tre of the arterial system,  and from it  is
propagated  through   all  the minutest
branches of die arteries.  In those which
lie immediately under the  skin, it can be
felt with the finger, as is the case with the
radial artery, the pulsation of which  is
very perceptible at the wrist.  (See Blood,
and Head.)  The state of the pulse is,
therefore, an indication ofthe action ofthe
heart and the whole arterial system,  and
of the condition  of the blood, and the
physical functions in  general.  The cir-
cumstances to be attended to in the pulse
are either the number of pulsations which
take place in a given time, and the regu-
larity or irregularity of their occurrence,
or the character  of each  pulsation.   In
the former case,  the pulse is said to be
quick or slow, according to the number
of pulsations in a given interval; regu-
lar or irregular, as they occur at equal or
unequal intervals.  In the  latter case, his
strong or weak, hard or soft, full or small,
&c.   It is affected by the age, sex  and
temperament of the individual, aud by
accidental circumstances,  as sleep, food,
exercise, heat, &c.  The  pulse  is  most
rapid in chddhood, making from 100 to
110 beats in a minute, and is regular, and
rather soft  and small.  In youth, it  is
much less rapid,  making not far  from
ninety beats a minute.  At this period,  it
is regular, strong, rather soft than hard,
moderately full. In mature age, the num-
ber of beats is about seventy-five per min-
ute,  and the pulse is regular, strong, or
moderate, fluctuating  between hard and
soft, between full and small.  In old age,
the number of beats sinks  to sixty.  The
pulse is sometimes  irregular, strong, but
slow, hard, rather full than small.  In the
female sex, it is more rapid, softer and
smaller than in the male. In the sanguine
temperament (so called), it is quicker, full-
er, softer;  in the cholenc, slower,  harder,
stronger; in the phlegmatic, slower, weak-
er, softer, fuller; in the melancholy, slow,
hard and strong.  A vegetable diet makes
it slow, weak, full, soft; a meat  diet,
spices, spirituous  liquors,  make it quick
and hard.   In a pure, clear air, it is quick;
in damp, impure  air,  slow and languid.
Sudden agitation  and  violent passions
make it rapid and irregular; joy makes it
quick and strong;  long-continued grief
languid and soft.  The pulse is, therefore,
a highly important indication of the  state
of the system.   A deviation from the
regular pulse of an individual indicates a
                 36 *
disordered state.  When the irritability of
the system is so heightened as to produce
fever or inflammation, the pulse is accel-
erated.  If the action of the nervous sys-
tem is irregular, or unduly heightened, the
pulse becomes frequent  and inegular,  as
in the case of cramps and a diseased irri-
tation in the abdomen, from worms, &c,
and in  hypochondriacal  and hysterical
pereons.   In case of mechanical obstruc-
tions to the circulation, as in dropsy of the
pericardium, polypus in the heart, or in
the great arteries,  the  pulse is irregular
and interrupted.   It is doubtful  whether
Hippocrates had  any knowledge of the
pulse.   Soon after  his time,   however,
physicians, especially those of the Alexan-
drian school, were attentive to it   Aretse-
us of Cappadocia explained the pulsation
as a motion occasioned by  a natural and
involuntary extension of the warmth be-
longing to the heart and arteries, by which
their own motion is occasioned; and Athe-
naeus of Cilicia had given the same ex-
planation before him.  He describes the
various  kinds of pulse connected  with
different disorders.  Galen wrote several
works on the pulse.  For  several centu-
ries after, the doctrine of pulsation re-
mained much as he had left it, as was the
case, indeed, with many branches of med-
ical science.  The  demonstration of the
circulation of the  blood  by Harvey, and
of the irritability of the muscular fibre by
Haller, threw new  light on this subject.
The feeling of the pulse is the principal
examination  which  Chinese physicians
make of the state of their patients, and
they discriminate its different states  with
a subtilty approaching absurdity.
   Pultawa, or Poltawa ;  a  fortified
town of Russia,  on  the river Worekla,
capital of a government of  the same
name; lat. 49° 30' N.; lon. 34° 14' E.; 450
miles south-west of Moscow; population
9000. June  27,  1709,  Peter  the Great
(see Peter I) defeated Charles XII (q. v.)
before Pultawa.   In commemoration of
this victory,  the Russians have erected a
column in the city, and an obelisk on the
field of battle.
  Pulteney, William, earl of Bath, an
English statesman, the political antagonist
of sir Robert Walpole, was descended from
an ancient family, and was born in 1682.
He became astudent of Christ-church, Ox-
ford, and, after having travelled abroad, re-,
turned home to devote himself to politics.
Being chosen a member of the house of
commons, he joined the  party of the
whigs, in the latter years of the reign of
Anne.   Under George I,  he was made 
496                        PULTENEY—PUMP,
secretary at war; but a dispute with sir
Robert Walpole caused his removal to the
ranks of the opposition, when  he  joined
lord Bolingbroke in  conducting an anti-
ministerial journal called  the Craftsman.
In 1731, a duel with lord  Hervey gave of-
fence to the lung, who removed Mr. Pul-
teney from die office of privy-counsellor,
which he had hitherto held, and also from
t he commission of the peace.   These and
other marks of the displeasure  of the
court only served to increase the popular-
ity of Pulteney, who, at length, succeed-
ed in procuring the  resignation of his ri-
val, Walpole,  in 1741.  The party with
which he had acted then  came into pow-
er,  and he was  raised to the peerage by
the title of earl of Bath   From that peri-
od, however, his popularity and influence
entirely ceased.  He died June 8,1764.
  Puma (felis concohr et discolor).  This
animal is also known under the names of
cougar, panther, &c., and is the largest an-
imal of the cat kind found in America.
The  puma is of a brownish-red  color,
with  small patches of rather a deeper tint,
which  are  only  observable  in   certain
fights, and disappear entirely as the ani-
mal advances in age.  The belly is pale-
reddish 5 the breast, inside of the thighs
and legs, ofa reddish-white, and die low-
er jaw and throat entirely white. The pu-
ma was formerly found in most parts of
the American continent,  and is still nu-
merous in Soudi  America;  in  die U.
States, the advance  of population has ren-
dered it scarce.  It  is a  savage aud de-
structive animal, though possessing all the
timidity and caution of the cat kind.  It
can climb trees with great facility.   In the
day time, it is seldom seen, the night be-
ing the time it selects for committing its
depredations.  Although  it generally con-
fines its attacks to the smaller quadrupeds,
it will sometimes assad those of large size
and strength, and even man himself The
puma is said to be readily tamed, and may
even be  rendered  docile and obedient.
 When  domesticated,  its  manners closely
 resemble those ofthe common cat, having
 the same fondness of beuig caressed^ and
 expressing its satisfaction  by the same
 kind of gentle purring.   Mr. Kean, the
 tragedian, possessed an individual  of this
 species, which was  so tame  as to follow
 him  about like a dog.  It should, howev-
 er, be noticed that docility and submission
 in die cat  kind  are only apparent; man
 has never been able to subject them as he
 has other animals.  Even down to die do-
 mestic cat, there is no one of them that
 can bear to be thwarted; and they also
manifest  their  native  ferocity  on  tho
slightest opposition to their desires or ca-
prices, and,  unlike the  dog, never appear
to entertain a personal attachment to their
master. (See Cat.)
  Pumice.   (See Pitchstone^
  Pump ; a contrivance for raising  fluids
by atmospheric pressure.  (See  Hydrau-
lics, and Air.)  The  operation and con-
struction of the air-pump are explained in
a separate article.  The simplest and most
common pump is the ordinary lift, or suck-
ing,  or household pump.   It  is of great
antiquity, its invention being ascribed to
Ctesebes of Alexandria, about 120 B. C.
It consists ofa hollow tube descending to
a reservoir of water, and  containing an
air-tight piston (box), attached by its rod to
a lever (the handle or brake ofthe pump).
Another stationary box  is inserted in the
tube below the movable one, and both are
furnished with valves, or clappers,  open-
ing upward.  When the pump is full of
water, every stroke  of the handle raises
the movable box, together  with the col-
umn of water above it   When the han-
dle is lifted, the box  is pushed further
down into the water, while its valve opens
to allow the water to pass through.  The
valve then  shuts, and  the  second  stroke
of the pump raises  another column  of
water to the spout.  As the action of this
pump depends upon  the pressure  of the
atmosphere, water cannot be raised by  it
from a depth  of more than  thirty-four
feet below the upper valve ;  and, in prac-
tice,  a much shorter limit is commonly as-
signed.—Forcing pump.   The  forcing
pump differs from  the common sucldng
pump just described, in having a solid pis-
ton, without a valve, and the spout,  or dis-
charging orifice, placed below  the piston.
When the piston is raised, the lower valve
of the pump rises and admits the water
from below, as in the common pump;
but when the piston is depressed, the wa-
ter is thrown out through a spout  in the
Bide,  which has a valve opening outward.
In a forcing pump,  the water  cannot be
brought from a depth of more than thirty-
four feet below the piston ;  but it can af-
terwards be sent up to any height desired
in a pipe, because the pressure communi-
cated by the downward stroke  of the pis-
ton is not dependent on the pressure of
the  atmosphere, but on the direct force
applied to the piston.   These two contri-
vances are  sometimes  combined in the
same  machine, as  in  Delahire's  pump,
which is a lift and force pump, raising an
equal quantity of water  by its up  and
down stroke.  The fire-engine (q. v.) con- 
PUMP—PUNCTUATION.
427
siste of two forcing pumps, working b*».o
one common air-vessel, placed between
them, and from winch  the spouting pipe
for directing the water proceeds.   The
chain pump  used in the navy is an up-
right barrel, through which leathers strung
on a chain are drawn by means of wheels
or drums in constant succession, carrying
the water in a continual  stream before
them.  They are employed only when a
large  quantity of water is to be raised,
and must be worked rapidly to produce
any effect
  Pumpernickel ; a coarse, heavy, brown
bread, made,  in Westphalia,  of unbolted
rye.  It is baked in large loaves, some-
times weighing sixty pounds.   The fol-
lowing account of the  derivation of the
word is given:—A  French traveller in
Westphalia, on asking for bread, was pre-
sented with some of this kind,  on which
he observed that such stuff was bon pour
nickel (good for Nickel, i.e. either his horee
or his  servant)—whence it  came  to be
called pompernickd, or pumpernickel. The
story is obviously made to fit  the case.
In fact, it  is  called by the  inhabitants
grobes  brot, the  former name being only
used by foreigners.
   Pumpkin, or Pompion (cucurbita pepo);
a species of gourd, or squash, distinguish-
ed from most varieties ofthe latter by die
rounded form of the fruit,  which  some-
times grows to an enormous size.  It has
hispid,  branching and prostrate  stems,
which, in a good soil, will cover an eighth
part of an acre.   The fruit is esteemed in-
ferior to most varieties of the squash, but,
notwithstanding,  is very commonly culti-
vated, both in Europe and America.
   Pun ;  a  play  upon words, the wit of
wliich depends on a resemblance between
two words of different  and perhaps con-
trary significations, or on the  use  of the
same word hi different senses; as  in the
well-known story of the man who, being
requested to make a pun, asked for a sub-
ject, and was told to take the king, upon
which he replied that the king was no
subject.  The Greeks and Romans some-
times  used  puns,  even in  serious dis-
courses ;  but the moderns restrict them
to fight  conversation,  devices, symbols,
rebuses, mottoes, &c.
   Punch.   (See Punchinello, and Puppet
Shows.)
   Puncheon ; a little  block or piece of
steel, on one end whereof is some figure,
letter, or mark, engraved either in crettr
or relievo, impressions of which are taken
on metal or some other matter, by striking
it with a hammer on the end not engrav-
ed.  There  are  various kinds of  these
puncheons used in the mechanical aits;
such, for instance, are those of goldsmiths,
cutlers,  pewterers, &c.
  Punchinello, or Punch (from pulci-
ndla); an Italian mask.  The abbate Ga-
liani derives the name from a misshapen,
but humorous peasant from Sorento, who
had received it (about the  middle of the
seventeenth  century)  from his bringing
chickens (pulcinelli) to market in  Naples,
and who, after his death, was brought up-
on the theatre San Carlo  for the amuse-
ment of the  people, to whom he was well
known.   According to another account,
a company of actors, which wenttoAcer-
ra at the time ofthe vintage, was attacked
by the peasants (with  whom the vintage
is a season of festivity), with a sally of
jokes and gibes, in which a certain Puccio
d'A niello  among the peasants attracted
notice  by his comical humor and gro-
tesque appearance, being hunched before
and behind.   The playere had to yield to
him; and, when the contest was over,
they determined to take advantage of the
talent of Puccio d'Aniello, and persuaded
him to join their company. He appeared
on the stage in a white robe, and large, full
shirt, with long hair, and soon  became
such a favorite of the Neapolitans that his
mask was retained after his death ; and his
successor,  to resemble him the  more,
chose a mask  with a long black nose.
From his name was formed, according to
Neapolitan  custom, Pulcinella.   Perhaps,
however, this mask was only a modifica-
tion of an older one, which some have de-
rived from the ancient Atellana, (q. v.), and
have thought that they discovered the gro-
tesque figure of Punch on ancient vases.
This mask is still the delight of the Nea-
politans.  The dress, at present,  consists
of wide drawere of white woollen, a large
upper garment, of the same material, with
wide sleeves, fastened with a black leather
belt, or hair-cord.  This upper  garment
is sprinkled over with hearts of red cloth,
and it is trimmed  round the bottom with
a fringe. Around his neck Pulcinella wears
a linen ruffle; on his head a white wool-
len cap, with its long point terminating in
red tuft; three fourths ofthe face are cov-
ered with a black mask ; the nose is curv-
ed and  pointed, like a bird's beak.  This
mask speaks the dialect of the peasants,
and figures, not merely in  the diet tre, but
at  all  the  popular festivals in Naples,
especially  during  the carnival.   (See
Mask, and Harlequin.)
   Punctuation, or Interpunction ; the
 art of employing certain signs, by  means 
128                    PUNCTUATION—PURCELL.
of which the parts ofa discourse are con-
nected or separated, as the sense requires,
and the elevation, depression or suspension
of the voice indicated (from interpungere,
to point).  Punctuation serves both to ren-
der the meaning  intelligible, and  to aid
the oral delivery.  The system of punctu-
ation  is peculiar to the modern languages
of Europe.  The Eastern languages have
signs  to regulate the tones, but they  have
no punctuation.  The Romans were, in-
deed,  acquainted with the term  (Cic, De
Oratore, iii, 44  and  46, and Seneca, Ep.,
40), but with them it had a totally different
signification.  Their  points, as well  as
those  of the Greeks, were almost entirely
oratorical, i. e.  confined to the delivery
and  pronunciation  of the words ; and
there  were often no points, or, at most, on-
ly one at the end of a sentence; or pauses
were  indicated by breaking up the matter
into lines or paragraphs (versus,  o-rtxot.)
Modern punctuation,  which is, for the
most part, grammatical, is of a later ori-
gin, and the invention has been attributed
to the Alexandrian grammarian Aristoph-
anes,  after whom it  was improved by
succeeding grammarians; but it  was so
entirely lost in the time of Charlemagne,
that he found it necessary to have it re-
stored by Warnefried and Alcuin.  It con-
sisted, at first, of only one point, used in
three  ways (cny^; hence, in diplomatics,
stigmeology, the art  of punctuation), and
sometimes of a  stroke, both being formed
in several different ways.  But, as no par-
ticular rules were followed in the  use of
these  signs,  punctuation was exceedingly
uncertain  until  the  end  of the fifteenth
century, when the learned Venetian print-
ers, the Manutii (q. v.), increased the num-
ber ofthe signs, and established some fixed
rules for their application.  These were so
generally adopted, that we  may consider
them  as the inventors ofthe present meth-
od of  punctuation ; and, although modern
grammarians have introduced  some im-
provements, nothing but some particular
rules  have been added since that time.
(See Hebrew Language, and Manuscripts.)
  Pundit.  (See Pandit.)
  Punic (originally Phoenician,  from Pa-
ra,  Phoenicians); Carthaginian, because
Carthage was a Phoenician colony.—Punic
wars; wars between Rome and Carthage.
(See those articles, and Hannibal.)—Punic
faith  (Jides Punica); among the  Romans,
a proverbial expression for faithlessness.
  Pupa.  (See  Papilio, and Insects.)
  Pupil.   (See Eye.)
  Puppet Shows.  One of the most com-
mon classes ofpuppets are called,inFrench,
marionettes (from morio, fool, buffoon, as
Frisch supposes). These are images of the
human figure moved by wires or threads on
a stage, and made to perform little dramas.
In  the common street performance  of
Punch and Judy, however, the performer
put  his fingers  in  the figures.   Puppet
shows were common  among the Greeks
(who called them vtvpocnaora), from whom
the Romans received  them. Xenophon,
Aristotle, Gellius, Horace, and others, men-
tion them.  Such exhibitions, which are so
pleasing to children and the uneducated,
naturally passed through various degrees of
perfection in different  ages, and even now,
exhibitions ofpuppets are common in some
countries,  which display great mechanical
ingenuity, while the poor hand-organ boy
in the street still turns  his instrument, and
gives to one or two figures on a board
before him a few simple motions with his
foot.  Clocks for the  peasants often dis-
play movable  puppets, and  it is not un-
frequent in  Germany  to find on ancient
town clocks puppets which move when-
ever the clock strikes.  In 1674, there was
a puppet opera at Paris, which met with
great applause.  In  several large cities of
Italy, puppet shows are performed at pres-
ent (e. g. at Milan, in the Teatro Girolamo
which is visited by the better classes).  In
Germany,  also, excellent  puppet shows
are sometimes  seen,  but  they are there
hardly ever stationary, and are not by any
means so much  patronised as in Italy.
As  itinerary  puppet shows have  often
given cause to scandal, several  govern-
ments do  not allow them  but by special
license (e. g. those of Prussia and Den-
mark). The censorehip, which limits their
sphere, often does much injury  to their
effect, as the manager ofthe puppet show
is  thus precluded  from  availing  him-
self of the momentary inspiration of his
muse, when he assists the performance by
his  voice, as  is always the case in  the
ordinary puppet shows.  For more partic-
ulars, see  Beckmann's interesting History
of Inventions and Discoveries. (See, also,
Punchindlo, and Automaton^
  Puranas.  (See Indian  Literature, vol.
vi, p. 563.)
  Purcell, Henry, an English  musical
composer, was the son of a musician of
the chapel royal, who, dying in 1664, left
him an orphan in his sixth year.   He was
admitted, at an early age, a chorister in the
king's chapel, where he studied music un-
der captain Cook and  his successor, Pel-
ham Humphrey,  and  afterwards under
doctor Blow.  In 1676, when only eigh-
teen years old, he was made organist to 
PURCELL—PURGATORY.                      429
 Westminster abbey, and  six yeare after-
 wards, at the chapel  royal, St James's.
 From this period his fame seems to have
 increased rapidly, his anthems and churcii
 music in general being jiopular in all the
 cathedrals of the kingdom; nor were his
 compositions for  the  stage  and music-
 room less  successful.  His genius em-
 braced every species of composition with
 equal facility ; and with respect to cham-
 ber music,  all prior productions seem to
 have  been at  once totally supereeded.
 Of his numerous compositions, his cele-
 brated Te  Deum and  Jubilate  appear to
 have been composed for the celebration of
 St. Cecilia's  day, 1694.   Of his instru-
 mcntal music, a collection was published
 two yeare  after his decease, containing
 aire in four parts, for  two violins, tenor,
 and bass.  Many of his songs were pub-
 lished after his death, under the title of
 Orpheus Britannicus.   Ye  twice ten hun-
 dred Deities, contained in this collection, is
 considered the finest piece of recitative in
 the language; while  his  music in  King
 Arthur has  maintained its popularity undi-
 minished above a century.  In 1695,  the
 year of his  death, he set  to  music Bon-
 duca,  and  the  Prophetess, an opera al-
 tered  by Dryden  from  Beaumont and
 Fletcher; and he was the author of a vast
 variety of  catches, rounds,  glees, &c,
 not less remarkable for  their melody than
 for their spirit, humor, and  originality.
 He died in  1695.
   Purchas, Samuel, an English divine,
 was born in 1577, at Thaxtead, in Essex,
 and educated at Cambridge.  His princi-
 pal work was entitled  Purchas his Pil-
 grimages, or  Relations of the  World (5
 vols., folio), which, with Hakluyt's Voyages,
 led the way to other collections of  the
 same kind, and have been much valued
 and  esteemed.  The  firet volume was
 published in 1614;  but  the fourth edition
 of it, in 1626, contains numerous impor-
 tant additions.  The four last volumes ap-
 peared in 1625.  He also wrote Microcos-
 mos, or the History of Man (8vo.); the
 King's Tower and Triumphal Arch  of
 London.  Mr. Purchas was rector of St.
 Martin's in  Ludgate, and chaplain to Ab-
 bot, archbishop of Canterbury.   He died
 in London, in 1628.
   Purchase, in law;  the acquiring  of
 land with money, by deed  or agreement,
 and not by descent or right of inheritance.
 Purchase is  also a name given to any sort
 of mechanical power employed in raising
or removing heavy bodies.
  Purgatory, according to the dogma of
the Roman  C.Hholic church; a place  of
 purification, in which, after death, those
 souls are cleansed, which are  not suffi-
 ciently  pure to enjoy the happiness of
 heaven.   The council of Trent confirmed
 this doctrine, as sanctioned by Holy Scrip-
 ture and  tradition.  The Protestants  and
 the Greek church do not receive it  The
 passages of Scripture on which this arti-
 cle of faith is founded are,  Revelations
 xxi, 27; 2 Maccabees  xii, 38;  Matthew
 xxv; Luke xii, 58; and 1 Corinthians iii, 2.
 Origen and Augustine,  among the fathers,
 have been most full upon this point, upon
 which later  Catholic  theologians  dwelt
 with still more  minuteness.  They teach
 that it is situated on the  borders of the
 infernal  pit;  that  a  spark  of its fires
 causes more suffering  than  any bodily
 pain ; that every soul is purified in it, the
 membere which have sinned being burned
 in its flames; and that, by masses for the
 deceased, their sufferings may be mitigated,
 and the time of their punishment short-
 ened.  The origin of this notion is to be
 traced to the doctrine of Plato, that there
 was a state of purification after death,
 which was  introduced  by the fathers of
 the church, particularly Clement (q. v.) of
 Alexandria, into the  Christian system.
 Gregory the Great gave to this anicle a
 further extension, and employed it for the
 profit of  the  church.   The council of
 Florence (1439) was the firet in which the
 doctrine of purgatory was mentioned; the
 monstrous pervereionswhich ithad suffered
 in the hands ofthe monks, made it a prom-
 inent object of attack to the Protestants.
  Purgatory [written by a German Cath-
 olic].  The doctrine of a  state  of future
 purification was closely connected by the
 ancients with that of the  transmigration
 of souls, which, as it firet prevailed among
 the Egyptians,  was  nothing more than a
 symbolical representation ofthe immortal-
 ity of the  soul.  Succeeding philosophers
 made use of this doctrine  of  transmigra-
 tion, to deter rude tribes from sin, by con-
 necting their future condition with that of
 the  various species of animals, which was
 well fitted to strike unreflecting natures.
 It was afterwards unhappily chosen to
 indicate the mode  of the  purification  of
 the  soul  and its preparation for the joys
 of heaven.  Plato did more than is usu-
 ally believed to develope this  doctrine.
 Such  a middle state is consistent with
reason, since there are men who, at death,
are  not  deserving of the joys of heaven,
nor of the  punishments of hell; and the
doctrine accords with  the spirit of  the
Christian revelation, which represents the
holiness of God, and declares that without 
430
PURGATORY—PURITANS.
holiness no one can see,  i. e. be united
with him  (Hebrews xii), and describes the
purity which is required for admission to
his presence (Revelations xxi, 27).  The
Jews had this doctrine.  Judas the Mac-
cabee caused prayers and  victims to be
offered for the warriors who had fallen
in sin, that their sins might be pardoned,
and they obtain the reward promised to
those who die  in piety (2 Maccabees xii).
Christ confirmed this doctrine, when he
(Matthew xii, 31, 32) spoke  of the  sins
which were forgiven neither in this world
nor in the next, and thus implied that such
a forgiveness was in  general attainable in
another fife.  Christianity is far from pro-
nouncing the severe doctrine, that eternal
damnation is the portion of all Christians
who have incurred the slightest si n.  John
(1 John v,  16,17)  says expressly that all
unrighteousness is sin,  but not all mortal
sin.  In what  way the  purification of the
less guilty is to take place, is not known;
and the church has never acknowledged
the notions of physical pain which many
have on this subject  If brotherly  love
bids us pray for the good of our  fellow
men (James v, 16), should  it not impel us
to pray for those of our brethren who may
have so lived  on earth as to  be excluded
from perfect happiness?   It is impossible
to prove that such prayers  are wholly in-
effectual.  That the Jewish church prayed
for the dead, appeare from the passage in
Maccabees above referred to.  And in the
oldest documents  of Christian  antiquity,
we find this prayer as something common
and unquestioned.  Not only is it clearly
proved to have existed from private  ac-
counts, but in  all liturgies, which contain
the general belief of  the  churches, this
prayer for the dead appears.   The fathers
of the church  were always of this opin-
ion.  There is certainly something con-
soling in  the  thought, that we may be
of assistance to our departed friends; this
feeling was expressed by the Romans in the
wish, Sit tibi terra levis!   The Catholic
faith considers as one body, both those
who are  struggling here and those who
exist in another life.  Love unites all, and
love teaches the pilgrims on earth to pray
for the dead not yet made perfect.   No
one acquainted with the history of the
sale of indulgences, can doubt that the
views of future purification and of prayers
for the  dead,  have been shamefully per-
verted  for  the purpose of  gain.   The
council of Trent, therefore, while it main-
tained the decree de purgatorio, passed at
its twenty-fifth session, added the follow-
ing ordinance, but did not prescribe it as
a point of faith :  " Since the holy Catholic
church, instructed by the Holy Spirit, and
by the Holy Scriptures, and by the primi-
tive traditions transmitted from the fathers
of the church, through synods and coun-
cils,  has  taught  that there is a place  of
purification, and that  the  souls confined
there are aided by the prayers of the
faithful, and especially by the offering of
the sacrament of the altar,  the council
commands the bishops to take care that
the doctrine of a place of purification  is
taught and preached as it has been handed
down  from  holy  fathers and councils.
The preachers shall not speak to the peo-
ple of the  more difficult and subtle ques-
tions, which edify not, and which, for the
most part, do not contribute to piety; like-
wise, they shall  not allow that which  is
doubtful, or probably false,  to be treated of
and spread abroad.  Whatever is dictated
merely by curiosity or superstition, or  is
connected with shameful gain, they shall
forbid as wickedness, as offensive to true
believers."
  Puritans, in the English  churcii; a
sect  who professed to follow the pure
Word of God, in opposition to traditions,
human constitutions,  and other authori-
ties.   In  the reign of queen Elizabeth, the
Protestants  were divided into two parties,
those who were in favor  of adhering  to
the liturgy established in the reign of Ed-
ward, and those who wished to introduce a
simpler, and, as they considered it, a purer
form of church government and worship.
The  latter were termed Puritans, and
many of the distinguished clergy favored
these views.  The  queen, however, and
the majority of the clergy, preferred the
Episcopal form of government, and were
attached  to many forms and ceremonies
upon  which the  Puritans  looked with
aversion.   The  rigorous  measures fol-
lowed by the  dominant party to compel
conformity, only served to alienate the
Puritanical  party, and to  push them into
more decided opposition to the ceremo-
nials of divine worship.  In 1566, the Pu-
ritans resolved that  duty required them to
break off from the church, and assemble,
as they best could, by themselves, to wor-
ship God in their own way ; they also laid
aside the English liturgy, and adopted the
Geneva service-book.  They objected fur-
ther to the hierarchy, as not authorized  by
Scripture,  to kneeling at the sacraments,
using the  sign of  the cross in baptism,
bowing at the name of Jesus, wearing the
surplice  and  other vestments in  divine
service, &c.  In point of doctrine there
was as yet no difference batween the Pu- 
PURITANS—PURPLE.
43
ritans and Conformists; the former, how-
ever,  as was natural  for  a persecuted
party, maintained that every man had  a
natural right to judge for himself, without
being subject to the laws of  the  civil
magistrate, or the  decrees  of  councils,
churches, or  synods.  Towards  the end
of Elizabeth's reign, a  party arose which
were firet for softening, and then for over-
throwing, the received opinions concern-
ing predestination, perseverance, free will,
effectual grace, and the extent of Christ's
redemption.  The  clergy of the church
began to lean towards Arminianism, while
the Puritans adhered  rigorously to the
system  of  Calvin,  and all  Calvinists,
whether Episcopal or Presbyterian, were
called doctrinal Puritans.  The name was
also applied to all  who were remarkably
strict  in  their morals, and severe in man-
ners.  Elizabeth treated the Puritans with
great rigor during the whole of her reign;
besides the ordinaiy courts of the bishops,
she erected the court of high-commission,
which suspended and deprived the refrac-
tory of their livings, by the determination
of three commissioners, founded upon the
canon law; before  this court the prisoner
was obliged to answer questions put to
him, under oath ; if he rei i sed to swear,
he was  imprisoned for contempt, and if
he took the oath, he was convicted upon
his own confession.  During the reign of
James I, from  whom  the  Pu;-itn>is  had
expected  more  indulgence,  they were
treated  with  greater severity, and  many
of them left  the kingdom and retired to
Holland, w hence they emigrated to Amer-
ica in 1620.  (See Plymouth.)  All were
looked  upon by James and the court as
Puritans, who opposed the arbitrary max-
ims of his government; and these were
called Pur'lans in slate, who, uniting with
the church Puritans, in opposition to the
tyrannical principles ofthe Stuart dynasty,
formed a majority in the nation.  The suc-
cess of the firet emigratore to America, who
established the colony of New Plymouth,
induced  great  numbers  of  Puritans to
turn to  the  same quarter  for relief, and
the new colony of Massachusetts Bay was
founded by them in 1629. (See Nu Eng-
land.)  The colony of New  Haven was
also founded by Puritans, who fled from
the persecutions of Laud, and the  op-
pressions of  the star chamber  and  the
high-commission courts.  Though  there
were  shades of difference in these fugi-
tives  to  America,  they agreed  in most
points of doctrine  and  discipline, and
most  of their descendants in New Eng-
land, of which they compose the principal
part  of the population, still cherish with
fondness die maxims and the memory of
their Puritan fathers.  (See Independents.)
The  Puritans were afterwards  prevented
from retiring to America, and many of
them removed into Holland, while others
remained at home, and finally pulled down
the throne and the altar, which long per-
secutions had rendered so odious to them
(See Cromwell,  Hampden,  Pym, &c.)  It
was the union of the three kinds of Puri-
tans  above-mentioned, which  gave the
parliament the  victory in the civil war
which  followed.  (See Cliarles I.)   The
Presbyterian party was at firet the most
powerful,  but the Independents, among
whom were Cromwell, Milton, &c, finally
acquired the ascendency; and it was this
party, most of whom were republicans in
politics  as well  as  in churcii  discipline,
that beheaded the king and abolished roy-
alty.   After the restoration of Charles II
(q. v.), the act of uniformity (1662) ex-
cluded from the communion ofthe church
all who refused  to observe the rites and
subscribe  the doctrines of the church of
England ; and from that time die name of
non-conformists was applied to such recu-
sants, as, for instance, Presbyterians, Inde-
pendents,  Quakers,  &c.   (See  Noncon-
formists, and England, Church of.)  For
a complete histoiy of the Puritans, the
reader may consult  Neal's History of the
Puritans (4  vols., 8vo., 1732—38; new
ed. 5 vols., 1797).
  Purple.  The color to  which the an-
cients, applied the name purple,  was either
dark, or violet and rose colored, and was
one of the most costly dyes with which
they were acquainted.   They obtained
their purple dyes partly from plants, and
partly from several kinds of shell fish,  as
the buccinum (a species of muecle), and the
purpura, or purple fish. In modem times,
a similar purple matter has been found in
several other shell fish.  It is a viscous
juice, contained  in a little pouch or bag,
lying generally between the heart and liver.
The color of the juice varies, being in some
purplish red, in others pale yellow or or-
ange colored.   Reaumur found that the
juice taken from the buccinum, on  being
applied to linen, changed,  in the couree of
a few seconds, from yellow to green, blue,
and finally to purplish red.  The juice ofthe
sea-snail, found by the Spaniards in Peru,
and used for dyeing, presents similar phe-
nomena.  Cochineal is  used  for purple
dyes by the modems, and has the advan-
tage  that  it strikes equally well on silks
and  woollen  stuffs;  while the ancients
used their purple only on  cotton and 
432                         PURPLE—PUTNAM.
woollen.   The ancients attributed the in-
vention of purple to the Phoenicians.  The
story of its having been discovered  by a
dog's biting a purple fish,  and thus stain-
ing his mouth, is well known.  The pur-
ple fish was found not only on the Phoe-
nician coasts, but in all other parts of the
Mediterranean, so that the use of  it in
dyeing came to  be  common with  other
nations; but the Phoenicians excelled in
the beauty and permanence of their color-
ing. Tiie Tyrians excelled particularly in
the bright red and violet shade.  They
dyed the finest wools of this color, usually
twice, and then gave an artificial brilliancy
to the stuff.
   Purple Grackle.  (See Blackbird.)
   Purple of Cassius.  (See Tin.)
   Purse,  among the Turks; the sum of
$500, so called because the treasure in the
seraglio is kept in leathern purees of this
value.
   Purslane (portulacea oleracea); a com-
mon and insignificant weed,  said to have
come  originally from India, but now al-
most universally diffused through the civ-
ilized  world.  The stems divide from the
base  into  several   prostrate  branches,
which are clothed with sessile, smooth,
and wedge-shaped leaves; the flowers are
small, yellow, and axillary.  The whole
plant is succulent  Formerly it was cul-
tivated as a pot-herb, for salads, garnishings
and pickling, and it is still sometimes em-
ployed for those purposes.
  Pursuivant.   (See Poursuivant.)
  Puteoli ; the ancient name for Pozzu-
oli.  (See  Naples.)
  Putnam, Israel, a distinguished soldier
in the French and English ware, and sub-
sequently  in that of the  revolution, was
born of English parents, at Salem, in the
then province of Massachusetts, Jan. 7,
1718.   Being intended for a farmer, he
received only a common education.   He
had a strong mind, vigorous constitution,
great  bodily strength, enterprise and ac-
tivity, excelled in athletic exercises, and,
while a stripling, was ambitious of per-
forming the full  labor of manhood.   He
married very young, and removed,  in
1739,  to Pomfret, in Connecticut, where
he had purchased a tract of land.  During
his residence there, his flocks and those
of his neighbors being terribly thinned by
a monstrous she-wolf, Putnam, with a few
associates, traced the ferocious animal to a
deep cavern in a rock.  Into this he crept
alone,  with a torch in one hand and a
musket in the other, and, at the utmost
personal   risk,  destroyed the  creature.
When the war of 1755 broke out between
France and England, he was appointed,
at the age of thirty-seven, commander of
a company, enlisted the necessary number
of recruits from the young men in his
vicinity, and joined the army then com-
mencing the campaign  near Crown Point
His services as a partisan officer were un-
remitting and great, and caused him to bs
promoted, in 1757, to the rank of major,
by  the  legislature of  Connecticut.  In
1758, he fell into  an Indian ambuscade,
and was taken prisoner, when returning to
Fort Edward from an expedition to watch
the enemy's movements near Ticonderoga.
The Indians were  about to burn him to
death, having already tied him  to a  tree
and  set fire to a circle of combustibles
around him, when he was rescued by the
interposition  of their  leader, Molang,  a
famous French partisan officer.   He  was
then carried to Ticonderoga, where he
underwent an examination before the mar-
quis de Montcalm, who ordered him to
Montreal.  There he found several fellow
prisoners, among whom was colonel Peter
Schuyler, who immediately visited,  and
found him  almost destitute of  clothing,
and  dreadfully wounded  and   bruised.
The colonel  supplied  him  with money,
and, having clothed himself in  a decent
garb, he was immediately treated with the
respect due to  his rank.  An exchange
of prisoners procured Putnam his liberty*
He resumed his military duties, and, hav-
ing previously been appointed a lieutenant-
colonel, rendered  especial service at the
siege of Montreal  by the British, in 1760.
In 1762,  after  war had been declared be-
tween England and Spain,  he accompa-
nied the expedition, under lord Albemarle,
against  the Havana.    In  1764,  having
been appointed colonel, he  marched, at
the head of a regiment, with  general
Bradstreet,  against the savages of  the
western frontier. On his return  from this
expedition,  which resulted in a treaty be-
tween the  contending  parties, he betook
himself, once more, to a country life, filled
several offices in his native town, and rep-
resented  it  in the general assembly.  In
1770, he went, with general Lyman  and
some others, to explore a grant of land on
the Mississippi.  General Lyman, as we
have already stated in our sketch of his
life,  formed an establishment  and  died
there; but Putnam returned, after having
made some improvements  on his tract
When  hostilities  commenced  between
England and the colonies (April 18,1775),
Putnam  received  the intelligence as he
was  ploughing  in the middle of a field;
he  left  his plough there,  unyoked  his 
PUTNAM.
433
team, and, without changing his clothes,
set off for the scene of action.  Finding
the British shut up and closely  invested
with a sufficient force in  Boston, he re-
turned to Connecticut, levied a regiment
under colonial authority, and marched to
Cambridge.  His colony now appointed
him a major-general on  the provincial
staff, and congress  soon after confirmed
to him the same rank on the continental.
About this time the British offered him
the rank of a  major-general in his majes-
ty's army, with a pecuniary remuneration
for his treason; but the temptation could
not influence  him.   In the several pre-
paratory operations  for the battle  of Bun-
ker's hill, he took an active part.  After
the commencement of the retreat, at the
battle  of Bunker's  hill, Putnam arrived
on  the  field with  a reinforcement, and
performed every thing to  be  expected
from  a  brave  and  experienced officer:
the enemy pursued the retreating Ameri-
cans to Winter hill, but Putnam halted
there, aud drove them back, under cover
of  their  ships.  On the  evacuation of
Boston (March 17, 1776), the greater part
of the forces  were despatched  to New
York, and Putnam  was, some time after,
sent thither to take upon  him the com-
mand.    After  the  disastrous  action on
Long Island,  and general Washington's
masterly retreat from thence, Putnam was
nominated to  the command of the right
grand division of the army.  He served
some time in the vicinity of New York, and
was sent to the western side of the Hud-
son, and, shortly after, to superintend the
fortifications of Philadelphia.  After the
battles of Trenton and Princeton, he was
posted at Princeton, where  he continued
till  the ensuing spring, with a very infe-
rior force, guarding a considerable extent
of frontier,  curtailing aud  harassing die
enemy, without sustaining  the least disas-
ter.  During his stay at Princeton, by at-
tacking the foraging parties of the enemy
and  assemblages of the disaffected who
infested his vicinity, he captured nearly a
thousand prisoners.  In the  spring of
1777, he was  appointed to the command
of a separate  army in die highlands of
New York.  There  was no regular enemy
in this  neighborhood, but  the  country
around was filled with tories, and a spe-
cies of banditti, called cow-boys, who com-
mitted shocking depredations.  Many of
the tories  clandestinely  traversed  the
country, with messages from one British
army to another, and  even  on recruiting
expeditions for die royal service.  One of
them, a lieutenant in the new toiy levies,
  vol. x.          37
was detected in the American camp, ancL
reclaimed by governor Tryon, his com-
mander, with threats of vengeance in case
of his  punishment  He received this la-
conic answer from general Putnam:  " Sir,
Nathan Palmer, a lieutenant in your king's
service, was taken in  my camp as a  spy;
he was tried as a spy ; he was condemned
as a spy ; and you may  rest assured, 6ir,
he shall be hanged as a spy... P. S. After-
noon.  He is hanged."  After the capture
of  Fort  Montgomeiy, Putnam  selected
West Point as the best calculated site for
a fortress to  protect the river.  The repu-
tation it  afterwards attained evinced the
judiciousness of this selection.  After the
battle of Monmouth,  Putnam was posted,
for the winter, at Reading, in Connecticut,
that he might protect the country adjoin-
ing to the  Sound, and  the garrison at
West Point. While  he  was on a visit to
one of his outposts,  governor Tryon ad-
vanced upon him with 1500 men.   Put-
nam had with him but 150 men and two
field-pieces,  with which he kept the  ene-
my at bay some time. At length, seeing
the enemy preparing to charge, he ordered
his men  to  retire to  a swamp, while he
plunged down a precipice  so steep as to
have artificial steps, nearly one hundred
in number, for the use of foot passengers.
The enemy's   dragoons  stopped short,
afraid  to venture,  although  within a
sword's length  of him.  While they Went
round the brow of the hill to gain the val-
ley, he raised a  force sufficiently strong to
pursue  Tryon  on his retreat.   In  the
campaign of 1779, he commanded  the
Maryland line,  stationed near West Point.
In the autumn  of this year, the American
army retired into winter quarters, at Mor-
ristown,  and Putnam  accompanied  his
family  into  Connecticut for a few weeks.
At  the  commencement of  his journey
from thence to Morristown, while on the
road between Pomfret and Hartford, he
was seized with an extraordinary numb-
ness of his right hand  and foot, which
crept gradually upon  him,  until his right
side became, in a considerable  degree,
paralyzed.   This  severe affliction  pro-
duced a transient depression of his mind ;
but he conquered  his dejection,  and re-
sumed his naturally cheerful temper.   He
was still able to walk and  ride  moder-
ately, and the faculties of his mind were
unimpaired.   In this situation he  lived
to see  his country enjoying that inde-
pendence of which he had been  so  able
a champion, and died at Brookline,  in
Connecticut, May 29,1790, aged seventy-
two years. 
434                 PUTREFACTION—PYRALLOLITE.
  Putrefaction.   (See Decomposition,
Fermentation, and Adipocire.)
  Putter, John Stephen,  was bom  at
Iserlohn  in  1725,  and made such rapid
progress in his studies, that he was ready
to enter the university in his 13th year.
After studying at Marburg, Halle and Jena,
he became professor extraordinary of law
at Gottingen, in  1747, and  soon became
distinguished as  a  lecturer.   In 1757, he
was  named professor juris  publici.  Al-
though employed in various public capa-
cities, he still continued to reside in Got-
tingen, till the  time of his death in 1807.
His works have lost much  of their im-
portance by die dissolution of the German
empire, but his Historische  Entwickelung
der  Verfassung der Deutschen Staaten  (3
vols.) is still valuable.
  Putty, in the arts.   When tin is  melt-
ed in an open  vessel, its surface  soon be-
comes covered with a gray powder,  which
is an oxide of the metal. If the heat is con-
tinued, the color of the powder gradually
changes, and at last becomes yellow.  In
this state it is known by the name of putty,
and employed  in polishing glass and other
hard substances.
  Putty  is also a kind  of paste, com-
pounded of whiting and linseed oil, beaten
together to the consistence ofa thick dough.
  Puy de Dome.   (See  Cevennes,  and
Baromdtr.)
  PuzzoLANA.(SeePozzoiana,andCe?nen<.)
  Pygmalion ; a prince of  Cyprus, who,
disgusted  with the  debaucheries of his
counUy women, took an aversion  to the
sex.   According to Ovid (Met. x,  243),
having made a female  statue of ivory, he
was so enchanted by its beauty, that he fell
in love with his own work, and entreated
Venus to endow it with life.  His prayer
was granted; the statue began to breathe
and  live  before  his eyes, and in his em-
brace.  It became his wife,  by whom he
had Paphos, the founder ofthe city ofthe
same name.  Rousseau's  opera  of Pyg-
malion is founded on this story.  Another
Pygmalion, king of Tyre and Sidon, was
brother of Dido.
  Pygmy.  The Pygmies were a fabulous
nation of  dwarfs, who were said to hve
near the sources ofthe Nile,  or, according
to some, in India.  Homer mentions them
as threatened with death and destruction
by  the cranes (II. iii,  3).  Later writers
are more minute in their accounts.   Pliny
says that  their towns and  houses were
built of eggshells; and, according to Phi-
lostratus, they cut down their corn, as one
would fell a tree, with axes.  The  latter
also speaks of an army of Pygmies, which
attacked  Hercules, while sleeping, after
his struggle with Anheus.   They  made
such preparations for the assault as if they
were to attack a city.  But  the hero, on
awaking, laughed  at the little warriors,
wrapped them  up in his lion-skin, and
carried them to  Eurystheus.
  Pylades ;  son of Strophius, king of
Phocis, and Anaxibia, the sister of Aga-
memnon,  celebrated for the  friendship
which existed between him  and Orestes.
Pylades married Electra, the sister of his
friend.  (See Orestes.)
  Pylos ; a city of Elis, the  residence of
Nestor, now Navarino.  (q. v.)  Another
Pylos in Elis was the residence of Augeas.
(q. v.) Some, however, consider the city of
Pylos in Messenia as the residence of Nes-
tor.
  Pym, John, a parliamentarian  in  the
reign  of Charles I,  was descended of a
good family in  Somersetshire,  where he
was born in 1584.   He  was  educated at
Pembroke college, Oxford, whence  he re-
moved to  one  of the inns of court, and
was called to the bar, and placed as a clerk
in the  office of the  exchequer. He was
early  elected member of parliament  for
Tavistock in the reign of James I, and in
1626 was one of the managers of the im-
peachment of the duke  of Buckingham.
He was also a great opposer of Arminian-
ism, being attached  to Calvinistic  princi-
ples.  In 1639,  with several other com-
moners and lords, be held a  close  corre-
spondence with the commissioners sent to
London by the Scottish covenanters; and
in the parliament of 1640, was  one ofthe
most active and leading members.  On
the meeting of the  long parliament, he
made an able speech on grievances, and
impeached the earl of Strafford, at whose
trial he was one of  the  managers of the
house of commons.   It was the zeal and
earnestness of Pym  which  led Charles
into the imprudent  measure of going to
the parliament in person, to seize him and
four other membere.  Some  time  before
his death, he drew  up a defence  of his
conduct, which leaves it doubtful what part
he would have  taken had he lived until
hostilities  commenced.   In November,
1643, he was  appointed  lieutenant of the
ordnance, and died Dec.  8, 1643.
  Pyrallolite is a mineral which  oc-
curs massive and crystallized, in flat rhom-
bic prisms, whose  dimensions are  not
yet known with certainty.  It is cleavable
parallel with the sides  of the rhombic
prism; lustre resinous; color greenish or
yellowish-white; translucent on the edges;
hardness that of an-agonite ; specific grav- 
PYRALLOLITE—PYRAMIDS.
435
fry  2.6.  When  reduced to powder,  it
phosphoresces with a bluish light.  Before
the blow-pipe, it firet becomes black, then
white, and afterwards  intumesces and
melts on the edges.   With borax, it yields
a transparent  glass.  It consists of silex,
56.62;  magnesia, 23.38; alumine, 3.38;
lime, 5.58; oxide  of iron, 0.99;  protoxide
of  manganese,  0.99;  and water, 3.58;
leaving 6.38 of an unknown bituminous
substance, and loss.  It comes from Par-
gas in Finland.
  Pyramid, in geometry,  is a solid having
any plane figure for its  base, and triangles
for its sides, all terminating in one com-
mon point  or vertex.  If the base of the
pyramid is a regular figure, the solid  is
called a regular pyramid,  which  then
takes particular names, according to the
number of its  sides, as  triangular, square,
pentagonal, &c,  the same as the prism.
(See Prism.)   If a perpendicular from its
vertex falls on the centre of the  base, the
solid is called  a right pyramid, but if not,
it is oblique.  The principal properties of
the pyramid may be  stated as follows:—
1.  Every pyramid is one third of a prism
of equal base and altitude.  2.  Pyramids
of equal bases and altitudes are equal to
each other, whether the  figure of their
bases be  similar or dissimilar.  3. Any
section of a pyramid parallel to its base
will be similar to the base, and these areas
will be to  each other as the squares  of
their distances from the vertex.  4. Pyra-
mids, when their bases are equal,  are to
each other as their  altitudes; and when
their altitudes are equal, they are to each
other as their  bases  ; and when  neither
their bases nor their altitudes are  equal,
they are to each  other  in  the compound
ratio of their  bases and  altitudes.  The
solidity of  a pyramid is found  by multi-
plying its  base by its  perpendicular alti-
tude, and taking one third of the product.
Frustum of a pyramid is the solid  formed
by cutting  off the upper  part of a pyra-
mid by a section parallel to its base.
  Pyramids,   in architecture ;  colossal
structures of the ancient Egyptians.  Ac-
cording to Herodotus, this people consid-
ered the pyramidal form as an emblem of
human life. The broad base was signifi-
cant of the beginning, and its termination
in a point, of the  eud, of  our existence in
the present state; for which reason they
made use of this figure in their sepulchres.
Some writers  derive the word pyramid
from nvpos (wheat, grain),  and understand
by it granaries, such, for instance, as those
built  by  the  patriarch  Joseph; others
suppose it to come from nvp (fire), because
the form ofthe pyramid is like an ascend-
ing flame.  The name is probably derived
from  an old Egyptian word.  Some de-
rive  it from piramue,  a ray of the sun ;
others, from pirama, a high monument
The  Egyptian pyramids (for similar build-
ings  are found among the Babylonians,
the Indians and the Mexicans) are large,
quadrangular and hollow, having a broad
base,  contracting  gradually towards  the
top,  sometimes terminating in a point,
sometimes  in a plane surface, generally
built of large, though not very hard lime-
stones (seldom of brick or of any other
kind of stone than limestone), of different
heights, usually having a base equal to
the height, with the four sides placed so as
to face the four cardinal points, two of the
sides  usually being  larger than the other
two.   Some maintain that they were con-
secrated  to the sun, or some other god;
others, that they served as a kind of gno-
mon, for astronomical observations;  ac-
cording to Diderot, for the preservation
and transmission of historical information;
according to others, they were built mere-
ly to  gratify  the vanity and tyranny of
kings, or for the celebration of mysteries,
or secret meetings, or for corn magazines,
or, finally,—and this is  the most common
opinion of the ancients,—for sepulchres,
structures  in  burial  places,  symbolical
representations of die world of shades, or
as chambers for mummies. Among the
most renowned are those of Cheops  and
Cephrenes.   Those  now standing, all in
Middle Egypt, are divided into five groups,
which contain  about  forty  pyramids.
The  district in which the  pyramids stand,
begins at Dagshoor, and extends  by Sak-
hara  and  Memphis, almost to 30° N.  lat,
about  14,000 paces in length, and less in
breadth.   The group of Gize  (in  the
neighborhood of the ancient Memphis) is
the most remarkable.  Here is the largest
one.   Herodotus says  that it  has been
supposed to contain the bones of Cheops,
and that another one hard by  covers the
bones of Cephrenes, his brother and suc-
cessor.   The account of this  ancient
writer is not improbable, which says that
100,000 men worked  without  interrup
tion  for 20 yeare, in building  diis enor-
mous pyramid, and that Cheops became
an object of hatred to his people on this ac-
count When Savary visited the pyramids
of Gize, be obtained a guard from the gov-
ernor ofthe district, to defend him against
the Arabs.  He left Gize at one o'clock
in the morning, and  was soon  gladdened
by the sight of the two largest pyramids,
whose summits were  illuminated by  the 
436
PYRAMIDS.
moon.   They appeared like rough, craggy
peaks,  piercing the clouds.   At half past
four in the morning, the visitors prepared to
enter the great pyramid.  They laid aside
part of their clothes, and each one took a
torch in  his hand.  They began to de-
scend a  long passage, which at  last be-
came so narrow that they were obliged to
creep on their  hands  and knees.   When
they had passed  through this passage,
they were obliged to ascend  in the same
way.  When they had traversed this sec-
ond passage, they came to a much more
spacious  apartment, coated with granite,
at one end of which Savary saw an emp-
ty marble sarcophagus, made  of one piece
of stone, but without a  lid.   Fragments
of earthen vessels were scattered over the
floor.   They next proceeded  to a second
room, which lay under the  one above-
mentioned, and was of smaller extent.  It
contained the entrance to a passage which
was filled up  with rubbish.   They now
ascended through this, avoiding, not with-
out difficulty,  a deep well  on the left.
When  they  reached  the open air, they
were all exhausted by the heat,  which
they had endured in the  interior of the
pyramids.  After having  rested  them-
selves, they ascended the pyramids on the
outside.  They counted  about 200 stone
steps, varying  from two to  four feet in
height, and they enjoyed from the sum-
mit a most delightful view of the country.
The descent was much  more laborious.
Having reached the ground, they walked
round it, and surveyed with astonishment
the rough mass, which at a  distance ap-
peared  smooth and  regular.   The form
of this  immense structure does not admit
of a very exact measurement;  the esti-
mates which we  have can only be con-
sidered  as  approximations.   Herodotus
gives 800 feet as its height, and says that
this is  likewise the  length of its base on
each side. Strabo makes it 625, Diodorus
600. Modern  measurements agree most
nearly with die latter.  The difference of
these results may  be owing partly to the
circumstance of their having been  made
at different times, and the  sand having
been higher at one  time than another.
Strabo  says that  the  stone which closes
the entrance  to the  pyramids, is to be
found nearly in the centre of one of the
sides; if this was true in his time, the soil
must have been very much  raised, since
the entrance is not at present more than
100 feet from the ground.   Herodotus
says that the  two largest pyramids are
wholly covered with white marble ; Dio-
dorus and Pliny, that they are built of tliis
costly material.  The account of Herod-*
otus is confirmed by present appearances.
Denon, who accompanied the French ex-
pedition  to  Egypt, makes the following
observations on  the  present state of the
pyramids:  Bonaparte had determined to
examine  the great  pyramid of Gize;  300
pereons  were appointed  to this  duty,
among whom was Denon.   They  ap-
proached the  borders  of the desert in
boats to within half a league of the pyra-
mid, by  means  of the  canals from  the
Nile.  The firet impression made on  De-
non by the sight  of the pyramids did  not
equal his expectations, for he had no  ob-
jects with which to  compare them;  but
on approaching them, and seeing men at
their feet, their gigantic size  became  evi-
dent  The visitors ascended a small  ele-
vation of rubbish and sand, which led to
the entrance of the pyramid.   This open-
ing, which, according  to Denon's calcu-
lation, is about 60 feet above the ground, is
concealed by a  stone wall, which forms
the third  and innermost of the walls sur-
rounding the pyramid.   Large stones  are
placed  horizontally at the side of the  en-
trance, and above  these, others of enor-
mous size are so  placed as to make their
fall or  displacement very difficult  Here
begins  the firet entrance, leading towards
the centre and  the ground  floor of  the
building.  At the end  of this passage,
Denon says, two large blocks of granite
stopped the way.  Finding all endeavors
to remove this obstacle useless, he went a
little way back,  passed  round two  other
blocks  of" stone, and succeeded in climb-
ing over them, when he discovered another
passage, so  steep that it was  necessaiy to
cut steps in order  to  ascend  it.  This led
into a  landing place, in which is a deep
hole, usually called the well. It is  the
entrance  to a horizontal passage leading to
an  apartment, known under the name of
the queen's chamber, which is without any
inscription or ornament  From the above
landing  place, an opening  leads  in a
perpendicular direction  to  the principal
passage,  and this ends in a second room,
where  the  third  and  last  partition is
found.  This  is  built with much greater
care.  Finally comes the king's chamber,
which  contained  a  sarcophagus.  This
pyramid  has been since more completely
examined by Caviglia.  The other pyra-
mid of Gize—that of Cephrenes—was first
opened and visited by  Belzoni  in 1818.
In  the sarcophagus  of this pyramid he
found  some bones,  which were sent to
London, and, on examination, proved to
be  those of an animal of the bovine  spe- 
PYRAMIDS—PYRENEES, PEACE OF THE.           437
cies.  The chambers, passages, shafts, &c.
resemble those of the pyramid of Cheops
above described. (See Belzoni's Researches
and Operations in Egypt and Nubia.)  Be-
side this group, there are others, but of
less magnitude, at Abousir, Sakhara, and
Dashour.  An account of Belzoni's and
Caviglia's examinations may be found in
Russell's Ancient and Modem Egypt (No.
xxiii of Harper's  Family Library).  The
singular monuments ofthe ancient inhab-
itants,  found  in Mexico, are also called
pyramids.  They  are built of brick, dis-
posed  in layers alternating with clay, and
the sides are constructed in terraces, as in
that of Cholula, or of a mixture of clay
and pebbles, with  a coating of stone, over-
laid with a plastering of lime.  Those of
Teotihualcan are  considered to be of
the eighth century.  Another remarkable
monument of this kind is the  pyramid of
Papantla, near Vera Cruz, which had been
carefully concealed by the superstitious
veneration of the  Indians,  until accident-
ally discovered about sixty years  ago.   It
is  constructed  of large  blocks of hewn
porphyry, cemented with mortar,  and
sculptured in relief with innumerable fig-
ures, principally of serpents and alligators.
Like the others before mentioned, its sides
are formed into terraces, the wall above
each of which contains a number of square
niches, in the whole 378, being, as is sup-
posed, intended to represent the common
year, and the  intercalary days at the ter-
mination  of each cycle.   It is about sixty
feet high, and has a base eighty feet broad.
(See Mexico, Antiquities of.)
   Pyramids, Battle of the. (See Egypt,
Campaign in.)
   Pyramus.  (See Thisbe.)
   Pyrenees ;  a range of mountains di-
viding France from Spain, extending, al-
most in a straight line, from St. Sebastian on
the bay of Biscay, to Port Vendres on the
Mediterranean, a distance of about 250
miles.  From the principal chain proceed
various inferior ridges.  The acclivity of
the Pyrenees, on the side of Spain, is often
extremely steep,  presenting  a succession
of rugged chasms, abrupt  precipices, and
huge masses of naked rock; on the side of
France, the ascent is more gradual.  Like
the Alps, they  present a great variety of
climate and  production,  and the  same
rapid transitions from sterility to luxuriant
vegetation.  They yield great quantities
of timber.  The mineral productions are
iron,  copper, lead, zinc, cobalt,  and  the
precious  metals.   Some  of  the highest
summits are Maladetta, 10,722 feet, Mont
Perdu, 10,578, Vignemale, 10,332, Mar-
                 37*
bore, Pic Blanc, and  Pic Long.   On the
Spanish side, the highest summit is the
Mousset, differently estimated at from 6646
to 8461 feet high.  Montserrat (q. v.) is
celebrated for  its  monastery and  hermit-
ages.   The valley of  Campan  is the most
beautiful part of the  Pyrenees. (See Ca-
gots.)   There  are  upwards of one hun-
dred passages  for pedestrians, and seven
for carriages,  over the mountains from
one countiy to another.  The most fre-
quented carriage roads are from Junqueira
to Perpignan, on the east;  from  St. Se-
bastian to St. Jean de Luz,  on  the west;
and from  Pamplona to St. Jean  de Pied
de Port, at  some distance  inland. The
passes  in  the interior are over very high
ground; that at Pineda being 8248 feet
above  the sea.  For further information,
consult Ramon's Observations sur les Pyri-
nies ; Voyage au Mont Perdu (1801); Mel-
ling's Voyage pittoresque (1825);  and La-
bouliniere's  ~Voy.  descriplif et  pittoresque.
Charpentier's  work,  Sur la Constitution
giognostique des Pyrtne'es (Paris, 1823) ob-
tained the prize offered by the  Paris acad-
emy of science.
   Pyrenees, Lower ; Upper  Pyrenees ;
Eastern  Pyrenees.  (See Department.)
   Pyrenees, Peace of the; concluded
between France  and Spain by  Mazarin
and De Haro, on the isle of Pheasants, in
the river Bidassoa, on the borders of the
two countries, 7th November, 1659.  Af-
ter the peace of Westphalia, 1648, the war
between France  and Spain,  which had
begun  1635,  still continued.    France
formed an alliance with England  in 1657,
after Cromwell had  (1655) declared war
against Spain,  aud taken  several strong
places in the Spanish Netherlands; Spain
also suffered by sea and in America; Por-
tugal had  revolted in 1640,  Catalonia was
in rebellion, and Andalusia disposed to
insurrection;  and in  Italy,  Savoy had
seized Spanish  Lombardy.  Philip  IV,
king of Spain, consented therefore to that
peace, which  confirmed the  ascendency
of Louis  XIV.  Spain ceded to France
Roussillon, with the fortress of Perpignan,
Conflans,  and a part  of the Cerdagne, so
that the Pyrenees have since formed the
boundary of the  two kingdoms; and in
the Netherlands, Artois, and part  of Flan-
ders, Hainaut,  and Luxemburg,  with the
fortified towns of Arras,  Hesdin, Grave-
lines,  Landrecy,  Quesnoy,  Thionville,
Montmedy, Marienburg, Philippeville, &c
In 1815, France was obliged  to  cede the
two last named fortresses to the  kingdom
of the Netherlands.  France  bound her-
self not to support Portugal.  The prince 
438           PYRENEES, PEACE OF THE—PYROPHORUS.
of Conde and the dukes of Lorraine, Sa-
voy, aud Modena, and the prince of Mo-
naco (the two firet especially), were left in
statu quo.  In consequence of this peace,
Louis XIV married Maria Theresa, eldest
daughter of Philip IV, who, in 1660,  re-
nounced  all right of inheritance to  the
Spanish throne.   Louis XIV, however,
afterwards made  pretensions to this right,
from which arose the devolution war, and
the war of the Spanish succession.  (See
, Vx-la-Chapelle, Peace  of, and  Utrecht,
Peace of.)
  Pyrites ;  a genus of inflammable sub-
stances, composed of sulphur, which  has
dissolved or saturated itself with metals.
  Pyrmont, or Neustadt Pyrmont; a
town in the principality of Waldeck, situ-
ated in a pleasant valley on the Emmer,
thirty-three miles south-west of Hanover.
It is'well built, with delightful walks, and
is famous for its thermal waters, which  are
yearly  visited  by 1800 strangers.  The
waters are saline.  (See Mineral  Waters.)
In the vicinity are the ruins  of  the  old
castle of Pyrmont, or Schellpyrmont, and
the cave called Dunsthohle,  from which
issues  carbonic acid  gas.  There is also
here a colony of Quakers, called Fried-
ensthal (Vale of Peace).
  Pyrochlore ;  a mineral recently  de-
tected  in  the zircon sienite of  Freder-
icksveern, in  Norway.  It occurs  crystal-
lized in regular octahedrons; specific grav-
ity, 4.2; scratches  fluor; streak  brown ;
fracture conchoidal, without any  trace of
cleavage;  lustre between vitreous  and
resinous.  Its color is reddish brown, and
on the fresh surface almost black; in thin
splinters, translucent.  It consists of titanic
acid 62.75, lime 12.85, oxide of uranium
5.18, oxide of cerium 6.80, oxide of man-
ganese 2.75,  oxide of iron 2.16, oxide of
zinc 0.61, water 4.2, fluoric acid undeter-
mined, and magnesia a trace.
  Pyroligneous Acid.  (See Vinegar.)
  Pyrometer;  an  instrument  for  the
measurement of temperatures above those
which we are  able  to  estimate by  the
mercurial thermometer.  Mercury boils at
660°, above which point it is incapable of
measuring heats; although many  temper-
atures connected with the most common
processes are greatly above this point, as,
for example, the heat of a common fire,
the melting  point of silver,  copper, and
gold.   The  first pyrometer was  that in-
vented by Mr. Wedgewood.  It consisted
of  small pieces  of clay  from Cornwall,
moulded into cylinders of a determinate
size, and baked in a low red heat.   These
pieces were of just such a size as to enter
between two square brass rods, fixed on a
brass plate twenty-four inches long, half
an inch asunder at one extremity, and 0.3
inch at the other.  The brass rods were
divided into inches and tenths, making in
all 240 divisions, or degrees.  When pieces
of clay, baked in Wedgewood's manner,
are exposed to heat,  they shrink in their
dimensions, and the  degree of shrinking
was believed to be  proportional to  tho
temperature.  This was die foundation of
his instrument  The heat to which  the
piece of clay was exposed was indicated,
when  its  shrinkage  was  measured  be-
tween the brass rods.  If exposed  to the
heat at which silver melts,  it advanced
between  the  brass  rods to 22°, or 2.2
inches; if to the melting point of gold, to
32°; and if to the  melting point of cast
iron, to 130°; and so on.  But this  py-
rometer of Wedgewood has been long
laid aside, in consequence ofthe observa-
tion, that if a piece of this clay was long
exposed to a  low temperature, it shrunk
as much  in its dimensions as if it had
been exposed for a short  time to a much
higher temperature.  In 1803, Guyton de
Morveau  presented to the French  insti-
tute a pyrometer of platina, Which meas-
ured high temperatures by the expansion
of  this refractory metal.  An improve-
ment of this instrument was brought for-
ward by Mr. Daniel in 1821, which con-
sisted ofa bar of platina 10}  inches long,
and 0.14 inch in diameter.  It is placed in
a tube of black lead or earthen ware, and
the difference between the expansion of
the platina bar and the earthen ware tube
is indicated on a circular scale.  This py-
rometer indicates a change of about 7° of
Fahrenheit; or, in other words, 1° of Dan-
iel is equal to 7° of Fahrenheit.  The fol-
lowing are some of the results obtained
by this instrument:
                        Daniel.    Fahr.
Boiling point of mercury,   92°    644°
Fusing point of tin,        63     441
          "    bismuth,   66     462
    "      "    lead,       87     609
    "      "    zinc,       94     648
    "      "    brass,     267     1869
    "      "    silver,     319     2233
    "      «    copper,    364     2548
    "      "    gold,      370     2590
    "      "    cast iron,  497     3479
Red heat just visible in
    daylight,             140     980
Heat of a common fire,   163     1141.
   Pyrophorus ; an   artificial   product,
which takes fire on exposure to the air.
It is prepared by several methods.  The
oldest way of proceeding is as follows:— 
PYROPHORUS—PYROXYLIC  SPIRIT.                439
 Four or five parts of burnt alum are min-
 gled with two of charcoal powder.  The
 mixture is introduced into a vial or mat-
 rass, with a neck of about six inches long.
 The vial is filled about two thirds full, and
 put into a crucible, the bottom  of which
 is covered with sand.  The body of the
 flask is also surrounded with sand, after
 which the crucible is put  into a furnace,
 and surrounded with red-hot coals.  The
 fire is  gradually  increased until the flask
 becomes red hot, at which temperature it
 is  maintained for about a quarter of an
 hour.   As soon as the vessel is  become
 cool  enough  to  be handled, the vial is
 taken out of die sand, and  the contents
 transferred into a dry and  stout glass,
 made warm, which must be secured with
 a glass  stopper.  Whenever  this mixture
 is poured out in the air, it takes fire.  A
 pyrophorus may be prepared by  mixing
 three parts  of alum with one  of wheat
 flour, and calcining them in a vial, as in the
 above case.   Tartrate of lead, also, on be-
 ing heated in a glass tube until it becomes
 converted into coaly matter, gives  rise
 to a beautiful pyrophorus.  But  the py-
 rophorus invented  by doctor Hare  of Phil-
 adelphia is  the most  remarkable.  It is
 formed from  heating a mixture of three
 parts lampblack, four  calcined alum  and
 eight- pearlashes, in a gun-barrel.  The
 mixture is maintained at a cherry-red heat
 about one hour, or until it ceases to give
 off inflammable gas at the orifice of the
 tube, after which it is withdrawn from the
 furnace, and closely corked from  the air.
 When cold, if poured from the gun-bareel
 into the air,  it immediately glows  and
 takes fire; and more especially if breathed
 upou, or slightly moistened. This pyroph-
 orus may be  preserved in its full activi-
 ty for a year or more, .if well corked up
 from the air, but it requires much  caution
 in disengaging it from the tube; for it has
 been known  to explode,  with great vio-
 lence, simply on introducing into it an iron
 ramrod. This compound appeare to owe
 its energy to its containing the  sulphuret
 of potassium.
  Pyrophysalite.  (See Topaz.)
  Pyrosmalite ;  a lamellar substance,
 found also in six-sided tables, of a  shining
 lustre;  translucent; brittle; specific grav-
 ity 3.08. It is soluble in muriatic acid,
 with a residuum of silex.   It gives out the
 odor of chlorine when heated before the
 blow-pipe, and becomes attractable by the
 magnet Its constituents are peroxide of
iron 21.81, protoxide of manganese 21.14,
sub-muriate of iron 14.09,  silex 35.85,
lime 1.21, water and loss 5.9.   It occurs in
a bed of magnetic iron ore, along with
calcareous spar and hornblende, in Bjelke's
mine in Nordmark, in Wermeland.
  Pyrotechny is, properly speaking, the
science which teaches  the  management
and application  of fire; but, in a more
limited sense, and as it is more commonly
used, it refers chiefly to  the  composition,
structure and  use of artificial fire-works.
The ingredients are, 1. saltpetre, purified
for the puipose ; 2. sulphur; and, 3. char-
coal.   Gunpowder is likewise used in the
composition  of  fire-works, being first
ground, or, as it  is technically termed,
mealed.  Camphor and gum-benzoin are
employed  as  ingredients  in  odoriferous
fire-works.  The proportions ofthe mate-
rials differ very  much  in different fire-
works, and the  utmost  care and precau-
tion are necessary in the working them to
a state fit for use, and then in the mixing.
When stare are wanted, camphor, alco-
hol, antimony, and other ingredients, are
required,  according as the stars are to be
blue, white, &c.   In some cases, gold and
silver  rain is  required^ then hrass-dust,
steel-dust,  saw-dust, &c, enter into the
composition.   Hence the varieties may be
almost indefinite.  With respect to color,
sulphur gives a blue, camphor a white or
pale color, saltpetre a clear white yellow,
sal-ammoniac a green, antimony a reddish,
rosin  a copper color.
  Pyroxene, or Augite.  (See Augite.)
  Pyroxylic  Spirit.  When wood is
distilled,  the  products are water, acetic
acid, pyroxylic acid, empyreumetic oil, and
a black matter,  which  is considered as
analogous to pitch, or, rather, tar.   When
the watery portion, freed as well as possi-
ble  mechanically from the tar, is distilled
at a low heat, the first portion that comes
over is the pyroxylic acid, which may  be
freed  from acetic acid by agitation with
lime or magnesia, and subsequent distilla-
tion at a low  temperature ;  But it is still
impure from the presence of empyreu-
matic oil.   To free it completely from this
impurity, it must be mixed  with its own
weight of sulphuric acid, and the mixture
be subjected to distillation.  Thus purified,
it is a transparent and colorless liquid, hav-
ing  a strong and pungent smell, which has
been compared to that of ants, and also to
the  odor of acetic ether.  Its taste is strong,
hot, pungent, and very disagreeable. Spe-
cific gravity, in its most concentrated state,
0.8121.  Its boiling  point is 150°.  When
completely freed from acetic  acid,  it does
not  redden vegetable blues.  It burns with
a very pale yellow flame, inclining to blue,
but the hght is considerably greater than 
440                  PYROXYLIC SPIRIT—PYRRHUS.
that  given out by alcohol.  It burns all
away, without leaving any residue, and the
only products are carbonic acid and wa-
ter.  It dissolves in alcohol in any propor-
tion. With water it becomes opaque, ow-
ing, probably, to a small quantity of oU it
still contains.  It dissolves readUy in oil
of turpentine, and in liquid potash, acquir-
ing, at the same  time,  a yellowish  color.
When the solution of this spirit in  potash
is distilled, we are able to obtain it per-
fectly pure  from every  portion of  oil.
When this spirit is mixed with nitric acid
and  distilled, an ethereal liquid  comes
over, possessed of an exceedingly pungent
smell, and acting strongly on the nose and
eyes. It bums with a bluish flame.  The
specific gravity of this vapor is 1.94.
  Pyrrha.   (See Deucalion.)
  Pyrrhichius. (See Rhythm.)
  Pyrrho, a Grecian philosopher of Elis,
founder of  the Pyrrhonian  or  ancient
sceptical school, flourished about 340 B. C,
and  was  probably  born about the 101st
Olympiad.   In  his youth he studied the
art of painting, but was early led to apply
himself to philosophy by the writings of"
Democritus.   He accompanied his master,
Anaxarchus, to India, in the train of Alex-
ander the Great During this journey, he
became acquainted with the doctrines of
the Brahmins, Gymnosophists, Magi, and
other Eastern philosophers.   His doubts
concerning   positive  knowledge  (or  his
scepticism)  were strengthened as he pro-
ceeded in his studies, until at length he
came to hold all knowledge useless, and
considered virtue alone  as valuable.  In
all disputes,  his  answer to his opponents
was, " What you say may, or may not, be
true; I  cannot decide;" and  he  taught
in  his  school,  that truth could not be
attained, but we must be content to sus-
pend our judgment on all subjects. He
spent a great part of his life in solitude,
and,  by  abstaining from all decided opin-
ions (itoxv) concerning moral and physical
phenomena,  he  endeavored  to attain a
state of tranquillity not to be affected by
fear, joy  or  sorrow.   He  bore corporal
pains with great fortitude, and no danger
could disturb his equanimity.  In dispu-
tation, he was distinguished for acuteness
of argument and clearness of language.
His  countrymen made him  high  priest,
and  exempted all philosophers from the
payment  of  taxes.   Pyrrho died in the
ninetieth year of his age.   The Athenians
erected a statue in honor of him, and his
countrymen  raised  a monument to his
memory.   His scepticism is easily ac-
counted for.  He early became acquainted
with the system of Democritus, who held
that, except the immediate elements of
bodies (atoms), nothing was real, and that
all perception was subjective.  (See Ob-
jective.)   He  was confirmed  in these
views by the doctrines  of Socrates,  to
whom,  in his character,  he bore a great
resemblance.  Cicero mentions him ex-
pressly  among the disciples of Socrates,
and his  scepticism is allied to the irony of
that  philosopher.  Led, by his  tempera-
ment and his manner of life, to esteem an
uninterrupted tranquillity the great object
of all philosophy,  believing that nothing
tended so much to destroy this quiet  as
the interminable disputes of the  schools
of the Dogmatists, and that  uncertainty
was increased by their contentions, he de-
termined to seek,  in some other way, the
peace which he despaired of finding  in
dogmatical philosophy.  This made him
a sceptic.  Pyrrho left  no writings.  His
friend and  scholar, Timon, firet  wrote on
the subject of scepticism,  but his writings
are lost.  It is only from the works of his
later followere, particularly Sextus  Em-
piricus, that we learn  the principles of his
school, or rather their mode of thinking,
by which they strove  rather to overthrow
other philosophical  structures, than to
build up one of their own.—A disposition
to doubt is often called, from this philoso-
pher, pyrrhonism.
  Pyrrhus ; son of Achilles and Iphige-
nia,  whom his father,  after the sacrifice
of Iphigenia, carried to Scyros, and gave
to  Deldamia.  Others  say  that  Dei-
damia, daughter of Lycomedes, was his
mother.   He  was educated  at Scyros,
and remained  there till after  his father'^
death, when Ulysses and  Diomedes took
him away, because Calchas had declared,
that  without  him Troy could  not be
taken.   He  now  received the name of
Neoptolemus, on account of his engaging
in war so young.  Homer describes him
as beautiful, eloquent and fearless.  The
post-Homeric  poets ascribe  to  him the
sacrifice of Polyxena on the tomb of his
father, the carrying off of Philoctetes from
Lemnos, and  the  death  of Polites and
Priam.  Andromache and Helenus fell to
his share among the  captives.  Later ac-
counts differ very much.  Some say that
he returned by  land;  others, by water.
According to some, he went to Epirus,
among the Molossi, and there founded a
new  kingdom.   Here  Andromache be-
came his wife, by whom he had Molossus,
Pierus and Pergamus, and, at length, left
his wife and his kingdom to  Helenus,
whom he honored as a soothsayer. He 
Pyrrhus—pythagoras.                     441
 then appears in a new mythological series
 of events,  the  basis of which is  to be
 found  in Homer.  He is represented  to
 have married Hermione, whom her father,
 Menelaus,  had betrothed to him before
 Troy.   On this account he was, according
 to some, murdered by Orestes, the fonner
 husband of  Hermione, at  the altar of
 Apollo.  According to  others, his  death
 was occasioned by Apollo, whom he had
 offended.   It is generally agreed, that his
 death  took place at Delphi.  Here his
 grave  was  shown, and a yearly sacrifice
 was offered in honor of him.
   Pyrrhus II, king of Epirus, B. C. 300,
 was one of the greatest generals of his
 age, ambitious of fame and conquest He
 ascended the throne of his father  when
 but twelve  years old: being driven from
 it, five  yeare afterwards, by Neoptolemus,
 he  soon regained it, and increased his
 power  by  the conquest of Macedonia.
 Being  called  by the Tarentines (see Ta-
 rentum) to aid them against  the Romans,
 he twice defeated the latter by means of
 his elephants,  to which the Romans were
-uuaccustomed; but his confession, "Such
 another victory,  and I  must  go home
 alone," proved the cost  of his triumph.
 In  the  mean  time, the disturbances in
 Syracuse tempted him into Sicily.  But
 he returned to Italy, widiout having ac-
 complished his vain scheme  of conquest;
 and being here defeated by  the Romans,
 who had now become acquainted with his
 mode of fighting, he was obliged to re-
 turn to Greece, without having succeeded
 in bis  designs.   A  trie,  at  the siege of
 Argos,  ended  hi3 restless life (272 B. C).
 From this king the Romans  learned most
 of their art of war, which afterwards
 made them  so formidable to their enemies.
 (See Fabricius.)
   Pythagoras ; a Grecian  philosopher,
 founder of the Italian school.  According
 to the most received opinion, he was a na-
 tive  of  Samos.  His  father,  Mnesarchus,
 was a merchant (probably of Tyre or some
 other Phoenician city), who traded to Sa-
 mos, where he received the rights of citizen-
 ship, and settled with his family.  The year
 of Pythagoras's birth  is uncertain ; proba-
 bly it took place about 584  or 586 B. C.
 His histoiy  is  mingled with  many fables.
 He received his first instruction from Cre-
 ophilus in his  native  city.  He then went
to the island of Scyros, and was a scholar
of Pherecydes till the death of the latter;
odiers make him also a scholar of Thales.
Jamblichus  says, that Pythagoras, during
his journey to  Egypt, spent some time in
Phoenicia in intercourse widi the succes-
 sors of Moschus and othef priests of the
 country, by whom he was initiated into
 dieir  mysteries,  and  that he travelled
 through various parts of Syria, in order to
 become acquainted with the most impor-
 tant religious usages and doctrines.  But
 this account is blended with many  fabu-
 lous circumstances.  Pythagoras is said to
 have been recommended by Polycrates,
 king of  Samos, to the Egyptian king
 Amasis.  In Egypt he was probably ini-
 tiated  into  the  mysteries of the  priests,
 and became acquainted  with  the  whole
 range of Egyptian learning.  From Egypt
 he is said to liave journeyed to the East,
 and visited the  Persian and   Chaldean
 Magi,  as well as the Indian  Gymnoso-
 phists.   After his return,  he  opened  a
 school at Samos, in which  he  taught liis
 doctrines in a symbolic fonn, in imitation
 of the  Egyptians.  Tradition,  moreover,
 relates that he went to Delos, and received
 from the priestess moral maxims, which
 he communicated to his disciples  under
 the  name  of divine precepts.   He also
 visited Crete, where die priests of Cybele
 took him to the caverns of Ida,  in which
 Jupiter had been cradled, and  where his
 grave was pretended to be shown.  Here
 he met Epimenides, who boasted of hav-
 ing intercouree with gods and the gift of
 prophecy, and whom he initiated into the
 sacred mysteries of the  Greeks.  From
 Crete he is said  to have gone to  Sparta
 and Elis,  and  from thence to Phlius,
 where,  being asked by king Leon what
 was his profession, he replied that he was
 a  philosopher (or friend of wisdom), de-
 claring  that the  name of  sage (sophos)
 belonged solely  to the  Divinity.   With
 augmented knowledge he returned home,
 where  he now founded  a  phdosophical
 school  with great success.   His doctrines
 seemed divine oracles;  and the sacred
 obscurity in which he had the art of veil-
 ing them, attracted a great number of dis-
 ciples.   He resolved, nevertheless, to leave
 Samos, either to avoid the  public  offices
 conferred upon him, or the tyranny of
 Polycrates, and went  to  Magna Graecia.
 He landed at Crotona,  whose inhabitants
 were notorious for the looseness of their
 manners.  From all traditions it may be
 concluded, that he laid claim to supernat-
 ural powers, and his extraordinary quali-
 ties collected around him pereons of all
 classes.   The good effects of his influence
 were soon visible.  Sobriety and temper-
ance succeeded to the prevailing luxury
and licentiousness.  Six hundred of the
inhabitants  of Crotona are  said to have
submitted to die  strictest precepts of his 
442
PYTHAGORAS.
doctrine, and united their property in one
common stock, for the benefit of the whole
community  or society which  Pythagoras
founded.  The object of the society was
to aid each other in promoting intellectual
cultivation.  From all quarters Pythago-
ras found numerous pupils, who paid him
almost divine honors.  But  as he taught
the  nobles, who joined  him,  his society
became suspected  by the popular party.
At the head of  his enemies in  Crotona
was Cylon, a rich and respectable citizen,
whose enmity he had excited by  refusing
to receive him among his  scholars.  In
revenge, Cylon once attacked the  house
of MUo, where a number of Pythagoreans
were  assembled, surrounded  it with his
partisans,  and set it on  fire.  Forty per-
sons perished, and but few escaped.  Py-
thagoras was probably not in  the house.
He fled to the Locrians,  and, when these
refused to receive him, to  Metapontum.
Finding enemies here also, who meditated
his ruin, he  sought an asylum in the tem-
ple of the Muses, where, according to tra-
dition, he perished from want of  suste-
nance, eighty years of age (about 506 B. C).
His scholars are said to have paid him di-
vine honors  after his death.  He is said to
have  asserted, that his  soul had already
lived in several bodies.   In  public he ap-
peared in the Oriental costume, in a long
white robe, with  a flowing beard, and,  as
some  say, with a crown of gold on his
head.   His exterior was grave, command-
ing, and dignified.   He  abstained,  it  is
related, from all animal food, and limited
himself to  vegetables, not, however, eating
beans. These circumstances contributed
to give him the appearance of an  extraor-
dinary being.  To show his respect for
marriage, he took a wife at Crotona, by
whom, among several children, he had
two sons, Telanges and Mnesarchus, who
were  his scholars and successors.  That
Pythagoras left any works, is improbable
on the testimony of the ancients.  The
Golden Sentences, extant under his name,
which may  be  considered as  a short
abridgment of his popular doctrines, ap-
pear to have  been composed by  later
hands.  Like those ofthe Egyptian priests,
his doctrines were of two  kinds, public
and secret.  His public instruction con-
sisted  of practical discourses, in which he
recommended virtue and dissuaded from
vice,  with a particular reference to the
various relations of  mankind,  such  as
those of husbands and wives, parents and
children,  citizens  and  magistrates, &c.
His hearers at these lectures must not be
confounded with the members of his so-
ciety, whom he subjected  to a separate
discipline, and  not till after long instruc-
tion and severe examination  admitted to
all  the mysteries of his secret doctrines.
These scholars were required to practise
the greatest purity and simplicity of man-
ners.   He imposed upon them a silence of
two to five yeare, according to  circum-
stances (the Pythagorean silence).   For a
time, the disciples were only hearers. The
well-known " He said so (alros i<pa)" was
sufficient  authority,  without  any  proof.
He alone, who  had  passed through the
appointed series of severe  trials, was al-
lowed to hear the word of  the master in
his immediate presence.  Whoever was
terrified by the difficulties, might with-
draw without opposition, and his  contri-
butions to the common stock were repaid,
a tomb was erected to him as if he were
dead, and  he was no  more thought of.
To the members of the secret society, the
doctrines were not delivered, as to others,
under the mask of images  and symbols,
but unveiled.  These secrets probably re-
lated  to religious and  political subjects.
It was requisite,  however, to take an oath
of secrecy.  The pupils could now inter-
rogate and make objections.  They were
called, by way of distinction, Pythagoreans.
As  soon as his  disciples had made suffi-
cient  progress  in geometry,  they were
introduced to the study of nature, to the
investigation of fundamental  principles,
and to the  knowledge of God.  Others,
according to their inclinations and capaci-
ties, were instructed  in morals, econom-
ics, or politics, and afterwards employed
either in managing the affaire of the soci-
ety, or sent abroad to inculcate and bring
into practice the principles of philosophy
and government in the other Grecian
cities.   According to  the  accounts of
later winters, the mode of living  at the
Pythagorean school at Crotona, was the
following:   The Pythagoreans, with their 4
wives and  children, lived together in  ai
public building, in perfect harmony, as if
one family.   Each morning it was  de-
cided how the day should be spent, and
every evening a review was made of all
that had been done.   They rose  before
the sun,  in  order to worship  it;  verses
from Homer and other poets were then
recited, or music was introduced, to arouse
the mental powers, and fit  them for the
duties of the day.  Several hours were
then spent  in serious study.  A  pause
followed for recreation, in which a solitary
walk  was usually taken, to  indulge  in
contemplation;  a conversation then took
place.  Before dinner, various  gymnastic 
PYTHAGORAS.                           443
exercises were performed.  The common
meal consisted principally of bread, honey
and water. The remainder of the day was
devoted to public and domestic affaire, con-
versation, bathing, and religious perform-
ances.  After the destruction of the  asso-
ciation, and the flight of his scholars  from
Lower Italy, Lysis and Archippus deemed
it necessary to collect the doctrines of their
master  in a systematic treatise, and pre-
serve them from oblivion ; but the greatest
secrecy was  nevertheless recommended.
Thus Plato purchased from Philolaus a
writing on the philosophy of Pythagoras,
and received  from Archytas his commen-
taries on the verses and tenets of his master.
The accounts that we possess of the doc-
trines of Pythagoras are very scanty, and,
with the exception of what we  learn  from
Aristotle, and from some fragments of the
Pythagoreans, very uncertain.   Neither
can we  accurately discriminate between
his doctrines and those  of his scholars.
Later writers  represent him as  making it
the object of all  philosophy to exalt the
mind to the contemplation of immutable
truth,  to  the knowledge of divine and
spiritual objects.  This can only be effect-
ed by degrees, on account of  familiarity
with  sensual things.   The first step  to
wisdom is the study of mathematics, the
foundation of which appeared  to him to
be the  doctrine  of numbers.  Numbers
are, in his view, the first  and most essen-
tial of things.   They are, as it  were, the
model,  according to which the world  is
formed  in  all parts.   The  odd numbers
are limited and perfect; the even  unlimit-
ed and  imperfect.  The monad, or unity,
is the source of all numbers.   The  dyad
is, according to the later Pythagorean doc-
trines, imperfect  and  passive, and   the
cause of  increase and  division.   The
triad, compounded of the monad and dyad,
partakes of the nature of both. The tetras,
or number four, is in  the highest degree
perfect  The decad, which contains the
sum  of  the four  prime numbers, and is
therefore called tdradys, comprehends all
musical and arithmetical proportions, and
denotes the system of the world.   The
real meaning  of the Pythagorean doctrine
of numbers is not well understood; num-
bers  were  probably, in this system, the
symbolical or allegorical  representations
of the firet principles or forms  of nature.
As Pythagoras could not  express abstract
ideas in simple language, he seems to  have
made use of numbers, as geometers do ofa
diagram, to assist the comprehension of his
scholars.   He perceived  some analogies
between numbers and the attributes of
the divine underetanding,  and made the
former the symbols  of the latter.  As the
numbers proceed from the monad, or uni-
ty, undergo various  combinations, and in
their progress assume new properties, so
he regarded the pure and  simple essence
ofthe Deity as the common source of all
the forms of nature, which, according to
their various modifications, possess differ-
ent properties.  Pythagoras is also said to
have  invented  the   multiplication table
(abacus), thence called the Pythagorean
table.   Next to numbers, music belongs to
the preparatory exercises of the Pythago-
rean school, by  which the  mind was ele-
vated above the dominion of passion, and
fitted for contemplation.  Pythagoras con-
sidered music  not  only as an  art to  be
judged of by the ear, but as a science to
be reduced to mathematical maxims and
relations, and allied to astronomy. Tra-
dition makes  him the inventor  of a mu-
sical (Pythagorean lyre,  octochordum Py-
thagorai), which, after his  death, was en-
graved in brass, and preserved in the tem-
ple of Juno at Samos.  The invention of
the harmonic canon, or monochord—an
instrumentofa single string—which served
for the measurement of musical intervals,
has also been ascribed to  hiin by ancient
and modern  writers. He  believed that
the heavenly spheres, in which the planets
move, dividing die ether in their  course,
produced tones, and that  the  tones must
be different according to their size, veloci-
ty and distance.   That  these relations
were in concord, that these tones produced
the most perfect harmony (music of the
spheres), he necessarily believed, in con-
sequence  of  his   notions of the  su-
preme perfection of the  universe.  The
real meaning of this doctrine was, that he
regarded the world as a harmonically ar-
ranged whole (kooiios), in  which  the rela-
tions of numbers were realized.  His fol-
lowers took occasion from this doctrine to
say of their master, that he was the only
mortal whom  the gods had  permitted
to  hear  the  harmony of the spheres.
Geometry,  which  he  had  learned  in
Egypt, he reduced, more than any of his
predecessors and contemporaries, to  the
form of a regular science.   According to
his notion, the geometrical point was sim-
ple, the line double, the area threefold, and
solids quadruple; and in this way, also, he
apphed the doctrine of numbers.   Of the
geometrical theorems which are ascribed
to him, the following are the most impor-
tant :  The three angles of a triangle are
together equal to two right angles; and in
a right-angled triangle, the  square of the 
444
PYTHAGORAS.
  hypothenuse is  equal  to  the sum of the
  squares  of the  two sides.  This last is
  still called the Pythagorean  theorem (also
  magister matheseos), although it is doubt-
  ful whether Pythagoras invented it.  In
  astronomy he taught the following:  The
  word heaven denotes either the spheres of
  the fixed  stare, or the whole space  be-
  tween the fixed stars and the moon, or
  the whole world, including both the heav-
  enly  spheres  and the earth.  Agreeably
  to the arithmetical hypothesis, there are
  ten heavenly  spheres,  of which nine are
  visible to us, viz. the sphere of the fixed
  stars, the seven spheres of the seven plan-
  ets (including the sun and moon), and the
  sphere  of the  earth.   The tenth  earth,
  called by him Antidhon (anti-earth), is in-
  visible, but necessary to the perfection of
  the harmony of nature, since the decad is
  the perfection of the numerical harmony.
  By this anti-earth he explains the eclipses
  of the moon.   In the middle of the uni-
  verse  is  the  central  fire, principle of
  warmth and life.  The earth is one of the
  planets,  moving around the sphere of fire.
  The  atmosphere of the earth is a gross,
  immovable mass, but  the  ether is pure,
  clear, always in motion, and the region of
  all divine and  immortal natures.   The
  distances of the various heaveidy spheres
  from the earth correspond to the propor-
  tions ofthe musical scale.  His moon and
  stare are gods, or inhabited by gods.   Py-
  thagoras,  therefore, rendered  important
  services to the mathematical sciences, and
  firet  established a mathematical philoso-
  phy.  His disciples Philolaus, Archytas,
  Ecphantus,  Ocellus, Timaeus, carried it
  farther.    Philolaus, in particular, whose
  fragments are the most valuable  relics of
  the Pythagorean school, distinguished him-
  self  by  his astronomical system.  With
  mathematics were also connected the nat-
  ural  sciences.  With  respect to  philoso-
  phy, Pythagoras taught, that true knowl-
  edge embraced those  subjects which are
  in their nature immutable, eternal and in-
  destructible, and of which alone it can be
  properly predicated, that  they exist  He
I  who devotes himself to this study  is a
  philosopher.  The obj ect of philosophy is,
  by contemplation, to  render the human
  mind similar to the divine, and  make it
  frt to enter the assembly of the gods.  For
  this  purpose it  is necessary to invoke, in
  .orayer, the assistance  of the Divinity and
  g ood demons.    Contemplative wisdom
  ca nnot be fully attained without entire ab-
  straction from common things, without en-
  tire  tranquillity, and  freedom of mind.
  Hem'-e the necessity of founding a society
separate from the world, for contemplation
and study.  The theoretical philosophy of
Pythagoras, which treats of nature and its
origin, was  enveloped- in the most pro-
found obscurity, and we know nothing of
it, but  what may be conjectured from
single intimations ofthe ancients.  In the
opinion of Pythagoras, God is  the  uni-
versal spirit, diffused in all directions from
the centre, the source of all animal life, the
actual and inward cause of all motion,  in
substance similar to light, the first princi-
ple ofthe universe,, incapable of suffering,
invisible, indestructible, and to be compre-
hended by the mind alone.  To the Divin-
ity there were  subordinate, according  to
the notions  of the Pythagoreans, three
kinds of intelligences, gods, demons  and
heroes, emanations of the  supreme God,
varying in  dignity and perfection, in pro-
portion as they were more or less  removed
from  their  source.  The  heroes he be-
lieved to be clothed with a body of subtile
matter.   Besides  these three  kinds, there
was a fourth—the human mind ;  likewise
an emanation of the Divinity.  As God is
one, and the origin of all variety, he was
represented as a monad, and the  subordi-
nate spirits as numbers derived from  and
contained in unity.   Thus the  numbers
of Pythagoras resembled the ideas of Pla-
to, excepting that they are contained in the
things themselves.  The  regions of the
air the Pythagoreans thought filled with
spirits, demons and heroes, who  were the
cause  of health or sickness  to  men and
animals, and, by means of dreams  and
other kinds of divinations,  imparted the
knowledge of future  events.  The soul,
according to  him, was likewise a number,
and by numbers it first has perception, as
Philolaus says, of the world; it is an em-
anation of the central fire,  and, conse-
quently, always in motion,  and indestructi-
ble.   Of man, the Pythagoreans  believed,
at least the later, that, since he  consisted
of an elementary nature,  of a divine or
rational principle, he was a microcosm;
that his  soul was  a  self-moving princi-
ple, and consisted of two parts, the ration-
al, which was a portion of the  universal
soul,  an emanation of the  central  fire,
and had its  seat  in  the  brain,  and the
irrational, which  comprised the  passions,
and lived in the heart; that in both, man
had  something  in  common with  the
brutes,  who, on  account  of their  bodily
structure and the want of language, are
incapable of acting reasonably; that the
sensitive soul (dvpof) perishes, but that the
rational mind [<pptm, vovg) is immortal, be-
cause  it has its origin in  an  immortal 
PYTHAGORAS—PYTHON.                     445
source ; that the latter,  when freed from
the  fetters  of the  body,  assumes  an
ethereal vehicle, and  passes to the habita-
tions of the dead, where it remains till it
returns  to  the world,  to dwell in  some
other human or animal body, and that at
last, when sufficiently purified, it returns
to  the source from  which it proceeded.
This  doctrine  of the transmigration  of
souls (metempsychosis), which  was origi-
nally Egyptian, and  connected with  the
idea of the reward  and punishment of
human actions, was the chief cause why
the Pythagoreans killed no animals.   His
morality  Pythagoras taught in  symbolic
maxims and ascetic precepts, in connexion
with his contemplative views.   The pow-
ers of the mind are reason and passion ;
where the latter is obedient to the former,
virtue reigns.   The mind possesses unity,
hannony, and  a resemblance  to  God.
Right consists in retribution.   The follow-
ing maxims are also ascribed  to  him.
" Youth  should be  habituated to obedi-
ence, for  it  will then find it easy to obey
the authority of reason.   It  should  be
trained in the  best couree of life ; habit
will soon make  it  the  most  pleasant"
" Silence is  better than unmeaning words."
" The wise man should be prepared  for
eveiy thing that does not lie within  his
control."   " Do what you consider right:
whatever the people think of you, despise
its censure  and its praise."-  " It is cow-
ardly to quit the post assigned us by God,
before he  permits us."  " Strength  of
mind rests on sobriety, for this  keeps  the
reason unclouded by  passion."  " No one
is to  be  deemed free, who has not per-
fect self-command."  " Intoxication is a
temporary  madness,"  " The desire  for
the  superfluous is  folly,  for it has no
bounds," &c.  The Pythagoreans recom-
mended, especially, the virtue of friend-
ship.  In it, Pythagoras  requires the  ab-
sence of all dissension, perfect confidence,
aid under all circumstances, and a mutual
endeavor to make each other perfect.   To
true friends  every  thing  is  common.
True friendship is imperishable.   In per-
forming die usages of religion, he required
piety of soul.  The gods are to  be wor-
shipped  by symbols corresponding  to
  vol. x.         38
their  nature, by simple purifications and
offerings, and with purity of heart.  An
oath should never be violated.  The dead
must not be burned.  Next to the gods and
daemons, the highest respect belongs to pa-
rents and lawgivers.  The laws and cus-
toms of our country ore to be sacredly ob-
served.   The  Pythagorean  philosophy
had a great influence on the Platonic.  In
later times, it was revived and intermingled
with New Platonism.—See Geschichte der
Pythagorciischen Philosophic,  by  Ritter
(Hamburg,  1826), and Bokh's Disputed, de
Platonico  Systemate  Coziest.  Glob., &c.
(Heidelb., 1810, 4to.).
  Pythagorean Lyre.    )   to   t>
  Pythagorean Table.   > ., ^aee *?'
  Pythagorean Theorem. $ lha^ras')
  I'YTHiA,and Pythonissa. (See Ddphi.)
  Pythian Games ; one ofthe four great
Grecian games, instituted in early times, in
honor of Apollo, the conqueror ofthe Py-
thon.  They were celebrated in the Crisse-
an fields nearDelphi (formerly calledPi/ffoi),
at first eveiy nine  yeare, but afterwards,
by the command of the Amphictyons, ev-
ery five yeare. Poems in honor of Apollo
were  sung to the flute or the lyre, and
poets contended for the prize, which was
a crown of laurel or oak.  The Amphic-
tyons were the judges in  the contests.
Other  musical  and gymnastic contests
were  afterwards added.  In  later times,
these games were celebrated in other Gre-
cian cities, and were kept up at Delphi as
late as the third centuiy A. D.
  Pythias.   (See Damon.)
  Python;  a  dreadful  dragon,  which
sprang from the mud left by the flood of
Deucalion, and dwelt near Crissa, on Par-
nassus, watching the future  oracle  of
Delphi.  Acquainted with the  future, he
foresaw that the son of Latona would kill
him, and  he persecuted her  with the
greatest violence.  Apollo slew him with
an arrow, the firet day  after his  birth,
threw his bones into a  deep  chasm, pos-
sessed himself of the oracle, and received
from this  circumstance the  surname of
Pythian, " the  slayer of  the  Python."
This fable was probably meant to indicate
the power of the sun  over the noxious
vapors, remaining after a great flood. 
446
Q—QUADRANT.
v£; the seventeenth letter in the English
alphabet, and one of the mutes.  The an-
cient Latins had not this letter, but wrote
oblicus, locuntur, not obliquus, loquuntur;
and after  it  was introduced among the
Romans, it was considered by some, not
as a letter, but a character expressing two
letters; hence some wrote qis, qaret, qid,
while others  preferred cuis, cuatret, cuid.
The Greeks had not the letter.  The Lat-
in q is probably borrowed from the  Phoe-
nician and Hebrew p (koph). It has been
considered  by  many  grammarians, who
have treated of different languages, as a
superfluous character; and in French and
Spanish, which have no k,  it has been re-
tained in the alphabet  only to express this
sound. The  Spaniards now write cuanto,
not quanto, but have retained the q  in que
and qui, pronounced ke and ki; que and qui
are now written cue and cui.  In the arti-
cles on the lettere G, H and K, we have
touched upon the near affinity of the as-
pirate and guttural sounds.   The sound of
qu is  that  of the guttural k, with the
breathing sound of v, or the German w ;
and as the aspirate h (see H) is often put
before words merely as an addition, so also
is  this stronger (guttural) sound  q.  For
instance, we  find in Ulphilas quivan (to
live), the Latin vivere;  the German Qualm
(smoke) is in Dutch walm.   It is not im-
probable, that in various words the sound
qu has been changed into the sounds w or
v; thus Adelung says, that the Latin qua-
lis and the German welcher; quis,  quern,
quod,  and  the  German wer, wem, was
(formerly  in  Low Saxon  hwat); quando
and the German wenn (formerly hwanne),
are intimately related.  That the sound
became changed in Latin itself, is evident
by the derivation of inquilinus from  colere,
codio and coculum from coquere.  The fol-
lowing instance shows  how the kindred
sounds alternate in different languages.
The Quuerca of Rabanus (q.  v.),  the
Swedish qvarka, the  Finnish curcku,  the
Icelandic kuerkur, is the German Gurgel
(throat). Q, as a Roman numeral, signified
500, according to the verse—

  Q relut A cum D quingentos wit numerare ;

with a dash  over  it, 500,000.  Q, as an
 abbreviation, stands for qutestor, quartus,
 quinquennalis, que (as iu the famous S. P.
 Q. R., senatus populusque Romanus), quod,
 &c ;  q. TP., for  quo tempore; QVIR.,
 for quirinalia; Q. R., qurestor reipublica;
 and D. N. M. Q. E. signified devotus nu-
 mini majestatique ejus.
   Quadi ; a Teutonic tribe whose ancient
 territory  was on  the Danube, extending to
 the Theiss on the east, and to the Carpa-
 thian mountains on the north.   They
 waged destructive ware with the Romans,
 particularly under Marcus Aurelius (died
 A. D. 180).   They cease to be heard of in
 the fifth centuiy.
  Quadra   and   Vancouver's  Isle ; a
 large island on the north-west coast of N.
 America, between lat 48° 21' and 50° 54'
 N., and lon. 122° 49' and 128° 21' W.  It
 is separated from the continent  by  John-
 stone's straits  and  Queen  Charlotte's
 sound  towards  the north,  and by  the
 straits of Juan de Fuca towards the  south.
 The island  has  been little  visited,  but it
 is known to be mountainous and well-
 wooded.   It is about 300 miles  in  length
 by 80  in breadth.  The natives are nu-
 merous,  and live principally by fishing.
 Nootka sound (q. v.), on its western coast,
 is the principal bay; it was discovered by
 captain Cook in 1778.  In 1786, a factory
 was established  here  by  English mer-
 chants, but the Spaniards took possession
of it in 1789.  It was afterwards restored
to England, and  received its present name
from the  meeting of Quadra, the Spanish
officer, and Vancouver, the English agent,
on occasion of completing the cession.
  Quadragesima, or Quaresima.   (See
Lent.)                             v
  Quadrans; a  division of the Roman
as (q. v.); also anciently, in England, a
farthing.  Before the reign  of Edward I,
the smallest coin was a sterling, or penny,
marked with a cross; by means of  which
a penny  might be  cut  into halves and
quarters; till, to  avoid the fraud of une-
qual cuttings, that king coined half-pence
and farthings in distinct round pieces.
  Quadrant  (quadrans, a  quarter of a
circle); an astronomical instrument,  which
                                   of
                                  alti-
-----„ „.. cxatiuuuuauai instrument, which
serves to measure an arc of a great circle of
the heavens, in order to determine the alti- 
QUADRANT—QUADRUPLE AND QUINTUPLE ALLIANCE.
447
tude ofa heavenly body. Its name indicates
that it consists of an arc of ninety degrees ;
the degrees are subdivided  into smaller
divisions.   The quadrant is provided with
glasses attached to a straight rod, through
which  the heavenly body is to be seen,
and the position of which on the gradu-
ated arc,  determines the altitude  of  the
body.  In modern times, this instrument
has been improved by the superior accu-
racy of the graduation, and by the use of
a  telescope,  instead of simple dioptric
glasses, for sights.  Instead ofthe quadrant,
it is now more common to use  an entire
circle.   Quadrants are movable or fixed.
The former are for common  use, set in a
vertical plane, and are of two  sorts; in
die one,  the glasses are  attached to a
side of the quadrant, and a plumb line,
suspended from the  vertex,  plays  along
the graduated  arc ; in  the other,  the
quadrant itself remains stationary, and the
rod to which the glasses are attached,
moves  upon  the  arc.  The  fixed  quad-
rants are larger, and are set in a wall of an
observatory in the plane of the meridian.
The observations made by them are more
accurate.  (See  Godfrey, Thomas.)
  Quadrant,  Gunter's.   (See  Gunter's
Quadrant.)
  Quadrat, in printing; a piece of met-
al  cast like the lettere,  to fill up the void
spaces between  words, &c.  There  are
quadrats of various sizes, called m quadrats,
n quadrats, &c.
  Quadratic Equations.  (See  Equa-
tions.)
  Quadratrix, in the higher geometry;
a transcendental curve, which Dinostrates,
and in modern  times,  Tschirnhausen,
made use of to find the quadrature of the
circle by approximation.
  Quadrature, in astronomy; that aspect
of the  moon when she is ninety degrees
distant from the sun ; or when she is in the
middle jwiint of her orbit, between  the
points  of  conjunction  and  opposition,
namely, in the firet and third quarters.
  Quadrivium.   (See Schools.)
  Quadrupkds, in zoology; a class of
land animals, with hairy bodies,  and four
limbs or legs  proceeding from the trunk
of their bodies; the females are vivipa-
rous, or bring forth their young alive, and
nourish them with milk from their teats.
They constitute with man (bimana),  the
monkeys (quadrumana), and the cetaceous
animals, the division mammalia.   (Sue An-
imals.)
  Quadruple  and  Quintuple   Alli-
ance.  The natural, but undue influence,
which  European states have  mutually ex-
ercised upon each other, has at times pro-
duced  alliances  more  complicated  than
any which history elsewhere records, and
which could be produced only by a com-
bination  of  various  interests.  Alliances
of this nature indicate the existence of
powerful interests  and counter interests,
to trace which to their origin is one ofthe
chief purposes  of history.  The  first
quadruple alliance, so called from  the
number of the contracting parties, was the
alliance which was concluded October 28,
1666, between  the  states-general  (Hol-
land), Denmark,  the duke of Brunswick-
Liiiieburg, and the elector of Branden-
burg.  The second was concluded at Lon-
don, August 2, 1718,  between Great  Brit-
ain, France, and  Austria,  and was called
quadruple because acceded to by Holland,
February 16, 1719.  The object of this
league was to force  Spain  to consent to
the  peace of Utrecht   It continued to be
so called even after the  duke of Savoy
and Spain had joined the alliance.   The
quadruple alliance  of Austria,  Russia,
Great Britain, and  Prussia,  at Chaumont,
March 1, 1814, originated from their coa-
lition, which had effected the dissolution
ofthe French empire. (See Coalition, and
Chaumont.)  It was less an alliance, in the
diplomatic sense  of the  word, than an
armed union for the restoration of the in-
dependence of its membere.   After effect-
ing its object, it became  the basis of the
European political system which prevailed
with little effectual opposition until 1830,
having been  confirmed by the  congress
of Vienna, the Holy Alliance (q.v.), and the
congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in October
and  November, 1818, when the  alliance
became, in a certain respect, quintuple, as
France joined the union professedly for
the  maintenance  of peace in Europe :
England  joined  the  three  other powers
for the overthrow of Napoleon; but when
the  alliance  became  obviously directed
against the national independence which
had  been originally  its professed object,
and religious sophistry was blended  with
political,  to deceive the people, and the
right of  armed  interference  was boldly
pronounced, and in several  instances car-
ried into  effect, England naturally  sepa-
rated more and more from the other pow-
ers in consequence of its constitutional sys-
tem, until at  length Canning  proclaimed
the  principle of non-intervention.   (See
Intervention.)  History will  yet speak of
quadruple and quintuple alliances in the
great struggle between the frieuds of lib-
erty and  the  friends  of despotism.   (See
Alliance.) 
448
QUAESTOR—QUAIL,
  Qu-Estor.  (See Questor.)
  Quagga (cquus quagga).  This animal,
which is  an inhabitant of the southern
parts of Africa, is not  unlike the zebra;
its ears, however,  are shorter, and it is not
marked with stripes on  its fore legs or
hinder parts;  its rump is  of  a grayish
color, and its belly> legs and tail whitish.
The quagga is a  social animal, living in
large troops, is far more tractable  than
the zebra, and is said  to be occasionally
used at the  cape of Good  Hope for do-
mestic  purposes.   Notwithstanding  this
mildness of character when domesticated,
it is exceedingly fearless in its native plains,
and is even  said to be more than a match
for the hyaena, fighting desperately  both
with its hoofs and  teeth.   It will  breed
with the common horse;  a mixed race of
this kind, possessing great beauty of form,
and retaining, in a great degree, the char-
acteristic markings of the quagga, existed
in England some yeare since. The quagga
has received a variety of names from au-
thors ; thus Pennant terms  it the quacha,
Masson the  opeagha, and Sparrman calls
it by the name here adopted.   It should
be  remarked that Edwards has mistaken
it for the female zebra.
  Quail (coturnix, Cuv.).  The  quails are
very closely allied to the partridge, differ-
ing only in  being smaller,  and  having a
more delicate beak, shorter tail, and no
spur on the legs.   The quail of Europe is
universally spread over that continent, and,
in fact, over the whole of the old world,
being  found in  every  country  from the
cape  of Good Hope to the North cape.
These birds are deemed excellent food by
the moderns, but the ancients entertained
a prejudice  against their flesh, from an
idea that  they fed  upon hellebore,  and
were subject to epileptic attacks: Semen
veneni gratissimus cibus, quam ob causam,
earn damnavere mensa,  Plin. lib, x,  cap.
23.   Quails are birds of passage, appear-
ing in Europe about May, and departing
in September; they appear to winter in
Africa.  In  some parts,  however,  they
remain the whole year.  (See the work of
Buffon.)   Besides the celebrity of these
birds as articles of food,  they have  been
much prized for their pugnacious propen-
sities.   Quail  fighting  appears to  have
been as common at Athens  as cock fight-
ing in more modern times. This diver-
sion was also in high estimation  in Rome,
and is still pursued in some  parts of Italy.
In the East, and especially in China,  they
are  also pitted against  each other,  after
having been armed with  artificial spure.
The European quail is about seven inches
long; the feathers of the head are black,
edged with  a  rusty brown.  The binder
part of the  neck and crown of the head
are divided  by a long pale-yellow line;
the breast is of a yellowish red,  spotted
with black;  the scapulars and feathers of
the back  are marked with a pale yellow
line in their  middle, and with ferruginous
and blackish  bars  on their sides.  The
notes of the cock and hen quail are veiy
dissimilar; and it is remarkable that the
proportion of males much exceeds that
of females.  Their flesh is more juicy and
delicate than that of the partridge.  Amer-
ican quail, or partridge, as it is termed in
Pennsylvania, belongs to the subgenus or-
tyx, distinguished from the former by hav-
ing a larger, shorter, and  more  arched
bill, and peculiar to America.  The Amer-
ican quail is found from New England to
Honduras. Notwithstanding there is some
resemblance, in form and general appear-
ance, between the quails of the two con-
tinents, they differ  very widely in their
habits; thus, instead of being a bin! of
passage,  scarcely any  of  the  feathered
tribe appear to have so strong local at-
tachments as the American quail.  This
is well known to spoilsmen, who are in the
habit of  turning out pairs of these birds,
when an  unusually severe winter has de-
stroyed the coveys in their neighborhood.
The quail constructs her nest in May;
this is made on  the ground, and generally
at the  foot of  a  thick tuft of grass that
shelters and conceals it.   The  materials
employed in its construction are leaves
and dry grass.   The female lays about fif-
teen or twenty eggs, which  are perfectly
white.  Wilson is of opinion that the com-
mon idea, that  quails occasionally lay  in
each other's nests, is correct.  About the
beginning of September, the young birds
nearly attain their full growth, and asso-
ciate in flocks  or coveys of various sizes,
and at this time also their untiring perse-
cution by sportsmen and trappers begins.
During the end ofthe summer and begin-
ning of the autumn, the well-known note
of the male is every where heard ; this is
very similar  to  the  words  "Bob White,"
accompanied  with a  whistling  sound.
About  the first of October, they prepare
for winter, and to enter on what "is termed
their running season, when they are to be
met with  in  swamps and thickets, instead
of the open fields.   The food ofthe quuil
is composed of grain, seeds, insects, &c,
but their favorite anicles are buckwheat
and  Indian  com.   Like the rest of the
gallinaceous tribe, the quails fly  with  a
loud whirring  sound, occasioned  by the 
QUAIL—QUAKERS.                         449
shortness of their wings and the rapidity
with which they move them.  During the
winter, they often suffer greatly from the
inclemency of the weather, and  whole
coveys are found  frozen  in spots Where
they  had  endeavored to  shelter them-
Belves.  The American quail is about nine
inches long, and fourteen in extent, usually
Weighing  from seven to  eight  ounces.
The  bill  is black;  line  over  the  eye,
down the neck and whole  chin pure
white, bordered by a band  of black, which
descends aud  forms  a crescent on the
throat; the eye  is dark  hazel; crown,
neck,  and  upper part of  the  breast, red
brown;  sides of the  neck spotted with
white and black  on  a  reddish  brown
ground ; back,  scapulars, and  lesser cov-
erts, red brown, mixed with ash, and mi-
nutely marked  with black; wings plain
and dusky; lower part of the  breast  and
belly whitish, marked with black arrow
heads; tail ash, spotted   widi reddish
brown.  (See  Wilson, Ornithol., vol.  vi,
and Nuttall, Ornithol,  647.)
  Quakers, or  Friends  [the following
article was written  by a  member  of the
society of Friends, and therefore expresses
their  opinions] ; a  society of Christians
which took its rise in  England about the
middle of  the seventeenth  centuiy.—
George Fox (q. v.), a native of Drayton, in
Leicestershire, was the first minister whose
preaching was instrumental in  convincing
the people  of those religious views which
distinguish the  society,  and   his disin-
terested labors were so successful, that, in
a few yeare, a numerous society was gath-
ered  in England,  and  subsequently in
America, where the great body of them is
now  found.  He was born in the year
1624, and commenced his  ministerial la-
bors  in  1647, being then in the twenty-
third year of his age.  He travelled much
on foot, and, from conscientious motives,
not only refused to receive any compen-
sation  for preaching, but defrayed his own
expenses.  The seventeenth century was
distinguished by the extraordinary interest
which pervaded England on the subject
of religion.  Many pereons were awaken-
ed to an earnest inquiry, " What shall we
do  to  be saved ?" and not finding, in the
most precise  observance  of the ceremo-
nies of religion, the true peace, and that
victory over  sin which they longed  for,
they were induced to seek, by prayer and
meditation, a  nearer  and  more intimate
communion with the God  of their lives.
They diligendy searched the Holy Scrip-
tures, and found in  those  sacred records
a clear testimony borne to  the important
                 38*
truth, that  " the grace  of God,  which
bringeth salvation, hath appeared unto all
men."  Continuing in an humble, seeking
state of mind, they gradually became ac-
quainted with its secret influences on their
hearts, inclining them to virtue and holi-
ness, and warning them against the com-
mission of evil.   As they submitted to its
heart-changing operation,  they  experi-
enced the bondage of sin and the power
of the tempter to  be broken, and received
ability to live in the fear and favor of God.
As George  Fox was led to bear a clear
and convincing testimony in his ministiy
to the inshining of this divine light, and
to  direct  the people to its  teachings, his
doctrine met with a cordial assent in minds
thus happily prepared to receive it; and
to this cause we  may attribute the rapid
increase of the society  of  Friends.  Be-
ing thus instructed in the things pertaining
to salvation, and their understandings en-
lightened to see the beauty  and excellen-
cy ofthe Christian religion  as revealed in
the Holy Scriptures,  and knowing by ex-
perience the blessedness of being " born
again of the Spirit," they felt  the love of
God constraining them  to declare unto
others those things which  the Lord had
done for their souls. Feelings of this char-
acter, as well as the belief that they were
called of God to the ministry of the gos-
pel, induced many of them to engage in
this solemn undertaking, and, without any
prospect or hope  of pecuniary reward, to
travel extensively  in England and foreign
countries, to promulgate the glad tidings of
life and salvation.  Among the eminent
ministere  of the  society, we may notice
George Fox,William Penn,Robert Barclay,
George  Whitehead, Stephen Crisp, Isaac
Pennington, John Crook, Thomas  Story,
&c. The infant society was soon subjected
to the rigors of a severe persecution, some-
times without the pretext of law, and at
other  times, under  cover  of legal en-
actments, made either in Roman Catholic
times, or  since the  reformation against
non-conformists.  The principal subjects
which led to the persecution of the early
Quakers were, their  testimonies against
oaths, a  hireling ministry, tithes, and oth-
er ecclesiastical demands; the use of the
singular pronouns when addressing only
one person; their  refusal to take off the
hat as a compliment to men; and the
faithful  maintenance  of their religious
meetings.   George Fox was one of the
first who  was imprisoned.   In 1649, he
was confined in Nottingham gaol, for op-
posing a minister on a point of doctrine;
and, in the following year, being arraigned 
450
QUAKERS
 before two justices in Derbyshire, he ex-
 horted those about him to tremble at die
 word of the Lord.  One  of the justices,
 scoffing at the pious advice ofthe minister,
 deridingly gave him aud his friends the ap-
 pellation of Quakers, which has since been
 generally applied to them by  the world,
 though they the nisei ves, as wellas their suc-
 cessors, have adopted the name of Friends.
, The violence of persecution only tended
$m confirm the fiuth and  strengthen the
 bond of union among the members of the
 rising  society.  Its ministers, fearless of
 suffering,  and ardently devoted to the
 cause  of  Christ,  boldly  preached  dieir
 doctrines both publicly und privately, and
 were not  deten-ed from their  gospel la-
 bors by the severest punishments.  The
 members,  with one accord,  united in
 strengthening each other's faith, encour-
 aging all to continue steadfast  to the re-
 ligion they had espoused,  and to endure
 with patience, and even cheerfulness, the
 loss of their estates, imprisonment, fines,
 whipping,  banishment from home  and
 countiy, and even death itself, rather than
 renounce their principles or violate their
 testimonies.  The  spirit  of intolerance,
 which caused the society so much suffer-
 ing iu England, spread its baneful influ-
 ence to America, and produced its natural
 results there also; but in neither countiy
 could  it shake the  constancy  of the suf-
 ferers, nor induce them to  relinquish their
 conformity to apprehended  duty.  Their
 patient submission to the wrongs inflicted
 on them, the integrity and blamelessness
 of  their  lives, their probity,  and  the
 peaceable principles which they held, not
 only wrought conviction on the minds of
 many, and thus added to  their numbers,
 but  also  had  a favorable influence  on
 those in authority, who saw that severity
 served rather to increase and establish the
 society than to arrest its progress.  From
 these causes, as well as the diffusion of
 more liberal and enlightened views on the
 subject of religious liberty, acts were suc-
 cessively passed by the British parliament,
 relieving  Friends  from  the  oppression
 under which they suffered, and tolerating
 their mode of worship, marriage, &c, as
 well as some of their testimonies.  The
 same liberal policy has been  continued by
 our own  government, so that  at  present
 they suffer  no other molestation in this
 country, than the occasional distraint  of
 their property to satisfy demands made in
 lieu of military services, which they can-
 not conscientiously pay.  In England they
 are subject to distraints for tithes and other
 ecclesiastical demands, which, with a few
for military services, amount to about sixty
thousand   dollars  annually.    The firet
Friends that came to America were two
female ministers, who  landed at  Boston
about the year 1656.  Others occasionally
visited this country at subsequent periods ;
and, a number of pereons having embraced
the principles of the  society, George Fox
came over in 1672, and settled meetings
of discipline, for die care of the poor and
the  preservation of  good order  in  the
church.   At this period, there were meet-
ings  of  Friends  in  most of the colo-
nies along the  seacoast from Massachu-
setts as far south  as the Carolinas.   In
1682, William  Penn  arrived  in the river
Delaware  with a  large  number of hia
brethren, who founded  the city of Phila-
delphia, and settled themselves there or in
the adjacent counties; and in  each suc-
cessive year their numbers were increased
by new emigrants from the mother coun-
try, until they formed a large and respecta-
ble colony.  Most of the ancient families
in Philadelphia and its vicinity trace their
origin to these  settlers, and many  of the
noblest institutions of that city  owe their
rise to the liberality and benevolence of
the society of Friends.  In attempting to
give a view of  their testimonies and doc-
trines, the limits, necessarily prescribed in
an Encyclopaedia, forbid any thing more
than a brief sketch.  The society believes
that, under the gospel dispensation,  all
ware and fightings are strictly forbidden;
the positive injunction of our blessed Sa-
vior Jesus Christ,  "Love your enemies,
bless them that curse you, do good to them
that hate you, and  pray for  them  which
despitefully use you and persecute you,"
entirely  precluding the indulgence  of
those malignant passions, from which only
such contests can arise.  They also ap-
prehend that the express command of our
Lord and his apostle James, " Swear not
at all," prohibits the  Christian from the
use of judicial as well as other oaths, and
that in all things his word should be yea
and nay,  " for  whatsoever is more than
this  cometh  of evil.''  As Jesus  Christ
declared to his disciples, that without him
they could do  nothing, and as he alone
is the Head and Governor of his church,
the society believes that a special call and
qualification from him, by the influences
of his Spirit on the soul, are  necessary
to constitute a true minister ofthe gospel;
and that  as he  commanded his disciples,
" Freely  ye have received, freely  give,"
so the faithful minister  of Christ cannot
make merchandise  of the gift received,
nor decline the exercise of it because he 
QUAKER*.                             451
may not be compensated by a pecuniary
reward.  It being generally admitted that
the baptism of water and a participation
in the outward supper are but the signs of
that essential baptism of the Holy Ghost,
which our Lord Jesus  Christ instituted,
and of the communion of saints to which
he alludes, when he declared to the apostle
John in the Revelation,  " Behold, I stand
at the door and  knock ; if any man hear
my voice and open  the  door, I will come
in and sup with him, aud he with me;"
and as  this spiritual baptism  and com-
munion are not dependent on the outward
rites,—the society does not consider these
as necessary, but presses on its membere
a submission to the  effectual operation of
the Holy Spirit^ by which the  obedient
soul is brought to the living experience of
the substance,  of which  tiiose ceremonies
are but  the external symbols.   As sim-
plicity and gravity in dress and demeanor
are consonant with the  Christian charac-
ter, the society recommends its members
to observe plainness in  their apparel and
the furniture of their houses, an adherence
to the use. of the  singular pronouns, " thee
and thou," when  addressing only one per-
son, and the disuse ofthe customary saluta-
tions and tokens of obeisance.  Its conduct
in these respects  arises from the apprehen-
sion that the contrary practices originated in
the pride of the  human  heart, aud have a
tendency to foster that haughtinessand self-
conceit, which it is  so much the business
of the Christian to mortify and  subdue.
The doctrines of the society may be stated
in a few words;  in doing which, it will be
proper to observe that its members prefer
die use of such  terms as are  to be found
iu the Holy Scriptures.  They believe in
God, the Father; iu Jesus Christ, his be-
loved and only-begotten Son,  and in the
Holy Ghost, Comforter or Spirit of Truth,
one true and living God, blessed for ever.
That these are the  holy Three that bear
record in heaven; to wit, the  Father, the
Word, and the Holy Ghost, and that these
three are  one.  That in the fulness of
time  our Lord  and Savior Jesus Christ
took  flesh, was conceived by the Holy
Ghost, and born of the Virgin Mary at
Bethlehem in  Judea; that  he was cruci-
fied under Pontius Pilate, voluntarily sur-
rendering  himself  to   the  ignominious
death of the cross,  and suffered  for our
sins, the just for the unjust, that he might
bring us to God; thereby  becoming the
one, great, universal offering and atone-
ment for all mankind.  Hence " he is the
propitiation for our  sins, and not for ours
only, but for the sins ofthe whole world;"
 and as each individual submits to the
 power of the Holy Spirit, renewing and
 changing the heart, his past transgressions
 are  freely  forgiven and blotted  out for
 Christ's sake, and he  comes fully to par-
 take of the  benefits  of that redemption
 which was purchased  for us by the  com-
 ing, and  sufferings,  and  death,  of. the
 adorable  Son of God.  In  expressing
 themselves concerning this glorious dis-
 play ofthe love of God to fallen man, they
 include a full belief in the deity and  man-
 hood of Jesus Christ; in his miraculous
 birth, holy life, mighty miracles, death, res-
 urrection, and ascension into glory in the
 heavens, where he is at the right hand of
 God, as our Redeemer, Mediator and Ad-
 vocate with the  Father, and whence he
 shall come to judge the world in righteous-
 ness, at the great and final day of judg-
 ment  As the whole  human race is nat-
 urally  fallen,  degenerate  and spiritually
 dead, of themselves utterly incapable of"
 doing any thing that  will tend to  their
 salvation, so  the society believes that all
 have need, and are the objects, of that re-
 demption which is freely offered for their
 acceptance through Jesus Christ our Lord.
 That "the grace  of God, which bringedi
 salvation,  hath appeared  unto all men;
 teaching us, that, denying ungodliness and
 worldly lusts, we should live  soberly,
 righteously  and  godly in this  present
 world;" and that obedience to its dictates
 is essentially  necessary to enable Us to
 persevere in the work  of pure and unde-
 filed religion, and finally  to  receive the
 end of our faith, even  the salvation of our
 souls.  That there shall be a resurrection,
 both of the just and the unjust, according
 to the declaration of our  blessed Lord,
 " The hour is coming, in the which all that
are in the graves shall  hear his voice, and
shall come forth; they that have done good,
unto the resurrection of life, and they that
havedone evil,unto the resurrection of dam-
nation,"—and that, according to the  testi-
mony ofthe apostle Paul, " It is sown a nat-
ural body, and raised a spiritual body." Al-
though Friends do not call the Holy Scrip-
tures the Word of God, but apply this ep-
ithet exclusively to the Lord Jesus Christ,
yet they believe that these sacred writings
are the  words of God,  written by  holy
men, as they  were moved by the Holy
Ghost; that they are  profitable for  doc-
trine, for reproof!  for correction, for in-
struction  in righteousness, that the  man
of God  may be perfect, thoroughly fur-
nished unto all good works; and that  they
are able to make wise unto  salvation
through faith which  is in Christ Jesus. 
452                       QUAKERS^QUARLES.
They also hold them to be the most au-
thentic and  perfect declaration of Chris-
tian faith, and the only fit outward judge
and standard in all religious controvereies;
and that whatever, either in doctrine  or
practice, any profess or do, though under
pretence  of the  guidance of  the  Holy
Spirit, if  it be contrary to, or inconsistent
with,  the testimony of  the Holy Scrip-
tures, is  to  be esteemed a delusion and
error.  The society  is governed by  its
own code of discipline, which is  enacted
aud supported by meetings of four de-
grees,  for   discipline,  vi*.  preparative,
monthly,  quarterly and  yearly meetings»
The preparative  digest and  prepare the
business  for the monthly meetings,  in
which the executive power is principally
lodged, subject, however, to the  revision
and control of  the quarterly  meetings.
These are usually composed of several
mouthly meetings, which are  accountable
to the quarterly, and over which  it  exer-
cises its jurisdiction aud care.  The yearly
meeting comprises a number of quarterly
meetings, which  are subordinate and ac-
countable to it, and subject to  its super-
vision and direction.  Its authority is par-
amount, and it possesses the sole power to
make or amend the discipline.   There are
at present ten yearly meetings, viz. Lon-
don, Dublin, New England, New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Virginia, North
Carolina, Ohio, and Indiana, which  in-
clude a total of  about one hundred and
fifty thousand members.   (For further in-
formation, see Sewell's and Gough's His-
tories  of  the Quakers, G. Fox's Journal,
Barclay's  Apology, Tuke's   Principles,
Bates's Doctrines of Friends,  Evan's Ex-
position, Gurney's Peculiarities, &c.)
  Quand me me ; an ultra-royalist phrase
in France, taken from a cry common in
La Vendee, during the insurrection in that
quarter in the revolution :  Vive le roi,
quand mime, hong five the  king,  even
though (or at all  events).  The applica-
tion of it made  by the  ultras, however,
has been, that they would adhere to the
principles of ultra-royalism, though the
king  himself should  recede  from them;
and the  phrase  has become quite  com-
mon,  being  used in such connexions  as
the quand mime  principle.  Quand  mime
was, and perhaps still is, the motto of the
most violent ultra paper.
   Quantity and Quality are two forms
of thinking, considered to be among the
original ideas ofthe human understanding,
or categories. (See Kant.)  Qualities are
the interior properties of an object, which
are observable in it, without comparison
with  other  objects.   By quantity, how-
ever, we understand that property of an
object by which it can be increased  and
diminished,  and estimated according to a
given measure.  Quantity,  in  connexion
with time, produces the idea of number,
inasmuch as we represent to our mind a
successive repetition of unities.  In logic,
the ideas of quality and quantity are of
great importance)  and are treated  with
much acuteness by Kant.
  Quantity,  in   verse.   (See  Proso-
dy.)
  Quantz,  John Joachim, a flute-player,
chiefly known  as teacher on the flute to
Frederic the Great, was born in Hanover,
in 1697.  His father was a smith.  After
holding several  appointments, he was in-
vited, in 1741)  by the king of  Prussia, to
Berlin, and  remained  with this monarch
until his death, in 1773.  He did much to
improve  his instrument, and  is said to
have composed 299 concertos  and  200
solos for his royal pupil, of which  few
came  before the  public.  Frederic was
very fond of him, and caused a monument
to be erected to  him after his death.
  Quarantine; the period during which
a ship, coming  from a port suspected of
contagion, or having a contagious sickness
on board, is forbidden intercourse with the
place  where she  arrives.   The term is
derived  from  the  Italian quarantina,  a
space of forty  days,  because  originally
that was the fixed period for all ships un-
der such circumstances.   But the time
of a  ship's  detention is now  very vari-
ous) according  to the  exigencies  of the
case.
  Quarles, Francis,  an English poet,
bom in 1592,   near Rumford,  in  Essex,
was educated at Cambridge, and entered
at Lincoln's Inn.   He was under-secre-
tary to archbishop Usher, in Ireland, from
which countiy  he  was  driven, with  the
loss of his property, by the rebellion of
1641,  and was  appointed chronologer to
the  city of London.  At the commence-
ment  of the civil ware, he wrote a work
entitled the  Loyal Convert,  which gave
offence to the  parliament; and, when he
afterwards joined the king at Oxford, his
property was sequestrated, and his books
and MSS. plundered.   He was so  much
affected by his losses, that grief is supposed
to have hastened his death, in 1644.  Of
the works of Quarles,  in prose and verse,
the  most celebrated is  his Emblems, a set
of designs in prints, illustrated by verses.
A great part of  them are borrowed from
the Emblems of Hermannus Hugo, but the
verses are his own, and, in the midst of 
QUARLES—QUARTZ.
453
much false taste and conceit, contain fre-
quent  burets  of fancy and strokes  of
pathos.
   Quartan Ague.  (See Fever.)
   Quarter ; the fourth part of any thing,
the fractional  expression for which is \.
 Quarter, in weights, is generally used for
the fourth part ofa hundred weight avoir-
dupois, or 28 lb.  Used  as tile name of a
dry measure, quarter is the fourth part of
a ton hi weight, or eight bushels.
   Quarter, in heraldry, is applied to the
 parts or members of the first division ofa
coat that is quartered, or divided into four
quarters.
   Quarter of a Point, in navigation, is
 the fourth  part of the distance  between
 two cardinal points, which is 2° 48'.
   Quarter; that part  of a  ship's side
which lies towards  the stern, or which is
comprehended between the aft-most end
ofthe main chains and the sides of the
stern, where it is terminated  by the  quar-
ter-pieces.
   Quarter Master, in the navy; an in-
ferior officer appointed to assist the mates
in 'their several duties.
   Quartering, in  heraldry, is dividing n
«oat into four or more quarters or quarter-
 ings, by parting, couping, &c, that  is, by
 perpendicular and horizontal lines, &c.
   Quarters  imply  the several  stations
 where the officere and crew of a ship of
 war are posted in time of action.
   Quarter Sessions.  (See Courts, voL
 iii, p. 589.)
   Quartering of Soldiers.  It was for-
 merly taken for granted that  it  was the
 duty of subjects to give shelter and sup-
 port  to soldiere in the pay of their sove-
 reign, both on their  march and  in their
 winter quarters.  An ordinance was made
 on this subject iu France,  under Louis
 XII (1514); but this obligation ofthe citi-
 zens was abolished entirely, by the law of
 July 8,1791, in regard to garrison troops;
and soldiers on the march were to be en-
 titled only to lodging, fire and light; thus
 die  former numerous privileges of quar-
 ters,  belonging to the nobility  and other
 classes, were set aside.  In Germany, this
 subject formerly gave  rise to much per-
 plexity, on account of the double relations
 iietween the emperor and empire, and the
 territorial sovereigns and their subjects,
 and the particular obligations of the  impe-
 rial cities towards the emperor, especially
 when Wallenstein, in the thirty years'war,
 began the system of requisitions by which
 he maintained his army not only at the
 expense of their  enemies, but also at the
expense of the allies of the emperor his
master.   The result of the ■consequent
difficulties was, :hat, in treaties of peace
and the laws ofthe empire, provision was
made to  prevent  similar  oppressions of
the states of  the  empire.  The quarter-
ing of troops became a most heavy  bur-
den on the people of Germany, when, in
consequence of coalitions against revolu-
tionary France, French armies, by de-
grees, inundated all the German territory,
and  required, both  in  hostile and allied
states, sufficient means for  their entire
support, and  generally still more.  Many
difficulties were created by  this state of
things.  Several German works have been
written on the proper distribution cf the
burden of quartering soldiere, and the in-
demnification for it  The constitution of
the U. States (amendment 3) says,  "No
soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered
in any house, without the consent of the
owner; nor in time of War, but in a man-
ner to be prescribed by  law."
   Quarteroons ; descendants of a  mu-
latto and a white.  The descendants of a
quarteroon and a white are called quinte-
roons.
   Quartetto ; a musical composition for
four instruments, generally stringed instru-
ments, in concert (i. e. two violins, one
viol, and  one  violoncello); also a composi-
tion for  four voices, with or without ac-
companiment  In instrumental  quartet-
tes,  Haydn  (q. v.)  opened a new path.
Mozart,  Beethoven, the two  Rombergs,
Spohr,  Ries, Onslow, Feska,  followed.
The simple charm of harmony and melo-
dy gives the  chief effect to the quartetto.
The  quartetto  is better the more inde-
pendent  are the four voices; the predomi-
nance of one voice gives rise to the solo
quartetto.  Quintettos  and sextettes, for
stringed  instruments, are often  reckoned
among the quartetto music.
   Quartz;  the name of a well-known
mineral species, which surpasses all oth-
ers in the extent of its distribution.  It is
also one of the most comprehensive in the
varieties  it embraces, which are especially
numerous as respects color, lustre and
fracture.  Its contents have very improp-
erly been swollen, however, by the intro-
duction of many substances which consist
of mixtures of quartz with  other species;
and the  difficulty  of  forming a correct
idea of this  group  of minerals has  been
enhanced by their being separated into
several  species and sub-species, as has
been done in certain treatises on mineral-
ogy.  We  shall endeavor, in  the first
place, to take a scientific  view of quartz;
after which we shall point out those varie* 
454
QUARTZ.
ties which have, from various causes, ob-
tained distinct appellations, together with
the mixtures of quartz with other minerals,
usually considered as varieties of the spe-
cies ;  and, finally, the varieties which are
employed in the arts.   The crystals of
quartz are, for the most part,  regular six-
sided prisms, terminated  at one or both
of their extremities by six-sided pyramids,
the faces of which correspond to the sides
of the prism, and meet under an angle of
141° 4CK.  It sometimes happens that the
prism  intervening  between the two pyra-
mids  is  very short,  or even extinct; in
which case die form  becomes the dodeca-
hedron,  with isosceles triangular faces.
In the six-sided prism with pyramidal ter-
minations, we often  observe the solid an-
gles, situated between the prism and the
pyramid, replaced by rhomboidal planes.
The alternate faces of the prism are stri-
ated horizontally.  The primary form is a
rhomboid of 94° 157  and  85° 45', parallel
to whose planes cleavages may be ob-
tained, as also to the  planes ofthe dodeca-
hedron,  with isosceles triangular faces,
which might also be  regarded as the pri-
mary form of the species; but the former
figure  is preferred on account of its sim-
plicity.   Lustre  vitreous, inclining,  in
some  varieties,  to resinous;  color white
prevalent; among the brightest colors are
violet-blue, rose-red,  clove-brown and ap-
ple-green.  Dark brown and green colore
are generally owing to foreign admixtures.
Streak  white;  transparent,  translucent,
frequently opaque,  but  never, perhaps,
unless occasioned  by  other minerals;
hardness between  feldspar and spinelle;
specific gravity 2.69. The crystals often
present macles, and sometimes we observe
larger  crystals, apparently made  up  of
innumerable smaller ones, all of  which
are so aggregated that their similar faces
coincide as respects direction.  Implanted
globules, reniform and stalactitic shapes,
are other modes of occurrence with com-
pound varieties of this species.   These
have smooth, granulated and drusy sur-
faces ; composition (mechanical) columnar,
often impalpable, and frequently a second
time composed into granular or curved lam-
ellar masses.  The massive varieties pre-
sent a granular or columnar, and often an
impalpable composition,  in which case
the fracture becomes  conchoidal  and
splintery.  Sometimes a second composi-
tion produces indistinct granular or thick
lamellar  masses.   Certain very thin co-
lumnar compositions, if cut  en  cabuchon,
parallel to the fibres,  show an opalescent
tight.  We have pseudomorphous crystals,
also, of this species, in the shape of cubes,
octahedrons,  and various other forms, de-
rived from fluor, calcareous spar, gypsum,
&c, besides which, quartz occurs in globu-
lar and tuberose masses, formed in vesicu-
lar cavities, and also in plates and pebbles.
The principal varieties  of quartz, which
are known by distinct names, are the fol-
lowing :  1. rock crystal;  2. smoky quartz;
3. yellow quartz ; 4. amethyst; 5. siderite,
or blue quartz;  6. rose quartz; 7. milky
quartz; 8. irised quartz;  9. common quartz;
10. fat (greasy) quartz; 11. flint;  12. horn-
stone ; 13. Lydian stone; 14. floatstone
(swimming  stone);  15. fibrous  quartz;
16.  radiating quartz ;   17.  chalcedony;
18. cornelian; 19. chrysoprase; 20. agate.
Rock crystal  is applied to the  transparent
and colorless crystals, and more particu-
larly  to • those of a large size.   Smoky
quartz consists of those crystals and crys-
talline masses which are translucent and
of a  brown color.  Yellow quartz, somo-
times called,  also, Bohemian  or Scottish
topaz, is transparent, and of various shades
of yellow.  Amethyst, also in crystals, and
for the most part nearly transparent, is of
every shade  of violet.   Siderite, or blue
quartz, is never in regular crystals, but
usually compact,  and of an  azure-blue
color.  Rose  quartz is confined to translu-
cent  massive  varieties, of a delicate rosj-
red color.  Milky quartz is also massive,
having an uneven fracture, is  translucent,
and of a milk-white color. Irised quartz
embraces such crystallized  varieties as
exhibit in patches, at or beneath the sur-
face, the colore ofthe rainbow.   Common
quartz differs from milky quartz simply in
being destitute of the  milky whiteness of
that  variety,  or in having an inferior de-
gree  of whiteness, and more of a vitreous
lustre. Fat or greasy quartz differs from
common quartz merely  in lustre, which,
instead of being vitreous, has the appear-
ance of having been immersed in oil. Flint
has a more compact texture than common
quartz, is dull, only translucent on  the
edges, of a brownish color,  and  breaks
with  a conchoidal fracture.   Hornstone
closely resembles flint, from which it can
scarcely  be  distinguished, except in its
conchoidal fracture, which is much less
distinct.  When  replacing the  fibres of
wood, it is called woodstone. Lydian stone,
sometimes  called fiinty slate, differs from
flint chiefly in having a darker color, less
translucency, and  a  fracture somewhat
slaty; when black, it is often called ba3sa-
nite.    Floatstone  consists of a delicate
tissue of minute  crystals, visible only un-
der a powerful magnifier. Owing to the 
QUARTZ.                               455
cavities it contains, it sometimes will float
on water.  Fibrous quartz consists of those
varieties which are in  distinct,  parallel
concretions.   Radiating quartz  is  like
fibrous quartz, except that the fibres  di-
verge from a common centre, and resem-
ble the radii of a circle, instead of  being
parallel. Chalcedony includes those  varie-
ties of radiating quartz, where the thick-
ness of the  individuals becomes so  much
diminished  as to render them nearly  or
altogether impalpable ; its masses general-
ly offer a mammillary or stalactitical sur-
face, and the lustre on freshly-broken sur-
faces is feeble.  Camelian differs  from
chalcedony  merely in having a blood-red
color.  Chrysoprase also resembles chalce-
dony in composition,  excepting that the
individuals of which it is made up, appear
to be grains instead of fibres; its color is
apple-green,  from the  oxide  of nickel.
Agate implies the occurrence of two  or
more of the above  varieties, existing  to-
gether in intimate union;  or  it may be
applied to  a single variety, provided it
offers different colors in  the same speci-
mens.   Those substances which have for-
merly  been included under quartz, and
which are  mixtures only of this mineral
with  other   species, are the  following:
1. cat's eye;  2. avanturine;   3. prase;
4. plasma;  5.  heliotrope;  6.  iron-fiint;
7. Compostella  hyacinth;  8. jasper (red,
broton, striped and porcelain);  9. jasper-
agate;  10.  Mocha stone; 11.  Venus-hair
agate.   Cat's eye consists  of transparent
quartz traversed by exceedingly delicate
parallel fibres of asbestos; when cut en ca-
buchon, it exhibits, as its position is altered
to the eye, a peculiar play of light upon  its
surface, resembling the changeability of
hght seen in the eye ofa cat Avanturine is
quartz penetrated by small golden-colored
spangles of mica.  Prase is quartz  pene-
trated  by  green  fibres of  hornblende,
which are often so small as to escape de-
tection by the naked eye, and their pres-
ence is only discoverable from  the  green
color they impart.  Plasma is a variety of
chalcedony, colored leek-green by  some
substance not yet examined.  Heliotrope
is likewise a variety of chalcedony, but
colored by green earth, and occasionally
-dotted with minute portions of red jasper.
Iron flint consists of quartz, mtermingled
throughout with oxide of iron. The Com-
postella hyacinth is a red  variety of iron
flint, in regular six-sided prisms, with py-
ramidal extremities, which occurs imbed-
ded in gypsum.  Jasper differs from the
two last varieties in being massive, and in
containing  variable proportions of clay.
Red and brown jasper simply allude to the
color of the compound.  Striped jasper
appears to contain a larger portion of clay,
and  is  distinguished  on account  of its
striped delineations.   Porcelain jasper is
regarded as siliceous slate altered by heat,
and is found in the vicinity of coal-mines.
Those  varieties which are found in round-
ed masses, and which,  from the concen-
tric layers of which they consist, appear
to have been formed in open spaces, are
called Egyptian jasper.   Jasper agate con-
sists of those varieties of jasper in which
several colore  are  so  arranged as to pro-
duce an agreeable effect.   Mocha stone
consists of agate, containing appearances
of vegetable filaments, which  have been
occasioned through the infiltration of iron
and manganese through its crevices.  Ve-
nus-hair agate  consists of quartz traversed
by  delicate  hair-shaped crystals of any
kind.  The  most transparent varieties of
quartz  are pure silex, which, according  to
Berzefius, contains 49.70 sihcon and 50.30
oxygen.  Honistone, flint and chalcedony
agree with it in composition.  Several va-
rieties contain  small quantities of alumine,
lime, oxide  of  iron,  &c.   Chiysoprase
contains 0.01 oxide of nickel.  Quartz is
infusible before the blow-pipe, and shows
itself to be pure silex.   It is dissolved by
soda easily, and with effervescence. Two
pieces  rubbed  togedier emit an empyreu-
matic  odor,  and a phosphorescent light.
Crystals of quartz may be obtained from
a solution of silica in fluoric  acid, or in
potash diluted  with water.  The fluid from
which crystals of this  species are formed,
in geodes and other  natural cavities of
rocks, has been observed to be chiefly wa-
ter.  With respect to  the  distribution of
quartz, and which we have remarked
above to be  the  most  abundant mineral
known, it may be said that common quartz
enters into the regular mixture of various
rocks, of granite, gneiss, mica slate, topaz
rock, &c.  In others,  it occurs in single
crystals and  in grains,  as, for instance,  in
porphyry, and is frequendy met with  in
the  vesicular  cavities  of amygdaloidal
rocks.   In these last situations, in particu-
lar, are found the finest varieties of chal-
cedony,  camelian, of  jasper and agate.
Homstone  forms globules  and irregular
veins in compact limestone;  and flint oc-
curs in a similar manner, but disposed
through vast beds of chalk.   Quartz, also,
occurs ia rocks, of which it does not form
a regular ingredient; sometimes in masses
diat are open in  their interior, and lined
with crystals of enormous size.   It  also
exists in beds by itself, as in quartz-rock, 
450
QUARTZ.
  and some varieties of sandstone.  Striped
  jasper and flinty slate form, also, particu-
  lar beds.  The varieties prase and chalce-
  dony, as well as amethyst, are often found
  in beds of iron ore.  River sand, and that
  of extensive plains, where it is sometimes
  so fine as to drift before the wind,  are
  fonned chiefly of quartz. Common quartz,
  and several other varieties, are spread all
  over the earth, but  certain varieties  are
  confined to a few localities.   The  finest
  and largest rock crystals are found in  the
  Alps of Salzburg,  the Tyrol, Switzerland,
  Dauphiny, Piedmont and Savoy; also in
  the isle of Madagascar, Ceylon  and Bra-
  zil.  About 100 yeare ago, a  great  drusy
  cavity, lined with these crystals, was open-
  ed  in  Zinken, which  afforded 1000 cwt
  of rock crystal, and, at that early period,
  sold for $30,000.   One crystal  weighed
  eight cwt.; others from four to five cwt.
  A mountain, not far from Hanover, in New
  Hampshire, has afforded  rock crystal in
  large vaults, after the manner in  which it
  occure in the Alps.  One ofthe largest of
  these crystals is in the  mineralogical col-
  lection  of Dartmouth college.  But the
  most beautiful rock crystals occurring  in
  the IJ.  States are  the  small, transparent,
  doubly acuminated prisms found at lake
  George, on Diamond island, at  Fairfield,
  Bristol, and various other places in the
  state of New York.  These  crystals be-
  long to the transition limestone, but are
  often found loose in the soil.  They rarely
  exceed two inches in length by one in di-
  ameter, from which size they  descend  to
  dimensions so minute as scarcely to be dis-
  coverable by the naked eye, and yet retain-
  ing the perfection, as to  faces and trans-
  parency, of the larger crystals.  The Alps
  furnish the  handsomest specimens  of
  smoky quartz. This variety has, of late,
  been brought, in large  crystals and crys-
  talline  masses, from Nova Scotia,  and is
  occasionally found about the Notch ofthe
  White mountains, in N. Hampshire, as well
;  as at Paris, in Maine.  The yellow quartz
i  comes from Brazil and Bohemia. A vari-
'  ety, intermediate between the smoky and
|  the yellow, occurs at Cairngorm, in Scot-
|  land.   Amethysts, of various colore, are
,  brought from Brazil, but those of the
  finest colors come from Ceylon, India and
1  Persia. A variety, intermediate between
  amethyst and smoky quartz, is  found in
  Siberia.  Amethyst also abounds in Tran-
  sylvania and Hungary.  Few localities of
  this beautiful variety are known  in North
  America.  Nova Scotia affords it in limit-
  ed quantity; and  a  spot  near Bristol, in
  Rhode Island, deserves to be mentioned
for the fine crystals it has produced,. Rose
quartz occurs at Rabenstein, in Bavaria,
and in Siberia; but no locality produces in
so  great perfection as  that at Paris, in
Maine.   It also exists at Acwordi, in New
Hampshire,  Topsham  (Maine),  and at
Southbury, in Connecticut  Prase comes
from the mining district of Schwartzen-
berg, in Saxony, and from Cumlierland, in
Rhode  Island.   Smalt-blue chalcedony,
sometimes in pseudomorphous  crystals,
occurs at Tresztyan, in Transylvania; the
stalactitic shapes are found in Iceland and
the Faroe islands in amygdaloid, at II ut-
tenberg and Loben in Carinthia; also in
Hungary, Scotland and Cornwall. Car-
nelian is brought from  Arabia, India, Suri-
nam  and Siberia.  Chrysoprase exists at
Kosemiitz, in Silesia, and at Newfane,
in Vermont  At  this  last-mentioned lo-
cality are found small  prismatic  crystals
of quartz, deeply tinged by oxide of nick-
el.  Chalcedony and camelian are occa-
sionally  found, constituting very  hand-
some agates, near Deerfield, in Massachu-
setts,  and at  Southbury, in Connecticut;
they are also brought from Nova Scotia—
in each  of which places they  occur  in
trap.  Plasma is found in Moravia, and in
Bavaria.   Flint is common in England,
France, Poland, and Spain, but does  not
exist  in  North America.  Hornstone is
abundant in  many countries; in the U.
States, it exists  at numerous localities in
the state of New York, and in the West-
ern States generally.  Flinty  slate forms
beds, and occurs in pebbles, in Bohemia,.
Silesia, Saxony, in the Western States of
the U. States,  and in  the Canadas.  Fi-
brous quartz  is found in the Hartz ; cat's
eye in Ceylon, and the coast of Malabar;
and avanturine at the  cape  de Gat,  in
Spain.  Heliotrope was fonnerly brought
from  Ethiopia, but is  now generally ob-
tained from Bucharia, from Tartary, and
Siberia.  Iron flint, or ferruginous quartz,
is frequent in the  iron-stone veins of Sax-
ony,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Transylvania,
&c; it has also  been  found at Pittsfield,
in  Massachusetts, and at Staten island,
near New York.  The Compostella hya-
cinth occure near Compostella,  in Spain.
Striped jasper is found in  Siberia,  at
Grandtstein, in Saxony, at Ivybridge, in
Devonshire; the brown Egyptian jasper
comes from the banks of the NUe;  the
red variety from Baden, also  from  the
town of Saugus,  near Boston, in Massa-
chusetts.  Several varieties of quartz are
of important use in the arts and manufac-
tures, and have long been employed for
purposes of decoration and utility by man- 
QUARTZ—QUASSIA.
457
kind.   The ancients regarded rock crys-
tal as petrified water; they  esteemed it,
particularly, for  the  fabrication of vases,
especially when it  could be procured in
largo pieces.  Such were the  two cups
which Nero dashed to pieces when he re-
ceived the news of the revolt which caused
his ruin, one of which had cost him a sum
equal to $3000. At present, it is esteemed,
not only for cups,  urns, chandeliers,  but
for seals, spectacle glasses, and optical in-
stniments.  Amethyst takes a fine polish,
and  is much employed in  jewelry.  Its
color, when dark blue,  is well adapted to
that of gold, in which metal it is  always
set  The ancients were much in the hab-
it of engraving upon this variety of quartz.
The rose quartz is cut into vases and cups,
and, when of a delicate color, and free
from flaws, is highly esteemed.  The yel-
low  quartz  is one of the most frequent
stones employed for watch seals, having
almost entirely supplanted the camelian,
which was formerly so much in vogue ;
it is called topaz by the jewellers.  Chal-
cedony receives a high polish, exhibiting a
slight degree of unctuosity.  The ancients
haveleft us many beautiful specimens of this
variety of quartz, wrought into cameos and
cups.  They obtained it from the region of
the Nasamones, in Africa, and from the en-
virons of Thebes, in Egypt. The Japanese
cut an immense quantity of camelian into
the form of the fruit  of the olive, which
they perforate, to be worn as beads.  The
camelians, which are sold at Bombay, are
brought from the province of Guzerat, in
India, and the finest pieces  come from
the gulf of Cambay.  Lapidaries distin-
guish two varieties of camelian, viz. those
having a pale color, with a tinge of yel-
low, and those of a lively and deep-red
color.   The last are  the most rare,  and
the most highly esteemed, also, on account
of their beauty.  The Japanese are said
to possess the art of heightening the color
of the pale  camelians.   What is called
white cornelian, is simply chalcedony. The
camelian was much in vogue among the
Romans; and the modems possess  nu-
merous specimens of ancient workman-
ship in this stone.  The sardonyx (an in-
tennixture of chalcedony and camelian,
the colore fading gradually together, and
not arranged in distinct lines) was also in
high  estimation, in early times, and still
continues  to  be  employed  in  jewelry.
The onyx, or banded agate, which exhib-
its  two, three  or  more  colore, disposed
hi parallel lines,  constituted the most val-
uable  material  for the  exercise of the
glyptic art, as die workman  was enabled
  vol. x.           39
to make use of the different colors to rep-
resent his subject hi a natural manner; for
example, the white and the red of chal-
cedony and camelian were devoted to the
representation of human flesh, while black,
green, yellow, &c, were appropriated to
drapery and other parts  of his design.
Among  the finest cameos of ancient exe-
cution, may be mentioned the following,
now preserved in the royal library of Paris:
the Apotheosis of Augustus;  the Myste-
ries of Ceres and  Bacchus; the Apotheo-
sis of Germanicus (which is engraved up-
on  an onyx of four differently  colored
bands, and in which Germanicus is repre-
sented as borne on the wings of an eagle);
Tiberius ;  a Quarrel between  Neptune
and Minerva.  The onyx, as well as the
heliotrope  and agatized wood, are also cut
into thin plates for various kinds of inlaid
work. The most important applications of
this species to  useful purposes,  depend
upon its being composed of silex. Quartz
enters into the composition of  glass, both
white and colored.   It is added to the
mass of porcelain, in the state of an im-
palpable powder,  and forms part of the
paste, also, in other kinds of pottery. It
is used as  a flux in the melting of several
kinds of ores, particularly those of copper,
and in other metallurgical processes.  The
use of flint in gun-locks is well known.
Lydian  stone is employed  for trying the
composition of mixtures  of gold and sil-
ver.  Sandstone  yields various applica-
tions for architectural and other purposes,
as the  constmction of melting-furnaces,
mill-stones, &c.  A variety of sandstone
from Villa Rica, in Brazil, which is flex-
ible, deserves to be spoken of hi this place.
Its flexibility is probably owing to scales
of mica disseminated through  its  mass.
Sand, with slaked lime, forms mortar.  It
is also used, in some countries, for the im-
provement of roads.
  Quassia. The quassia simaruba is a
tree of  moderate  size, inhabiting various
parts of intertropical America, in a sandy
soil.  The bark,  both of the trunk and
roots, is of a pale yellow color, and gives
out a yellowish,  milky and bitter  juice.
The leaves are alternate, very large, and
pinnate, composed of alternate and almost
sessUe leaflets, and destitute ofa terminal
one.  The flowers are monoecious, and
disposed in large axillary panicles; and
the fruit  is composed of five  capsules,
each having the form and size of an olive.
The bark  is the purest bitter "known, and
has long been employed by the inhabit-
ants of Guiana. It is found, in commerce,
in the fonn of long, rolled strips.—The 
458
QUASSIA—QUATRE-BRAS.
Q. amara is a lofty tree, not unlike  the
common ash in its general appearance,
inhabiting the same countries. The flow-
ers are in terminal  recemes, and of a
bright  red.   All parts  of the  tree  are
intensely  bitter, but the  bark  is now
esteemed  the most  powerful.  Quassia
has no sensible odor.  Its  taste is that of
a pure bitter, more intense and durable
than that of almost any other known sub-
stance.  It is said to be sometimes used
in brewing malt liquors, as a substitute for
hops.
  Quatrain, in versification; a strophe
of four verses; for example, the two first
strophes  of a sonnet;  but the  quatrain
may form an independent whole.
  Quatre-Bras and Ligny, Battles of,
on June 16,1815.  These two battles are
to be considered as  the first act  of the
great and  bloody  drama  of Waterloo.
(q. v.)  Napoleon's plan, at the opening
ofthe campaign of 1815, was to  fight  his
enemies singly, as he felt himself unequal
to meet  their combined  forces.   The
chief purpose of his movements,  there-
fore, was  to  anticipate their concentra-
tion.  The Russians and  Austrians,  yet
on their march towards the Rhine, might
be left out ofthe calculation; but  Welling-
ton,  with 102,000 British, Netherlandish,
and Brunswick troops, and Bhicher, with
120,000 Prussians,  were near the French
frontiers, between Brussels and Liege, yet
in detachment cantonments, on account
of the  difficulty of obtaining provisions.
Their united forces were  much  superior
to those of Napoleon, which, according
to the French  accounts, amounted to
150,000.   It was, therefore, necessary for
him to prevent the union of Wellington
and Blficher, and to beat them separately.
Several circumstances held out a prospect
of success: he was perfectly acquainted
with the ground,  could determine how
much time was necessary to concentrate
the different corps of the enemy; and
Blficher and Wellington would need at
least two days to effect a union.  Bliicher,
as the most hasty, was to be firet  attacked,
and  driven back  to  the  Rhine ;  after
wliich  it would not be difficult to beat
the more cautious Wellington.   The cal-
culations seemed excellent, but were not
successfully  accomplished.   Napoleon
found the enemy, on the morning of June
15, yet apparently in perfect quiet,  liis
rapid advance, in three columns, over the
Sambre, towards Charleroy, was equiva-
lent to a  surprise.  The  first  Prussian
corps, under general Ziethen, fonning, as
it were, Blucher's advanced guard, retired,
according to standing orders, with equal
skill and coolness, though  not  without
considerable  loss, towards Fleurus, gain-
ing time, as  had been intended, to con-
centrate the other corps, and prepare for
action in the  rear of Fleurus.  Towards
noon, Napoleon, then at Charleroy, de-
veloped his plan more fully.  On  the road
leading north from Charleroy to Brussels,
which is thirty miles distant, lie the posi-
tions Gosselies, Frasnes, Quatre-Bras (a
hamlet consisting of a few houses, where
the road  from Nivelles to Namur crosses,
in a south-easterly'direction, that  to Brus-
sels), Jemappes and Waterloo.   On this
road, marshal Ney was ordered to  advance
with the first and second divisions, and
the cavalry belonging to them  (42,000
strong), to  Quatre-Bras,  to  drive every
thing before him, and to prevent, at any
sacrifice,  the  approach and  junction of
Wellington, who was expected to advance
from Brussels. Ney, therefore, command-
ed the left wing of the French army, and
formed the wedge which Napoleon pro-
posed to  force between the  British  and
Prussian  armies,  while  he  tlu*ew  liim-
self upon Bliicher.  Ney's charge seems
to have been a difficult one:  it appears,
from the  complaints and the justifications
of his conduct, that the emperor, by a cer-
tain indistinctness  in  his orders, placed
him in the disagreeable situation of being
obliged to act according to circumstances.
Ney executed his orders literally; that is,
he advanced, on the 15th of June, as far
as Frasnes, his outposts being beyond that
place, in  the  direction  of Quatre-Bras,
where they encountered an advanced post
of the prince  of Orange's corps, which
prince  Bernard of Weimar  had thrown
forward  from Quatre-Bras.   This  post
was maintained; and night coming on pre-
vented any examination  of what  was
passing behind it   During the whole day,
Ney had  heard a warm cannonade in his
rear (caused by the  action between Van-
danune, Grouchy  and the first  Prussian
corps near Fleums), which forbade him to
calculate  on a very rapid advance of the
French.  This circumstance induced him
to  act with caution:  he  remained  at
Frasnes.   It cannot be doubted  that the
brave resistance ofthe firet Prussian corps,
which Vandamme and Grouchy were not
able to drive back quickly enough, was un-
expected  by Napoleon.  He had probably
expected  to penetrate beyond Fleurus, on
the 15th, with his main  body.   On  the
night ofthe 15th, the British forces,  sen-
sible of Napoleon's object, advanced on
die road  from Brussels towards  Quatre-
Bras, in order, if possible, to support  the
Prussians; and Bliicher got his first, sec- 
QUATRE-BRAS.
459
 ond and third divisions in  position to the
 north of Fleurus, having the British on his
 right, and expecting his fourth division,
 under Biilow, from Liege.  His position
 was on a chain of heights imperfectly cov-
 ered by the Ligny, a small stream, and  de-
 tiendent upon the possession of the  vil-
 ages St.  Amand, Ligny, Tongrines and
 Sombrefiii front: in the rear it was inter-
 sected by die road from Quatre-Bras to
 Namur.   Napoleon, having examined  his
 dit-jiosition  on the  morning of the 16th,
 and it being necessary to rest his u-oops,
 ordered an attack in the  afternoon.  Ney
 again received orders to press forward on
 Quatre-Bras, to  drive out the English
 before they could be concentrated, and to
 make  a diversion in  the  Prussian rear,
 leaving his firet corps under general Er-
 lon, 20,000 strong (nearly half of  his
 whole force), as a reserve at Frasnes,
 which might support him or Napoleon, as
 necessity  should require.   Some French
 writers have accused Ney of dilatoriness,
 while othere have defended him from this
 charge.  (See Gourgaud's  Campaign of
 1815,  with the  counter statements  of
 Gamot and  Marchand.)   It is certain that
 he did not fully develope his forces before
 four o'clock in  the afternoon,  when  he
 made his  attack on Quatre-Bras, after  the
 prince of Orange, with the  Netherlandish
 troops, the  duke of Brunswick, with  his
 corps, and  the  Hanoverian and British
 divisions, under  Alten  and Picton,  had
 already arrived and taken  position.   Al-
 though the junction between Bliicher and
 Wellington was not accomplished on that
 day, yet  Ney's attack was  repulsed, not-
 withstanding his superiority, in the begin-
 ning ofthe action, in cavalry and artillery,
 of which  his opponents were almost com-
 pletely destitute, and in  spite of the  un-
 common  valor displayed by his troops.
 Wellington, on the Nivelles road, with  his
 right wing resting  on Quatre-Bras and
 the wood defended by the duke of Saxe-
 Weimar,  and his left  on the village  of
 Piennont, held Ney in check so success-
 fully, that, in the evening, new British  re-
 inforcements continuing to arrive, the for-
 mer was forced to send for  his reserve at
 Frasnes, and, finally, to make a retrograde
 movement,  and leave the  field  to   the
 English.  The  loss on  both  sides was
 nearly equal, amounting  to about 10,000
 men, among whom was  the  duke  of
 Brunswick.   Napoleon began  his attack
 on the Prussians at three o'clock in  the
 id'ternoon, in two columns.   The third
 French division,  under Vandamme, ad-
 vanced against the Prussian right wing at
St Amand; the  fourth, under Gerard,
pressed forward towards Ligny; Grouchy,
with the cavalry, occupied the attention
of the  Prussian  left wing, under Thiele-
mann, near Sombref.  Vandamme's attack
was, at  first, not  without  effect, but,
towards  five  o'clock,  was  repelled  so
effectually that Napoleon desisted, and, as
Ney's diversion in the Prussian  rear was
not effected, directed  his attention upon
Ligny.  The Prussians had, from the be-
ginning, considered the possession of this
village as  of the greatest  importance.
Here the  battle  raged with the greatest
fury, and  the  ground was  covered  with
the dead and wounded.  Gerard had sac-
rificed  nearly his whole division for the
possession of one half of the village, sep-
arated  by the  rivulet of the same name
from the other half.  He  was unable  to
penetrate  farther; nor  could the  Prus-
sians, on the other hand, dislodge him by
the most vigorous attacks.   If the fourth
division, under Biilow, had airived at this
moment, it would have decided the fate
of the day; but a variety of obstacles re-
tarded it.  The evident relaxation in Na-
poleon's attack on the right wing gave the
Prussians an opportunity of obtaining an
apparent advantage in that quarter.  All
the disposable reserves were  directed
towards that point, when Napoleon unex-
pectedly threw himself upon Ligny. He
now accomplished his purpose by means
of his guards, who passed  the Ligny on
the right  and left  of  the village, and
threatened to cut off the exhausted Prus-
sians, which would have been the more
easily effected, as all the reserves and ar-
tillery  had  been withdrawn.  Bliicher
attempted in vain to repel the French
cuirassiers, with  about 1000 light cavalry.
He was in such danger,  on this  occasion,
that he was only saved  by the darkness,
almost  by  a miracle.   (See  Bliicher.)
Nothing remained but to abandon Ligny,
and retire with his first and second divis-
ions, in large bodies, upon Wavre, whidi-
er, towards midnight,  the  third division,
which  had  been less actively engaged
during the day, followed.   Napoleon
overrated  the  loss of the  Prussians, and
allowed them to  retire unmolested, prob-
ably because his troops were too  much
fatigued, and required rest to be in a state
to be led  against Wellington.   Grouchy,
Vandamme, and generals Excelnians and
Pajol, received orders, on the  17th, to fol-
low the Prussians, with  35,0C0 men ; but
they had lost sight of them in the begin-
ning of  the  pursuit—a   circumstance
which, with Grouchv's affair at  Wavre
(q. v.), had a great influence upon the
events  at  Waterloo.   In  the  battle  of 
460
QUATRE-BRAS—QUEBEC.
Ligny, tho Pmssians were  superior in
number.   They lost  about 20,000 men
and fifteen cannons, partly in consequence:
of their confined position.  Napoleon had
brought only about 60,000 men into battle,
his  sixth  division not  having reached
Fleurus till dark;  and the  first inarched
back and forward to and  from Frasnes,
without taking part in the action; whether
in consequence  of its original orders, or
from misunderstanding, or  from the wish
of its commander to participate in the
battle of St. Amand, has not been clearly
explained.  The loss of this corps was of
the most fatal consequence to Ney.   The
French accounts gave their loss at Ligny
at from 6 to 7000.  After Wellington had
learned the issue of the  battle  at Ligny,
he retired from  Quatre-Bras  in the fore-
noon of the 17th, and was followed by
Napoleon.  (See Waterloo.)
    QUATREMERE-DE-QUINCY,  Antoilie
Chrysostome, a distinguished French sa-
vant,  member of  the Paris academy of
inscriptions, was distinguished for his lit-
erary taste and talents before  the  com-
mencement of  the  revolution.  He em-
braced the cause of moderate reform, and,
in  1791, was chosen deputy  for Paris,
to the legislative assembly,  where he was
the advocate  of the  constitutional  mon-
archy.  His  firmness and  moderation
could  not  fail  to displease the violent;
and he was among the deputies who, on
the 8th of August, were insulted on com-
ing out of the assembly. After the disso-
lution of the legislative assembly, Quatre-
mere was thirteen months  in prison, and,
after the proscriptions of 1793,  his horror
of the terrorists was such that he  became
one of the  leaders of the insurrection of
the 13th of Vendemiaire (5th of October,
1795).  The party of the Jacobins having
triumphed, he was condemned to death for
contumacy, in not appearing to a charge
of having excited  a revolt against the con-
vention.   He escaped; and a jury having,
in July, 1796, declared, that no revolt had
existed on that occasion,  he came for-
ward, took his trial, and  pronounced a
discourse on his acquittal, which was dis-
tinguished for its boldness and strength.
The department ofthe Seine named him,
in 1797, deputy to the council of five hun-
dred ; but his  opposition  to the revolu-
tionists of that  day involved him in the
sentence of banishment of  the 18th of
Fructidor (5th of September, 1797). He
again escaped,  and was recalled in De-
ce.y>'>er, 1799, by  the consuls.  In  1800,
bavicg been  named  member of the gen-
oval council  of the  department of the
Seine, he was appointed secretary to that
body, and was afterwards  called to  the
national institute, in the class of history
and  ancient literature.  In  1814, he was
made officer of the legion of honor, cen-
sor royal, and intendant of arts and public
monuments.  In  1815,  he was named
member of the council of public instruc-
tion.  He was appointed editor of  the
Journal des Savants, for the department of
the fine arts, in 1816, and knight of St.
Michael, in 1817.  He  has pronounced
funeral discourses on many of his departed
fellow academicians,  which  have been
distinguished for their rich  and  powerful
eloquence.  Among his works are, Le Ju-
piter Olympien (1814), on ancient sculp-
ture in ivory and gold; Essais sur VImita-
tion dans les Beaux-Arts (1823); La Vie et
les Ouvrages de Raphad (1824).
   Quatuordecimians.  (See Sects.)
   Quebec, city; the capital of Lower
Canada, on a promontory on the north-
west side of the river St. Lawrence,  180
miles below  Montreal, nearly 400 from
the sea, 700 west by north from  Halifax,
and 740 from Washington; lat. 46° 47'  N.;
lon.  70° 56' W.  The population of  the
city  and suburbs is stated  by Bouchette
(British Dominions  in N. America, Lon-
don, 1831,2 vols. 4to.) at about 30,000.  By
far the greater part of the inhabitants aro
Roman Catholics, and the French lan-
guage is most  in use.  The promontory
on which Quebec is built,  is formed by
the St. Lawrence and St. Charles, and is
the termination of a ridge of land, gener-
ally  from one to two miles wide, which
runs from east to west  On the north it
has  the  bold promontoiy  of cape Dia-
mond, rising almost perpendicularly  345
feet  above the water; and across it at the
north-east, or lower end, the city is built.
The  fortifications extending across  the
peninsula, shut in the ground on which
the city stands, the circuit  of  which is
about two and a half miles.   It is divided
into  two parts,  upper and lower.  Upper
Quebec is situated  on the  side  of cape
Diamond, which  slopes to  the north, to-
wards the river St. Charles.  It is sepa-
rated from the lower town by a line of
steep rocks, which run from the cape to-
wards the west.  The lower town is situ-
ated immediately under  cape Diamond,
on ground considerably raised, to prevent
its being overflowed, as formerly, at flood
tide.   The streets  run  from the  upper
side  of cape Diamond down  to the St.
Charles, a distance  of about half a mile.
They are of considerable breadth, and the
houses are large and commodious.  The
houses next the river have very extensive
warehouses attached to them, and vessels 
QUEBEC—QUEEN.                         461
 come  close to the wharves to discharge
 their cargoes.  The communication from
 the lower to the upper town is by a wind-
 ing street, at the top of which is a fortified
 gate.  " Quebec," says professor Silliman,
 " for an American city, is certainly a veiy
 peculiar town:  a military  town—most
 compactly and  permanently  built—stone
 its sole material—environed, as to its most
 important parts, by walls and gates—and
 defended by  numerous  heavy  cannon—
 garrisoned by troops, having the arms, the
 costume, the music, the discipline of Eu-
 rope—foreign in language, features,  and
 origin, from most of those whom they are
 sent to defend—founded  upon a rock, and
 in its higher parts overlooking a great ex-
 tent of country—between three and four
 hundred miles from the ocean—in the
 midst  of a great continent, and yet dis-
 playing fleets of foreign merchantmen, in
 its fine capacious bay, and showing all the
 bustle  of a crowded seaport—its streets
 narrow, populous, and winding  up  and
 down  almost  mountainous declivities—
 situated in the latitude of the finest parts
 of Europe—exhibiting in its environs the
 beauty of a European capital, and yet, in
 winter, smarting with the cold of Siberia—
 governed by people of different language
 and  habits from the mass of the popula-
 tion—opposed in religion, and yet leaving
 that  population without taxes, and in the
 full  enjoyment of every privilege, civil
 and  religious.  Such are some of the im-
 portant features which strike a stranger
 in the city of Quebec."  The upper town
 is the seat of government, and the princi-
 pal residence of the military.  Great im-
 provements have recently been made in
 the style of buildings, and many of the
 private dwellings, and several  of the pub-
 lic buildings are  spacious  and elegant.
 There  is a French seminary or college,
 containing  usually more than 200 pupils;
 but much less attention is paid to educa-
 tion than in the principal  cities of the  U.
 States.  Quebec  is better  fortified than
 any other town in America.   Its strength
 has been greatly  increased  within a few
 years.  It is so well defended at all points,
 as to  render  it abundantly adequate to
 repel any  force diat could approach  it
 The  basin  or harbor of Quebec is very
 beautiful, safe, and spacious; it is suffi-
 cient to contain 100 sail of the line.  The
 depth  of water is twenty-eight fathoms;
 the spring tides rise twenty-three or twen-
 ty-four feet, and the neap tides seventeen
 or eighteen.   The river  St. Lawrence is
twelve miles wide above the city, but is
here contracted  to one mile  in breadth.
                  39*
 The exports consist principally of timber,
 grain, flour, furs, and pot and  pearlashes.
 The trade is very extensive, and is princi-
 pally confined to British vessels.  Amount
 of imports  in  1829, £824,392.  Quebec
 was settled by the French in 1608, taken
 by the English in 1759, and  ceded to them
 in 1763.  In 1776, an unsuccessful  attack
 was made  upon it by the Americans un-
 der general Montgomery, (q. v.) who fell,
 together with about 700 men.
   Quedlinburg, a town iu the Prussian
 government of Magdeburg, province of
 Saxony, is situated at the foot of the Hanz
 mountains, and  contains 12,000 inhabit-
 ants.  It is a place of considerable indus-
 try; its distilleries are important, and many
 swine are fatted for sale.  Among its pub-
 lic establishments is an  institute for juve-
 nile offenders.  Quedlinburg is the native
 place of Klopstock. The  town  owes its
 origin to  the foundation  of a religious
 house for ladies there, between  932 and
 936, by king Henry I.  The abbess, from
 1539, a Lutheran, was  a member of the
 estates of the empire.
   Queen (Anglo-Saxon,  cwen, the wife);
 the wife of a king.   In  England,  the
 queen is either queen-consort,  or merely
 wife of the reigning king, who is in gen-
 eral (unless where expressly exempted by
 law) upon  the same footing with other
 subjects,  being to all  intents  the king's
 subject, and not his equal; or queen-regent,
 regnant,  or sovereign,  who  holds  the
 crown in her own right, and has the same
 powers, prerogatives, and duties, as if she
 had been  a king (see Great Britain, di-
 vision English  Constitution), and whose
 husband is a subject, and  may be guilty
 of high treason against her;  or queen-
 dowager, widow of the king, who enjoys
 most of the  privileges which belonged to
 her as queen-consort  It  is  treason to
compass  or imagine  the   death of  the
queen-consort, and to violate or defile her
person not only renders the person com-
mitting the act guilty of treason, but also the
queen herself, if consenting.   If the queen
be accused of treason, she is (whether con-
sort or dowager) tried  by  the house  of
peers.  Queen Caroline [q. v.) was pro-
ceeded against by a bill of pains and pen-
alties. (See Laws of Exception.)  By act of
parliament, August 2,1831,  the usual pro-
 vision of £100,000 per  annum, with  the
 use of Marlborough house, was made for
 queen Adelaide, in case she should sur-
 vive the king.  In Prussia, Sweden anr/.
 France, the succession  being confined 1 j
 the male line, there can be no queen reg-
 nant (See Salic Law.) In Spain (by roya? 
462
QUEEN—QUEVEDO-VILLEGAS.
decree of March 29, 1830), Portugal, &c,
females are not excluded from the succes-
sion to the throne.
  Queen's College.  (See New Bruns-
wick, in New Jersey.) .
  Quercitron, in dyeing; the internal
bark of the quercus nigra; it yields its
color, which is yellow, by infusion in wa-
ter, and by the common mordants, gives a
permanent dye.
  Queretaro ; one  of the states of the
Mexican confederacy, formed in 1824, of
the old  intendancy of the same name,
which had  been separated from that of
Mexico in 1816. It is bounded by the states
of S. Luis, Potosi, and Vera Cruz, on the
north, by that of Puebla on the  east, by
Mexico on the south, and  by Mechoacan
and Guanaxuato on the west; square miles,
15,000; population, about 60,000.  It lies
entirely on the central plateau of Mexico,
which is about  6000 feet above the sea.
The climate is temperate, and the produc-
tions  are maize, wheat, European fruits,
&c.  (See Mexico.)   Queretaro is one of
the most manufacturing states ofthe union.
Its capital, of the same name, widi a pop-
ulation of 35,000, lies in a pleasant valley,
6500 feet above the level of the sea; lat.
20° 36' N.;  lon. 100° 10' W.;  112 miles
north-west of the city of Mexico.  It is
one of  the handsomest cities in Mexico,
containing a magnificent cathedral, several
convents, hospitals, &c.: the streets are
well laid out, and there  are  several  fine
squares.  The city is the seat of consider-
able manufacturing industry.
  Quesnay, Francis, a French physician
of some eminence, but chiefly noted as a
writer on political economy, was  born in
1694, and  died at  Paris  in 1774.  His
father was a farmer, and he acquired the
rudiments of his profession under a coun-
try surgeon; after which,  going to the
metropolis, he became secretary to a soci-
ety established  for the improvement of
surgery.  At length he took the degree of
M. D., and obtained the situation of physi-
cian to Madame de Pompadour, the mis-
tress of Louis XV, and through her interest
became physician to the king.  Amid the
intrigues ofa licentious court, he observed
a simplicity of manners and apparent dis-
interestedness which formed a strong con-
trast with the characters  of those around
him.  Towards the latter part of his fife,
he  became  the founder of the  political
sect of the economists.  (See Physiocratie
System, Political Economy, and Laharpe's
Cours de  Lilttrature, 14th vol.)  He was
the author of various surgical  and  med-
ical works,  several  articles  in the  En-
cyclopedic, and tracts on politics, including
a treatise on Physiocrasy, or the Govern-
ment  most advantageous to  the  Human
Race  (1768, 8vo.).
  Questors ; ordinary  magistrates (see
Magistrates)  among the Romans,  who
managed the public treasury (oararium),
kept in the temple of Saturn, and super-
intended the receipts and expenditures
of the public money.  They were at firet
appointed by the kings, afterwards by the
consuls, and after 307, A. U., by the peo-
ple in the  comitia tributa.  At first there
were two questors, in 333, A. U.; two oth-
ers were added  to  assist the consuls iu
war.  The two firet remained in the city.
After  the Romans had conquered all Italy,
four more were added : under Sylla there
were  twenty; under Caesar, forty.  After
this period dieir number was arbitrary, but
in Rome itself the  number was always
two, who were called, by way of distinc-
tion, qua'stores urbani.  The others were
called quaistores provinciales, or militares.
The questorship was the lowest  office of
honor, and opened the way to the senate;
but it was  sometimes filled by consular
men.
  Quevedo-Villegas, don Francisco de,
a  Spanish  poet, was born at Madrid in
1580,  aud studied at Alcala de  Henares.
Besides the ancient languages, his course
of studies comprised theology, medicine
and philosophy,  as  he was  unwilling to
devote himself to any professional pur-
suit   He  combined extensive learning
with much wit and great originality.  In
consequence of a duel, in which his ad-
versary fell, he fled to Italy, where his ser-
vices  gained him  the  confidence and
friendship of the duke of Ossuna.  (q. v.)
After  having visited Germany and France,
Quevedo returned to Spain; and on ac-
count of his  connexions with  the  duke,
then in disgrace, he was arrested and con-
fined to his estate, La Tone de  Juan, for
three  years.  To restore  his  health, im-
paired by his confinement, he  travelled
through Spain,  and  afterwards lived in
retirement on his  estate, where he proba-
bly wrote  his poems published under the
title of the  Bachelor of La Torre.  Philip
IV conferred on him the place of secretary,
and, in 1634, Quevedo married the sister of
the archbishop of Abarazin.  But at the age
of  sixty-eight yeare, he was imprisoned
for a libel on the  duke of Olivarez, which
was imputed to  him without any proofs.
He was released after two yeare' confine-
ment, but his health had suffered  much
from  his imprisonment.   Being banished
from court, he retired to his estate, which 
QUEVED0-V1LLEGAS—QUIETISM.                 463
 had been repeatedly plundered while he
 was in prison, and died at Villa Nueva de
 Ios Infantes, in 1645.   His works are va-
 rious in their character.   His humorous
 productions are distinguished for playful-
 ness, wit and invention.  His prose works
 are mostly effusions of humor and satire.
 His Visions (Suenos) have been translated
 into  most European languages (English,
 by  L'EsU-ange);  his  Vida del  Gran
 Tacaho is a comic romance of the sort
 called by the Spaniards picaresco.  He also
 translated the  Enchiridion  of Epictetus
 into Spanish.  His works were published
 at  Brussels, in three  volumes quarto, in
 1660 and in 1670, and have since been re-
 peatedly reprinted.
   Qui  viVe (who lives?); the challenge
 of the French sentries to those who ap-
 proach their posts; equivalent to the Eng-
 lish " Who goes there ?" To be on the qui
 vive is to be on the alert, like a sentinel.
   Quiberon ; a peninsula on the western
 coast of France, in the department of the
 Morbihan, containing the town of Quibe-
 ron (2000 inhabitants) and several ham-
 lets.  June 27, 1795, a body of 1200 to
 1500 imigris, under the command of the
 count d'Hervilly, landed on this coast, and
 took  possession of the peninsula.  Their
 numbers were increased  by several thou-
 sand royalists; but they were soon  com-
 pelled, by the advance of the republican
 forces under Hoche (q. v.), to shut them-
 selves up in the peninsula, under the pro-
 tection of fort Penthievre, situated on its
 isthmus, and of the English  squadron, by
 which they had been  brought over.  Six
 thousand Chouans (q. v.), with their wives
 and  children,  followed  them   thither.
 Hoche now besieged the peninsula.  July
 16, D'Hervilly attempted a sortie, in which
 he fell.  On the 17th, a reinforcement of
 imigris landed, under the command of
 Sombreuil. On the 21st, the fort was taken
 by the  republicans, who penetrated into
 the peninsula; and on the 23d, Sombreuil
 surrendered, with 4000 men,  after a brave
 resistance.   The young  Sombreuil (28
 yeare old), whose father and brother per-
 ished under the guillotine during the rev-
 olution, and  about 200  of  the royalists,
 were shot  In 1829, a chapel was erected
 here, containing a marble monument to
 the memory of the emigres  who fell on
 diis occasion.  (See Vendee.)
   Quick, or Quickset  Hedge, among
 gardeners, denotes all live hedges, of what-
 soever sorts of plants they are composed,
 to distinguish  them from dead  hedges,
 but in a stricter sense  of  the word, is re-
strained to those planted with hawthorn.
   Quicklime.  (See Lime, vol. vii, page
554.)
   Quickset Hedge.  (See Quick Hedge.)
   Quicksilver.  (See Mercury.)
   Quietism.  The ceremonial  and hie-
rarchical spirit of some monastic  orders,
especially of the Jesuits and Dominicans,
had, in the seventeenth century,  almost
converted religion, among the Catholics,
into a mere mechanical service.   The rep-
etition of forms of prayer from the  brevia-
ry, and on the  rosary, fasting, confession,
frequent pilgrimages,  invocations  of the
mother of God and of saints, almsgiving,
the purchase  of  indulgences, and, in  a
word, the minute  observation of external
forms, came to be viewed as real piety.
Pious minds, disposed to a more  earnest
devotion, turned with ardor to mysticism,
which afforded refuge and  spiritual ali-
ment  to  the more  feeling soul, when all
religion seemed to have become petrified
in the forms of ritual observances.  The
Spiritual Guide (Guida Spirituale),  a work
published at Rome in  1675, by Michael
Molinos, a Spanish priest, answered this
want.  With an enthusiasm which soon
gained favor to his pious fancies, Molinos
spoke of the tranquillity ofa soul absorbed
iu  the Deity,  which,  dead  to all other
thoughts and  feelings, and disturbed by
no outward events, had  perception of
nothing  but the presence of  God.  In
obedience to his instructions, the  devout
now sought solely this tranquillity of soul
(quies, Latin, rest,  whence Quietism and
Quietists; in Greek, Hesychastes);  and no
opposition  would  have been  made  to
them, but for the danger that the devotion-
al exercises enjoined by the churcii and
the monastic orders would appear super-
fluous.   Molinos was obliged  to  abjure
his errore, and terminated his life in daily
acts of penance in  a Dominican convent
in Rome.  (He died in  1696.)   But this
violence  by no means prevented the diffu-
sion of Quietism.   The Spiritual  Guide
was eagerly studied, and produced a num-
ber of similar works in  Germany and
France, where the way had already been
prepared for its reception, by  the works
of  Bourignon  (q.  v.), Poirets, and  the
Pietists.  As early  as the fourteenth cen-
tuiy, there  was a  body of monks  called
Hesychastes (also Umbilianvni), who spent
their whole time in prayer and medita-
tion.  (See Hesychastes.)  The most cele-
brated promoter of Quietism in France,
was a beautiful and rich widow, a favorite
at the court  of Louis XIV, Joanna Maria
Bouvier de la Mothe Guyon, who, under
the name of Madame Guyon, is celebrated 
464                         QUIETISM-QUIN.
 as an amiable enthusiast, of more imagina-
 tion than judgment.  Her example, her
 prayers, her works, replete with unction,
 and the exertions  of her confessor La-
 combe, gained her adherents enough to
 excite the attention of the clergy.   There
 were, indeed, strong reasons for believing
 a young woman  crazy,  who  imagined
 herself the pregnant woman ofthe Apoc-
 alypse (xii, 2),  and who, in her own ac-
 count of her life, says that she was often
 filled with such an overflowing of grace,
 that  she was  literally on the point of
 bursting, and that it became necessary to
 loosen her clothes; upon  which this ful-
 ness of grace was  poured  out upon those
 who  did her this service.   Lacombe was
 thrown into prison at Paris, and  died in
 confinement, in 1702; but Mad.  Guyon
 herself, after a short imprisonment, was
 restored to liberty, and had the honor of
 being allowed to take part in the  prayers
 of Mad. de Maintenon at St  Cyr.  The
 controversy therefore seemed at  an end,
 when Fenelon  (q.  v.)  thought  he  discov-
 ered in Mad. Guyon a kindred spirit, and
 became  the  advocate  of her and her
 writings, in his Explication des Maximes
 des Saints sur la Vie interieure  (1697).
 The  accession of  so distinguished a man,
 whose  works  of  devotion had been re-
 ceived in France  with  enthusiasm, gave
 new weight to  Quietism, and an opportu-
 nity to  Bossuet,  the  champion  of the
 French theologians, to inflict disgrace on
 his envied  rival.   Bossuet  obtained, in
 1699, a papal brief,  which condemned
 twenty-three   positions from  Fenelon's
 book as enoneous; but the humility with
 which he submitted,  and  which was ad-
 mired even in Rome itself, deprived his
 enemies of the fruits of their victory; and
 it was  the change in  the  spirit of the
 times, and  not violence,—though  Mad.
 Guyon (who died 1717)  underwent an-
 other short imprisonment,—that gradually
 buried Quietism in oblivion.  It had nev-
 er formed a sect; but for some  years it
 continued to be the subject of works of
t devotion,  and the peculiar opinion  of
: a party among the pious.  From Fene-
 lon's book, in which Quietism  is most
 clearly described,  we learn that it was a
 harmless enthusiasm, adapted only to per-
 sons of a fanciful and exaggerated turn
 of thinking.   Truth and falsehood are
 strangely blended in it; it requires pure
 love, which, without fear or hope, indiffer-
 ent to heaven or hell, is directed with en-
 tire  self-denial to God, merely  because
 he wills it.  The flesh must be mortified,
  eveiy worldly  feeling banished, all  confi-
dence in our own merits by good workfl
abandoned, and the soul be transferred to
a passive state, in which  its own activity
ceases, and God alone works in it.  This
state, which unites the soul essentially with
God, is tranquillity,  or incessant internal
prayer (the permanent direction towards
God), in which nothing is desired, nothing
asked from God, but, entirely resigned to
him,the soul is contented with the pure con-
templation of his  being.  Rarely as these
precepts of Quietism can be put in prac-
tice, because they comport neither with
the wants of human nature nor the  de-
mands of our social condition, they have,
nevertheless, frequently reappeared in tho
mysticism of later sects.  The  term  has
also been applied to the religious notions
of fhe Indian bramins, whose object is to
attain a state  of holiness, by the destruc-
tion of all corporeal and intellectual activ-
ity, and thus to become incorporated with
Brama.   (See  Mad.  Guyon's  Life,  by
herself.)
  Quills, for writing.  (See Pens, Writ-
ing.)
  Quilting ;  a method  of sewing two
pieces of silk, linen, or stuff, on each oth-
er, with wool or cotton between them, by
working  them  all over in the form of
chequer or  diamond work,  or in flowers.
The same name is also given to the stuff
so worked.
  Quin, James, an eminent English actor,
bom in London, in 1693, was the son of
an  Irish barrister, and was educated in
Dublin.  His father had  married a sup-
posed widow, whose husband, after a long
absence,  returned and  claimed her ; on
which  account Quin, who was the  off-
spring ofthe connexion, was deemed ille-
gitimate, and, upon his father's death, in
1710, was left without a  fortune.  This
interruption  of his prospects  prevented
him from being adequately educated for
a profession, and he  had recourse to  the
Dublin stage, in 1715, and in. a year after
secured an engagement at Drury-lane the-
atre.  In 1717, he quitted Drury-lane for
the theatre in  Lincoln's-inn-fields, where
he remained seventeen yeare, and gradu-
ally acquired celebrity in  characters of
grave, dignified and  sententious tragedy,
as in Cato, Zanga and Coriolanus, and in
those of strong sarcastic comic humor, as
Falstaff,  Volpone, and sir John Brute.
In 1732, he removed with the same com-
pany to Covent-garden; but, in 1735, was
induced  to join that  of Fleetwood  at
Drury-lane, on such terms as no actor
had previously received ;  and he retained
the preeminence until the appearance of 
QUIN-4WJINAULT,
465
Garrick in 1741,  In 1747, he was en-
gaged  at  Covent-garden  with Garrick;
but  the new  actor  obtained so great 'a
share  of attention as to have  gradually
induced  Quin to retire.   His last per-
formance  was Falstaff (1753),  in which
-character  he  is supposed never to  have
been exceeded.   He survived his retreat
several yeare, which he spent chiefly at
Bath,  where  his fund  of  anecdote, and
pointed sense, made him much sought
after.  Quin, who was convivial, and  too
fond of the botde, was  often coarse and
quarrelsome on  these  occasions, which
led to two or three hostile encounters, one
of which proved fatal to  his antagonist
He  was  otherwise  manly, sensible and
generous; and his deliverance of Thom-
son, although then unknown to him, from
an an-est, by a present of £100, is much
to his  honor.  He died at  Bath in  1766,
aged  seventy-three.   Garrick, once  his
rival, and afterwards his friend, wrote the
epitaph for his monument in Bath cathe-
dral.
   Quina, or Quinina ; a vegetable  alkali
extracted from  pale cinchona.  It  exists
in transparent ]dates, which are insoluble
in water,  and of a bitter taste.  It unites
with the acids, forming  crystallized salts.
The  sulphate is of a dull  white  color,
 silky and flexible.  Like quina, it is solu-
 ble  in alcohol, and bums away without
 leaving any residuum.   A grain  of pure
 sulphate  of quina will render nearly a
 pound and a half of water sensibly  bitter.
 When one grain is dissolved in  about
 300 grains  of boiling distilled water, pure
 sulphate  of quina will, on cooling, be de-
 posited,in feathery ciystals,in twenty-four
 hours, if there be no adulteration.   The
 alkalies and their carbonates cause  a pre-
 cipitation  in water,  containing  a  diou-
 sandth part of sulphate of quina;  and a
 solution of tannin does so in a  solution
 ten times more  dilute.  The sulphate is
 composed  of quina 100, and sulphuric
 acid  10.9.  The acetate of quina is re-
 markable for the manner in which it crys-
 tallizes.  Its crystals are flat needles, of a
 pearly appearance, which are grouped hi
 star-like bundles.  The sulphate of quina,
 in doses of from six to twelve grains, has
 been found  an  effectual  remedy against
 intermittent fevers.  It is said that the red
 or yellow bark yields the most febrifuge
 quina.  The following is a  good method
 for determining whether bark is rich in
 quina:—Digest alcohol on it in  coarse
 powder till it be drained; precipitate the
 coloring matter by acetate  of lead; filter
 und separate the excess of lead by a few
drops of sulphuric acid; then filter and
distil; when sulphate of quina will remain
mixed with a  fatty matter.  Ammonia
will now separate the quina.
  Quinault, Philippe,  the  most  distin-
guished French  opera writer, bom  in
1635, was  the son ofa baker, and had no
advantages  of  education.   Excepting
some instruction in regard to versification,
by  Tristan L'Hermite,  he  owed  eveiy
tiling to his own  industry and  talent.
Even before the twentieth year of his age,
he brought out some plays, and, for sev-
eral yeare, continued to  write with suc-
cess for the stage.  His success, however,
only rendered him a mark for the satire
of  Boileau, who attacked  him with  so
much bitterness as to have injured his
own  fame.   Quinault  then abandoned
tragedy, which he felt not to be his prov-
ince, and, connecting himself with Lully,
labored for the opera.   In  this lyric de-
partment  of poetry, he displayed such
talents as  to be placed above all his com-
petitors, and to be ranked, by the best
judges, among the most  distinguished
men of the age of Louis XIV.  There  is
nothing in the French language more
delicate, tender and ingenious than the
turn of his  songs and love dialogues.
Boileau, and the other censurers of Qui-
nault, attributed the success of his pieces
solely to the  merit of Lully's  music;
which, however, is now forgotten, while
 Quinault's verse  is  always  read with
pleasure.   His Armide  (1686),  and  his
Atys, are masterpieces in  their kind.
 Quinault, who was not without experi-
 ence  in  affairs of business, married the
widow of a  rich merchant, whose estate
 he had settled, and purchased (1671) the
 post of auditor in the chamber of accounts.
 He was  soon  after  received into  the
 French academy, and, in  the name  of
 that body, congratulated the king on  his
 return from  the campaigns of 1675 and
 1677.  The  flattery which  he employed
 in his prologues obtained him a pension.
 A melancholy, produced probably by the
 decline of his health, disturbed the happi-
 ness of his last years.   He was filled with
 regret for having devoted  his talents to
 theatrical productions, and determined to
 apply what remained of his powers to the
 honor of God and the king.  He  began a
 poem upon the extirpation of Protestant-
 ism in France, which, however, would
 only have diminished his reputation.  He
 died in 1688.  In society, Quinault was
 polite, amiable  and  kind.   Besides  his
 theatrical pieces, he was  the author of
 several occasional poems.   His works 
466
QUINAULT—QUINCY.
were published in 1739 and in 1778, in
five volumes, with a hfe prefixed.
   Quince (cydonia vulgaris); a low, tortu-
ous tree, named after the ancient town of
Cydon, in Crete, from which place it was
said to have been  introduced into  the
other parts of Europe;  but it appears to
grow wild in Western Asia and some of
the neighboring parts of Europe.  It is
now cultivated  throughout  Europe, and
in  many parts of the U. States, for  the
sake of its fruit, which, tiiough hard and
austere when plucked from the tree",  be-
comes excellent when  boiled and eaten
with  sugar, or preserved in  sirup, or
made into mannalade.  Quinces, when
mixed with other fruit, in cookery, com-
municate  a very  pleasant flavor; and a
delicious wine may be made from their
juice, mixed with  sugar in the proportion
of one quart to the pound, and fermented.
The leaves of the quince tree are simple,
alternate and entire ;  the  flowers  are
large, white, sometimes with a blush of
rose, and are solitary at the  extremity of
the young branches ;  the  divisions  of
the calyx are denticulated; and the fruit
is somewhat pear-shaped, yellowish  and
cottony, internally containing five carti-
laginous cells, in each of which the seeds
are arranged  in two scries to the number
of eight and upwards, and covered with
a mucilaginous substance.  This charac-
ter of the numerous seeds is the principal
circumstance in its structure, which dis-
tinguishes the quince from the apple  and
pear.   The quince  succeeds  best in a
light soil: if it be too rich, the fruit be-
comes insipid, and if too  dry, it remains
small and  coriaceous.  The Cydonia Ja-
ponica is a beautiful low bush, remarkable
for the brilliancy of its flowers, which
vary from the richest scarlet  to the most
delicate blush color.  It  is  very hardy,
and is one of the most ornamental shrubs
that can be placed in a garden.  It is a
native of Japan.
  Quinctilianus. (See tyuintilianus.)
  Quincunx, in Roman antiquity, denotes
any thing  that  consists of five  twelfth
parts of another, but particularly of the as,
or pound.   (See As.)
  Quincy; a post-town of Norfolk coun-
ty, Massachusetts, eight miles south-east
of Boston;  population, in 1830, 2192.  It
is a pleasant town, and  contains many
handsome country seats; also the resi-
dence of the late John  Adams, which is
now the seat of his son John Quincy Ad-
ams.   Here  also is  a  rail-road, three
miles in lengdi, which was the first con-
structed in America. It is used to convey
granite from the quarries in this town to
the tide waters of Neponset river.
  Quincy, Josiah,  junior, an eminent
American patriot, was bom  in  Boston,
Feb. 23,  1744.  He acquired the rudi-
ments of a classical education at Brain-
tree, and,  in 1759, entered Harvard col-
lege, where  he became conspicuous for
industry,  zeal and  talent.  In 1763, he
graduated, and, three  yeare  afterwards,
he received the degree  of master  of aits.
Immediately after, he entered the office
of Oxenbridge Thatcher, a distinguished
lawyer of Boston, who  was subsequently
associated with  James Otis against the
famous writs of  assistance. He had not
been long admitted  to the  bar before he
obtained an  extensive practice, and high
professional  rank.   lie  made himself
equally  conspicuous by the ardor with
which he wrote and spoke against  the
encroachments of the  motiier countiy.
In October,  1769, he married  the eldest
daughter of William Phillips, esquire. In
the following year, he was called upon to
perform a duty which it required all  his
strength of mind to discharge.  On the
5th March of that year,  occurred what is
called the "Boston massacre," a party
of British soldiere, under  the command
of captain Preston, having  fired  upon
and killed a number of persons in a mcb,
by whom  they had been  attacked with
stones and other missiles.  Captain Pres-
ton and  the accused  soldiere selected
John Adams and Mr.  Quincy for their
defenders,  notwithstanding the  intense
hostility which those gentlemen  had al-
ways evinced towards the proceedings cf
England.  It was a trying moment for
both of those patriots.   The soldiery had
acted in self-defence, and were  entitled
to the best means of obtaining justice;
but  the  public  feeling  was  so  bitter
against them, that the advocates they had
chosen saw  inevitable  odium  in under-
taking their  cause.  They, nevertheless,
did what duty demanded; and the soldiers
were acquitted, with the exception of two,
who received a slight punishment.  For
a time, the well-earned popularity of their
defenders  remained under a  cloud,  but
only to shine afterwards with  greater
brightness.  Until 1772, Mr. Quincy con-
tinued actively engaged in his profession,
at the same time constantly disseminating
his patriotic sentiments by writing; but,
in that year,  his naturally delicate consti-
tution became  so much exhausted by un-
remitted occupation, that he was  obliged
to abandon all  business.  His  complaints
assumed a pulmonary character;  and, in 
QUINCY—QUINTILIANUS.                     467
 February, 1773, it  was decided that his
 only hope  of life depended  upon an
 immediate  change to a more southern
 climate.  Accordingly, on the 8th of that
 month,  he  embarked   for  Charleston,
 South Carolina.  He  returned to Boston
 by  land  in the ensuing May, so much
 improved in health as  to  be able to re-
 sume his professional and political labors.
 In May, 1774, he published his chief po-
 litical work, entitled Observations on the
 Act of Parliament, commonly called " the
 Boston  Port  Bill,"  with  Thoughts on
 Civil Society and Standing Armies, which
 is  affixed to the interesting  Memoir of
 him written (1825)  by  his  son, Josiah
 Quincy, the present president of Harvard
 college.   Soon after this work was adver-
 tised as being in the press, he received  a
 communication signed " Your well-wish-
 er," in which he  was warned of  the
 imminent danger  the writer considered
 him in, " of the loss of life  and confisca-
 tion of his estate," and at the same time
 was conjured to abandon his " treasonable
 and rebellious"  couree, and  devote his
 " rare talents" to reconciling the people
 with the English government, instead of
 " keeping up their frenzy."  To this he
 published a reply in  the Massachusetts
 Gazette, in which is this passage: " The
 danger and the wrongs of my country
 are to me equally apparent.   In all my
 public exertions, I  feel  a sense of right
 and duty, that not only satisfies my con-
 science, but inspires  my zeal.   While  I
 have this sentiment, I shall persevere, till
 my understanding is convinced of its er-
 ror—a conviction that will not be wrought
 by the arm of power, or  the hand of an
 assassin." In September, 1774, Mr. Quin-
 cy sailed  for England, at the urgent so-
 licitation of his political friends, who sup-
 posed that he might be of great service to
 his country in London.  Nov. 8, he land-
 ed at Falmouth, and proceeded thence to
 the metropolis.  In London,  he became
 intimately acquainted with  the principal
 whigs, and was unremitting in his labors
 to promote his country's interests in every
 way that  was in his  power.   He main-
 tained a constant  correspondence with
 many of the patriotic leaders in America,
 which, together with his interesting jour-
 nal, is contained in the volume of his son,
 to which we  have referred.  After  re-
 maining in London until March, 1775, he
embarked for America, because his  inti-
 mate friends in that city thought that his
 return there would be of great advantage
to  the cause for which he was toiling,
though his health had been for some time
 in such  a state, that his  physician had
 strongly  advised his remaining in Eng-
 land, and trying the Bristol air and water;
 and he himself was convinced that his
 recovery depended upon following the
 advice.  He never reached his  native
 shores. He grew worse and worse during
 the  voyage, and, on the 20th of April,
 when in  sight of land, breathed his last,
 at the early  age of thirty-one years, a
 martyr to his love of country.
   Quincy, Quatremere de.  (See Qua-
 tremere.)
   Quindecagon, in geometry, a  plane
 figure with fifteen sides and fifteen  angles,
 which, if the  sides are all equal, is termed
 a regular quindecagon, and irregular when
 otherwise.
   Quinine.  (See  Quina, and  Bark, Pe-
 ruvian.)
   Quinipiack ; the Indian name of New
 Haven.  (See New Haven.)
   Qui nqu age si ma; name ofthe Sunday
 before  Lent, because fifty days before Eas-
 ter ;  also called Esto mini.
   Quinquets ; the French term  for Ar-
 gand lamps.   (See  the latter part of the
 article  Lamp.)
   Quinsy; an inflammation of the throat;
 a species of angina, which renders respira-
 tion difficult, or intercepts it; also an in-
 flammation of the fauces.
   Quintane  ; a Roman military sport or
 exercise  by men on horseback, formerly
 practised in England to  try the agility of
 the  country youth.  It  was tilting at a
 mark, made in the shape of a man to the
 navel, having a shield in  his left hand, and
 a wooden sword in  his right; the whole
 was  made to turn round, so that if it was
 struck  with the lance in any other part
 but  full in the breast, it turned with the
 force of the stroke,  and hit the  horseman
 with the  sword which it held in its right
 hand.
  Quintessence (from quinta essentia,
 the fifth essence, by which the  Pythago-
 reans meant the eether), in chemistry ; the
 concentrated extract of  the  virtues  of a
 substance;  hence, in general, the purest,
 best, or highest state ofa quality.
  Quintetto, or Quintett (Italian); a  j
 vocal or instrumental composition  in five
 parts, in which each part is obbligato, and
 performed by a single voice or instrument.
  QUINTILIANUS,  Or  QuiNCTILIANUS,
 Marcus Fabius, flourished in the first cen-
 tury  of the Christian era, and, at an early
age,  left  Calaguris  (now Calahorra), in
 Spain,  the place of his birth, for Rome,
 where he firet distinguished himself as an
 advocate, and afterwards as a rhetorician. 
468
QUINTILIANUS—QUIROGA.
Some of the most eminent Romans were
his pupils, and the emperor Domitiau be-
stowed on him the consular dignity.  Dur-
ing the reign of that emperor, Quintilian
wrote his excellent work,  De Institutione
Oratorio, which contains a system of rhet-
oric ; it exhibits him as a practised master,
a man of taste and talents, and a worthy
imitator of Cicero.   The  tenth  book,
which contains his opinions of Greek and
Roman  writers, is particularly interesting,
and important for the history of literature,
and is characterized  no less by acuteness
than cogency of reasoning. There are
also a considerable number of rhetorical
speeches (declamationes) attributed to him,
but they are not considered genuine.  A
treatise, De Oratoribus sive de Causis cor-
rupts, Eloquential, is often published with
his works, but is also ascribed to Tacitus
and to other writers.  The best  editions
of Quintilian  are Burmann's  (Leyden,
1720,  2 vols., 4to.), Capperonier's (Paris,
1725,  fol.),  Gesner (Gottingen,  1738, 2
vols.,  4to.),  Spalding's  (Leipsic,  1798—
1816, 4 vols.), and Liinemann's (Hanover,
1826, 2 vols.).
  Quintuple Alliance.  (See Quadru-
ple Alliance.)
  Quintus  Calaber, or  Smyrnjeus ; a
Greek poet,  the time and place of whose
birth are uncertain.  His surnames are de-
rived  from the  discovery of his poem in
Calabria, and his mention of Smyrna  as
the place of his  residence.   He probably
flourished in the  fourth  centuiy A. D.
His poem,  napa\etnoi>tva 'Opypov   (Supple-
ment  to Homer), is a continuation of
the Iliad, in  which Homer  is indeed
imitated, but by no  means equalled  in
grace and  simplicity.   The latest  criti-
cal edition  of  this work, by  Tychsen,
with remarks by Heyne (Strasburg, 1807),
was published at the expense of the Bi-
pont society.
  Quipos ;  a contrivance which supplied
the place of writing among the Peruvians,
at the time ofthe conquest of Peru by Pi-
zareo, in the sixteenth century.  It con-
sisted of several threads of different colore
attached to a  cord, and  tied  in knots.
Each color had its peculiar signification;
and, in case the sense could not be con-
veyed by the colors,  the knots were used.
By this means, calculations were carried
on, enumerations of the population, his-
torical  documents and laws preserved,
leagues and treaties indicated, &c.  In
each town there were officers whose duty
it was  to take  care  of  the quipos.  The
defects of this species of writing were sup-
 plied by oral tradition and short poems.
A  somewhat similar contrivance was in
use in Guiana.  (Ses Writing.)
  Quirinus, among the Romans; a sur-
name of Mare, and, at a later  period, of
Romulus, (q. v.)   It was derived from the
Sabine  word quiris or curis, which is
said to have signified a spear, and figura-
tively a soldier;  thence also  the  name
Quirites, assumed by the Romans after
the union of the Sabines, and  applied to
Roman citizens in harangues addressed to
them.   The terms Quirinalia  (a festival
in  honor  of Romulus-),  and  Quirinalis
(one of the seven hills of Rome), are of
the same origin.
  Quiroga, Antonio, leader of the Span-
ish troops, who, in January, 1820, declared
themselves in favor of the constitution of
the cortes of 1812, was born in Gulieia, in
1784, of a very respectable family.  After
having served in the navy, he entered  the
army in 1808, and distinguished  himself
under Morillo, in  the war of Spanish  in-
dependence.  (See Morillo.)   In 1814,  he
was made lieutenant-colonel, and, a few
years after, colonel, in the forces designed
for America. Perceiving the  discontent
of  the troops, Quiroga, in  1819, placed
himself at the head ofthe conspiracy,  got
up under the influence  of  the  general
count del Abisbal; the latter, however,
having divulged the fact ofthe conspiracy,
Quiroga, and several other officers, were
thrown into prison, from which they were
released by the insurrection of the troops
under Riego, in January, 1820. (See  Ri-
ego.)  Quiroga, as chief officer,  conducted
the struggle for the constitution of 1812,
which was accepted by Ferdinand   on
March 7th.  Quiroga was now promoted
to  a  major-generalcy,  and chosen,  by
the province of Galicia,  member of the
extraordinary cortes of  1820.   In  this
body he was distinguished no less for his
moderation  and prudence  than  for  his
zeal, opposing with equal firmness and el-
oquence the encroachments of power  and
of  popular licentiousness.  In 1821, he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the
second military province (Galicia), and the
cortes voted him  an estate as a mark of
the national gratitude ;  but he declined to
accept it, as he considered the burdens of
the nation  already too great.  In March,
1822, a duel took  place between him  and
the  deputy, Morena-Guerra,  in  conse-
quence  of the latter having insulted him
in several lettere.   It was arranged  that
only one pistol should be loaded, and  that
lots should be drawn for it.  Chance  put
it into the hands of Quiroga, and he  im-
mediately fired it into the  air.  In  the 
QUIROGA—QUORUM.                       469
campaign of  1823, he commanded the
fourth division under  Morillo; and when
the latter entered into a kind of conven-
tion of neutrality with the enemy, Quiroga
separated from him, and attempted to de-
fend Corunna against  the French ; but his
means were insufficient, and, after further
ineffectual attempts in defenceof the consti-
tution, he retired to England.  In 1830, he
was one ofthe patriots who endeavored to
organize a new insurrection in Spain, by
an invasion from the Pyrenees; but the
attempt was without success. (See Mina,
and Spain.)
   Quit-Claim,  in law, signifies a release
of any action that one pereon has against
another.  It signifies also a  quitting  a
claim or title to lands, &c.
   Quit-Rent, in law; a small rent that
is payable by the tenants of most manors,
whereby the  tenant goes  quit and free
from  all other services.  Anciently  this
payment was called white-rent, because  it
was paid in  silver coin, and to distinguish
it from rent-corn.
   Quito ; formerly an audiencia of New
Grenada, more recently an integrant part
of the republic of Colombia, bordering on
Peru and the  Pacific ocean. (See Colom-
bia, Sucre, and Venezuda.)  It is divided
into the three departments of the Equator,
Asuai, and Guayaquil, and contains a pop-
ulation of about 520,000, principally In-
dians and mestizoes.   An  elevated part
of the chain of the Andes traverses dlis
country, and is  divided into two ridges
separated by a lofty plain,  about twenty
miles in breadth,  on which most of the
population is concentrated.  The western
ridge is from 100 to 200 miles from the
ocean, and  contains  the summits of Pi-
chincha, Chimborazo, &c.  (See Andes.)
The eastern ridge contains  several vol-
canoes  in  activity.   The  low  countiy
yields maize and sugar, and the higher
regions, com.  The climate, in general, is
cold, and earthquakes often produce great
ravages.
  Quito ; a city of Colombia, capital of
the department of the equator, 460 miles
south-west of  Bogota, and  850 north of
Lima, lying at the  foot of the volcanic
mountain  Pichincha,  in lat. 121 S., lon.
  vol. x          40
 78° 4S7 W.,  at an elevation  of 6550 feet
 above the level  of the sea.  The streets,
 owing to the nature  of the ground,  are
 generally uneven and irregular, and  are
 also  narrow  and  badly  paved.  The
 houses are commonly of but one story, on
 account of the frequency of earthquakes,
 and built of  unburnt bricks  and clay.
 The city contains a  cathedral and episco-
 pal palace, seven other churches, numer-
 ous convents,  several hospitals, and other
 public buildings.  The population is dif-
 ferently  estimated  at  from  40,000  to
 70,000.   The  climate is mild, and almost
 the same throughout the year; but furious
 storms and  earthquakes too often cause
 great ravages.  Quito  was taken by the
 Spaniards in  1534, and was for  a long
 time attached to  Peru, but, in  1718, was
 annexed to New Grenada.
   Quixote, Don.   (See Cervantes.)
   Quodlibet (Latin, as it pleases) signi-
 fies any thing thrown together without
 order or connexion. Comic pictures, con-
 sisting of various disconnected  fragments,
 poems,  and musical pieces  of a  similar
 nature,  are  called quodlibets.  (See Pot-
 pourris.)  The more usual sense of quod-
 libet, in English,  is a quibble.
    Quorum,  in  England  and  the  U.
 States;  a term used in commissions, of
 which the origin is  the Latin expression,
 quorum  unum A. B.  esse  volumus  (of
 whom A. B. shall be one), signifying ori-
 ginally certain individuals, among several
 pereons  invested  with power,  without
 whom the others could not proceed in the
 business.  Thus, among the justices of
 the peace, it was  customary to name some
 eminent for  knowledge and  prudence, to
 be ofthe quorum; but all justices are now
 generally of the quorum.  In  legislative
 and similar  assemblies, a quorum is such
 a number of members as is competent to
 transact business.  In the congress of the
 U. States, it  is provided by the constitu-
 tion (i, 5), that a majority of each house
shall constitute a  quorum to do business.
  Quotient;  the quantity obtained  by
the process of division, or, in other words,
the quantity which  indicates how often
the divisor is contained  in the  dividend;
thus 3 is the  quotient of 15 divided by 5. 
470
R.
R   the eighteenth letter of the English
alphabet, a lingual and a liquid or semi-
vowel, as it can be pronounced before and
after most consonants.  This letter is pro-
nounced in various languages, and in sev-
eral instances even in the same language,
in different ways.   The  most natural
mode, at least that which is  most agree-
able to the ear, and most common in the
various languages, is by an expiration,
whilst the tongue touches the roof of the
mouth with  a tremulous  motion,—the
E renunciation  of the English  r at the
 eginning of a syllable, as rhetoric.   This
sound is still more distinct in the Spanish
language, when one r ends a  syllable, and
another begins the next, as zurra.   This
tremulous motion  of the tongue makes
the pronunciation of r more difficult than
that of any other letter in the alphabet, so
that  it is  the last  which children leam;
and if the tongue is  too thick,  or is too
closely joined to the lower part of the
mouth, they do  not  learn  it  at all.  In-
deed, the sound of r is entirely wanting in
some languages, as in that ofthe Delaware
Indians and ancient Massachusetts stock.
Among the Cherokees, those  membere
of the tribe who live in the mountains
(called mountaineers) change r into I; the
others  (now civdized) have always  I in-
stead of  r.  (See L.)  Another  pronun-
ciation ofthe letter r is produced by curv-
ing the tongue towards the  roof of the
mouth, and pressing the upper part against
the back  part of the roof.  This is the
common  pronunciation of the French r;
and  in this way the "letter may be pro-
nounced  so much from the throat, as to
partake considerably of the  nature of a
guttural.   If the tongue is  not pressed
quite so  much  against the roof of the
mouth, and the air  is expired  with less
strength, we produce the sound which the
English r has at the end of certain sylla-
bles,  as  in perceive.  The English, and
more  particularly the Irish, are distin-
guished from the Americans by drawing
the tongue far back, and thereby prevent-
ing  the air from escaping freely, which
produces a peculiar  rolling sound.  You
may distinguish an American and  Eng-
lishman  immediately, if they only wish
you  a "good morning."*  The r loses its
true  pronunciation  most,  in the English
language, when it follows a, in which case
the ar is pronounced almost as the Italian
a, only a little less open, with a slight gut-
tural contraction.  From this resemblance,
we find, in  some parts of the  U.  States
(e. g. Boston), that words ending with the
Italian sound of c, are pronounced  as if
they  ended in ar; thus children will say,
" 'par," instead of " 'pet," (for papa).   Law
is very  often pronounced lor;  and you
may  hear, among the vulgar, the expres-
sion  "sawring wood."  When the writer
taught German in England, and dictated
a word like Freude, the pupils would in-
variably write Freuder.  R after e and i, it
is known, changes the pronunciation of
the latter, in the English language, as in
perquisite.  (See article  on the letter E.)
The  firet pronunciation of r cannot lie
produced but by an  expiration of consid-
erable strength, which is the reason why,
\n many cases, it is written with a follow-
ing h, or, in some languages which incline
much to aspirate sound, is preceded by h.
Adelung says that  r, on account of its
tremulous motion, is naturally used for ex-
pressing every tremulous motion, and, figu-
ratively, every violent and sudden emotion,
also quick repetition, intension, &c.; e. g.
tremere, ira, rash, irrer, and the German
frequentative syllable added to verbs (era),
which, in many cases, is changed into eln.
The  tremulous motion of this letter, more-
over, produces, in speaking  quickly, an
uncertainty as  to its  preceding or follow-
ing the vowel, so  that  r  is transposed
oftener than any other letter: to burn, in
English, is  brennen  in  German; Brunn
and Born both, in German, signify a well;
so there are the Latin cerno and crevi,
germen and gramen,  pro and  por; the
Greek Kpavtov and K&pnvov; and innumerable
other cases.  As  the pronunciation of  r
differs from that of I only by the tremu-
lous motion of the  tongue, it  is natural
that either of them  should often take the
place of the'Qther.   (For some remarks

  * The London cockney pronunciation ap-
proaches the American in this respect, as in the
case  of corn, which is pronounced,  in the city,
almost like cawn. 
R—RABBINICAL LANGUAGE  AND LITERATURE.         171
respecting both letters,  see the letter L.)
The pronunciation of the letter * is also
much allied to that of r, as the tongue is
in the same position, only allowing the air
to pass over the point, instead of shaking
it.  Hence, also, the frequent alternation
of these two letters; as, as, oris; arena,
with  the  ancient Romans  asena ;  hare,
in German Haase;  was, in German  war;
the German Rohr, in  Ulphilos Raus, and
in French roseau, &c.   The R of the
Romans was derived from the P (rho) ofthe
Greeks.   It is the resh of the Phoenicians
and Samaritans,  formed tiius, *\ and p*.
The various forms ofthe P of the Greeks
and Etruscans may be found in Mionnet's
Descr. de Midailles, pi. xix and xxi.—As a
Roman numeral, it signified 80, according
to die verse,
   Octoginta dabit tibi R, si quis numerabit;
with a  dash  over it, 80,000.  With the
Greeks, p with the accent over it, signified
100;  with the same sign under it, it was
100,000.   The Hebrew resh (i)  denoted
200, and (n), 200,000. R, on ancient med-
als, signifies Ravenna, redux, regia,  resti-
tutor, Roma, Romanus, &c.;  P. R., popu-
lus Romanus; R. P., res publico; R. C,
Romacondita; R. M. S., Romanus; R.C.,
rescriptum, &c.  Among the  names, 11
signified Roscius, Rubrius, Regulus, Ru-
fus, &c.   R, in numismatic works, sig-
nifies rare; and the different degrees of
rarity are  indicated by one, two, three, &c.
It stands, in modem times, for rex ; and
the  English  king always  adds it  to his
name, as, William R—Rx. is rix dollar.
   Raab ;  a  city  of Hungary (anciently
Jaurinum) on a river ofthe same name, at
its confluence  with the Danube; 16,118
inhabitants.  June 14, 1809,  the arch-
duke John and the palatine of Hungary
were defeated here by the French,  under
Eugene Beauharnais. (q. v.)
   Rabanus, Maurus Magnentius, a learned
German prelate, boru in 785, at Mayence,
received his first insu-uction at Fulda, and
afterwards became the disciple of Alcuin,
at Tours.  In 822, he was made abbot
of Fulda. Iu  839, the monks expelled
him, alleging that, in consequence of his
devoting so much time to his studies, the
uflaire of  the monastery were neglected.
They afterwards wished him to resume
the government;  but he declined, and re-
mained in retirement until 847,  when he
was made bishop of Mayence.   One of
his first acts was to summon a council, in
which he  procured  the condemnation of
Godeschalc, for maintaining  the  doctrine
of Si. Augustine respecting predestination
and  grace.  Rabanus died in 856.  He
was  a man of great learning, which he
displayed  in  several  treatises and  com-
mentaries, which were published in 1627,
at Cologne, in 3 vols., folio.
  Rabaut de St. Etienne, John Paul, a
French  Protestant clergyman and advo-
cate, was  born in 1741,  at Nismes, for
which city he was chosen a deputy to the
constituent assembly,  in  1789.  He had
previously obtained some reputation by
his writings; and possessing eloquence
and  address, he appeared  with advantage
as a  public  speaker.  He  distinguished
himself, at first, as one ofthe warmest ad-
vocates  for  innovation ;   but on being
elected a member of the national conven-
tion, his ardor in  some degree subsided.
He had the courage to speak against the
right ofthe convention to  sit in judgment
on Louis XVI.  His sentiments, and his
connexions with the  Girondists, proved
his destruction.   He  was arrested, June
2, 1793, but made his escape, and was
declared an  outlaw on the 28th of July.
He returned  to Paris,  and  found an asy-
lum in  die house of his brother.  Being
discovered by  accident,  he was guillo-
tined, Dec. 5, 1793.   He published sev-
eral historical and political works, among
which are Lettres sur FHistoire primitive
de la Grece  (1787), and Pricis de FHis-
toire de la Rivolution de  France (1791),
new edition, with  a life of the author, by
Boissy d'Anglas (1822).
   Rabbanists, or Rabbinists, also Tal-
mudists.  (See Jews,  and Talmud.)
   Rabbeting,  in  carpentry ; the  pla-
ning or cutting of channels or grooves in
boards.   In ship-carpentry, it signifies the
letting in ofthe planks ofthe ship into the
keel, which,  in the rake and run of a ship,
is hollowed  away, that  the planks  may
join  the closer.
   Rabbi (Hebrew for teacher, master); a
doctor of the Jewish law.   (See the follow-
ing article.)
   Rabbinical  Language and  Litera-
ture.   When the rabbis were driven by
the Arabs from Babylon,  at that time the
head-quarters  of  Jewish  erudition, and
had  established themselves in  Europe,
especially in Spain, and founded schools,
they were soon incited,  by the  learned
researches of the Arabs  into the  Ara-
bic language, to examine their own lan-
guage  critically, which had degenerated
from the old Hebrew to a corrupt Chal-
daic dialect, and  to bring  it  back  to its
original purity. They therefore endeav-
ored  to  make the  biblical  Hebrew a
written  language again,  but were  not
able,  cither  to separate   all  the  dial- 
472   RABBINICAL LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE—RABELAIS.
daic forms  from the grammar, or to con-
fine themselves to the proper significa-
tions of the words, since they were not
sufficient to express all  the  new  ideas
which had arisen.  Thus there sprung up
a new Hebrew written language, which
was used by the rabbis in Spain, Portugal,
Italy and Germany, and was therefore
called the rabbinical language.  For the
acquisition  of  this language,  there  have
been grammars and lexicons, &c, pre-
pared by Cellarius, Reland, Hardt, Tych-
sen, Buxtorf and others, and the labor of
the study is repaid by the  richness of
the  rabbinical  literature, which may be
learned  particularly from the works of
Buxtorf, Bartoloccius and Wolf.  Among
the authors during the most  flourishing
period  of the  middle  ages, Aben Ezra,
David Kimchi (who died about 1232), but
especially Elias Levita, are celebrated as
grammarians; Nathan  Ben  Jechiel and
David Kimchi  also distinguished them-
selves, the one  by a lexicon of the Tal-
mud, in  1100, which  was several times
printed, and the other by a Hebrew  lexi-
con, which long retained a classical reputa-
tion.  The  firet, who, after the researches
of Aben Ezra,  Maimonides (born 1139;
see Maimon), Solomon Jarchi, and David
Kimchi, undertook a great critical revision
of the Pentateuch, in which  the Masora
was his guide,  was Meyer Hallevi (Hara-
mah) of Toledo, in the beginning of the
thirteenth century ; the rabbi  Menachem
de  Lonzano (whose Or Torah, with the
Shete Jadolh, was published  in Venice,
1618), succeeded,  and after  him came
Solomon  Norzi,  whose  labors surpass
those of all the  preceding, in  extent and
thoroughness.  Among the commentators
on the Old Testament, the most conspicu-
ous are  Aben Ezra, a learned philologist,
but  obscure writer; Solomon Jarchi,  a
poor linguist,  and  also obscure writer
(about 1180); Joseph Kimchi (1160), one
of the most learned of the Jews, and his
son, David  Kimchi,  Levi Beti Gereon
(before 13/0) and Isaac Arbarbanel (before
1508).   Maimonides endeavored to aid
the interpretation of the holy writings of
his nation by philosophico-theological dis-
quisitions; among the  many  commenta-
tors, he and Raschi were the most distin-
guished.  The above-mentioned Levi Ben
Gerson und LipmanofMuhlhausen(1399),
wrote in defence of their faith.  In re-
spect to the geography of  the middle
ages, Moses Petachia of Ratisbon (before
1187), Benjamin of Tudela (in 1160), and
I'erizol  of  Avignon  (about  1550), ren-
dered much service by the descriptions
of their  travels.  Mathematics, likewise
astronomy, philosophy and medicine, were
studied with great avidity  by the  Jews,
especially in the schools of the Arabs in
Spain; but as few of their scientific works
are printed,  we must be satisfied with re-
ferring  to  the  oft-named  Maimonides,
who, as a philosopher, mingled the  no-
tions of Aristotle and Plato with the Cab-
ala and  the Talmud,  but  who, in  his
medical works  (Aphorismi, and De  Regi-
mine Sanitatis), showed himself a follower
of Galen.
  Rabbit (lepus cuniculus).   The  - ibbit
differs  from the hare (q. v.) in being of a
smaller size, and having shorter ears and
hinder legs.   It is said to  have  been
originally introduced from Spain into  the
various counu-ies of Europe in which it is
now found.  In its  wild  state, the  color
of its fur is brown; its tail black above,
and  white beneath; but  when  domesti-
cated, the colors vary much, being white,
pied, ash-colored, black,  &.c.  In  Eng-
land, rabbits are reared  either in warrens
or in hutches; the best situations for the
former are sandy hills, on which the juni-
per is thickly planted, as the leaves of'this
shrub are eagerly eaten by rabbits, and
impart  a delicate and aromatic flavor to
their flesh.  If rabbits are kept in hutches,
these  places should be  kept  perfectly
clean,  or otherwise these animals will be
sickly.   They are extremely prolific, be-
ginning to breed when about six months
old, and producing young seven times a
year, the litter usually consisting of eight.
Should this happen regularly, the produce
of one pair, in four yeare, would amount to
the amazing number of 1,274,840. Rabbits
are subject to two disorders, which  often
prove fatal to them,—the rot and a kind of
madness. They are taken either by snaring
them, or smoking them from their holes by
the fumes of sulphur. Their fur is extreme-
ly useful in the  manufacture of hats, and
their flesh is more juicy than that of the
hare.  It is  forbidden to be eaten by the
laws of Moses and Mahomet
  Rabelais, Francois,  a humorous and
satirical French writer, author of Gargan-
tua and Pantagruel, born at  Chinon,  in
Touraine, about 1483, was the son  of an
apothecary, or,  according to some,  of an
inn-keeper.  Rabelais entered  the Fran-
ciscan  order at Fontenay-le-Comte;  but
the absence of all true  learning soon dis-
gusted  him  with this residence, and  his
satirical humor and some youthful  indis-
cretions drew upon him the hatred of the
monks.  With the permission of Clement
VII, he now entered the Benedictine ordee 
RABELAIS—RACCOON.                       473
 (about 1523), but soon after went to Mont-
 pellier as a secular priest, and afterwards
 studied medicine, received the degree of
 doctor, and  taught  and  practised the
 medical profession.  Remorse or fear in-
 duced  him to  procure, from Paul III,
 absolution for the violation of his monastic
 vows, and he spent some time as canon
 in  the  abb»y of  Saint-Maur-des-Fosses,
 where  he was placed by the interest of
 his  patron, the cardiual du  Bellay, and
 where he is supposed to have written a
 considerable part of his Pantagruel. lie
 was afterwards transferred to Meudon, as
 parish priest.  He died at Paris, in  1553.
 Voltaire censures the Gargatdua and Pan-
 tagruel, in which  the taste of the age for
 the  wonderful and the ignorance of the
 monks are severely satirized ; but the buf-
 foonery which it contains must be attribut-
 ed to the spirit of the age, and not to the
 taste of Rabelais, who is, however, much
 below Cervantes in humor.  He was one
 of the firet to give flexibility  and finish
 to the yet rude and harsh language of his
 country.  Boileau  calls him la raison en
 masque, and Rousseau, le  gentil maitre
 Frangois.   Rabelais was  a conscientious
 teacher  of his  people,  and  it was his
 pleasure to instruct the  children of his
 parish in  sacred music.  His house was
 the resort of the learned; his puree was
 always open to the needy ; and his medi-
 cal  skill was employed in the service of
 his  parish.   His  work cannot now be
 easily understood without glossaries and
 commentaries, the  best of which is in the
 edition of Le Duchat, with engravings by
 Pi cart
  Rabener, Gottlieb William, a German
 satirist, was born in 1714, near Leipsic,
 and  was controller of the taxes for the
 circle of Leipsic, until his death, in 1771.
 His works were republished several times;
 latest edition, Leipsic, 1771 (6  vols.).   His
 life,  by Weisse, appeared in 1772.   He
 never allowed himself to indulge in per-
 sonalities, but  chastised folly in general.
 His  satire  would  be  considered rather
 tame in England or the U. States, where
 the party contentions incident to a free
 government give rise to violent abuse and
 biting ridicule  unheard  of  in arbitraiy
 governments.    His works   have  been
 translated  into  French and  Dutch.  A
 report of his death became current long
 before his actual decease; so  that he had
 the pleasure of learning what people said
 about him.
  Raccoon (procyon).   This animal is
 found in most parts ofthe American con-
tinent, though it  appears to be more com-
                  40*
 mon to  the north than to the south.  Its
 color is grayish-brown, with a dusky line
 running from the top of the head down
 the middle ofthe face, ending below the
 eyes.  The tail is very  thickly covered
 with hair, and is  marked by five or six
 aunulations of  black, on a yellowish-
 white ground.  There are, however, sev-
 eral varieties as  regards color.  The size
 varies much according to the age and sex.
 A full-grown male may be stated to have
 the body about eighteen to twenty inches
 long, the head five  inches, and the tail
 about eight inches in length. The female
 exceeds  these dimensions;  and, among
 the skins in  the  turners' shops, some
 are found  which  much surpass  the
 above   measurements.    In   the  wild
 state, the raccoon is savage and  san-
 guinary,   committing  great  slaughter
 among botii wild and domesticated birds,
 as  he  always destroys a great  number
 without consuming any part of them ex-
 cept the head, or the blood which flows
 from  their wounds.  The raccoon also
 will  occasionally commit  ravages  in
 plantations of sugar-cane, or of Indian
 corn, especially  while die latter is in  a
 young state.   This  animal  is  a good
 climber, and, from the form of its claws,
 is enabled to adhere so firmly to a branch
 of a tree, that  it  requires no slight exer-
 tion of strength to disengage it   One of
 die most marked peculiarities ofthe rac-
 coon, and on which its specific name of
 lotor,  or  the  washer, is  founded,  is its
 habit of plunging its food into water be-
 fore eating it.  It is tamed without much
 difficulty while young, but is apt to be-
 come imtractable  and dangerous as it
 grows older.  In the  domesticated state,
 it is extremely  resdess and inquisitive,
 examining every thing; is extremely fond
 of sweet things, and will even partake of
 strong liquors, so as to become  intoxicat-
 ed ; delights in hunting spiders, grasshop-
pers, snails and worms.  Captivity, how-
 ever, produces  considerable changes in
 the habits of this animal;  for, instead, as
 in a state of nature, of sleeping during the
day, and roaming about at night in search
 of food, it will Team to be active during
the day,  and to remain  quiet at night.
 When inclined to sleep, it rolls itself up
 into a  kind of ball: in this position, it
sleeps so pro ' undly as not to be readily
 disturbed. The 4iir is valuable, and forms
no  inconsiderable article  of traffic.  Its
principal use is  in the manufacture of
hats.  The female has from two  to three
young at a birth.  Her den is usually in
some hollow tree, or very secure situation. 
474
RACEME-RACES.
  Raceme, in botany; a  particular ar-
rangement of flowers, when they are ar-
ranged around a filiform simple axis, each
particular flower being stalked.
  Races. Horse races were customary in
England in  very early times.  Fitz Ste-
phen mentions them in the reign of Hen-
ry II.  In the reign of queen Elizabeth,
they appear to have been carried to such
excess as to have injured the fortunes of
the nobility.   At that time, however, the
matches  were  private, and  gentlemen
rode their own horses.  In the reign of
James I, public races were  established.
The horses  were at that time prepared
for  running by the discipline of food,
physic, airing, sweats and clothing which
compose the present system. The weight,
also, which each horee was to carry, was
rigidly adjusted.  The usual weight was
ten stone, and the  riders were weighed
before they started.  The prize was gen-
erally a bell.  About the latter end of the
reign of Charles I, races were  performed
in Hyde park.  After the  restoration,
racing was much encouraged by Charles
II, and a silver bowl or cup of the value
ofa hundred guineas, was  allotted for a
prize.  Subsequent sovereigns have also
encouraged racing.   The sum of a hun*
dred guineas is now given in lieu of the
sflver bowl.   Fine  and delicate  horses,
the natives of warm climates, excel in
swiftness.   The most  perfect of these
were originally found  in  Arabia;  but
their qualities may be improved  in their
descendants  in  a more fruitful country.
The Arabians tried in England have nev-
er proved themselves equal in any respect,
upon the  couree, to the English racers,
descended  from Arabian  stock.   The
true test of thorough blood  is not speed,
but continuance. The speed and contin-
uance of race horses is necessarily affect-
ed by the weight which they carry.  It is
said that, in  running  four miles, seven
pounds make the difference of a distance,
or 240 yards between horses of equal
goodness. Weight is therefore regulated
with scientific precision on the turf; and
if the jockeys, or either of them, fall be-
low the amount agreed upon, they are
made to carry weights to  make  up the
difference.  The weights borne by race
horses vary  from the  maximum twelve
stone to a boy of the hghtest weight.
The usual trial of speed, in English racing,
is a single mile; of continuance or bottom,
four miles. It has been asserted that Fly-
ing Childers ran a mile over Newmarket
in the space  of a minute.  The time was
really a few seconds over a minute.  Fly-
ing Childers, in 1721, ran four miles, car-
rying nine stone two pounds, in the space
of six minutes forty-eight seconds.  This
wonderful animal leaped ten  yards with
his rider upon level  ground, and is sup-
posed to have covered, at every spring in
running,  a  space  of  twenty-five feet,
which is more than  forty-nine  feet in a
second.  Eclipse ran four mUes in York
in eight minutes, carrying a weight of
twelve stone, or 168 pounds.  Bay Mai-
ton ran  over the same couree  in  seven
minutes  and forty-three and  a  half sec-
onds.  The present  system  of training
race horses is to commence operations at
four o'clock in the morning, by  brushing
the horse over.  This being done, and
the horee having finished his  com,  he is
taken to exercise: he takes his walking
and  gallopping before  and after  water,
according to his age, state of his  flesh,
&c.   When he returns to  the stable,
whisping, leg-brushing, &c, ensue; after-
wards feeding; and the door is closed, the
horee being left to himself, free  from  all
kinds of disturbance.   This is finished as
early in the day as possible.  A similar
process,  but  shorter, takes place  three
hours afterwards ;  at noon, brushing,
feeding, &c, again, and the stable door is
again closed for several hours, when sim-
ilar operations to those of the  morning
are repeated ;  similar stable discipline
follows, and the door is once more closed
at six o'clock.  At eight, the horses are
fed and  racked up.  Their  stables are
often warmed by artificial heat.  The ad-
ministration of physic  ought to depend
upon circumstances.  Immediately before
the  race commences,  the jockeys are
weighed, to see whether they are of the
prescribed weight; and, immediately after
the race is over, the weighing is repeated,
to ascertain whether  any of the weights
have been dropped on the course. There
is a great deal of fraud practised in the
whole business of racing. The following
are some of the laws  observed On the
turf.  Horses take  their ages  from May
day; that is, from the first  day of the
May next succeeding their birth.  The
term catch weights means that the riders
are appointed by  the parties  without
weighing.  Give-and-take plates are twelve
hands to cany a stated weight, all above
to cany extra in the  proportion  of seven
pounds for an inch. A post-match is to  in-
sert the age ofthe horse in the articles, and
to run any horee of that age, without de-
claring what horse, till you come to the
post to start  The horee that has his head
at the ending post first, wins the heat.  If 
RACES-RADCLIFFE.                        475
a rider fall from his horse, the horse may
be ridden in by a pereon that is sufficient
weight, provided he go back to the place
where the rider fell.   Horses running on
the wrong side of the post, and not turn-
ing back, are distanced;  horses are dis-
tanced, if their  riders cross  and jostle,
when the articles do not permit it.  When
three horses have each won a  heat, they
only must start for a fourth, and the pref-
erence between them will be determined
by the event
   Races of Men.  (See Man.)
   Racine,  Jean.  This great  French
tragic poet, bom Dec. 21,1639, at Ferte-
Milon, lost his parents when a child, and
was educated in the abbey of Port-Royal-
des-Champs.  (q. v.)   Here  the  future
direction of his  tastes was  already indi-
cated in his love for the old Greek dra-
matic  jioets,  among whom  Euripides
was his favorite.  From Port-Royal, Ra-
cine went to the  college Harcourt, where
he completed his studies.  His first pro-
duction was an ode on  the marriage of
Louis XIV, which procured him', through
Colbert's mediation, a pension, afterwards
increased to 2000 livres, and a present of
100 louis-d'ors.  From this time, he con-
tinued to reside at Paris, on tenns of
friendship with Boileau, and devoted en-
tirely to poetiy.  His first tragedy—La
Thiba'ide, ou les Freres Ennemis—appear-
ed in 1664,  and, although much inferior
to his later works,  was received with
great favor.  In this piece, he imitated
Corneille;  in  his later ones, he followed
a more independent couree.  His Alexan-
dre (1666), though not approved  by Cor-
neille, was received widi almost univer-
sal applause in Paris; and his Andromache
(1668) was still more successful. Through
all the faults of the latter production, the
power of the poet is perceptible; and,
from this time forward, Racine was gen-
erally preferred by  his  countrymen  to
Corneille, whom  they had  previously
looked upon  as inimitable.   The ease
and harmony of his versification, and his
delineations of  tender love, contributed
mainly to this result.  Racine replied to
the tasteless criticisms of marshal Crequi
and the count d'Olone by an epigram;
but he had a more  difficult struggle to
sustain with St. Evremont, who  was a
sort of arbiter ehgantuvrum in France at
that time.  In 1638 appeared Racine's
comedy Les Plaideurs, an imitation ofthe
Wasps of Aristophanes, which makes us
wish that its  author had done more in
that dejiartment  Historical truth is most
accurately preserved in his Britannicus
U670).   Berenice  (1671),  and  Bajazet
(1672), were the least  successful of his
pieces, and the least faithful in their his-
torical coloring.  Mithridates (1673) con-
tains single scenes and situations of great
merit.   Phedre  (1677),  and  Iphiginie,
which appeared two years earlier, are
among the masterpieces  of the French
stage.  In Athalie (1691), which at  first
was looked upon in  France as an entire
failure, Racine displays the whole com-
pass of his genius.  In 1673, he was re-
ceived into the academy,  and, several
years later, was invited by Louis XIV to
write, in connexion with  Boileau, a  his-
tory of his reign, and was named royal
historiographer; but  he did not proceed
far in this1 work. After a mistaken piety
had withdrawn the poet from the theatre,
he wrote Esther, at the request of Madame
de Maintenon.   It was received by the
court, now sunk into an abject supersti-
tion, with the  greatest applause, having
been represented by the pupils at St. Cyr,
in 1689.   Racine had  hitherto enjoyed
the favor ofthe court;  but, having fallen
into disgrace with the king, he died of
chagrin,  April  22, 1699.  The  cause of
his disgrace was a treatise upon the suf-
ferings of the  people in consequence of
the prodigality of the government, written
by the direction of Madame de Mainte-
non, and which offended a monarch  who
was accustomed only to flattery*  An
edition of his works by Boisgermain ap-
peared in 1767, and a more complete one
by Lenormand in  1808.  In forming an
estimate of Racine's genius, we must dis-
tinguish  the faults  of  his situation from
those ofthe writer.   (See France, Litera-
ture of, division Dramatic Poetry.)  A cer-
tain stiffness and coldness; subjects drawn
from Grecian and Roman antiquity, and
treated with the French gallantry and
polish; a strict adherence to rules, which
forbids all lyric freedom, or even romantic
coloring;  and  the faults which arise from
these circumstances, instead of detracting
from Racine's  merit, tend to elevate our
opinion of him. He availed himself, with
great skill, of all the means afforded by
the narrow field which was left open for
a French tragic poet, to elevate the  tone
of feeling and  the action. His tenderness
in the delineation of the passion of love
is unsurpassed, and none, before or since,
has better depicted the conflict of contend-
ing passions.  In harmony of versification
and grace of expression, he is inimitable.
   Rack.   (See Arack, and Torture.)
   Radcliffe, Ann, an eminent novelist,
was  bom in   London,  in  1764.  Her 
476
RADCLIFFE—RAFFLES.
maiden name was Ward, and, at the age
of twenty-three, she was married to Wd-
liam Radcliffe, proprietor and editor ofthe
English Chronicle.  Mrs. Radcliffe's firet
performance was a romance, entitled the
Castles of Athlen  and Dumblaine, and
the next the Sicilian Romance; but die
first of  her works that attracted much
attention was the Romance ofthe Forest,
which was followed by the Mysteries of
Udolpho, which placed her at the  head
ofa department of fiction then rising into
esteem.   Her last work of this kind was
the Italian.  She also published a volume
of Travels through  Holland and along the
Rhine, in 1793. Mrs. Radcliffe possessed
the art  of exciting a high  degree  of
interest in her narrative: her  descriptive
powers were ofa superior order, especial-
ly in the delineation of scenes of terror,
and in those aspects of nature which sug-
gest tender or  melancholy  associations.
She died  in  London, in  1823.   (See
Scott's Lives of the Novelists.)
  Radcliffe, John, a celebrated medical
practitioner, born in 1650, at  Wakefield,
in Yorkshire, where his father possessed
a moderate estate, was educated at Ox-
ford.   He  became doctor of physic in
1682, and removed  to London in 1684.
He  soon acquired  great reputation, to
which his conversational powere contrib-
ed; for, having a ready wit and a strong
tincture  of pleasantry, he  was a  very
diverting companion.  In 1686, he was
appointed physician to the princess Anne
of Denmark; and,  after  the  revolution,
he was often consulted by king William
III, whose favor he lost in consequence
of the freedom of speech in which he
indulged himself.   In 1699, the king, on
his return from Holland, finding himself
very unwell,  sent  for doctor Radcliffe,
and showing him his ankles, swollen and
cedematous, while  his body  was  much
emaciated, said, " What do you think of
these ?"   " Why, truly," replied the phy-
sician, " I would not have your majesty's
two legs for your tiiree kingdoms."  He
was no  more consulted by that prince;
and, when Anne succeeded to the crown,
lord Godolphin in vain endeavored to get
him reinstated in his post of chief physi-
cian, as he had given her offence by tell-
ing her that her ailments were nothing
but the vapors.  But, though deprived of
office, he was consulted  in all cases of
emergency, and received  a large sum of
secret service money for his prescriptions.
He died Nov. 1,1714.  Doctor Radcliffe
left £40,000 to  the  university of Oxford
for the foundation of a public library of
medical and philosophical science, which
was erected.
  Radical Reformers,   (?>ce Reform,
Parliamentary.)
  Radish  (raphanus  saiivus);  a  well
known esculent root, universally cultivat-
ed in temperate climates, and in daily use.
Several varieties have been produced by
long cultivation, differing in die  form,
size and color of the roots;  either turbi-
nate or round, spindle-shaped; annual or
biennial;  white, red, violet  or blackish
externally, but always white  within.  The
taste is more or less pungent  in these
different varieties ;  but they  are good
only when young, becoming hard, woody,
and hollow, with age.  The radish re-
quires a deep, loose  soil to attain perfec-
tion, and it may be produced  successively
throughout the year, by sowing monthly.
It is of easy culture, but, during extreme
heats,  frequent  irrigation  is necessary,
which  renders the roots more mild and
tender. The seed will keep five or six yeare.
The stem of the radish is herbaceous, up-
right, two or three feet high, and rough,
with short haire.  The leaves are alter-
nate, the superior ones simple and sessile,
the inferior  lyrate, divided into oval or
rounded lobes, toothed on  the margin,
with the terminal lobe much  the largest.
The flowers are white or purplish, dispos-
ed in terminal racemes.  The pods arc
cylindrical,  acuminated with the  style,
indehiscent, and  swelling into knots, and
contain rounded seeds. These seeds are
oleaginous, and hi one variety, lately in*
traduced from China, the oil is extracted
and used  for culinary purposes.   Rad-
ishes are antiscorbutic and stimulant, but
are little  employed  in medicine.  The
plant was originally  brought  from  China
and Persia,  but  has been cultivated in
Europe from time immemorial.—The
wild radish, or charlock (R. raphanistrum),
is a troublesome  weed in grain-fields in
the U. States, as well as in Europe, its
native country.  The  flowers are yellow.
  Radius, in geometry. (See Diamder.)
  Raffaello.   (See Raphael.)
  Raffle ;  a game of chance, in which
several persons deposit each part of die
value ofa thing for the chance of gaining
it.  The winner takes the whole.
  Raffles, sir Thomas Stamford, the son
ofa captain in the West India trade, was
bom at sea, off Jamaica,  in 1781.  His
father placed him for education at Ham-
mersmith, where he remained till he was
appointed to  a  clerkship hi the  India
house.  In  1805, the  secretary to  the
board procured him the situation of as- 
RAFFLES-RAGUSA, DUKE OF.
477
      sistant-secretary to the new government of
      Prince of Wales's island, and he Was soon
      after appointed Malay  translator to the
      government   In 1810, his  reputation
      procured him  the appointment of agent
      of the governor-general with  the Malay
      states; and, the following year, on the re-
      duction of Java, he was nominated lieu-
      tenant-governor of the island.  In  this
      capacity he continued till 1816, when he
      returned to England, with an extensive
      collection of the  productions, costume,
      &c, of  the Eastern  archipelago.   The
      year following, appeared his History of
      Java (new  edition 1830).  In 1817, he
      was nominated to the residency of Ben-
      coolen, in Sumatra, with the  honor of
      knighthood, and the lieutenant-governor-
      ship  of  Fort  Marlborough.    Here  he
      remedied many disgraceful abuses.  In
      1823, he laid the foundation of a literary
      institution, consisting of a college for the
      encouragement of Anglo-Chinese litera-
      ture.  In the following year, he embark-
      ed for Europe; but, a  fire breaking out
      in the ship, the vessel was destroyed at
      sea, the crew and passengers saving their
      lives with difficulty in the boats, and re-
      landing in a  state of  utter  destitution,
» *   about fifteen miles from Bencoolen, after
      passing a night on the ocean.  He em-
      barked again  for London in the same
      year, and died in 1826. In 1830, appeared
      a Memoir of his Life by his Widow (4to.).
         Raffles ia.  This gigantic flower was
      discovered not many years since in the
      interior of Sumatra.  It is very rare there,
      and  is parasitical, growing on the cissus
      angustifolius.   The whole plant seems to
      consist of little else beyond the flower and
      root. It  is dioecious, and the female flow-
      ers are unknown.  The calyx, or corolla,
      consists  of  a  ventricose tube, crowned
      with a ring, and  divided at the summit
      into five  equal lobes.   The stamens are
      veiy numerous. The stem, which hardly
      rises above the root, is fleshy, and cover-
      ed with very  large,  obtuse, imbricated
      bracts.   The diameter of die flower is
      three feet, and some parts of the calyx or
      corolla are  three fourths  of  an inch in
      thickness.  No other flower in the vege-
      table world at all approaches these dimen-
      sions. The R. horsfieldii is a second species
      of the genus, with a much smaller flower.
         Raft ; a sort  of float, formed  by a
      body of planks or pieces of timber fasten-
      ed together side by side, so as to be con-
      veyed down rivere, across harbors, &c,
      more commodiously than if they were
      separate.
        Rafters, in building,  are  pieces of
timber,  which, standing by pairs on the
raising piece, meet in an angle at the top,
and form the roof of a building.
  Ragotski, Francis, second ofthe name,
prince of Transylvania, was born in 1676.
Ou the death of his father, he was care-
fully watched  by  the house of Austria;
but he secretly entered into a negotiation
with Louis XIV,  which being betrayed,
he was found guilty of high treason.  Hav-
ing made his escape  from  prison, and re-
ceived assurances of succor from France,
he entered Hungary, and published a man-
ifesto, urging the people to free themselves
from  the tyranny of  the Austrians.  He
was joined Ly a great number, and storm-
ed some fortresses, taking a severe  re-
venge upon the  imperialists, who had
given no quarter to the Hungarian insur-
gents.  In 1704, he was proclaimed prince
of Transylvania and protector of Hunga-
ry.  He soon, however, felt the  difficulty
of opposing the arms  and  policy  of a
powerful sovereign,  especially as Louis
could not render him  much assistance.
He also found a rival in his friend and as-
sociate,  count  Bercheni; and,  in conse-
quence of a severe check, his troops be-
gan to desert.  In 1711, a treaty  was con-
cluded between the Hungarian states and
the emperor, to which  he refused to ac-
cede, though the first article secured  his
life and  property, with the title of prince
of Transylvania.   Deeply  wounded  at
this defeat of his patriotic wishes, he with-
drew into Turkey, where he died in 1735.
He wrote  Memoirs of his Life, published
in the Revolutions de Hongrie  (Hague,
1739).   There  is also  a work, but  of
doubtful authenticity, entitled Testament
Politique d Moral du Prince Ragotski.
  Rags.   The value ofthe rags imported
into the  U. States in the year ending Sept
30,1830, was $77,661.  (See  Paper.)
  Ragusa ; capital of a circle of the same
name in  Dalmatia (q. v.), lying on the Adri-
atic, in lat. 42° 36/ N.; lon. 18° 11' E.; pop-
ulation 6500.   It was formerly a republic,
with a territory of 500 square miles, and
60,000 inhabitants, which was founded  in
656.   Its  most flourishing  period  was
from  1427 to  1440,  and  it preserved its
liberty by the payment of a tribute to the
Porte.  In 1806,  although the  republic
observed the strictest neutrality, it was
taken possession of by the French, and, in
1811, was incorporated with the govern-
ment of Ulyria.  In 1814, it was occupied
by Austrian troops.   Napoleon conferred
the title of " duke of Ragusa" on marshal
Marmont (q. v.)
  Ragdsa, Duke of.  (See Marmont.) 
478                         RAIK—RAIL-WAYS.
  Raik.  (See Caliph, vol. ii, p. 411.)
  Raikes, Robert, a printer and philan-
thropist,  was born at Gloucester in 1735.
His father was proprietor of the Gloucester
Journal,  and the son succeeded him in
the printing business; aud, having realized
a good property, he employed it with his
pen and ids influence in relieving such ob-
jects as  stood in need of his benevolent
assistance.   He is, however, best known
for his  institution  of Sunday  schools,
which he planned, conjointly with the
reverend Mr. Stock, in 1781.  Mr. Raikes
died at Gloucester in 1811.
  Rail-Wats.   The most perfect of the
Roman roads, as the Appian way, which
is a continued plane surface formed  by
blocks of stone closely fitted together, was
a near approach to the modern rail-road ;
but the plans of the two  species  of road
are very different   The firet rail-ways,
formed on  the  plan of making a distinct
surface and track for the  wheels, seem to
have been constructed near Newcastle, up-
on the river Tyne, in England.  In Roger
North's Life of Lord Keeper North, he says,
that at this place (in 1676) the coals were
conveyed from the mines to the banks of
the river," by laying rails of timber exactly
straight  and parallel ; and bulky  carts
were made with four rollers fitting those
rails, whereby the carriage was made so
easy that one horse would draw four or
five  chaldrons  of coal." One hundred
years afterwards, viz.  about  1776,  Mr.
Curr constructed an iron rail-road at the
Sheffield colliery.  The  rails were sup-
ported by wooden sleepers, to which tiiey
were nailed.  In 1797, Mr. Barns adopted
stone supports in a rail-road leading from
the Lawson main colliery to  the  Tyne,
near  to  Newcastle ; and,  in  1800,  Mr.
Outram  made use of them in a rail-road
at Little  Eaton, in Derbyshire.  Twenty-
five yeare afterwards, this species of road
was successfully adopted  on  a public
thoroughfare for the transportation of mer-
chandise and passengers,  viz. the Stockton
and Darlington rail-road,  which was com-
pleted in 1825, and was the firet on which
this experiment was made widi  success.
From that time, accordingly,  a  new era
commenced in the history of inland trans-
portation.
   Route.  The firet inquiry presenting it-
self in respect to a rail-road between two
points, relates to the choice of a  route,
where the nature of the  territory permits
of any such choice.   In making this elec-
tion, the comparative distances, the amount
of intermediate transportation to be ac-
commodated, the character of the soil as
to affording a good foundation, the exca-
vations and embankments necessary to be
made in order to bring the road within a
certain scale of inclination, and  the diffi-
culty or facility  of  obtaining suitable  ma-
terials for the construction ofthe road, are
all to be taken into consideration.   These
investigations and  comparisons cannot be
too  rigidly and minutely made; and it has
been suggested  by experienced engineers,
that, in some of the roads of this descrip-
tion constructed in  the U. States, great
mistakes will be found to have been made
in  this  respect, in consequence  of too
great precipitancy in fixing on a route.
  Grading.  The scale  of inclination to
which the road  is to be reduced, is neces-
sarily taken  into consideration  in fixing
upon  a general  route; but still a choice
often presents itself in parts of such route,
between the expense in reducing the rate
of inclination by excavations and embank-
ments, and the saving of expense  by
taking a more circuitous route.  Another
question  also  presents itself,  namely,
whether to reduce an acclivity, or  to  sur-
mount it; and the manner of overcoming
it is a subject of inquiry  at the same time ;
for,  the surface of the ground having been
examined and the route  determined, on a
general scale of inclination, within which
the  ordinary power used for transportation
is to be applied, the whole line is either io
be brought withiu this scale, or, if an in-
clination exceeding it is admitted, it is to
be overcome by the use of an extra power.
In such case, if the extraordinary expense
of reducing the inclination is not so great
that the interest  upon this part of the origi-
nal  outlay would exceed the additional ex-
pense of the use  of an extra  power to
overcome au inclined plane,  it  will  he a
decisive reason  in favor of reducing the
inclination.  The  amount of transporta-
tion to be accommodated will determine,
in a great degree, the expense of the extra
[lower requisite  to overcome  a given in-
clined plane.   Another  circumstance  to
be considered is, whether the extra power
to be used is that of horses, or  steam, or
water; for the  two former are  compara-
tively more expensive  for a small  than
for  a large amount of transportation, owing
to the cost of maintaining them; but the
difference is not so great where  a water
power can  be  used.   In  some  cases,  it
may be better to make deflections in the
road, than to reduce inclinations, or to use
extra power.  This  will depend  on the
kind of transportation and the importance
of  celerity ; for if the object is mainly the
transportation of increased weight by the 
RAIL-WAYS.                             479
Rarne power, without regard to the time,
any deviation from a direct couree is less
objectionable.  But upon  lines of public
travel, despatch is of great  importance.
  Rails.  Supports.   In the recently con-
structed rail-roads  in England, the  iron
rails  are  in  general  supported by  iron
chairs or props,  at  a distance of about
three feet from each other; in most of
those hitherto constructed  in the U. States,
the rail is supported by a continued line
of wood or stone.  Where the rails rest on
a line of wood, the track must be com-
paratively imperfect, since the  wood will
yield to the weight of die load transported,
and be slightly  compressed as  the wheels
pass, thus offering a continual  resistance.
Where successive parts  of the track are
formed by  laying  iron rails upon pine,
oak, and stone, the difference  of power
necessary to move the same load on the
different parts, will  be evident in  the dif-
ferent degrees  of exertion made  by the
horee, where this power is used.  Ac-
cordingly, if a soft species of wood is used
to support the iron rail, it is a great advan-
tage to interpose  a line of oak or other
hard wood.  A rail continuously supported
by a  line  of stone  will  not yield to  the
weight of the load; and where the rail is
supported at successive points by chairs,
it is  always  intended  to  be  of  such
strength, that it will not be sensibly bent
by the  weight.   The plan of supporting
by chairs has been very thoroughly tried
in England, and 60 much improved, that
a very perfect track may  be now (1832)
formed in this way.  Continued lines of
granite or other durable stone, are now in
use on a number of rail-roads in the U.
States, but cannot, as yet, be considered to
be  so thoroughly tested, though the results
of the experiments are thus far  very fa-
vorable.  It was apprehended, at first, that
the action of the wheel  would draw or
flatten the iron plate; but it has been found
by experience,  that this effect is  not pro-
duced.  The principal  difficulty  in  the
use of this kind of track, was in the fasten-
ing ofthe rail to the stone, the nails used
for this purpose being liable to be loosened
or cut off by the  expansion and  contrac-
tion  of the iron rail.  This defect has,
however,  been  partially remedied by
making oval holes in the rails for the fas-
tenings, thus allowing a little longitudinal
motion of the  rail without injury to the
fastenings.   A question  was  heretofore
made, whether cast iron or malleable was
the  best material  for the rail.  Cast iron
rails do not so easily bend, and die  same
weight of iron is also much cheaper. But
they are more subject to be broken by
sudden  jars  and  blows,  and a  much
greater weight must be used in order to
obtain the requisite strength.  It  was at
one time supposed, that the action of the
wheels on  rails of malleable iron  would
cause them to exfoliate in thin laminae, and
that thus they  might be subject to greater
waste than those of cast iron.  But this
has proved to  be a mistake.  It has alto
been further proved, that  if a bar  of iron
be cut into two equal pieces, and  one of
them be laid on a rail-road, and used for a
track, and the other laid by the side of the
road, and exposed to the action of the at-
mosphere, and not used  at all, the latter
will  waste  and lose  weight much  more
rapidly  than the former.  The loss of
malleable  iron rails  by use, is less than
that of cast iron  ones.  Mr. Wood  states
the following  comparison  of the two:
Malleable iron rails, 15 feet long, were used
on the Stockton and  Darlington rail-way ;
over which locomotive  engines  passed,
weighing from 8 to 11 tons, and wagons
with  their  loads weighing  four  tons:
86,000 tons passed over the rails  in one
year, exclusive ofthe weight of  the en-
gines and wagons.  A rail 15 feet in length,
weighing  136£ pounds, lost in the  year
eight ounces, or g-4'3 P8*"1  °f 'ts weight;
and the loss was the same in  a  similar
rail over which only empty wagons passed.
A cast iron rail four feet long, weighing 63
pounds, over which wagons passed, weigh-
ing four tons  each when loaded, and on
which the same  number of tons, besides
the wagons, was transported in  a year,
lost  eight  ounces,  being  T£g  part of
the whole  weight of the  rail, or more
than twice  as great a proportion as the
former.  The inclination of opinion is, ac-
cordingly, from these circumstances, very
strong in favor ofthe use of malleable iron
rails.   Plate rails were first used, which
presented a flat surface to the wheel; but
what are  denominated edge  rails have
since come into use,  and,  according to
Mr. Wood, are preferable, on account of
their presenting less  resistance   to the
wheel, and being less subject to injury
and  destmction  by use.  The upper sur-
face of the  edge rail has a slight  trans-
verse curve, so as to be highest in the cen-
tral  line of the  track,  and to fall  off by
degrees towards each side ofthe rail, thus
presenting no angle. Where the iron rail is
supported by chairs at distances of three,
or three and a half feet from each  other,
the rail will evidendy require to  be of
greater strength in the centre between the
supports,  if it be proposed to form the 
480
RAIL-WAYS.
rail so that it shall  be able to  bear the
same weight in every part; and it would
evidendy be a waste of material to form
it upon any other plan. The rail ought, al-
so, to be stronger at the same point, in order
to resist any lateral pressure, as the cars,
in moving over the road, will necessarily be
sometimes propelled against one or the odi-
er side of the road; which makes it neces-
sary to strengthen die central part  of the
rad laterally, to prevent its being broken
or bent by such lateral  pressure.  The
rails are accordingly  formed  upon this
principle, the  size  and  weight of iron
increasing  from each support  towards
the centre.  In the tram rail-ways, plate
rails  are  used,  with a  perpendicular
plate, or rim, at the outside edge  of the
rad, of two or three inches in height, to
confine the  wheels upon  the  rail-road.
But this mode of keeping the  carriage
upon the  road is  not  necessary ; for,
whedier the rail be  of the plate or of the
edge fonn, the wheels of die carriages
may be confined to  the road equally well
by a flange, or projection at die periphery
of the wheel,  on the side next die centre
of the road.  In the mode  of joining die
rails, very important improvements have
been made since the introduction of rail-
roads into more general  use.  The rails
were,  at firet,  only about three or three
and a half feet in length, and fastened hi
the chairs by a pin  running horizontally
through each end of the  rail, there being
two holes hi each chair for the admission
of two pins for this purpose, one for the
end of each rail,  so that  die fastenings
were distinct.   The  consequence was,
that if the chair did  not  stand  upon a
perfectly firm  foundation, but upon one
that yielded on one side,  so that the chair
leaned in the line of the  road, one of the
pins, and consequently  the end of the
rail fastened by it, would  be depressed
below the odier, thus making a sudden
break in the surface of the track,  which
would cause  a jolt  as the  wheel passed
over it, to the injury of bodi the road and
the carriages,  and the inconvenience of
passengers.  Mr. Wood  says  this defect
was very frequent on rail-roads construct-
ed upon this plan.  It has been remedied
by making the rails join by lapping with
what is called the half-lap, and fastening
the ends of both rails by  one pin; so that,
although a chair  should  lean  in the line
ofthe road, or be a litde  depressed below
the otiiere, still the two rails would pre-
sent a smooth surface at their junction.
The injury and inconvenience occasioned
by the imperfections of the junctions of
the rails were still further remedied by
making the rails twelve or fifteen feet in
length, supported at short distances as be-
fore,  die form and dimensions of each
 Eart of the rail between any two supports
 eing constructed as  already  described;
by which means the number of junctions
was reduced to one fourth or fifth of their
former number.   This was a  very  great
step in the improvement of this species
of road. An improvement, of great util-
ity, has  also been made in the mode of
fastening the rails, by  dispensing with the
use of pins, which were liable to  work
loose.  There are various forms of con-
structing the rails and chairs for this pur-
pose, but they  all agree in principle.  One
mode is by  making a depression in the
chair  on one side of  the rad, into which
a  projection from its lower side precisely
fits.   If the rad  is held close upon that
side,  it  is  thereby fixed  to  the chair,
and can be moved only with the chair it-
self; and it is so held by driving a key
or wedge along the opposite side of the
rail, between die rail  and the side of the
chair  projecting upon  die side of the rad.
   Chairs.   Fastenings.   In  describing
die rails, the supports  or chairs have been
partly described.  They  are of iron, with
a broad, flat base, supported upon blocks
of stone, into which holes are drilled, and
filled  with wooden plugs. The chairs are
fastened to the stone blocks by nads driven
into these plugs.  This stone block should
rest finidy upon its base, and not be liable
to change of position by frost or any other
cause;  and, accordingly, great care has
been  taken to make these supports firm.
   Turn-outs.  If all  the wagons upon a
rad-road, whether for the transportation
of passengers  or merchandise, were to
travel at die same time, and at the  same
speed, two sets of tracks would be  suffi-
cient  to accommodate the whole, as there
would be no necessity of their turning out
to pass each other. But in the transporta-
tion of passengers, greater speed is desira-
ble than in the transportation of merchan-
dise ; for the transportation of merchan-
dise,  whether by horse  power or steam
power,  can be  done  more economically,
and with less injury to the road, at a low
than  a very high rate of speed.   It is,
therefore, a very considerable object, in
rail-roads upon  lines  of public travel, to
allow wagons to pass  others travelling in
the same direction.   Provision must be
made, accordingly, for turning out.  This
provision is particularly necessary in case
of a road with a single set  of tracks, ou
which die  carriages  must meet.  These 
RAIL-WAYS.                             481
tum-outs are made by means of a movable
or switch rail at die angle where the turn-
out track  branches from  the main one.
This rail  is two  or three feet, more or
less, in length, and one end may be moved
over that angle, and laid so as to  form a
part of the main  track, or  the turn-out
track.   The switch rail  is usually moved
by the hand, so as to form a part of that
track on which the wagon is to move.
  Carriages.  Wlieels.  The bodies ofthe
wagons will, obviously, require to be con-
stmcted with reference to the kind  of
transportation.  The principal considera-
tion, in regard to the constmction of the
carriages,  relates to their bearings on the
axle and the rim of the wheel.  The mle
given by Mr. Wood, as to the bearing  on
the axle,  is, that in order to produce the
least friction, the  breadtii of the bearing
should be  equal  to the diameter of the
axle at the place of bearing.   This diam-
eter must be determined by the weight to
be carried; and  the breadth of the bear-
ing will accordingly vary  with it  The
objection to the plate rail, as already stat-
ed, is, that the breadth of the bearing of
the rim of the wheel upon such  a rail,
causes an  unnecessary additional friction;
and die resistance to the wheel is increas-
ed in  consequence of the greater liability
of such a rail to collect dust and odier im-
pediments upon  its surface.   The edge
rad is preferable,  in these respects ; but,
at first, these rails were liable to one dif-
ficulty, in consequence of dieir wearing
grooves in the rim of the  wheel,  so that
the friction was continually increasing,
and the wheel soon became unfit  for use.
To remedy this defect, the rims were case-
hardened,  or  dulled,  by rolling  them,
when  hot, against a cold iron cylinder.
Wheels so case-hardened are  found to be
subject to very little wear.  It was, at first,
objected to the use of iron wheels, that
they would not take sufficiently strong
hold of the rails to draw any considerable
load after them,  and that  therefore they
would not answer for the use of locomo-
tive engines.  Where horses  are the mo-
tive power, it is evident that if the horee
draws the car to which he is attached, the
others fastened to it must  follow, it being
no objection that either the wheels of the
carriage to which the horee is harnessed,
or of those of the train following, do not
take hold  of the rails, but, on die contra-
ry, the less hold diey take, the more easy
it will be to move the train.  But  where
one carnage is impelled forward  by the
action of the engine in turning the wheels,
and the  following train  of wagons  is
  vol.  x.          41
drawn by the engine car, if the resistance
by gravity and friction is greater than die
force with which the wheels  adhere to
the rails, the engine will only revolve the
wheels  to  which it  is geared,  which
would turn upon the rails, and the car and
whole train remain stationary.  To pre-
vent this, different contrivances were here-
tofore resorted to, one of which was to let
teeth project from the  sides of the wheels
to interlock with rack-work on the side
of the rail.  It has, however, been found,
in practice, that, for the ordinary inclina-
tions of rail-roads, to  the extent of about
thirty feet per mile, the wheels may be so
constructed as to move a train of wagons
by their mere adhesion to the rails.   The
inclination  which  can  be  so overcome
must evidently depend on the kind of sur-
faces of the  rim of the wheel and  the
rail, the weight bearing  upon the wheels,
die  weight to be  moved, and the resist-
ance from the  friction of the train of
wagons; so that no precise mle can be giv-
en that shall be applicable  to roads and
wheels of  different materials and con-
struction.  One of the first expedients for
increasing  the adhesion of  the wheels
to the rads,  without  incuning any con-
siderable loss by additional weight or fric-
tion, was to gear the four wheels of the en-
gine car together, so as to have the advan-
tage of the friction of all of them upon
the rails; for, if the piston of the engine
is connected by gearing  only  with  the
wheels  of one  axle, a  resistance in  the
other wheels  of the engine, and by  the
whole tram, only equal to the friction of
those two wheels, can be overcome.  By
gearing the piston of die engine with the
four wheels, by means of an endless chain
passing round  the two axles upon two
cog-wheels,  or by otherwise gearing the
four wheels together or to the piston,  the
hold ofthe wheels on  the rails is doubled.
For the same purpose,  an additional set
of wheels, making six in the whole, for the
engine car, is sometimes added; but such an
addition to the number of sets of wheels
is evidently attended with disadvantages
on the score of expense, complication of
structure, weight to be moved, and fric-
tion of parts  to be overcome.  The ad-
vantage proposed by adding  another set
of wheels is, that a greater weight maybe
carried by the engine car, thus making
a greater adhesion to  the rails by  the
wheels geared together, without throwing
so great a weight upon any of the wheels
as to injure the road.  But resort is rarely
had to this expedient.  An improvement,
having the same object,  and  attended by 
482
RAIL-WAYS.
no loss from addition of weight or friction,
is a contrivance for securing the adhesion
of all the wheels to the rails;  for it will be
obvious that, if the  two  axles of the two
sets of wheels are fastened to a stroug un-
yielding car frame, the car will rest upon
three wheels, whenever the surface ofthe
road does not precisely correspond in rel-
ative altitude  to the lower points in the
rims of the wheels; that is, if the sur-
faces ofthe rails are precisely in the same
plane, and the hearing surfaces ofthe rims
of the wheels are also precisely in the same
plane,  all the wheels will rest  upon and
take hold of the rails, whether the axles
are fastened to an unyielding frame or not.
But no road or carriage can be so perfectly
constructed, that the surfaces of the rails
and bearings  of the wheels can always
exactly correspond.  Mr. Knight, the chief
engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio rail-
road, says, iu his report of October, 1831,
that the whole weight of a  wagon, with
an unyielding frame, will frequently be
supported on two only ofthe four wheels,
thus making  a load bear twice as much
upon one part of the rail, as it would do
if its  weight  were equally supported by
the four wheels.  To remedy this  diffi-
culty, the whole weight carried upon the
axles  is supported by springs, or some in-
terposed elastic power,  that of the con-
densed steam being taken advantage of
for the purpose in some cars, whereby
each wheel is pressed upon the rail, though
the relative surfaces on which the wheels
may bear, on  different places in the road,
may vaiy.  Mr. Knight, in the same re-
port, makes a suggestion worthy of con-
sideration in the construction of wagons, as
well as engine care.  He proposes that in all
cases the weight should be supported on
springs, not only for the purpose of dis-
tributing the weight equally, but also to
prevent shocks and jars, whereby both the
road  and carriages are injured.   Another
expedient to secure a sufficient adhesion
of the wheels to the surfaces of the rails,
is to use wheels for the engine car that
are not case-hardened.
   The experiments stated by Mr. Tred-
gold  and  Mr. Wood show  a  very  great
advantage  in the use of large wheels.  Mr.
Wood states that the motive power re-
quired to overcome the  same friction of
rubbing parts of the car and engine, in
case of wheels four feet in diameter, is less
by one fourth than  in case of those three
feet in diameter.  But there is some limit
to the extent  of this advantage; for an in-
crease of tbe diameter of the wheel adds
to the weifcfot, and the expense of con-
struction, so that wheels of not more than
four or  five feet in diameter are  ordina-
rily used, and a great part of those in use
are not above two and a half feet   Some
of the locomotives used ou the Liverpool
and Manchester rail-road  have sets  of
wheels of different sizes, the diameter of
one being nearly double that ofthe other.
The state ofthe rail will have some effect
upon the adhesion ofthe wheels, which is
least when the rails are slightly wet.  The
experiments of Mr. Boodi, on the Liver-
pool and Manchester rail-road, prove that
in the most unfavorable state of the rails,
the adhesion of wheels of malleable iron
upon rails of the same material, is equal to
one twentieth of the weight  upon them.
The locomotives  vary in weight,  from
three or four to  ten or eleven tons.   A lo-
comotive, with its apparatus  and append-
ages weighing four  and a half tons, will
adhere to the rails with  sufficient force to
draw thirty tons weight on a  level road, at
the rate of fifteen  miles  per hour, and
seven tons up an ascent of one in ninety-
six, or  fifty-five feet in  a  mile;  at a
slower rate, it will draw a greater weight.
The slower the rate of travelling is, the
greater  is the weight that may be  sup-
ported by the same wheel, without injury
to  the  road from  shocks,  though the
weight  must of course be limited by the
size and strength ofthe rails, whether the
rate of motion be quick or slow.
   Curvatures in the Road. The curvatures
ofthe rail-road  present some obstructions,
since, the axles  ofthe car and wagons be-
ing usually fixed firmly to the frames, ev-
eiy bend  of the tracks  must evidently
cause some lateral rubbing, or pressure of
the wheels upon the rails, which will oc-
casion an increased friction.  If the wheels
are fixed to the axles, so that both  must
revolve  together, according  to the mode
of constmction hitherto  most  usually
adopted, in passing a curve, the wheel that
moves on the outside or longest rail  must
be slided  over whatever  distance it ex-
ceeds the length of the other rail, in case
both  wheels roll on rims of the same di-
ameter.  This is an obstruction presented
by almost every rail-road, since it is rarely
practicable to make such a road straight
The  curvatures of some  roads are of a
radius of only 300, and even of 250 feet.
The consequence was that  the carriages
heretofore in use  were obstructed, not
only by the rubbing of the surfaces of the
wheels  upon the rails, already mentioned,
but also by the friction of  the flange of
the wheel against  the side of the rail.
This difficulty has,, however, been in  a 
RAIL-WAYS.
483
igreat measure remedied by an improve-
ment made  by Mr. J. Knight, chief engi-
neer of the  Baltimore and Ohio rail-road,
which is an important event in the prog-
ress and history  of  this mode of trans-
portation.  The improvement is as ad-
mirable for its  simplicity  and  facility of
application, as  for its efficiency.   It con-
sists in a change in the form of the rim of
the wheel.  The  part on which  this rim
ordinarily rolls on the rail, is made cylin-
drical, this being the form of bearing evi-
dently the  least injurious  to the road, as
the  weight  resting perpendicularly  upon
the rails has no tendency to displace them
or their supports.   But between this ordi-
nary bearing and the flange,  a distance of
about one inch in a wheel of thirty inches
diameter, he made the rim conical, ris-
ing towards the  flange one sixth  of an
inch, and thus gradually increasing in di-
ameter.  Wherever  the road  bends, the
wheel, rolling on the exterior, and, iu such
case, longer track, will, in consequence of
the tendency of the carriage to move in a
right line, be carried  up a little en the rail,
so as to bear upon the conical part of the
rim, which gives a bearing circumference
of the wheel on that side, greater than that
uf the wheel at the opposite end of the
same axle.  The tendency, accordingly, ia
to keep the  car iu the centre ofthe tracks,
by producing a curvilinear motion  in tho
wagon, exactly corresponding to the curve
of the road.  In  the report  made by Mr.
Knight in 1830, he says that a car, with
wheels such as those already described,
was run upon a part  ofthe Baltimore anil
Ohio rail-road, where the greatest curva-
tures were of a radius of 400 feet, at the
rate of fifteen miles per hour.  In his re-
port of October 1, 1831, Mr. Knight says
I hat the additional friction on such a curve,
above that on a straight road, is 1 in 1418,
equal  to 3.7'-* feet in a mile, with Wiu-
ans's car, and  1  in  356, equal to 14.83
feet  in a mile, with  another car.   If the
diameter of, the wheel is  increased,  that
of the conical  part of the rim  should be
increased also, making the rise ofthe con-
ical part between  the flange and the cylin-
drical part (as Mr. Knight estimates in his
report of February 1, 1830), one fifth of
an  inch in a  wheel of three  feet di-
ameter, and one  fourth of an  inch in
a wheel of four  feet diameter.   In his
report of October 1, 1831, he  says he
had  changed  the ratio  of the  conical
part  of the  rim, on  wheels  of the same
Bize, from that of one to six, to  that of one
to five, and had increased the length of
the conical  part to JT3? inch;  und  that
he thinks the form of the rim  was there-
by improved.   In  the same report,  Mr.
Knight describes a metliod of turning a
very short curve of u quadrant  of a circle
on  a radius  of sixty feet,  by making i
plate with a groove for the flange of tho
wheel on the longer track to run in; tlv.'-,
in this case,  muking the difference of liio
rolling  circumference  of the wheels cor-
respond to that of the two tracks.  TIim
plan was adopted for the purpose of turn-
ing corners of streets in towns, and, from
experiments that have been made, prom-
ises to be successful.
  Inclined Planes.  Where the inclination
of the road is greater than that for which
the drdinary power is  calculated, the as-
cent must be effected by means of an ad-
ditional power, the amount of which  can
be readily computed, since, in those parts,
irO additional friction of die cars or wheels
is to be provided for,  and only the addi-
tional resistance arising from gravity is to
be overcome.  If, for instance, the  ad-
ditional inclination is one in  ninety-six,
or fifty-five  feet in a mile, the additional
power  must  be to die weight  as one to
ninety-six, or as fifty-five to the number
of* feet in a  mile, namely, 5280.  In  de-
scending planes, so much inclined that the
gravity would move the carriages too rap-
idly for safety, the  velocity is checked  by
means  of a break, which  consists of a
piece of wood  of the same curvature as
the rim  of  a  set  of the wheels, upon
which the break is pressed by means of a
lever, so adjusted as to be within reach of
the conductor, in his  position on the car-
riage.
   Power.   Gravity,  horee power, and
steam power, have been  used  on rail-
roads.   Where the road is sufficiently and
uniformly descending  in  one   direction,
gravity may be relied upon as a motive
power in that direction ; but on rail-roads
generally, some other  power must be re-
sorted to in each direction.  At the time
of the  construction of the Liverpool and
Manchester rail-way, much discussion took
place, as to  the expediency of using sta-
tionary or locomotive steam-engines.  The
result of the deliberations was,  that if lo-
comotives could be  constructed within
certain conditions as to weight and speed,
they would be preferable.   The directors
accordingly  offered a premium for  the
construction  of such  a locomotive,  as
should perform according to the condi->
tions prescribed.  At  the celebrated trial
on that road  in October, 1829,  of which
Mr. Wood gives a particular account in
the edition of  1831 of his work on rail- 
484
RAIL-WAYS.
roads, the locomotive, called the Rocket,
constructed upon the plan of Mr. Robert
Stevenson, was found to come within the
proposed conditions, and  accordingly the
decision, in respect to that road, was in fa-
vor of locomotives.  The opinion in favor
of this kind of power on roads of which
the inclination does not exceed  about
thirty feet in  a mile, has become pretty
fully established.  Stationary power can
be used  to advantage only on lines of veiy
great transportation, as  the expense is
necessarily verv great, and almost  the
same, whether the transportation be great-
er or less. Another objection to the use
of stationary  power is, that its interrup-
tion, in any part, breaks up the line for the
time, which  is not necessarily  the case
with a locomotive.  The alternative, ac-
cordingly, is  between the use of locomo-
tive steam engines or  horses,  and  the
choice must be determined  by the partic-
ular circumstances of the line of trans-
portation.  The advantages of this spe-
cies of road  are  illustrated  by the action
of a horee upon it, compared with  his
performance  upon the best turnpike, be-
ing, as Mr. Wood assumes  in one of his
estimates, in   the  proportion of 7.5  to 1;
thus enabling us to dispense with thirteen
out of fifteen horses required for trans-
portation on the best common roads.  The
horse's  power of draught  is much  the
greatest at a  low rate of speed, since the
more rapid the velocity, the greater pro-
portion  of his muscular exertion  is re-
quired to  transport his own weight.  But
it  is ascertained, on the Baltimore and
Ohio rail-road, that a speed of ten miles
an hour may  be kept up by horses travel-
ling stages of six miles each, which would
perform the whole distance between Bal-
timore and the  Ohio river in thirty-six
hours.   The  whole expense of transport-
ation by horse power,  including care, dri-
vers, and every expense except repairs of
the road, on the same rail-road, from Jan-
uary to  September, 1831,  amounted  to
about one third of the gross tolls received ;
and this expense, it was calculated,  might
be veiy materially reduced.   The average
consumption  of coke by a locomotive en-
gine, on a passage from Liverpool to Man-
chester, thirty-two miles, is stated by Mr.
Wood  to be 800 pounds,  and the water
evaporated 225 gallons per hour,  and 450
gallons on the passage.  Mr. Wood com-
putes that one of those  locomotives will
perform the work of 240 liorees travelling
at the rate of ten miles  per hour upon a
turnpike road, the velocity ofthe locomo-
tive being fifteen miles  per hour.  The
fact is well  established, that where the
transportation  is sufficient for supplying
adequate loads for locomotive  engines,
and where the road is so constructed that
they  can  be advantageously  used, and
where fuel is not exceedingly expensive,
diey afford much  the most  economical
motive power.  Mr. Robert Stevenson, in
a communication  to  the agent  of the
Boston  and Lowell rail-road,  estimates
that  the most advantageous speed is that
of fifteen  miles per hour for passenger
trains, and seven miles for those transport-
ing merchandise.   A reason  for adopt-
ing a  lower  speed for the  latter, is,  to
prevent injury to the road by the  heavily
loaded wheels.
  The  following is an account of the
principal rail-roads projected, constructing
or finished, in Europe and the U. States:—
   England.   There  are  an  immense
number of iron rail-ways,  branching  in
various directions from both  sides of the
river  Tyne to different  coal-works, and
also several inclined planes, on which the
wagons are moved by stationary engines.
The  rails  used are edge rails.  On the
level rails, one horee draws 25,500 pounds,  "
including the weight ofthe wagon, at the
rate  of two and a half miles per hour.
Rail-ways are also employed for conveying
coals from the collieries to the river Wear,
at Sunderland, some of them extending
to a distance of more than seven miles.—
The Hetton rail-way extends from Sunder-
land, on the river Wier, to the Hetton col-
lieries.  It is seven and five eighths miles
in length.   The transportation is effected
by locomotive  engines.  The total eleva-
tion  and depression from the pit to the
staiths is 812 feet,  of which a part is ac-
complished by inclined planes and sta-
tionary reciprocating engines, and the rest
by a  regular descent of 1  part  in 335.
The rails are of cast iron, and ofthe edge
kind.  The extreme length of each rail  is
three feet eleven inches, and  the  breadth
of the  upper surface two  and  a  half
inches.   They join with  a scarf  joint
The rails ofthe straight parts of the rail-
way weigh sixty-one pounds each: in the
curved  parts,  they weigh   seventy-two
pounds each.  In  some parts near the
staiths,  malleable  iron rails  are  used  in
fifteen  feet  lengths, supported at every
three feet  They  are three  and a half
inches  deep  in the middle between the
supports, and  two and one fourth inches
m breadth  at  the upper surface.  One
yard in length weighs about twenty-eight
pounds.—The  immense  advantages of
wooden rail-ways in  the Durham and 
RAIL-WAYS.
485
       Northumberland coal fields caused them
       to  be imitated  in the neighborhood of
       Whitehaven, in Cumberland, where they
       were employed to a considerable  extent,
       till  supereeded by the use of cast iron
       rail-ways.—The  Surry   rail-road  com-
       mences on the south bunk of the Thames,
       near Wandsworth, in Surry,  and pro-
       ceeds in  a south-easterly direction,  about
       nine and a half miles to Croydon, and
       thence,   in a  more southerly  direction,
       eight and a half miles to Meretham.   The
       acts for  this rail-road were obtained in
       1800 and 1804.   It is  a double rail-road,
       with tram-rails.   The inclination  is no
       where  greater  than  1 in 120, or one
       inch in  ten feet.—The  coal-works near
       Leeds and Wakefield are connected with
       the neighboring canals by numerous rail-
       ways ; and the town of Leeds is supplied
       with coal from the Middleton coal-works,
       by a rail-road in which  the wagons are
       moved by steam  carriages.—The  Dews-
       bury and  Birstal rail-way.  The object of
       this rail-way is to convey coals  from the
       coal-works in Birstal parish to the vessels
       in the Calder and Hebble navigation.  Its
       extent is about three  miles.  It  was fin-
       ished  in  1805.—The Ashby-de-la-Zouch
       canal, which was opened  in 1805, is ter-
       minated by a rail-way of three and three
       eighths miles in length, extending to the
       Ticknall  lime-works  in  Derbyshire; an-
       other  rail-way, of five miles, to Measham
       collieries; and one of six and a half miles
       to the Cloudshill lime-works.—The  Der-
       by canal  has several rail-ways that branch
       from it, namely, to Horseley collieries, to
       Smithy houses, near  Derby, four miles,
       and  to Smalley mills, one and a  half
       mile.—Rail-ways also  branch  from the
       Cromford and  Erewash  canals; and the
       Charnwood  Forest canal  is  connected
       with the  river  Soar navigation  by a rail-
       way two  and a half miles long, with  a rise
       of 185 feet, called the Charnwood  Forest
       rail-way.—-The Chapel Milton and Loads
       Knowl  rail-ioay branches  from the  Peak
       Forest canal at Chapel Milton, in Derby-
       shire, to  Loads Knowl lime-quarries in
       the Peak, a length of about  six  miles,
       with an  inclined plane  515 yards long,
       and 204  feet fall.—The Lancaster Canal
       rail-way  extends  from  Clayton Green,
i  '  t  across the valley ofthe Ribble, to the top
       of its opposite bank, three and one fourth
       miles.  A communication  between the
       parts ofthe canal is effected by means of
       this  rail-way,  which  has  an  inclined
       plane  on  each  side of the valley;  and
       the  fall  is  222  feet—From the  river
       Wye, near Mitchell Dean, a rail-way is
 laid through the forest of Dean to Lyd-
 ney on die Severn, with a branch by Col-
 ford to Monmouth;  and, in the same
 neighborhood, another rail-way extends
 from the Severn, five miles, to the collier-
 ies in the  forest.—The Shropshire canal
 having to  pass through a district where
 the changes of level  were  abrupt  and
 considerable, inclined planes were adopt-
 ed for conveying the  boats to different
 levels.  The firet  inclined plane  is  350
 yards in length, and 207 feet in perpen-
 dicular height, with a strong double rail-
 road upon it, to admit boats loaded with
 five tons and their carnages. The second
 plane is 600 yards in length, and 126  feet
 in height;  and the third  is  320 yards in
 length, with 120 feet fall.—In Cornwall, a
 rail-road, five miles in length,  has been
 constructed from the harbor of Portreth to
 the mines  near  Redruth.—The Stockton
 and Darlington rail-way extends  from
 Stockton by  Darlington  to the  collieries
 on the south-west  side of the county of
 Durham.   It proceeds from Stockton  in a
 westerly direction, and  about three  and a
 half miles  from thence,  a branch to the
 south, two miles in length, leads off to
 Yarm.  The main line  passes  close to
 Darlington; and, about four miles beyond
 Darlington, a branch to the south, nearly
 two miles in length, leads to Pierce bridge.
 About five miles farther  on the  line,  the
 Black Boy branch leads  off in  a  north-
 easterly direction, to the  Black  Boy  and
 Coundon collieries.  The extent of  this
 branch  is  upwards of five  miles.  The
 Hagger Leases branch, finished  in Octo-
 ber, 1830,  extends to  the  Butterknowl
 and Copley collieries. This branch opens
 a communication with the lead-mine dis-
 trict, terminating at the  road to Walsing-
 ham,  Middleton, &c.   The main  line
 continues  past  Evenwood,  to  near  the
 Norwood collieries, and returns in a north-
 easterly direction to the Etherly and Wit-
 ton park collieries.  The  total extent of
 the main fine is about thirty-two miles.
 It  is a single rail-way, formed principally
 with edge rails of malleable iron. Sever-
 al  of the curves on this  road are of  too
 small a diameter, which occasions a great
 increase of die expense of transportation.
 At the western  extremity of the line, a
 deep ravine occurs at the river Gaundless,
 on die summits of the hills on each side
of which,  permanent steam-engines  are
fixed, for the purpose of conveying goods
across the two ridges.   The main line of
the rail-way was finished in 1825.—The
 Clarence rail-road  is twenty mUes long,
and is parallel to the  Stockton and Dar- 
436                             RAIL-WAY.
lington rail-road.  It is (1832) nearly fin-
ished, aud is the best constructed rail-
road in England.—The Darlington and
Crqfl rail-road  extends from Darlington
to Croft.  It was opened  at Darlington,
Oct. 27,1829.—The Stratford on Avon and
Moreton in Marsh rail-road was  finished
in November, 1826.  The distance from
Stratford to Moreton is sixteen miles.—The
Tees and  Weardale  rail-way commences
about four miles below Stockton, at the
mouth of the Tees, and runs inland about
twenty-six miles to Willington, in the vale
of the Wear, between Durham and AVol-
singham.  About thirteen  mdes from its
commencement, this rail-way enters the
limestone district, and, about a mile far-
ther, the coal district, which continues to
the vicinity of Wolsingham,  near which
place, and in the upper parts of Weardale,
is the lead countiy. The prominent object
of this road is  to connect the extensive
coalfield, which lies in the south-western
part of the county of Durham, with the
river Tees in deep water.—The Hereford
tram road was finished in  the latter part
of 1830. It extends from Hereford to Mon-
mouth Gap.—The Kingswinford rail-way
extends from Kingswinford to the Stafford-
shire and Worcestershire canal.  It com-
mences at the colliery ofthe earl of Dudley,
by an inclined plane, 1000 yards in length,
having an inclination  of two and three
tenths feet in a  chain, and the carnages
with coal are delivered down the plane in
three and a half minutes, bringing up, at
the same time, an equal number of empty
carnages.   The rail-road  then proceeds
from die foot of the inclined plane for one
and seven eighths miles, at an inclination
of sixteen feet per mile ;  and, on this part
of the rail-road, the locomotive travels and
delivers the wagons  at the  head of anoth-
er inclined  plane, 500 yards in  length,
having an inclination of two and eighty-
five hundredths feet,  in a chain.  The
wagons are passed down this plane in a
similar manner to  the first,  in  one and
three fourths minute.  At the foot of the
second inclined plane, there is a basin 750
yards long, communicating with the Staf-
fordshire and  Worcestershire  canal, to
which the rail-road  is continued on both
sides, affording the means of loading sixty
boats at a time.   Over the  middle of the
basin is  a bridge of eleven arches, on
which the road from Wordsley to New
Inn passes.  The length of the rail-road
is three and one eighth miles.   It was
finished in June, 1829.—The  Newcastle
and Carlisle rail-road was commenced in
the latter part  of 1830.   It  passes  over
a  stone viaduct, seventy-five  feet above
the  bed of the Eden, and will form a
commimication  from  sea  to  sea.  The
length ofthe projected route is sixty-one
miles.  There are to be seven branches
from the  main road.  There  will be no
inclined planes,  or  stationary  engines.
The whole transportation is to be effected
by horses.—The Pentewan rail-road, in
Cornwall, passes  through  St.  Austle's
Moor, chiefly on an inclined plane.  Four
wagons loaded with fifteen tons of China
clay, are sometimes linked together, and
are then set in motion by two men, who
gently impel them forward.  As they ad-
vance, their  speed gradually increases,
until they proceed with  the velocity of a
mail-coach.  They  continue to  proceed
thus upwards of two  miles. Having ar-
rived at level ground, their speed gradu-
ally diminishes, until they at length stop,
when die conductor attaches his horee to
the foremost carriage, and  they are thus
drawn to Pentewan wharf; and the clay
is shipped for Liverpool, Scotland, &c.—
The  Canterbury  rail-road  extends  to
Whitstable.  It was five yeare in progress,
and  was  finished in  May, 1830.   It is
seven  miles in length.  The firet four
miles incline one part  in ninety.  The re-
maining distance of three miles is  level;
and  here the wagons are attached to the
locomotive engine.  A  tunnel has  been
cut through  Brethren hills, 822 yards in
length, at  an expense of £13,000.   Coal
will  experience a reduction of six shil-
lings a chaldron for carriage.  Passengers
are  conveyed  over  it  for  nine pence  a
head, in twenty minutes.—A new canal
and  rail-way  between  the Cann  slate-
works, and  the  new quay at  Catwater
Plymouth, was opened on  Jan. 20,1830.
—The Cromford and Park Forest rail-
way  is altogether hi Derbyshire, and goes
over the Peak; it is thirty-two and diree
fourths miles in length, and was com-
pleted  in July, 1831,  six years from the
time of its commencement,  at an expense
of £140,000.  Ofthe  whole length, only
eleven and  three  fourths  miles  are  a
double line of  rail-way.   The  remaining
twenty-one miles are a single fine, but so
constructed that an additional track can
be laid, at the expense of £20,000.  The
raUs are of the edge kind, and  are of cast
iron, in lengths of four feet each, weighing
eighty-four pounds.   There are  nine in-
clined planes, of which five overcome an
ascent of  1000 feet from Cromford, and
four, a descent of 800 feet, to  Whaley
bridge.  At the inclined planes, the steam
engines (eighteen in number) are in pairs, 
RAIL-WAYS.
487
of which seven are of twenty horse power
each, and two paire, of ten horse-power
each.  The longest  plane  is 850 yards.
The greatest rise on the planes is at the
rate of four and a half inches to the yard;
the least is two and a half inches to the
yard.   The  velocity,  in  ascending the
plane, is four miles per hour.  There are
on this  road  much deep cutting, several
tunnels (one  590 yards long), and sev-
eral expensive embankments.   The cost
of transporting coal and lime is one and
a half pence per ton per mile; for  mer-
chandise, the cost is three  pence per ton
per mile.  Horse power is used on the
levels, and it is not intended to carry pas-
sengers.  It is supposed that this rail-way
will not, for some yeare,  be productive
property, because it is  on  no great  thor-
oughfare, and its route is over the highest
hill in England, where  there is little or no
population, and the  lead  mines,  for the
conveyance of whose produce this work
was principally constructed, are now  al-
most deserted;  but when united with the
Liverpool and Manchester rail-way, it will
become  very  valuable. This union will
be effected in a few years by  the Man-
cliester and Sheffield rail-way.   As soon
as  the  junction of the Manchester rail-
way is accomplished,there will be a  com-
plete rail-road communication from Liver-
pool to the valley of the Derwent, when
this work will become  a thoroughfare for
the traffic between  Liverpool and  Man-
chester in the west,  and Derby and Not-
tingham in the east.—The Manchester and
Sheffield rail-way.  In Aug., 1830, a meet-
ing of persons interested in this enterprise
was held in Liverpool, and a prospectus
of the  proposed work was read.  It was
resolved to form a company with a capital
of £600,000, for the purpose of construct-
ing the rail-road.  It  is to extend  from
Manchester to Sheffield ; it will also con-
nect  the Liverpool and Manchester rail-
road  and the Cromford and Peake forest
rail-way.  The western termination  of
the  latter  rail-way at Whaley bridge is
twenty miles distant from  Manchester.—
The Leeds and Selby rail-road  was  origi-
nally intended to connect Leeds with Hull;
but, in 1829, it was determined to  carry
the  road no further than  from Leeds to
Selby.   The  estimated  expense  of a
double rail-way  between these two last
towns is £173,000.   The operations upon
this rail-road are now in active progress.
It  is  to be  connected with  the  Liv-
erpool   and  Manchester  rail-road,  by
the Leeds  and Manchester rail-way.—
The   Liverpool  and  Manchester  rail-
road.  The  commencement of the rail-
road at Liverpool is in the company's
yard in Wapping.   Here the lower en-
trance  of the  great  tunnel is accessible
through an open cutting, 22 feet deep and
46 feet wide, being a space sufficient for
four lines of  rail-way,  with pillars be-
tween the lines, to support the flooring,
&c. of the warehouses of the company,
which are thrown across this  excavation,
and under which the wagons pass to  be
loaded  or  discharged through hatchways
communicating with  the  stores above ;
wagons loaded with coal or lime pass un-
der the warehouses to the  open wharves
at the Wapping end of the station.  Pro-
ceeding along the tunnel, the  line of rail-
way curves to the south-east, till it reaches
the bottom ofthe inclined plane, which is
a perfectly straight   line,  1980 yards in
length, with  a uniform rise of three fourths
of an inch to a yard.  The rail-way from
Wapping to the commencement ofthe in-
clined  plane is level;  the  whole rise,
therefore,  from Wapping  to the tunnel
mouth at Edgehill, is 123 feet. The tunnel
is 22 feet wide and 16 feet high, the sides
being perpendicular to  the height  of 5
feet, surmounted by a semicircular arch ;
the total length is 2250 yards.  The height,
from the roof of the tunnel  upwards to
the surface of the ground, varies  from 5
to 70 feet  The whole length of this vast
cavern is lighted with gas,  and the  sides
and roof are white-washed to add to the
effect ofthe illumination.  At the eastern
end  of the  tunnel, the rail-road emerges
into a spacious area forty feet below the
surface  of the  ground, cut out of the solid
rock.  From  this  area  there returns a
small tunnel, 290 yards in length, 15 feet
wide and 12 feet high, parallel with the
large one, but inclining upwards  in the
opposite direction, and terminating in the
company's premises, in Crown street, at
the eastern boundary of Liverpool; this is
the  principal  station  for  the rail-way
coaches, and the depot  for coals  for the
supply of the higher districts ofthe town.
In September, 1831, the company resolved
to construct a new tunnel in order to be
able to dispense with  the  omnibuses,
which are employed to convey passen-
gers from the  town  to the station on the
rail-road from which the carriages for pas-
sengers start.  The new tunnel is to be 1J
mile in  length, 25 feet high, 22 feet wide,
and to have an inclination of 1 foot in 106.
The roof is to be coated with Roman
cement  The time  which will  be em-
ployed  in conveying passengers  through
this tunnel  will be three minutes.  The 
488                             RAIL-WAYS.
expense is estimated at less than £100,000.
Proceeding eastward from the tunnels, the
road passes  through a  Moorish archway,
which connects the two engine-houses,
and forms the grand entrance to the Liver-
pool stations.  The  traveller is now upon
the open road to Manchester; the line of
the rail-way is perfectly level, and slightly
curved.  Crossing  Wavertree-lane,  the
rail-way  descends for five  and a  half
miles, at the rate of four feet per mile.
The road, a little beyond Wavertree-lane,
is  earned through  a deep marl cutting,
under  several massive  stone arch-ways
thrOwn across the excavation to form the
requisite communications  between  the
opposite sides of the rail-road.  Beyond the
marl cutting is the great rock excavation
through Olive mount, about half a mile to
the north ofthe village of Wavertree. Here
the traveller passes  through a deep  and
narrow ravine, seventy feet below the sur-
face ofthe ground, over which are thrown
several bridges; the road winds gently to
the south-east  Emerging from the Olive
mount cutting, he approaches the Roby
embankment, which stretches across the
valley  for  about  two  miles, varying in
height from 15  to 45 feet, and in breadth,
at  the base, from 60 to 135 feet  The
rail-road next crosses  the Huyton turn-
pike, and proceeds, in a slightly curved di-
rection, to the bottom ofthe inclined plane
at  Whiston, between  seven and eight
miles from the company's station in Liver-
pool.  This plane rises three eighths of
an inch in a yard.  It is a mile and a half
long, in a straight line ; the  inclination is
hardly perceptible, except by the decrease
iu  the speed of the carriages. At the top
of the Whiston plane, the road for nearly
two miles is exactly level.  About half a
mile from  the  top of the inclined plane,
the turnpike road from  Liverpool to Man-
chester crosses the line  of the rail-road in
an acute angle of thirty-four degrees, by
a stone bridge built  on  the diagonal prin-
ciple, each stone being cut to a particular
angle, to fit into a particular place.  The
span  of the arch measured at the face is
fifty-four feet, while the width of the rail-
way underneath, measured from wall to
wall, is only thirty feet—each face of the
arch extending diagonally forty-five  feet
beyond  the square.   Passing  over  the
summit level at Rainhill, the ttaveller ar-
rives at the Sutton inclined plane, which
descends in the opposite  direction, and is
similar, in  extent and  inclination, to  the
Whiston plane, the top level being eighty-
two feet above the base of each plane.
Parr Moss  is the next object of attention.
This moss  is  about twenty feet deep;
the  materials forming  the rail-road,  as
they were deposited, sank to the bottom,
and now form an embankment  in reality
twenty-five feet high, though only four or
five feet above  the  surface of the moss.
Over Sankey valley and canal,  the  rail-
way is carried along a magnificent viaduct
of nine arches, each fifty feet span,  built
principally of brick, with  stone facings ;
the height from the top of  the parapets to
the water in the canal being seventy feet,
and the width ofthe rail-way between the
parapets, twenty-five feet.  The approach
to  this  structure is along a stupendous
embankment, formed principally of clay.
A few miles beyond Newton is the great
Kenyon excavation,  from  which about
800,000 cubic yards of clay and sand were
dug.  Near the end  of this  cutting, the
Kenyon and Leigh junction rail-way joins
the Liverpool and  Manchester  rail-road
by  two  branches  pointing to   the  two
towns respectively.  The former rail-road
joins  the Bolton and  Leigh  rail-road,
and  thus  forms the  connecting  link be-
tween Bolton, Liverpool and Manchester.
—From the Kenyon excavation, the Liv-
erpool and  Manchester  rail-road passes
over the Brosely embankment, Bury lane,
and the small river  Glazebrook, to  Chat
Moss.   This moss was so fluid that a rod
of iron would sink into it by its own grav-
ity.  It  comprises an area of about twelve
square miles, varying in depth from ten to
thirty-five feet.  Beyond Chat Moss, the
road  traverses  the  Barton  enbankmeDt,
crossing the low lauds for about a mile
between the  moss and the Woreely canal,
over which  it is carried by a neat stone
bridge.   The  immediate  approach  to
Manchester is through a portion  of  Sal-
ford.  Over the river Irwell, the rail-way
is carried  by a handsome stone bridge,
consisting of two arches, each fifty-eight
feet span, and then over a series of arches
to the company's station in Water street
and Liverpool road in Manchester.  This
rail-road consists of two tracks of rails, anil
is thirty-two miles in length.  The whole
number of bridges is twenty-five, and the
number of large culverts, thirty-six.  The
rails are edge rails.  It was constructed in
four years, and opened  Sept. 15, 1830.
This road is constructed on the most ap-
pro ved principles.  On the clay and stone,
on which the road is formed, a layer two
feet thick, of broken rock and sand, is de-
posited,  one foot below the sleepers, and
one foot distributed  between them.  The
sleepers, or blocks  on which the rails of
the road rest, are composed of hard free- , 
RAIL-WAYS.                            489
stone, from Peel, in Lancashire, on the ex-
cavated part of the road (about eighteen
out of the thirty-two miles);  while, on
the raised embankments and the mosses,
the rails are supported by sleepers of oak
or larch.   The stone blocks are about two
feet over, and  about a foot and a half
thick ;  for  the  reception  of  the  iron
chairs, two holes are drilled in each block,
aud filled up  with  hard oak pins; the
chairs are then fastened  on  by two large
spikes driveu through them into the oak ;
which process is found to be so effectual,
that it is almost impossible to separate a
chair from a sleeper when thus fastened.
Before the construction ofthe rail-road, the
number of passengers in the  coaches be-
tween Liverpool and Manchester did not
exceed 800 daily.   In the latter part of
1831, 2500 passengers  and  400 tons of
goods were conveyed over  the rail-way
between  these  two  towns,  in one  day.
Immense quantities of live stock are now
transported on  this  rail-way.   In  1831,
the gross receipts  from  January  1, to
June 30, amounted  to £65,693;  the ex-
penses were £35,379.  A locomotive has
passed, it  is said, from one  town to the
other iu thirty-three minutes.  The Liver-
pool  and  Manchester rail-road is  to be
connected with the Cromford and Peake
forest  rail-way, by the  Manchester and
Sheffield rail-way.—The Bolton and Leigh
rail-way, and the Kenyon and Leigh junc-
tion rail-way,  connect  Bolton  with the
Liverpool and Manchester rail-road.—The
 Wigan and Newton rail-road.   A  com-
pany was formed, in 1830, to construct a
rail-road from Wigan, to join the Liver-
pool and Manchester rail-road near New-
ton.  The length is six  miles  and  three
fourths.   The  expense  is estimated  at
£40,000.—The Liverpool and Leeds rail-
way.  Measures arc now (1832) in progress
for the purpose of constructing a rail-road
between these two towns, and application
is to be  made to  parliament during the
present year for the necessary authority.
Meanwhile an important feature in the
project of the road has already received
the approbation of parliament.  During
the last session, a bill passed authorizing
the converting of the Manchester, Bolton
and Bury  canal into a  rail-road.   The
canal is eleven miles in  length, and runs
through a  populous, wealthy and manu-
facturing district, which forms a part of
the country through which the Liverpool
and  Leeds rail-way is  expected to run.
The majority of the shareholders in this
canal  have acquiesced  in the new ar-
rangement.—The Lczds  and Manchester
rail-road is to  communicate with the
Liverpool and Manchester rail-road, and
to pass thence, on the east side of Man-
chester, near to Oldham, and through the
valley of Todmorden, by Sowerby bridge,
near Halifax, and thence along the  vale
of the Calder by Brighouse, Dewsbury
and Wakefield, to Leeds. By this route,
locomotives  can travel  the whole  dis-
tance between  Manchester  and Leeds,
with the aid of a tunnel of 6 or 700 yards
in length, near Rothwell.  Communica-
tions may easily be  made,  by branches
from the trunk rail-way, to Halifax and to
Huddersfield.  The  estimated expenses
of the whole distance between Manches-
ter and Leeds, by the valley  of Todmor-
den, is  from £700,000 to £800,000,  and,
when complated by the branches, the ex-
pense of which is not taken  into this es-
timate, a rail-way communication will be
established  from Manchester to the im-
portant towns of Middleton,  Rochdale,
Todmorden, Halifax, Huddersfield, Dews-
bury, Wakefield and  Leeds.  By the  aid
of the  Liverpool and  Manchester  rail-
road, in the  west, and the Leeds and Sel-
by rail-road to the east, a direct rail-way
communication  will  also be formed be-
tween  the Ouse and the Mersey.  It will
also  communicate  with the proposed
Bradford rail-way to Leeds.  The  dis-
tance  by this line between Leeds  and
Manchester will be about fifty-eight miles,
and the journey will be performed in about
two hours and a  half, at  the  present rate
of travelling on the  Liverpool  and Man-
chester rail-road.—The Southampton and
London rail-way  will  connect Southamp-
ton and London.—A rail-road has been
projected between Liverpool and Birming-
ham, the length of which is  estimated at
eighty-six miles; and it is proposed to
continue it to London.  A company has
been formed for the purpose of construct-
ing rail-roads for locomotives from Lon-
don  to  the principal  towns  in  Kent
Rail-ways have also  been  projected  be-
tween  London and Edinburgh ; between
Bath and Bristol; from  Wolverhampton
through  Dudley to   Binningham;  from
York to Croft bridge, a  distance of forty-
five  miles;  from Tunbridge Wells to
Snodland ;  from  St Helen's  to Runcorn,
with branches,  &c. &c.  A  route for a
rail-road has been surveyed from Stam-
ford to the  canal at Oakham.  The line
is to proceed through the vale of Hamble-
ton, by Exton, Empingham  and Tinwell.
The hill at the last named village is to be
pierced by  a  tunnel one  mile aud one
fourth  in length. 
490                            RAIL-WAYS.
   Scotland.   In Scotland,  rail-roads arc
 much employed for short  distances, at
 some  of the  principal coal-works, &c.
 The Troonrail-road extends from Kilmar-
 nock to the harbor of Troon, in Ayrshire,
 a distance of ten miles.  It was construct-
 ed at the expense ofthe duke of Portland,
 the proprietor of the coal-fields in that vi-
 cinity.  It is a tram rail-road.  It is very
 extensively used for the transportation of
 coal and hme.  The  general  inclination
 of the rail-way is 1 in 660.   Various spe-
 cies of wagons are used on it; even com-
 mon carts are allowed to go on  it if the
 wheels are cylindrical, and no greater, load
 on one pair than twenty-eight  cwt.—The
 Alloa colliery rail-way is about two and a
 half miles in length, with cast iron rails.—
 Various other rail-ways are in  use in the
 mining districts of Scotland,  chiefly of
-the edge kind.  Those which  have been
 lately constructed are, in general, of mal-
 leable iron.  The rail-way of the Carron
 company is understood to have  reduced
 their average monthly expenditure for car-
 riage from £1200 to £300.—There is  a
 rail-way on the  property of the earl of
 Glasgow, commencing at the Hurlet coal
 and lime works, and extending to the
 Paisley canal, a distance of two and  a
 half miles.  The rails are  of malleable
 iron, each nine feet  in length,  are sup-
 ported at every three feet, and are two and
 a quarter inches deep, and  three fourths
 of an inch thick.—The Dalkeith  and Ed-
 inburgh  rail-road is about  twenty  miles
 long, and will soon be completed.—The
 Garnkirk and  Glasgow  rail-way  was
 opened  in 1831.  On this  rail-road, the
 firet  experiment of  steam locomotives
 in   Scotland  was   made.—Rail-roads
 have been projected between Leith and
 Edinburgh, aud between Edinburgh and
 Glasgow.
   Wales. In  Wales, the rail-roads com-
 municating between the iron works and
 coal mines, and branching from the canals
 and rivere to the principal mining districts,
 are very numerous.  The main rail-roads
 are joined by many smaller private ones,
 which give a great facility for traffic in  a
 country where the common roads are bad.
 In 1791, there was scarcely a rail-way in
 South Wales; in 1811, the  complete rail-
 roads  connected  with canals, collieries,
 &c, in Monmouthshire, Glamorganshire,
 and Caermarthenshire, amounted to near-
 ly 150 mfles in length (exclusive of under-
 ground ones), of which one company in
 Merthyr  Tidvil  possessed  about thirty
 miles.—The Cardiff and Merthyr rail-way,
 or tram-road, was constructed in 1794, un-
der the firet act of parliament ever granted
for this species of road.   It is about 27
miles long.—The Aberdaie canal, which
branches from the Cardiff canal, is con-
nected with the Neath canal by a rail-way,
the communication being completed by an
inclined plane, up which  the  wagons arc
drawn by ahigh pressure engine.—The Sir-
howay rail-road, or tram-road, commencesat
the Monmouth canal, at Pillgwelly, crosses
the Ebwy by a bridge of sixteen arches,and
terminates at Trevill lime works, a length of
about twenty-eight miles.  From the Sir-
howay rail-way there are several branches.
The  act  for  building it was obtained in
1802.—The Brinore rail-way  also  leads
from it to Haye, on the Wye.—The Bla-
en-Avon rail-way also leads to the  Mon-
mouthshire canal.  Its length is five and
a half miles; it rises 610 feet in that dis-
tance, to  the  Blaen-Avon  furnace.—The
Caermarthenshire  rail-road  commences
from the  harbor of Llanelly, and extends
fifteen miles, through a productive coal
countiy, to the lime works at Llandehie ;
and from the eastern side branch rail-ways
to the extensive coal works of general
Waide.   The charter was obtained   in
1802.—The  Oyster-mouth  rail-way pro-
ceeds from  Swansea, seven miles  along
the coast, to the village of Oyster-iuoiuh ;
it is intended chiefly for the transportation
of limestone.  Several other rail-ways
communicate  with  the Swansea  canul
from  the coal works in its neighborhood.
—The Abergavenny  rail-way  proceeds
from the  Brecknock canal, and passes by
a bridge  over the Uske to Abergavenny.
From the same canal there is a rail-way
branch to Uske and to Haye, and various
others to  coal and iron works; and  at the
iron works near Pontypool there are some
lofty  inclined planes.—The Ruabon brook
rail-way  commences on  the north bank
of the river Dee,  and  passes through
numerous collieries, to Ruabon brook, a
distance  of three  miles.—The Penrhyn
rail-ioay extends from the Penrhyn slate
quarries,  in Caernarvonshire, to Port Pen-
rhyn, a distance of six and a quarter miles,
and  is divided into five  stages; it  has
three eighths of an inch fall in one yard,
and  has  three inclined planes. It was
begun in  October, 1800,  and finished in
July, 1801.  It has oval-formed edge rails
of cast iron.—The  Pentre  colliery and
Swansea  canal rail-ioay  is an improved
rail-way and self-acting inclined plane of
nearly half a mile in length.   It is in the
immediate vicinity of Swansea, and con-
nects the  Pentre colliery with the Swan-
sea canah  The embankment is in some 
RAIL-WAYS.
491
places more than twenty feet high.  Ten
tons of coal are passed at a time over the
space of nearly half a  mile in two min-
utes, being at the rate of fifteen miles per
hour.  One hundred and twenty tons of
coal could be sent down in an hour.  This
rail-way  was opened in July, 1830.—The
Caernavon and Nanttle rail-road  is  de-
signed for the transportation of slate.  It
was finished in October, 1828.
   France.  The first rail-road in France
was a small one at Mount Cenis, construct-
ed, in  1783,  by Wilkinson,  an English-
man, for the use of the founderies of Creu-
sot.  The St. Etienne and Andrezieux rail-
road extends  from  St.  Etienne, which is
the scat  of extensive iron  manufactures,
and in  the neighborhood of rich coal-
mines, to Andrezieux, on die Loire.  It
was commenced in 1825, and is die first
mil-road, of any extent, diat has been con-
structed in France.  The road consists of
but  one  track of rails,  and, with  its
I tranches, is about twelve miles and three
fifths in lengdi.  The rails are ofthe edge
kind, fonned of cast iron.  The  curves
of the road are from 250 feet to 3331 feet
radius.   The cost was 74,095 francs a ki-
lometre,  which is  equal to 3280 feet 11
niches.   The transportation upon it is ef-
fected by means of horses.  The yearly
transportation amounts to from  60,000 to
80,000 tons.  This road is connected with
the rail-road from Roanne to Andrezieux.
—The Roanne and Andrezieux rail-road.
This enterprise completes  the  grand sys-
tem of communication between tiie south
and the north, from  the basin  of the
Rhone  to those of the Loire and of the
Seine, and will remedy the great difficul-
ties hi  the navigation  of the Loire above
Roanne,  It was undertaken  principally
with the view of facilitating the transpor-
tation of coal from St. Etienne to the ba-
sins of the Loire and Seine, and will fonn
a continuation  of the  rail-road from the
 Loire  to St. Etienne.  At Roanne, the
 Loire becomes navigable both in  the as-
 cent and descent.  This rail-road has on-
 ly one  track ; the rails  are  of wrought
 iron ; the curves in the road have 666| feet
 radius.  It was estimated  that the annual
 transportation  upon the road  would be
 from 160,000 to  180,000 tons.  The cost
 was 50,746 francs  (about  $9500)  per ki-
 lometre.—The Lyons and St. Etienne rail-
 road extends from Lyons to St Etienne,
 following the  river Gier and the Rhone,
 thus connecting   two of the principal
 manufacturing cities  of France.  It is  a
 double track rail-road, and  is thirty-four
miles and four fifths in length.  The rails
are of wrought iron, supported on stone ;
the curves of this road have at .least 1666
feet radius.   The  route  is divided into
three divisions.  The first division extends
from Lyons  to  Givore.  The  principal
works on this division are the bridge over
the Saone, the deep cut at Pieree Benite,
the passage of Vernaison, and the tunnel
of the Mulatiere.   The second division
extends from  Givore to Rive de Gier. The
tunnel  of Rive de Gier is  3020 feet  in
length.  The third division extends from
Rive de  Gier to St. Etienne.  It is con-
nected  by a branch road with the rail-road
from St. Etienne to the Loire.  The tun-
nels upon this rail-road  arc fourteen  in
number, and their aggregate length 13,123
feet.   The shortest of these tunnels will
contain two tracks, and will be sixteen feet
four  and a half niches wide ;  the  other
will  be only ten feet in width, and will
contain only  one  track.   The  cost  of
this road was  9,939,000 francs (about
$1,813,870).  It was commenced in 1826,
and finished in 1831.  The annual trans-
portation is estimated  at 317,000 tons.
Locomotive engines, manufactured by Se-
guin, are used upon this road, which  are
said to be superior in power to the similar
English engines, and are much lighter and
cheaper. The locomotives of Seguin cost
10,000 francs (about $1875), produce 400
kilogrammes of steam per hour (about 882
pounds), and weigh only 6000 kilogrammes
(about 13,230 pounds).—The Paris and
 Versailles rail-road was commenced in
1827.  It extends from the road near the
Hopital des Invalides at Paris to Versailles.
It is intended only to convey travellers to
the royal palace.  The carriages contain
six persons, drawn by one horee.  Upon
an average, 600 to 800 pereons travel dai-
ly from Paris to Versailles.—The Epinac
rail-road.  A  company  has been formed
for the purpose of constmctinga rail-road
from Epinac to the canal of Bourgogne.
Epinac is situated in the department of
Saone  and Loire, near Autuu.   The rail-
road will be  about  seventeen miles and
three fifths in length, and will establish a
communication  between the  canals  of
the Centre and of Bourgogne.  By this
means, the collieries  of Epinac will  be
able to supply with coals Franche Comte,
Bourgogne, Champagne, and, generally,
all the country traversed by a part of the
Saone, the canal Monsieur,  the  canal  of
Bourgogne and the Yonne; and,  when
the canal of Bourgogne  is  finished, they
wdl  be able to supply Paris with coals, at
a price much less  than that of any now
consumed there.—A rail-road is about to 
492
RAIL-WAYS.
be constructed from Paris to Rouen, with
branches to Havre and Dieppe, connecting
the metropolis with a large manufacturing
town, and with the seaports on the Chan-
nel.   The cost of  a  rail-road, widi  a
double track, from Paris to Havre, is esti-
mated at 118,000 francs (about $22,120}
per kilometre of 3280 feet, and the annual
transportation between these two cities is
about 300,000 tons.   It has also been  de-
termined to construct a rail-road from Par-
is to Pontoise.   Measures were adopted
to effect this object in the latter part of the
year 1831.  Rail-roads have been project-
ed from Paris to Lyons, from Strasburg
to  Paris, and from Calais to Paris.
   Germany. The Danube and Moldau rail-
road.   The Danube and the Moldau have
been connected by a rail-road extending
from Munthausen, in Austria, to Budweis,
in  Bohemia.  It is seventy-five  miles in
length, and has a single track.   It is con-
structed of iron tracks, laid upon rails of
wood, and cost $600,000.  This work was
commenced in 1826.  It produces to  the
proprietore an annual income of ten  per
cent   A single horee draws upon it  a load
of ten tons.—It has  been determined by
the governments of Hanover and Bruns-
wick to construct a rail-road uniting  the
cities of Harbourg  and Luneburg with
Celle  and Brunswick.—The   chevalier
Baader has proposed to unite the Danube
and the Rhine by a rail-road.   The proj-
ect of uniting these two rivere by a canal
was firet proposed by Charlemagne ; and
the project has lately  been revived in Ger-
many.  The distance by a canal would be
seventy-eight geometrical leagues, and the
cost would be 8,000,000 florins.  Baader
proposes to substitut ?  a rad-road which
would  be only  thirty-two  geometrical
leagues in length, by  means  of which
boats might be transported from Donau-
wert to Markbreit on the Mein  in  thirty
hours.  The route proposed commences
at  Donauwert, and proceeds along the left
bank of the Wornitz till it arrives opposite
Hasbourg,  situated on  the right bank;
thence passing near Hopping, Schratten-
hoff, Wornitz, Oettingen, Bellerhaus and
Diebach, it terminates at Markbreit on the
Mein.
  Russia.   In Russia, rail-ways have long
been in use.
  Spain. A Tail-road from  Jarez to  Puer-
to de Santa Maria and San Lucar has been
projected.  The estimated cost is £40,000;
and it is  proposed to  raise that sum in
4000 shares,  at  ten pounds each.  It is
under the direct patronage of the king
land queen, the former having subscribed
for sixty shares, and the latter for forty
shares.  This list also contains the names
of four grandees and two muiisters.  At
present, all the sherry wine which is ex-
ported is carried, at a great expense, from
Jarez to the place of shipment; it is  to
be hereafter transported on the raU-road.
If the undertaking is successful, it  will
probably lead to the introduction of rad-
roads in other districts where they are
equally wanted.   Com,  hi the  interior
of Spain, is  almost valueless,  from tho
cost and delay  in transporting it to the
coast.
   Unite'd Slates.—The Quincy rail-road.
This is the first work of the kind  which
has been attempted in  the U. States.   It
was constructed solely for the transporta-
tion of granite,  and commences at the
granite quarry in  Quincy, and, descending
gradually, terminates at the Neponset riv-
er, which flows into Boston harbor.  It is
a single track rail-road,  three  miles in
length.  The ascent of the hill on which
the quarry is situated, is  overcome by a
self-acting inclined plane.  The sleepers
are of granite, seven and a half feet long.
and laid eight feet apart.  The distance be-
tween the rails is five feet.  The rails are
of pine, twelve inches  deep, with a cov-
ering of oak,  on  which are laid the thin
plates of wrought iron upon which the
care traverse.   At the crossings  of the
high  roads, the  iron  bare are fastened
down to granite rails in a durable manner.
The least radius  of curvature is 300 feet
When  it was firet constructed, the usual
load for one horee was ten tons, moving
at the rate of three miles an hour.   It has
now (1832) been in operation five years.
  The Boston and Lowell rail-road. This
rail-road is to commence at Boston, near
the entrance to the Warren bridge, on the
westerly side of the bridge.  The adjoin-
ing land and flats, forming an area of
about twenty acres, have been purchased
by the company which has undertaken
the construction  of this work;  and the
flats are to be filled up.   The land thus
acquired will be sufficient to accommo-
date the different terminations of the rail-
road,  and  the  necessary  depots.   The
rail-road  is to cross Charles  river by  a
wooden viaduct, and, passing through Wo-
burn,  terminate at the basin of the canal
in Lowell; from thence there are to be
branches along the several canals to the
factories.  The inclination of the road will
in no case be greater than ten  feet in  a
mile, and, in general, will not exceed five
feet per mile.  It  is to be composed at
present of a single track, having the requi- 
RAIL-WAYS.
493
Rite numlier of turn-outs; but provision
has been made for the constiiiction of an-
other track, if it should be required.   It is
to be constructed in the  most substantial
manner, of stone and iron.  The  Boston
and  Lowell rail-road company was incor-
porated in June, 1830.
   Tiie Boston and Worcester rail-road. A
company for  the  purpose of constructing
a rail-road from Boston to Worcester was
incorporated in June, 1831, by the  legisla-
ture of Massachusetts.  Surveys  for the
route have been made, and it is presumed
that the work will be  soon commenced.
The length of the route is about forty-
three miles.  It is also proposed to con-
tinue this road to Connecticut river, and
to construct a branch road to Millhury.
—The Boston and Providence rail-road. A
company was incorporated by the same
legislature in  June,  1831, with a  capital
stock of 1,000,000 dollare, for the purpose
of constructing a rail-road from Boston to
the boundary line of Massachusetts, in the
direction of Providence.  Surveys of the
route have been made.—The Boston and
Taunton rail-road.  A company was in-
corporated in June, 1831, by the  legisla-
ture of Massachusetts, with a capital of
1,000,000 dollars, for the purpose of con-
structing a rail-road from Boston to Taun-
ton,  and from  Taunton to any part of
Taunton river at  which the waters are
navigable by vessels of heavy burden,
with liberty to extend it from Taunton to
the line of Massachusetts in the direction
of Providence.  It is proposed to unite
this company to  the Boston and Provi-
dence rail-road company.
   Rail-roads  have  been  projected  from
Boston or Lowell to Brattleborough ; from
West Stockbridge to the boundary line of
the state of New York, to meet a rail-road
from Albany; from Boston to Salem, to
be continued  to the  northern line of the
state; from Troy, in New York, at the
head of navigation on the  Hudson river,
to Bennington, a distance of thirty miles,
with a branch to the town of Adams (this
road is proposed to be continued to Brat-
deborough ; the distance from Bennington
to Brattleborough is forty-two miles); and
from Boston to Ogdensburg, in New York.
   The  Hudson  and Mohawk  rail-road.
The company by which this rail-road was
constructed was  incorporated  by  the le-
gislature of New York in 1826,  with a
capital  of $300,000, with  liberty to in-
crease it to $500,000.  This increase has
recently taken place. On August 12,1830,
the ground was broken at Schenectady for
the purpose of commencing the construc-
   vol.  x.           42
tion  of a double track road.  With two
flight exceptions, the road  between the
Albany and Schenectady planes  is per-
fectly straight.  The line passes principally
over high table land,  where there is little
or no  population.   It is about sixteen
miles in length.  The  rail-road  com-
mences at the termination of the city line
on the  Hudson river, and about thirteen
acres of land are owned by the  company
in the vicinity, part of which will include
the wharfs which are  now  constructing.
for the accommodation of rlie transporta-
tion on the road.   The road crosses South '
Pearl street,  under a handsome stone arch,
and passes thence up the hill with an in-
clination of  one  foot in eighteen, until it
reaches the  summit,  185  feet above  the
Hudson.  At this place a building is erect-
ed which contains a double stationary en-
gine of twelve horee power, for hauling
up  the  cars. The road then  proceeds
north-westerly up to the head of Lydius
street, to strike which it takes a curve of
4000 feet radius, and passes over two
heavyand high embankments, and through
some deep cuttings near the alms-house.
From the head  of Lydius street (where
the travel at present terminates), it pro-
ceeds in the same direction, crossing ihe
heavy embankment called the Buel via-
duct, ascending  a plane for about three
miles, of one foot in  225.  Afterwards
ascending by two other planes at different
points, and  crossing  several waterways,
upon embankments,  it proceeds to the
summit at Schenectady.  There are in all
six  principal embankments.  About four
miles from  Schenectady there is a  curve
in the road of 23,000 feet radius. Just at
the summit  is a smaller curve, with a ra-
dius of 1100 feet.  There is also another
plane of three miles,  where the  ascent is
one foot in 270 ;  and  another of one and
a half mile,  where it is one in  450 feet
The descent from the Schenectady sum-
mit to the level of the Hudson is 335 feet.
At this point a double stationary engine is
placed.   A  plane overcomes a  height
of 115  feet,  with  an inclination  like that
near die Hudson, and, running down a
heavy embankment, strikes the canal about
half a  mile  from the principal street in
Schenectady; but the track is prolonged
upon a level to  within sixty rods  of the
same.  The  soil  through which the road
passes  is sandy.   Some considerable ele-
vations are cut through, and several ra-
vines crossed.   The slopes left by the
cutting, or formed by the embankments,
are  to be covered with sods.  No settling
of the  road  has  taken place, except to a 
494
RAIL-WAYS.
very slight degree in some of the embank-
ments, which may be easily rectified.  The
road  was constructed iu  the following
manner:—After the grading is finished,
under each line of the rails,  square holes
are dug at the distance of three fret from
centre to centre, capable  of containing
nine cubic feet of broken stone.   In clay,
the holes are  connected by a neck.   In
these  holes the broken stone is placed and
rammed down, so as to form a solid mass.
The   stone,  which  is principally  grau-
wacke, is broken into pieces that will pass
through a  ring of  two inches diameter.
On this foundation, stone blocks, dressed
upon  the  upper  side  only, are placed.
The  next step is to drill the holes in the
face ofthe stone.  In these drillings, small
plugs of locust wood, about four inches
long and about an inch in diameter,  are
loosely placed.  Into these plugs are driv-
en the iron spikes which pass through and
hold  down the  cast  iron  chairs.  The
chairs are double or single.  The double
chairs are  of  sufficient length  to pass
across, beneath  the rail, and are  used in
the proportion  of  one to three single
chairs, which are on each side of the rail,
but do not  pass under it   The rails
are of wood, from twenty-one to twenty-
four   feet  long  and six inches square,
hewed out of  Norway and white pine.
These rails are placed  in the iron chairs,
and are wedged with wooden wedges, on
the outer side,  into  a perfectly true line.
On these lie the iron  rails, which are made
of wrought iron.  They are two inches
and a half wide at the bottom, and round-
ed off to 1 7-8ths on the top; their thick-
ness  is 9-16ths of an  inch.   These bars
are tongued and grooved, and are secured
to the wooden rail by iron spikes driven
through oval openings.  The expansion
and contraction ofthe metal are provided
for in these  openings,  and also by the
tonguesand grooves.  Where two bare join,
an iron plate is placed underneath; anil
it  is remarked  that,  although additional
strength is gained by this,  yet the iron
rails  wear faster at  these places  than  at
any others.  At the distance of twenty-one
feet,  tie pieces, as a further security, are
laid down to bind the rails to each other,
and to keep them in  their proper position.
Broken stone is also laid down between
vhe rails, and at the  sides of the  road.
Upon the embankments, the rails are laid
without stone  blocks, which  are  pro-
posed to be put down after the earth has
settled.  The other track, which is on the
south' side of the one now in use, is in a
sMtetf active preparation.  Both locomo-
 tive engines and horses are used upon this
 road.  A locomotive has travelled upon it
 with  a load of eight tons, at the rate  of
 thirty  miles per  hour.   The number  of
 passengers in October, 1831, averaged 387
 per day.
   The Schenectady  and  Saratoga  rail-
 road.  This rail-road  is to  extend from
 Schenectady to  Ballston, and  thence  to
 Saratoga.  The route is admirably adapted
 for rail-road purposes.  There will be no
 inclination greater than  one foot in  400.
 The execution of this work is undertaken
 by an  incorporated company, with a capi-
 tal stock of $180,000.   The total income
 is estimated at $72,000, and  the net reve-
 nue at $51,000.   This rail-road was  com-
 menced  in the summer of 1831, and it is
 expected to be finished  in the course of
 the year 1832.
   The Ithaca and Susquehanna rail-road.
 The legislature of New York have author-
 ized the construction of a rail-road  from
 Idiuca, near the south  end of Cayuga
 lake, to the Susquehanna river, at Owego.
 The distance is about twenty-eight miles.
   The Ithaca and Catskill rail-road  is to
 extend from Ithaca to Catskill, on the
 Hudson.  The distance is about 167 miles.
 —The Catskill and Canajoharie rail-road.
 This rail-road is to extend from Catskill,
 on the Hudson, to Canajoharie, on the
 Mohawk, a distance of seventy-five miles.
 It was commenced in  1831, in the vicinity
 of Catskill, and fifteen miles  were put un-
 der contract.
   The Harlem  rail-road  is to  extend
 from  Harlem  river to the city  of  New
 York,  a distance of about five miles.  It
 is purposed that the  contemplated rail-
 road from New York  to Albany, running
 near the boundary line of the state of New
 York,  shall commence at the northern
 termination of this rail-road.—Rail-roads
 have been projected, extending from Sche-
 nectady to Buffalo, passing through Utica
and Salina; from some point opposite the
city of New York, through the southern
counties of the state, by the way of Owe-
 go, and through the valleys of the Susque-
 hanna  and Chemung rivers,  to lake Erie,
at some point between  Cattaraugus creek
and the Pennsylvania boundary line; from
the city of New York to Albany, passing
on the eastern side of the Hudson, as al-
ready mentioned,  with branches to Litch-
field in Connecticut,   and to  Berkshire
county in Massachusetts; from Utica to
the Pennsylvania  boundary line;  from
 Buffalo to  the  Pennsylvania line; from
 Rochester to the Alleghany river; from the
 Catskill and Canajoharie rail-road to the 
RAIL-WAYS.
495
Susquehanna river: from Buffalo to die
Cayuga  lake; from Utica to the Cayuga
lake ; from Utica to Oswego; from Geneva
to Ithaca; from Coopeistowu to Clairsville;
from Kochester to Carthage; from Roches-
ter to Danville; from Troy to Whitehall;
from Jamaica to Brooklyn;  from White-
hall to the Vermont line, &c. &<c.
   The Camden and Aniboy rail-road com-
mences at Camden, on the Delaware, op-
posite to Philadelphia, and passes through
Burlington,   Bordentown,   Highstown,
Spottswood, over  South river, and ter-
minates  at Amboy.  The whole distance
from Camden to Amboy, in  a direct line,
is sixty miles;  by the  rail-road the dis-
tance is  sixty-one  miles and ten chains.
The country through which it passes is
very level, and, in one instance, for twenty
miles, nature seems to have forestalled the
engineer.  As this road is  designed for
steam locomotives, it is to be constructed
iu  the  most  improved  and substantial
manner.   At present, however, wooden
rails are  laid over a great portion .of the
line, in order that the embankments may
be consolidated,  before laying the perma-
nent track.   Near Bordentown, the rails
are of iron,  upon the plan of the Liver-
pool and Manchester rail-road, with  some
variation.  Between the chairs and the
granite sleepers, a thin piece of the wood
of the locust tree,  rather larger than the
chair, is inserted, which, it is thought, will
neutralize die effect ofthe contact of iron
and granite, which is said to he percepti-
ble on the Liveqiool and Manchester rail-
road.  About a mile of the rail-road has
been  laid  with  granite rails,  on which
thin plates  of iron are  to be  riveted, to
fonn tracks.  It is intended  ultimately to
lay a double track  of rails the whole dis-
tance.  Between Bordentown and Amboy,
there is a cut sixty feet deep at the deep-
est point, extending nearly two miles, with
varying depth.  The soil taken from the
exiavation  has  been,  with  great labor,
placed on the top of the banks, there be-
ing no valleys near, to be filled  up.  The
culverts  and viaducts, in the vicinity of
Bordentown, are  constructed  of stone.
The  embankments are to  be sodded,
which  is necessary from the light nature
of the soil.   The binding gravel used upon
this rail-road was formed by grinding the
small and smooth stone found  under the
soil, in a steam  mill constructed for this
purpose.   It is anticipated that this rail-
road will be so far completed, by the close
of the year  1832, as to admit of the pas-
sage of cars between Camden  and Am-
boy.  It  is calculated that $500,000 per
 annum will be received for the convey-
 ance of light freight and passengers. The
 expense of a single track, that is, two lines
 of rails, is estimated  at $8000 per mile.
 The execution of this enterprise has been
 undertaken by the  Camden and Amboy
 rail-road company, united, iu  pursuance
 of an act ofthe legislature of New Jersey,
 to the Delaware and  Ruritan canal com-
 pany.   The company having been  incor-
 porated for the purposes of transportation
 as well as for constructing the rail-road,
 preparations have been made for fulfilling
 that part of their obligations, by the pur-
 chase of the line of steam-boats on the
 Delaware aud Raritan, &c.  As the Del-
 aware is frequently closed with  ice during
a part ofthe winter, and the trade of Phil-
 adelphia is, in  consequence, directed to
 New York, it is supposed that vessels des-
tined for Philadelphia may put into Rari-
tan bay, which is open at all seasons, and
that the cargoes may be thence conveyed
at once  upon  the rail-road  to the place of
their destination.  In  order to secure this
object, the company has purchased large
 lots on the Raritan and the Delaware, for
the convenience of ships, steam-boats, &c,
and  it  is believed that steam-boats can be
so constructed as to cross the  Delaware
 between Camdeu and Philadelphia, at all
seasons of the year.
   The Patterson  and Hudson  river rail-
road is  to extend from Patterson, on tho
Passaic,  to Jersey city and  the Hudson
river, opposite New York, fourteen  miles.
It is proposed to cut a tunnel through
Bergen  ridge.  The stock has been  take/j
up, and preparations are making to  begin
the work early in the spring of 1832. Af-
ter the expiration of fifty yeare, the state
of New Jersey has a  right  to  take the
road at au appraised value.
   The  Elizabethtown  and   Somerville
rail-road is to extend from  Elizabethtown
to Somerville.  The route has  been sur-
veyed,  but  the  work  has  not  yet (1832)
been commenced.  It  is undertaken by
the  Elizabethtown  and Somerville rail-
road company, incorporated by the legis-
lature of New Jersey in 1830—31, with a
capital stock of $200,000, with liberty to
iucrease it to $400,000.
  The  West Jersey  rail-road and  trans-
portation company was also incorporated
at the same session, with a capital  stock
of $500,000, with liberty to increase it to
$2,000,000.  The object of the company
is the construction of a rail-road from the
Delaware river, in the county of Glouces-
ter, or from some point on the Camden
and  Amboy rail-road,  to some  point ou
0 
490
RAIL-WAYS.
 the same nver, in-tlie township of Penns
 Nock, in the county of Salem.—A charter
 was also granted  to a  company to con-
 struct a rail-road connecting the Morris
 canal  with the Patterson and  Hudson
 river rail-road.
   The Mauch Chunk rail-road  was the
 firet rail-road  constructed in Pennsylva-
 nia.   It  was commenced  in  January,
 1827, and finished in the succeeding May.
 It  extends from  die  coal-mines  near
 Mauch Chunk, along die  side  of  the
 mountain, down an inclined plane of vari-
 ous declivities to the I^ehigh river.  The
 elevation of the coal-mines above the Le-
 high, at the point where die  coal is deliv-
 ered into die boats, is 936 feet  The road,
 within half a mile of die mine, rises 46
 feet, when it reaches its extreme  point of
 elevation, 982 feet above the water.  At
 the bank  of the river there  is an abrupt
 termination ofthe mountain, upon which
 is constructed  an inclined  plane 700 feet
 long, with a declivity of 225 feet, below
 which there is still a farther descent of 25
 feet down a chute, through which coal is
 conveyed into  the boats.  Irs entire length,
 from the river to the mines, is nine miles,
 and its branches at the ends, and the side-
 lings, four and  a half miles more.  It con-
 sists of a single track.  The least radius of
 curvature is 437 feet.  The rail-road has
 a continued descent from the summit, so
 that the care descend by their own grav-
 ity.  The  rails are of  timber,  covered
 widi plates of iron, and resting upon cross
 sleepers, at the distance of four feet from
 each  othen The  coal is transported in
 care, fourteen of which are connected to-
 gether, each -containing a ton and a half
 of coal.  A single conductor rides on one
 of the  cars, and regulates their movement.
 From 300 to 340 tons a day are regularly
 discharged into  the  river.  The empty
 wagons are drawn back by mules, who
 ride down the rail-way in cars; and so
 strong is their preference of this mode of
 travelling down, that, in one instance,
 where they were sent up with the coal
 wagons widiout the mule care, the work-
 men were not able  to  drive them down,
 but were actually obliged to drag up the
 care for them to descend in.  At  firet the
 wagons descended at the rate of fifteen or
 twenty miles an hour; but it was neces-
sary to reduce  the speed, as it injured the
 machines, and, by agitating the coal, in-
volved the driver in a cloud of dust The
 cost of this rad-road was $3050 per ntile.
  The Mount  Carbon  rail-road company
was  incorporated  in the  spring of 1829,
and xhe rail-road was begun  in the suc-
 ceeding  October.   It  commences  at
 mount Carbon.  At  die termination, die
 road is elevated upon thirty-one piers  of
 masonry erected upon die landings.  The
 road passes thence through the gap  of
 Sharp mountain, following the valley  of
 the Schuylkill  to Morrisville.   It  here
 leaves the Schuylkill at its junction  with
 the Norwegian creek, stretching up the
 valley ofthe latter, and crossing it several
 times;  hence it  runs directly through
 Pottsville  to  the  Forks, a  distance  of
 6208  feet  from  the picre.    The  east
 branch is 14,200 feet in length.  It passes
 through the Peach mountain tract, and ter-
 minates upon the Flowery Field tract, &c.
 The west branch commences atMarysville,
 and is 16,400 feet in length.   This  rail-
 road has a width of eighteen feet surface,
 occupied by  a double track  from  the
 head of both branches to the commence-
 ment ofthe picre at mount Carbon, where
 a third track is added. Each track is  four
 feet eight and a half inches wide.  At ev-
 eiy distance of eight feet, a drain eighteen
 inches in depth, and filled with broken
 stone, crosses  to  the side  ditches,  the
 stone forming a  bed upon  which  the
 sleepers rest.  On the sleepers, which are
 of oak,  cradles or cheek-blocks of the
 same material  ore treenailed,  in wh>c!i
 the rails  rest,  and  are  wedged,  being
 thereby  elevated above the  part of the
 sleeper that crosses the horse-path.   In
 some places, however, the cheek-blocks
 and sleepers are in one solid piece.  The
 rails are of oak, aud, on the main line, are
 uniformly six inches by ten; but, on botii
 branches, the rails of the ascending track
 are six inches by eight.   On the heavy
 track, the rails are ofthe same dimensions
 as on the main line.   The iron  plates en
 which the wheels  run, are two  inches
 wide by three eighdis in thickness, bevel-
 ed on the edge, and having the  nail-holes
 countersunk, the heads  being trimmed
 off, to prevent jamng.  The cost of  this
 rail-road was $100,000.
  The Schuylkill  valley rail-road com-
 mences at Port Carbon, and terminates  at
 Tuscarora, a distance of ten miles. There
 are fifteen lateral rail-roads intersecting  it,
 the distances of which combined, amount
 to about thirteen miles.  The  main stem
 consists of a double track.  The  laterals
 have but a single track.  The cost of the
 main stem was $5500 per mile; that of
 die laterals, $2600 per mile.
  The  Schuylkill  rail-road  is thirteen
 miles in length, consists of a double track,
and cost $7000 per mile.
  The  Mill  creek rail-road  commences 
RAIL-WAYS.                             497
  nt Port Carbon, and extends up Mill creek
  four miles.  This road consists ofa single
  track, and cost about $14,000.  There are
  about three miles of lateral  rail-roads in-
  tersecting the main stem, which co6t about
  $2000 per mile.
     The West Branch rail-road commences
  at Schuylkill Haven, and terminates at the
  foot of the Broad mountain.   The length
  of the road, including the  west branch, is
  fifteen miles. The main stem has a double
  ■track; the cost was upwards of $150,000.
  There are also about five  miles of lateral
  road intersecting it, which  consist of a sin-
  gle track ; the average cost of die laterals
  was about $2000 per mile.
     The Pinegrove  rail-road extends from
  the mines  to  the Swatara feeder, a dis-
  tance of five miles.   This road cost about
  $30,000.
     The Little  Schuylkill  rail-road  com-
  mences at  Port Clinton, and extends up
  the stream  to  the mines, at Tamaqua, a
  distance of about twenty-three miles.  It
  was finished in the latter part of the year
  1831.
    The Lackawaxen rail-road commences
  at the termination ofthe Lackawaxen and
  Delaware and  Hudson canal, and  connects
  that canal with the  coal bed  in  Carbon-
  dale.  It is sixteen miles  in length, and
  overcomes an elevation of 800 feet.  This
  rise is surmounted by five inclined planes,
  in three und a  half miles, each from 2000
  to 3000  feet  in length.  The  care are
  drawn up  by  stationary  engines.  The
  rail-road consists of  a single track  of
  wooden rails, capped with iron.   The cost
  was $6500 per mile.
    The Alleghany portage  rail-road is  in-
  tended to connect the eastern and western
  sections of the Pennsylvania canal, and
  complete the  direct line of communica-
  tion between Philadelphia and Pittsburg.
  The route adopted commences at Franks-
  town, and, leading upwards along the val-
  ley of Blair's gap run, crosses the Alle-
  ghany mountains at Blair's gap  summit,
  and descends in the valleys of Laurel run
  and die Little Conemaugh  to Johnstown,
  a distance of diirty-eight and a half miles,
  or iu a  right line of nearly thirty and
  three fourths miles.  The summit is 1397
  feet above  Frankstown, and  1137 feet
«. above Johnstown, and is to be surmounted
  by means of eleven inclined planes, six
  of which are to be on the eastern, and five
  on the  western side  of the mountains.
  The planes are to be graduated at an an-
  gle not exceeding three degrees, except in
  two instances, where it is optional  to adopt
  an inclination of nearly five degrees, or to
 lengthen the route by about three fourths
 of a  mile.  The  sections between  the
 inclined planes are to be graduated at an in-
 clination not exceeding thirty feet per mile,
 and the curvatures are generally limited
 to a radius of 603 feet, except  in four in-
 stances; the most abrupt curvature has  a
 radius of 410 feet  It is proposed to cross
 (he  summit of the mountain  by a deep
 cut, about 1500 feet  long, the  greatest
 depth of which will be eighteen feet   A
 tunnel of 1000 feet, at one of the bends of
 the Conemaugh, is  included in the roufe,
 by which  the distance will be  shortened
 rather more than a mile. The Conemaugh
 will be  crossed  twice by bridges.  The
 cost of the entire route was estimated at
 $612,000.  This rail-road  is to be con-
 structed  by the state of Pennsylvania.  In
 March, 1831, an appropriation of $700,000
 was made for the construction  of this
 rail-road, and the extension ofthe Juniata
 division  of the Pennsylvania canal from
 Huntingdon to  Hollidaysburg, about two
 and a  half miles beyond Frankstown ; in
 consequence of which, the  length of  the
 rail-road will not exceed  thirty-six miles.
 No portion of the rails have as yet (1832)
 been laid.
   The Central  rail-road  extends  from
 Pottsville down the valley  of the Sham-
 okin creek to Sunbuiy, which is near  the
 junction  of the  Susquehanna with  its
 western branch.  A branch rail-road is to
 be constructed to Danville.  It is proposed
 to call it  the Girard rail-road.
   The West Chester rail-road leads  from
 the borough of West Chester, which is
 twenty-three miles west of Philadelphia,
 to Paoli, where it joins the Philadelphia and
 Columbia  rail-road.   It is now (1832)
 nearly completed.
   The  Philadelphia,   Germantown  and
Norristown rail-road will  be about nine-
teen miles in length, extending from Phil-
adelphia  to Norristown, on the Schuyl-
kill.  The section of the rail-road between
Philadelphia and Germantown is  now
(1832)  in active progress, but no portion
of the  rails have as yet been laid.  A rail-
road is projected from Norristown  to the
Lehigh river, at Allentown.
  The Philadelphia  and Delaware county
rail-road  is to extend  from Philadelp/ *a
south-westerly, along the western margin
of the  river Delaware.  The  route has
been surveyed, but as yet, active operations
upon it have not been commenced. Leave
has recently been obtained from the legis-
lature of Delaware, to continue it througn
that state  to the Maryland line.   This
work will form part of the  direct  lir©  to 
498
RAIL-WAYS.
Baltimore, and will afford to vessels which
may be detained  by ice at the different
pieis in die  river, an  opportunity of dis-
charging and tiansporting their cargoes to
Philadelphia.
  The Philadelphia  and  Columbia rail-
road is intended to connect the Delaware
navigation at Philadelphia with that  of
the Susquehanna at  Columbia, passing
through the counties  of Delaware,  Ches-
ter and Lancaster.  The principal summit
on this rail-road is the Mine ridge, which
is 599 feet above the Delaware at Phila-
delphia.  There are two inclined planes,
one at Columbia, which is 660 yards in
length and ninety feet in height,  and the
odier, which  is  180 feet in height, at the
Schuylkill, near Peter's island, in the vicin-
ity of Philadelphia.   At the foot of the
latter inclined plane, the Schuylkill is to be
crossed by a bridge  900 feet  in  length,
which is  now  constructing.   From the
Mine  ridge  gap summit,  at Henderson,
westward, to the head of the  inclined
plane at Columbia, the distance is twenty-
nine miles, and  the ascent and descent is
8481 feet.   From the same summit, east-
ward, to the head of the inclined plane at
the Schuylkill, the distance is  fifty miles,
and the ascent and descent 940 feet.  The
whole length is 823 miles.  It terminates
in Philadelphia  at the  intersection of Vine
and Broad streets.  The sum of $600,000
was appropriated  by  the legislature  of
Pennsylvania, in March,  1831,  towards
the completion  of this work.   A  large
part of the road has been put under con-
tract, but only a small portion of rails have
as yet been laid down.  It is proposed to
continue  the rail-road  westward, across
the Susquehanna by the Columbia bridge,
to the  borough of York, a distance  of
fourteen miles.   At  the session of the
legislature of Pennsylvania in 1829-30,
the following companies were  incorpo-
rated:—The Philipsburg and Juniata
rail-road  company,  for the purpose  of
constructing  a  rail-road from  the  Penn1-
sylvania canal, near the mouth ofthe Little
Juniata, to the coal mines  in the vicinity
of  Philipsburg.—The  Tuscarora  and
Cold  run tunnd and rail-road company,
for the purpose of constructing a rail-road
and tunnel through the Sharp mountain
from  Skell's mill  to Cold run.—The Mid-
dle Port and  Pine creek rail-road compa-
ny, for the purpose of constructing a rail-
road from the Schuylkill  valley rail-road,
near Middle Port, to the Schuylkill canal,
near the mouth of Pine creek.—The Sy-
ier's  valley  rail-road company,  for the
purpose of constructing a rail-road from
Millesburg to Short mountain.—The Bea-
ver meadow rail-road company, for  the
purpose of constmctiug a rail-road from
Beaver meadow coal mines to the river
Lehigh, at any place above Mauch Chunk.
A company was also incorporated for the
purpose of constructing a canal  or rail-
road from the Delaware and  Hudson ca-
nal,  near  the mouth of the Wallenpon-
paclt, to the neighborhood of Cobb's gap,
and thence to the coal beds on the west-
ern side of the Moosic or Lackawannock
mountain.   At  the session of the  same
legislature  in 1830—1, twelve rail-road
companies were incorporated.  Numerous
other rail-roads have been projected in this
state.  It has been  stated  that the whole
number of rail-roads in Pennsylvania, of
greater or less extent, is sixty-seven.
  The Newcastle and Frenchtown   rail-
road extends from Newcastle, on the Del-
aware, to the  Elk river, near Frenchtown.
It consists of a single track, with  the re>-
quisite number of turn-outs, and is nearly
sixteen and a half miles in length, and is
only 853 yards  longer than  a perfectly
straight line drawn between its termini. It
consists of six curves and six straight lines.
The curves vary in length  from 1939 feet
to 8296 feet.   The irulii of the three small-
est curves is 10,560  feet; the radius of the
largest eurve  is  20,000 feet.  The aggre-
gate length of the curves is five miles and
sixteen one-hundredths ;   that of  the
straight lines is  eleven  miles  and  three
tenths.  The longest straight line is near-
ly six miles in extent.  The graduation of
the road varies from a perfect level to as-
cents and descents of ten feet  six inches
to sixteen feet four inches, to the mile; at
one place, for about 4000 feet, the  slope is
at the rate of twenty-nine feet to the mile.
The whole amount of excavation is about
500,000 cubic yards of earth, exclusive of
the side drains.  The amount of embank-
ment is  about 420,000 cubic  yards.  At
two  points, the  excavation was attended
with  great difficulty and  expense,  espe-
cially  at the western termination  of the
road, where the  cutting was thirty-seven
feet deep  through  a solid mass of tough
red and black clay for a considerable dis-
tance.  There are six principal embank-
ments, varying in length from 1200 to 3000
feet each, and in height from fifteen  to
twenty-five feet each.  The road  crosses
four viaducts (varying in dimensions from
twelve feet by ten to five feet by six), and
twenty-nine culverts.  The viaducts and
culverts  are constructed of  substantial
stone masonry.  The width  of the  road
bed  is twenty-six  feet, exclusive  of the 
RAIL-WAYS.                            499
side drains.  The road  is constructed in
the following manner: Stone blocks, con-
taining two cubic feet of stone  each, and
weighing about 360 pounds, are laid three
feet opart, from centre to centre, and bed-
ded in  holes  tw6 feet deep and two feet
square, upon  pure  sand or gravel well
rammed, where  white  oak sleepers are
used upon embankments, &c.   They are
laid at the same distance apart, on sills of
hemlock four inches thick by eight inches
wide, placed longitudinally, which are, in
like manner, bedded in trenches  filled with
sand or gravel well rammed.  Upon these
are laid and secured the rails of Georgia
pitch pine, six inches square, on which are
fastened the iron bars, two and one fourth
inches  wide  by  five eighths of an inch
thick, with iron plates  beneath them, at
the points of their junction. The inner
edge of  the  rail is chamfered so as to bring
the bearing  of the iron  bar nearly on the
centre.   The  total  cost of the  rail-road,
including the land for its location, wharfs,
land and depots at both  ends, locomotives,
&c, is estimated at $400,000.
   The   Wilmington  and  Downingtown
rail-road. A  company  was incorporated
by the  legislature of Delaware, in 1831,
with a capital of  $100,000, with liberty to
increase it to $150,000, for the purpose of
constructing a rail-road  from Wilmington
to the boundaiy line ofthe state, in the di-
rection of Downingtown in Pennsylvania.
   The  Baltimore and  Susquehanna  rail-
road was commenced in 1830.  It is  to
extend from Baltimore to York, where  it
may be  connected with the Philadelphia
ond Columbia rail-road, or it'may be con-
 tinued to York Haven, on the Susquehan-
 na.  The distance from  Baltimore to York,
 in consequence of the uneven  surface of
 the country, will not be less than seventy-
 six miles.  The portion ofthe road which
 lies in Maryland, is in active progress.  A
 division of it, seven miles in length, com-
 mencing at Baltimore,  has already been
 completed,  at an expense of $13,350 per
 mile.   The  next division, terminating at
 the Reistertown road, which is eight miles
 in length, is now under contract   When
 completed, it is supposed that the average
 cost of the  road will be reduced  to
 $11,000 per mile.  The act of Maryland,
 incorporating the Baltimore and  Susque-
 hanna rail-road company for the  purpose
 of constructing this rail-road, has not  as
 yet been concurred in by Pennsylvania, as
 regards the portion  of  the road proposed
 to be located within the state of Pennsyl-
 vania ; and  the rail-road, at present, is to
 terminate at the Maryland and Pennsylva-
nia boundary line.  The company are au-
thorized, by the legislature  of Maryland,
to construct a lateral  rail-road commen-
cing at some point upon the main stem of
their rail-road, within ten miles from Bal-
timore, and extending through Westmin-
ster to the head waters of the  Monocacy
river.
  The Baltimore and  Ohio rail-road is
intended to unite the city of Baltimore, a
central point on the Atlantic coast, with
the Ohio river—the great navigable high-
way of the Western  States.   The cere-
mony of laying the firet  stone was per-
formed on the 4th of July, 1828; but  it
was not until the autumn of that year that
active operations towards the construction
of die work were begun.  It commences
at the head  of  the  basin  in  Baltimore.
The rail-road in the city is a single track,
the rails of which are placed at equal dis-
tances between  die curb-stones  of the
side-walks, and consists of blocks of stone,
sunk as low as the level ofthe street, with
grooves hi them for  die flanges of die
wheels, to  run with nn  iron bar for the
track, secured in the mode adopted  on
other parts ofthe road.  The whole street
is paved, and is slightly convex.  On this
part ofthe road, horee power alone is to
be used.   It is  proposed to constmct
branch rail-ways to various sections of the
city.   It is also to be  continued to the
city block, a distance of two  miles, thus
traversing die whole water front of the
city.   From die basin the rail-road passes
to the depot in Pratt street.  The line be-
tween Pratt  street and  the Potomac  is
sixty-seven and  five  eighdis  miles in
length.  It has been definitively located,
and is divided into six divisions.  The
city division commences at Pratt street,
and ends  at  the "first stone," or south-
west boundary ofthe city:  the firet divis-
ion commences at the termination of the
city division, and ends at a point on the
northern edge of the Frederic turnpike,
at Ellicott's  mills.  These two divisions
embrace  a distance  of about  thirteen
miles  and twenty-two poles.  On these
divisions two sets of tracks are laid, one
consisting of bare of iron, laid on wooden
sills, and the other of iron, on stone sills.
There are several magnificent viaducts,
constructed of substantial stone masonry,
on this portion ofthe road.  The Carroll-
ton viaduct over Gwyn's falls is construct-
ed of granite.  The  whole  exterior  is
hewn.  It consists of two  arches, and is
312 feet in length.  Its height, from the
 foundation to the top ofthe parapet, sixty-
three feet nine inches; from the surface 
500                             RAIL-WAYS.
of die water to the top of the parapet,
fifty-one feet and nine inches. The width
ofthe raU-way travelling path is twenty-
six feet six inches ;  the  chord of the
arch, springing from the abutments, eighty
feet three inches.   It  is a  structure of
great  solidity  and  beauty.  The bridge
across the Patapsco is also  of stone, and
consists of two arches,  of  fifty-five  feet
span each, and two of twenty  feet span
each.   It  is 375 feet in length.  There
are also several extensive embankments
and deep cuts. The  bridges,  culverts,
&c, contain, altogether, 47,300 perches
of masonry.  The cost for graduation and
masonry was $605,912.  The second di-
vision commences at  Ellicott's  mills, on
the right bank of the Patapsco  river, fol-
lowing the windings of the river through
a rugged granite district, and ends at the
Forks.  Almost the whole  distance, it is
a shelf cut  out of the bank of the river,
secured against the abrasion of the stream
by substantial stone embankments, or an
exterior coating of stone.  There are very
few thorough  cuts.  The length of this
division is 11  miles 219 poles.   It con-
sists of a double set of tracks, laid on
granite  sills, except  on high  embank-
ments, where  wood was preferred.  At
the Forks of  the  Patapsco,  the  road
reaches an elevation of nearly  300  feet
above tide.  The cost forgraduation and
masonry was $118,327.  The third divis-
ion begins at the Forks of the Patapsco,
crossing the west  branch, and following
up its course on the left bank,  and  ter-
minates on the summit of Parr's  Spring
ridge.   The length of this division is 17
miles  and 104 poles.   On  this division
there are four bridges, and a stone viaduct
over die Frederick turnpike road.  The
chords of the arches of the bridges are
from twelve  to  twenty-five  feet; that of
the viaduct  is twenty feet.  The ascent
and descent  of  Parr's ridge  is overcome
by four inclined planes. Two of these
planes are on this division;  the first, 2150
feet in length, with a rise of 801  feet; the
second, 3000 feet in length, with a rise of
99J feet  This plane terminates  at  the
top of the ridge, where there is a level
600 feet in length, affording space for the
location ofthe necessary stationary.en-
gines.   A single track  of rails  has been
laid on this division, and materials are in
preparation for the second track.  Of the
track  which has been  finished, a large
portion is laid  with wooden sills.  The
estimated cost for graduation and mason-
ry is $132,196.   The fourth division be-
gins on the summit of Parr's ridge, the
descent of  which  is overcome  by twe
inclined planes.  The first is 3200 feet in
length, with a descent  of 159 feet; and
the second is 1900  feet  in  lengdi, with a
descent of 81J feet.  The road then  pur-
sues the  ravine of Bush  creek, on the
south  side of the  stream, for about four
and a half miles, when it crosses to die
north  side,  over a stone bridge of one
arch of twenty-five feet  chord.  Thence it
traverses die north side  of the  stream  to
its  confluence with the Monocacy,  over
which river  it passes upon a bridge 350
feet in length, and 23 feet 8 inches  in
breadth, and terminates  on the west bank.
The abutments and piers of this bridge
are of stone, and  the superstructure of
wood.   It has  three arches, of 110 feet
span each, die chords of which are elevat-
ed above the low-water  line of the Mono-
cacy twenty-six feet.  It is so constructed,
that its floor forms a roof impervious  to
water,  and protects the timbers beneadi
from the weather.   The piers are ten feet
thick at the top, and they, as well as the
abutments,  were  raised  from a  rock
foundation, at a slope of one inch base to
one foot altitude.  There are, besides, in
tins division, six small stone bridges, and
one viaduct.  The length  of the division
is  14 miles 163 poles.  A  single track.
laid  with  wood, has been  finished  upon
this division.  The  whole estimated  cost
for  graduation and masonry is  $136,237.
From the  circumstance that stone suitable
for sills has not been found  on die upper
part of die third, nor upon the fourth and
fifth divisions, including the lateral road
to  Frederick, it  became necessary to lay
the first track tiirough these divisions with
wood instead of stone.   The fifth division
commences at die western termination of
the Monocacy bridge, and, after pursuing
the descending valley of that river for
about a mile and a half, gently diverges
from it, and terminates at the Point of
Rocks  on the Potomac river.  The length
of this division is  eleven  miles and nine
poles.  There is no curvature in this divis-
ion of less  radius than 1146 feet.   On
this division, there are only three bridges,
of one  arch each, and one viaduct over the
rail-road, for the accommodation of the
Georgetown and Frederick turnpike road,
of stone abutments, and  superstructure of
wood,  of twenty-four feet span.  It  was
expected that a single track on this divis-
ion would be finished by the beginning of
the year 1832.  It  is anticipatedthat the
second track throughout the whole line of
the rail-road will  be completed in the
couree of  the year 1832.  The estimated 
RAIL-WAYS.                            501
Tost for the graduation and masonry ofthe
 fifth division was $78,682.   The lateral
 road to Frederick  commences near the
 western end of the bridge over die Mo-
 nocacy, and, pursuing tke western margin
 of the river upward for  about one  mile,
 diverges from it to the north-west, and,
 after crossing the land between that river
 and Carroll's creek, terminates at  the de-
 pot at  Frederick. This depot is so situated
 as to secure from it an easy communica-
 tion by lateral rail-ways to all paits of that
 city.  The point of termination  of this
 lateral rail-road is sixty miles ten poles
 from Pratt street.  It was commenced hi
 July, 1831.  Upon it is one long and deep
 excavation through solid lime-stone rock,
 besides several  other rocky cuts  of less
 magnitude.  The length of this branch is
 3 miles 130 poles.  There are no bridges
 upon it  It consists of a single track, laid
 with wood.  The estimated cost for grad-
 uation and masonry was $30,258.  A por-
 tion of die rail-road is constructed in the
 following manner:  After die grading is
 finished, small trenches, two feet wide,
 were formed for the tracks, which are
 filled with rubble stone, in which are laid
<he stone rails, which  are in  no instance
 less than eight inches thick, in a continu-
 ous  line.  For the length of two feet at
 the joinings ofthe rails, die trenches were
 cut one foot wideV than at any other parts.
 The upper and  inner surfaces of these
 .rails are dressed pei^jctly even, as well as
 the  ends  where they  join.  Bars  of
 wrought iron, two and one fourth inches
 in width and five eighths of an  inch in
 thickness, are then laid on these roils, on
 a line  with the inner surfaces, and are se-
 cured  with iron  rivets, entering about
 •three and a half inches in holes fitted to
 receive them, and filled widi  plugs  of
 locust wood, and at a distance of about
 eighteen inches.  On some sections ofthe
 rail-road, wooden string-pieces and sleep-
 ers  are used.   The i-ails rest in notches
 cut in the sleepere for that purpose, and
 are secured in dieir position by wooden
 wedges or keys, about  twelve inches in
 length, driven horizontally at die  bottom
 of the inner side of each  notch.  The
 sleepere  are from seven to eight feet in
 length, and arc laid transversely, at the
 distance of four feet from centre to centre.
 To  accommodate the horse-path,  each
 sleeper is  hewn down  in  the middle.
 Under the notches of the sleepere, the
 earth is excavated so as to  form a hole
 twelve inches in depth, filled with broken
 stone,  upon which  the sleeper rests.
 Where rock, or other hard substance, in-
tervenes,.the depth is less.  The iron bars
are secured  upon  the wooden string-
pieces, by nails or spikes.  Immediately
under the joinings of the  iron bare, thin
plates of iron are let into the wood, and
the ends of each two adjoining rads are
fastened to this plate.  The  breadth of
the track between the iron  bars is four
feet nine and one fourth inches.   The es-
timated cost of graduating the entire line
of the main road between Baltimore and
the Point of Rocks, including die lateral
road to Frederick, and of laying a double
set of n-acks upon the main  stem, and a
single set on the lateral road, is $1,906,853,
or $27,128 per mile.   About  one third of
this line will be laid with stone rails, and
the remaining  two  thirds  with wood.
There are only two curves on the whole
line ofa less radius than 395  feet, which
is fixed as the limit of curvature.   The
breadth ofthe track  is four feet nine and
one fourth inches between the rails. From
Jan. 1, to Sept. 30, 1831, the  number of
passengers on that portion of the road be-
tween Baltimore and Ellicott's mills was
81,905 ;  and,  within the  same  period,
5931 tons have been transported upon it,
yielding an income of $31,405,  and in-
volving   an  expenditure  of  $10,994.
Transportation is effected by horses and by
steam locomotives.  The progress of the
road beyond the Point of Rocks has been
interrupted by a lawsuit between the Bal-
timore and Ohio  rail-road company, by
which this enterprise has been undertaken,
and the Chesapeake canal  company.
This controversy has lately been decided
in favor of the canal company.  Meas-
ures are now in progress for the extension
ofthe rail-road to the mouth of the Shen-
andoah.  This will lay open to the  Bal-
timore market  one  of the  richest and
most productive sections of Virginia. A
farther extension of thirty miles will carry
the road to Williainsport; and  another
prolongation  of seventy-five miles will
carry  it  to Cumberland, and to a region
abounding  in  rich  bituminous  coal.
From this point, the distance will be about
140 miles to Pittsburg, if  that should be
chosen as die point of termination.  This
would make the whole length ofthe road
325 miles.  From the exu-emely unfavor-
able surface over which the road necessa-
rily passes for the firet eight miles, in or-
der to reach die valley of the Patapsco,
the expenses across that district were very
heavy;  but, in adopting this route, a  line
of road was secured, which,  by some ex-
tensive  embankments and deep cuttings
near Baltimore, can be located with but a 
502
RAIL-WAYS.
single summit, for a distance of 180 miles,
and with only two summits requiring sta-
tionary power along the entire line to the
Ohio river.  The approach to the firet of
these summits at Parr Spring ridge is by
an acclivity so gradual as  not to exceed
an average of about eighteen feet to the
mile; and,  as  the amount of tonnage
passing westward will not be as great as
diat passing eastward, this line will be
more advantageous than if it were per-
fectly level.  From the western  side of
this ridge, to the  coal-mines near Cum-
berland, the route is adapted, along the
whole  distance, to steam locomotives.
From the eastern base of the Alleghany
mountain, a series of inclined planes will
be required to  overcome a summit of
about 1200 feet; from thence it has been
ascertained that the road may be con-
ducted to the Ohio river upon  a line so
nearly level as  to be  traversed without
difficulty by locomotive steam  power.—
The Baltimore and Ohio rail-road com-
pany was incorporated by the legislature
of Maryland, Virginia  and Pennsylvania.
The state of Maryland and the city of
Baltimore have subscribed for $500,000
each ofthe stock of this company.
  The Baltimore  and Washington  rail-
road is a branch of the Baltimore and
Ohio rail-road, and its execution has been
undertaken by  the Baltimore and Ohio
rail-road  company. The  legislature of
Maryland has passed  an act authorizing
the Baltimore and Washington  turnpike-
road company to subscribe $100,000 to
the stock of this  rail-road, reserving to
the state the right to subscribe to the
amount of five eighths ofthe cost of the
road, from its intersection with the Balti-
more and Ohio rail-road to the line of the
district of Columbia, amounting to about
a moiety of the whole expenditure.  The
necessary surveys are now making.  The
length from the point of its intersection
with the main stem, near  Elkridge land-
ing, to Washington, will be about thirty-
three miles.  The country admits  of a
graduation to inclination not greater than
twenty feet to the mile.  From the  Pa-
tapsco to Washington, it is probable that
the radius of curvature need not be less
than from 1000 to 1500 feet; and it is be-
lieved there will be few places where  it
need be less than 3000 feet There are
few curvatures  between  Baltimore and
Patapsco having a less radius than  1000
feet.
  A  rail-road has been projected from
Baltimore to Annapolis.
  The Manchester rail-road  is  in Ches-
terfield  county,  Virginia.    It  extends
from  Manchester to the coal mines.  It
consists of a single track, and is thirteen
miles in length.
  The Petersburg and Roanoke rail-rood
was undertaken to counteract the inju-
rious effect which the Dismal  Swamp
canal has upon the trade of  Petersburg.
Formerly, a considerable portion of the
Roanoke trade was conveyed  overland to
■Petersburg; but this canal has diverted it
to Norfolk, though by a long and circuit-
ous route.  A route for this rail-road  has
been  surveyed  from  Petersburg  to  the
Roanoke, a distance of sixty miles -, and a
company has been incorporated, with a
capital stock of $400,000 for the purpose
of constructing it.
  Rail-roads have been also projected
from  Richmond  to  Lynchburg;  from
Lynchburg to  New river; from Suffolk,
in Nansemond  county,  to the  Rosuioke
river, opposite to the town of Weldon, in
North Carolina, &c.
  The  Fayetteville rail-road  company
was incorporated by  the legislature of
North Carolina, in 1830, with a capital
stock of $20,000, for die  purpose of con-
structing a rail-road from Fayetteville to
the  Cape Fear river, at Campbeltown.
  A company has been lately incorporated
for  the construction of a rail-road from
the  cape Fear to the Yadkin.  Rail-roads
have also been proposed from the Yadkin
to the Catawba; and from Wilmington to
the  iron-mining districts, near  Statesvillc,
passing  through Fayetteville  and Salis-
bury.
  The  Charleston  and Hamburg rail-
road extends from Charleston to Ham-
burg, on  the  Savannah river, opposite
Augusta.  It consists  of two divisions:
the  eastern division, from Charleston to
Edisto river, is sixty-two and a half miles
in  length;  the western division, from
Edisto to Hamburg,  is  seventy miles in
length.  The road is constructed of wood,
with tracks of iron, and  is designed for
steam   locomotives.    This   enterprise
was undertaken by the  South Carolina
canal and  raU-road company,  which has,
however, received pecuniary assistance
from the state of South Carolina.  A sec-
ond rail-road, of about the same length, is
also embraced  within  the objects of the
company.  It is to extend from Charles-
ton  to Columbia.
  Companies have been incorporated by
the  legislature of Alabama, to  constmct a
rail-road from Montgomery to Chattahoor
chie, opposite Columbus, in Georgia,  and
from  Selma, on the  Alabama, through 
RAIL-WAYS—RAIN.
503
Elyta and Montevallo, to Decatur, on the
Tennessee.  A rail-road has  been pro-
jected from Augusta to Ileshman's lake, a
distance  of fifty miles.   Its object is  to
avoid the  delay  experienced in getting
supplies  for the interior from the uncer-
tain navigation ofthe Savannah river.   A
rail-road has also been  proposed between
Augusta and Columbus, in Georgia,  on
the Chatahoochie.
   The Lexington and Ohio rail-road was
commenced in 1831.  It is to extend from
Lexington to Frankfort, and thence to the
Ohio river just  below the  falls,  near
Shippingport,  which   is   distant  two
miles from Louisville.  It  will be about
eighty miles in  length.  The Louisville
canal, round the falls of the Ohio, termi-
nates also at Shippingport.  The Lex-
ington and Ohio  rail-road company, by
which this enterprise is undertaken, was
incorporated by the legislature  of Ken-
tucky, in 1830,  with a capital stock of
$1,000,000.    In  Ohio,  a  rail-road  has
been  projected from Wheeling  to lake
Erie,  and a grant has been  made by the
legislature of that  state for  the purpose.
It is also proposed  to constmct a rail-road
from  Mad river to lake Erie, and from
Steubenville, on the Ohio,  to the Ohio
state canal, &c. &c.
   The Illinois and Michigan rail-road is
to commence at Chicago, on lake Michi-
gan,  and  continue  in  a south-westerly
direction, eleven miles and a half to the
summit level; in this distance the ascent
is only twenty-five  feet.   After passing
the summit level, it is to cross, and con-
tinue along the river Des Plaines, to the
foot of the Illinois rapids, the  distance of
eighty-five miles, with a descent of ex-
actly two feet  per mile ; thus giving, in
the distance of ninety-six and a half miles,
only 195 feet rise and fall.
   The Detroit and Pontiac  rail-road.   A
company has been formed, and a survey
made, for a rail-road from Detroit to Pon-
tiac, a distance of twenty-five miles.
   The   Tuscumbia rail-road was con-
structed  in order to avoid  the  Muscle
shoals,  and extends from Tuscumbia  to
Decatur.   It  was  commenced  irt  1831.
It consists of a single track of rails, and cost
about $3500 per mile.  It is also proposed
to extend the  Lynchburg and New river
rail-road to Knoxville. Rail-roads have also
been projected from Nashville to Frank-
lin,  and  from  Columbia  to the Ten-
nessee.
   The  lake Pontchartrain   raU-road  is
about four miles and a half in length, and
extends  from lake Pontchartrain  to New
Orleans.  It consists of a single track.   It
is perfectly straight, and nearly level, the
ascent and  descent being  only  sixteen
inches.  The rails weigh thirty-five pounds
per yard.  The cost was   $15,000  per
mile.   The company,  by which it was
constmcted, was incorporated in January,
1830, with exclusive privileges, for twenty-
five yeare.  The road was  finished and
opened  on April 16,  1831.  An act  of
congress was  obtained by the company
in the session preceding, establishing a
port of entry on lake Pontchartrain ; and
the company are now constructing an ar-
tificial harbor and breakwater in the lake,
at the termination of the rail-road.  This
port is called Port Pontchartrain.
  The West Feliciana rail-road.  A com-
pany was incorporated by the legislature
of Louisiana for the purpose  of construct-
ing a rail-road from the river Mississippi,
near St. Francisville, to the boundary line
of Louisiana and Mississippi, in the direc-
tion of Woodville, in Mississippi.—For
more  particular information on the sub-
jects of this article,  see the works of Mr.
Tredgold and  Mr. Wood, and the reports
of the various engineers on the  different
rail-roads.  Those relating to the Balti-
more and Ohio rail-road give  the results
of very numerous experiments and esti-
mates, which  throw great light upon the
subject  of the construction of rail-roads
in the U. States.
  Rain.  This meteorological phenome-
non depends upon the formation  and dis-
solution  of-clouds.  The  humidity sus-
pended in the atnosphere is derived from
the evaporation of*water, partly from land,
but chiefly from ti. e vast  expanse of the
ocean.   A surface of lake, of pasture,
cornfield  or  forest tupports a continual
evaporation, augment*, d only by the dry-
ness ofthe air, and the rapidity of its suc-
cessive  contacts.   Even ploughed land
will supply nearly as much moisture  to
the atmosphere as a sheet  of water  of
equal dimensions.  If the  whole  of the
waters, which fall from the heavens, were
to return again, the evaporation from the
ground might be sufficient alone to main-
tain the  perpetual circulation.  But more
than one third of all the rains and melted
snows are carried  by the  rivers  to the
ocean, which must hence restore this con-
tinued waste.   The air, in  exhaling its
watery store, is rendered quite damp ; but
it may afterwards become dry, on being
transported to a warmer situation.  Such
is die case with the sea-breeze, particular-
ly iu summer.   It arrives  on the shore
cold and moist; but as it advances into the 
504
RAIN.
interior of  the   continent,   h  grows
milder and drier.  The moisture  deposit-
ed by a body of air  in  minute globules,
which remain suspended or subside slow-
ly in the atmosphere, constitutes  a cloud.
When it comos near us, whether it hovers
on the tops of the hills  or spreads over
the valleys, it receives the name of a fog.
The   production of rain has, from the
earliest times, engaged the attention of
philosophers;  but it  was  reserved for
doctor James  Hutton, of Edinburgh, to
afford  the true  solution  of the problem.
His theory of rain was  made known in
1787;  since which period it has  been.
greatly neglected by writers upon meteor-
ology, until within a very few years.  We
shall now  give an outline of doctor Hut-
ton's views.  Air, in cooling it is known,.
has the property  of depositing the mois-
ture  it  contains.  But how,  it may be
asked, is it cooled in the free atmosphere,
unless by the contact  or  commixture ofa
colder portion of the same fluid ? Now
the portion of air which is chilled must, in
an equal degree, warm the  other.  If, in
consequence of this mutual change of con-
dition, the former be disposed to resign
its moisture, the latter is  more inclined to
retain it; and, consequently, if such oppo-
site effects were balanced, there could on
the whole  be no precipitation of moisture.
The separation of moisture, on the mixing
of two masses of damp  air at different
temperatures, would therefore prove, that
the dissolving power of air suffers more
diminution from losing part pf the com-
bined heat, than it acquires augmentation
from gaining an equal measure of it; and,
consequently, this power must,under equal
accessions of heat, increase  more slowly
at first than it does afterwards, thus ad-
vancing always with accumulated celeri-
ty.  The  quantity of moisture which air
can hold,  thus increases  in a much faster
ratio  than its temperature.   This great
principle  in the economy cf  nature was
traced by doctor Hutton from indirect ex-
perience.  It is the simplest of the accel-
erating kind, and perfectly agrees with the
law  of solution, which  the hygrometer
has established.  Suppose equal bulks of
air in a state of saturation, and at the dif-
ferent temperatures of 15 and  45  centesi-
mal degrees, were intermixed ; the com-
pound arising from such  union will evi-
dently have the mean temperature of 30°.
But since, at these  temperatures,  the one
portion held 200 parts of humidity, and
the other 800, the aggregate must contain
1000  parts, or either half of it,  500; at the
mean or resulting temperature, however,
this portion is only capable of suspending
400 parts of humidity, and, consequently,
the difference, or 100 parts, amounting to
the two hundredth part of the whole weight
of air, must be precipitated from the com-
pound mass.  In this example, it has been
assumed that the  portions  of differently
heated air were saturated with moisture
before mixing; but it is only required that
they should approximate to this condition.
The effect, however, of simple commix-
ture would, in most cases, be  very small.
To explain  the actual phenomena,  we
must have recourse to  the mutual opera-
tion  of a chill  and  of a  warm current
driving swiftly in opposite directions,  and
continually mixing and shifting their sur-
faces.  By this  rapidity, a larger volume
of the fluid is brought into contact in a
given time.   Suppose, for  instance, the
one current to have a temperature of 50°,
and the other that of 70° Fahr.; the blend-
ing surfaces  will  therefore assume  the
mean temperature  of 60°.  Consequently
the two streams throw together 200 and
334.2 parts of  moisture, making  567.1
parts  for  the  compound,  which, at  its
actual temperature, can hold only 258.6
parts; the difference, or 8.6 parts, forms
the measure of precipitation, correspond-
ing to the 2325th of the whole weight of
the commixed air.  It would thus require
a column of air 30 miles in length to fur-
nish, over a given  spot, and in the space
of an hour, a deposit of moisture equal to
the height of an inch.  If the sum of the
opposite velocities  amounted to 60 miles
an hour, and the intermingling influence
extended but to a quarter of  an inch at the
grazing surfaces, there would still, on this
supposition,  be produced, in  the  same
time, a fall of rain reaching to half an inch
in altitude.  These quantities come with-
in the limits  of probability, and  agree
sufficiently with experience  and observa-
tion.   But in the higher  temperatures,
though the difference ofthe heat between
the opposite strata of air should remain
the same, the measure of aqueous precip-
itation is greatly increased.  Thus, while
the mixture of equal masses of air, at the
temperatures of 40° and 60°, is only 6.6,
that from a like mixture of 80° and 100°
amounts to  19. This  result is  entirely
conformable to observation, for  showers
are most copious during hot weather and
in the tropical climates.  The quantity of
rain precipitated from  the  atmosphere,
thus depends  upon a variety of circum-
stances,—on the previous dampness  of
the commixed  portions of the fluid,—
their difference of  heat,—the elevation of 
RAIN—RAINGAUGE.
505
 their mean temperature,—and the  extent
 of  the  combination which takes  place.
 When  the  deposition  is slow, the very
 minute aqueous globules remain suspend-
 ed, and form clouds;  but  if it be rapid
 and copious, those particles conglomerate,
 and produce, according to the temperature
 of  the  medium through which they de-
 scend, rain, mist, snow,or hail.  The fore-
 going  theory tallies  precisely  with what
 we experience in  the  connexion of rain
 with die variable nature  of the  winds.
 Steady diy  weather is always accompa-
 nied by a steady direction  of the wind ;
 whereas, in rainy  weather, the winds are
 unsteady and variable.  The heavy rains
 that fall in India always take place during
 the  shifting of the monsoons; and while
 they last, the winds are always veering.—
 The annual  quantity of rain is greatest at
 the equator, and gradually diminishes as
 we approach the pole.  This will be evi-
 dent from the  following table, showing
 the annual depth  of rain in different lat-
 itudes :
                  Lat. N.     Fall of Rain.
 Grenada,....    12°        126 inches.
 Cape Francois,    19° 46'     120   "
 Calcutta, ....   22° 23/      81   «
 Rome,.....    41° 54'      39   «
 England,....    50° to 55°   31   «
 Petersburg,  . .   59°  W      16   "
 Uleaborg,  ...   65°  1'       13i  «
 On the contrary, the number of rainy days
 is smallest at the equator, and increases in
 proportion to the distance from it.   From
 north latitude 12° to 43°, the mean number
 of rainy days is 78.
 From 43° to 46° the mean number is 103
  "  46° " 50° "    "     "   "  134
  "  50° " 60° "   "      "    "  161
 Hence it is  obvious that the rain falls in
 very  heavy showers in warm climates,
 and that it becomes more and more gentle
 as we  advance towards the pole.  Con-
 sequently, in hot climates, the air must be
 much less loaded  with moisture, and the
 rate of evaporation much greater than in
 cold climates.   For when  rain falls very
 heavy,  a great portion of it runs off by
 the surface, and flows  into the sea.  But
 this happens to a much less extent when
 the fall of rain is more gentle.
  Rainbow.  To  what has been said on
 this subject in the  article Optics, division
 Natural Phenomena, we  will  only add,
 that in a stormy sea, in which the water is
 frequently sent up into the air in large
drops, the rays  of the sun form in them
inverted rainbows,  of which from twenty
to thirty are  frequently visible at the same
  vol. x.          43
time.   They usually have but two colore;
yellow upon the side towards the sun, and
pale green upon the other side.  The ap-
pearance of two rainbows, intersected by
each other, which sometimes  takes place
on  the seacoast, when the  rain-cloud is
over the water, is perhaps the effect of the
image  of the sun  reflected from the sur-
face of the  water.  In the morning, we
often see the colore of the rainbow in the
dew-drops on the  meadows,  where the
bow is hyperbolical or elliptical.  Rain-
bows  likewise have sometimes  been ob-
served in the night, which arise from the
refraction  and dispersion of the colored
rays of the moon  in  the drops of rain;
they are, however, very faint, and usually
form only white and yellow bows.  The
bishop of Spalatro, Antony de Dominis,
gave the firet accurate  explanation of the
principal rainbow, in a treatise which ap-
peared at Venice in the beginning of the
seventeenth century ; but we are indebted
to Newton for the complete elucidation, on
mathematical principles, of this bright ap-
pearance of the  heavens (Optica, London,
1706, quarto). (See Iris.)
  Raingauge, or  Pluviometeb;  a ma-
chine for measuring the quantity of rain
that falls.  There are various lands of rain-
gauges : one of the best is a hollow cylin-
der, having within  it a cork-ball attached
to a wooden stem,  which passes through
a small opening at the top,  on which  is
placed a large funnel.  When this instm-
ment is placed in  the  open air,  in a free
place, the rain that falls within the circum-
ference of the funnel will run down into
the cylinder, and  cause the cork to float;
and the quantity of water in the cylinder
may be seen by  the height to which the
stem of the float is raised.  The stem of
the float is so graduated as to show, by its
divisions, the number of  perpendicular
inches of water  which fell on the surface
of the earth since the last observation.  It
is hardly necessary to  observe that, after
every observation,  the cylinder  must be
emptied.   A very simple raingauge, and
one which answers all practical purposes,
consists of a copper funnel,  die  area of
whose opening is exactly ten square inches.
This funnel  is  fixed  in a bottle, and the
quantity of rain caught is ascertained by
multiplying the  weight in ounces by 173,
which gives the depth  in niches and parst
of an inch.  In  fixing these gauges, care
must be taken that the rain may have free
access to them.  Hence die tops of bmld-
ings are usually the best places.   When
quantities of rain, collected in them at dif-
ferent  places, are compared,  the instru- 
506
RAINGAUGE—RALEIGH.
ments ought to be fixed at the same heights
above the ground at both places, because,
at different heights, the quantities are al-
ways different, even at the  same place.
(See Rain.)
  Rajah ; the hereditary princes of the
Hindoos, who, before  the- subjugation of
the countiy by the Moguls,  governed die
various  countries of Hindoostan, as  they
still  continue  to do in some instances,
though they are generally dependent on
the Europeans.  They belong to the caste
of Cshatriyas, or Chchteree.  (See Caste,
and Hindoos.)   In the East Indian islands,
especially in the interior of them, where
the  arms  of foreign  conquerors have
never penetrated, there are  yet many in-
dependent  rajahs.—Rajah is the prefix
to many geographical  names in the East
Indies.
  Rajasthan (or the central and  western
Rajpoot  states) extends from 22° to 30°
north latitude, and from 69° to 78° east lon-
gitude, comprising  350,000 square miles.
It consists of seven states, belonging to the
British dominions.   This country was,
comparatively, but little known to Europe-
ans,  until the publication of a valuable
work on it by colonel Tod, who had been
for a long time in  authority there.  The
work is of much interest to the geographer,
the historian, the lover of poetry,  and  the
linguist, and brings to  light curious traces
of institutions similar to those of  Europe.
Were other remote countries of the East
explored in the  same spirit, many more
such analogies would probably be found.
See the Annals and Antiquities of Rajast-
han, by Lieut. Col. James Tod, late Political
Agent to the Western Rajpoot States (4to.,
London,  1829).
  Rajpootana.  (See Rajasthan.)
  Rake ; a term applied to the masts
when they are out of a perpendicular  sit-
uation ; as, That ship's mainmast rakes aft.
  Raking ; the act of cannonading a ship
on the stem, or head, so that the balls
range the whole length ofthe decks, which
is one of the most dangerous incidents  that
can happen in a naval action.  This is fre-
quently called raking fore and aft, and is
similar to what is termed by engineers en-
filading.
  Raleigh, or Ralegh, sir Walter, a  dis-
tinguished wanior, statesman, and writer,
in the reigns  of Elizabeth and James I,
was the second son ofa gentleman of an-
cient family in Devonshire.   He was bom
in 1552, in that county,  and was sent to
Oriel college, Oxford, where his proficien-
cy  gave a high opinion of his capacity.
1 lis active disposition and martial ardor led
him, at the age of seventeen, to join a body
of gentlemen volunteers raised  to assist
the French Protestants.  He subsequently
accompanied the forces sent under gene-
ral Norris to assist the Dutch, and after-
wards accompanied his half-brother  sir
Humphrey Gilbert  in a voyage  to New-
foundland.  On his return, he distinguish-
ed himself in the Irish rebellion,  and was
rewarded for his services  by a  consid-
erable estate in Ireland.   His  favor at
court was advanced by a well-known act
of gallantry. The queen, in a walk among
a crowd  of courtiers, having' come to a
spot in which the path was obstructed  by
mire, Raleigh immediately took off his
rich plush  cloak, and  spread it  on  the
ground for a foot-cloth.  In 1584, his ac-
tive disposition was manifested in a scheme
for the discovery and settlement  of those
parts  of North  America not already  ap-
propriated by Christian states.   By his in-
terest, he obtained a very extensive patent
for  this  purpose; and,  with the  help of
friends, two ships were fitted out.   These
vessels having carried home cargoes that
sold well, a second  expedition of seven
vessels followed, under the command of
sir Richard Grenville, Raleigh's kinsman.
The latter enterprise terminated in the set-
tlement of Virginia, so called in honor of
queen Elizabeth, and is said to have first
introduced tobacco  and potatoes  to Eu-
rope.  In the mean time, he was  honored
with knighthood, and rewarded by several
lucrative grants, including a large share of
the forfeited Irish estates. He  was one of
the council to whom the consideration of
the best  means of opposing the  Spanish
armada was intrusted, and was among the
number of  volunteers who  joiued  the
English fleet with ships of their own.  In
1589, he accompanied the expelled king
of Portugal in his attempt to reinstate him-
self, for which service he received several
additional marks of favor and emolument;
for, although fond of glory, he was almost
equally so of gam.  On his return from
Portugal, he visited Ireland, and contract-
ed an intimacy with Spenser  (q.  v.), who
celebrated sir Walter under the title ofthe
Shepherd ofthe Ocean, and to his Faery
Queen prefixed a letter to him explanato-
ry of its plan and design.  The latter, in
return, introduced the poet to Elizabeth.
In 1592, he  commanded  an expedition
with  a view of attacking  Panama; but
was recalled by the queen, and, soon after,
incurred her displeasure  by an amour
with  one of her  maids of  honor,  the
daughter of sir Nicholas Throckmorton.
Although he made the best reparation in 
RALEIGH.                             507
his power by many ing that lady, he was
imprisoned lor some months, and banish-
ed the queen'r presence.   To recover fa-
vor, he planned an expedition to Guiana,
in which he embarked in February, 1595,
and reached the Orinoco; but was obli-
ged, by sickness and contrary winds, to
return, after having done little more than
take a  formal  possession of the country
in the name of Elizabeth.  In 1596, he
had so far regained  favor that he had a
naval command under the earl  of Essex,
with whom a difference ensued, diat laid
the foundation ofa lasting enmity between
them.   Sir Walter was subsequently fully
restored to the good graces of Elizabetii,
who nominated him to the government of
Jersey.  He witnessed the min of his an-
tagonist, the earl of Essex, whose execu-
tion he  urged, and personally viewed from
a window in the armory.   (See Devereux.)
The speedy death  of the  queen, which
this very catastrophe hastened, put a pe-
riod to his prosperity.  James I,  whom,
with some other courtiers, he sought to
limit in his power of introducing the Scots
into  England, resented that attempt, and
disliked him as the enemy of his friend
the earl of Essex.   Although received
with external civility at court, he was de-
prived of his post of captain ofthe guards,
and  evidently  discountenanced.   This
treatment preyed  upon his high  spirit;
and, a conspiracy having been formed for
the puqiose of placing upon  the throne
the lady Arabella Stuart, sir Walter was
accused of participating in it by lord Cob-
bam, to whose idle proposals he had given
car, without approving them. By the base
subservience of the jury, he was brought
in guilty of high treason, even to the sur-
prise of the attorney-general Coke him-
self,  who declared  that  he  had only
charged him with  misprision of treason.
Raleigh wa-< reprieved, and committed to
the Tower, where his wife, at her earnest
solicitation, was allowed  to reside with
him, and where his youngest son was
born.   Though Ids estates, in general,
were preserved to him, die rapacity of die
king's  minion,  the  infamous Car, seized
on his  manor of Sherborne, upon a flaw
found in his prior conveyance of it to his
son.   It was not until after twelve years'
confinement diat he obtained his libera-
tion, during which interval he composed
the greater part of his works, and especial-
ly his History of die World. He was on-
ly released, at last, by the advance of a
large sum of money to the new favbrite,
VUliere (see Buckingham); and, to retrieve
bis broken fortunes, he planned another
expedition  to  America.  He obtained  a
patent under the great seal lor making  a
settlement in Guiana; but, in order to re-
tain  a power  over him, the king did not
grant him a pardon for the sentence pass-
ed upon him for his alleged treason. How
far Raleigh knowingly deceived the court
by his representations of rich discoveries,
and gold mines, it is impossible now to as-
certain ; but, having reached  the Orinoco,
he despatched a portion of his force to at-
tack the  new  Spanish settlement of St.
Thomas, which  was  captured, with the
loss  of his eldest  son.  The  expected
plunder, however, proved of little value;
and sir Walter, after having, in vain, at-
tempted to induce his captains to attack
other  Spanish  settlements, arrived  at
Plymouth in July, 1618.  Iu the mean
time,  the Spanish ambassador had  pro-
duced such an effect upon James  (see
James I), who was seeking the hand ofthe
Infanta for his son Charles, that  Raleigh
was arrested, and committed to the Tower.
James had reason to be offended with the
conduct of Raleigh against  a power  in
amity with himself,  and might have tried
him  for this new offence ; but, with Ida
usual meanness  and pusillanimity, deter-
mined to execute him on  his former sen-
tence. Being brought before the court of
king's bench, his plea of an implied par-
don  by  his subsequent  command  was
overruled ;  and, die doom of death being
pronounced against him, it  was carried
into execution the following day (October
29,1618), in Old Palace-yard.  His beha-
vior at the scaffold  was calm ; and, after
addressing  the people  at some length in
his  own justification,  he received   the
stroke of death with perfect composure.
Thus fell sir Walter Raleigh, in the sixty-
6ixtii year of his age, by one of the most
odious acts  of the  disgraceful reign of
James I.  As a politician and public char-
acter, this eminent pereon is open to much
animadversion; but, in extent of capacity
and vigor of mind,  he had few equals,
even in an age of great men.  His writ-
ings  are on  a  variety of  topics, poetical,
military, maritime, geographical, political,
and  historical.  Most of  his miscellane-
ous pieces have ceased to be interesting,
but his Histoiy of the World is one of the
best specimens of the English of his day,
being at once the style of the  statesman
and  die scholar.   The compass of  the
work did not admit fulness  of narrative,
but  he is often an acute and eloquent
reasoner  on historical events.  The best
edition is that of Oldys (1730, 2 vols., fol.).
Of his miscellaneous works, an edition by 
508
RALEIGH—RAMEAU.
doctor Birch was pubUshed in 174S, in two
volumes, octavo.
  Raleigh, city, and metropolis of North
Carolina, in Wake county, six miles west
of Neuse river, sixty miles north of Fay-
etteville, one hundred  and  forty  north-
west of Newbern, and  two  hundred and
eighty-eight from Washington; lat. 35°
47'N.;  Ion. 78° 48' W; population  in
1830, 1700.  It lias a  pleasant and ele-
vated situation in a healthy countiy.  Be-
sides the  government  buildings, it con-
tains many others for public use, which
are convenient and  elegant.  In the cen-
tre of the town is a  pleasant square con-
taining ten acres, from which extend four
stt-eets, dividing the city into four quarters.
The four large streets are  ninety-nine feet
wide, and the others sixty-six.  The state
house,  in the  centre of the square, was
burnt down in  the summer of 1831, and
the statue of Washington, by Canova, al-
most destroyed.  There are several highly
respectable schools for males and  for fe-
males.  The trade of Raleigh is chiefly with
Fayetteville, Newbern, and Petersburg.
Boats have sometimes ascended the Neuse
within eight miles of Raleigh.   Near the
town is an excellent quarry of granite,
and one of steatite twelve miles distant
  Rallentando, also  Ritardando,  or
Lentando (Italian), in music,  indicates
that  the time of the passage over which
it is written, is  to be  gradually retarded.
  Ralph,  James, a native   of  Philadel-
phia, in North  America, went to England
as a literary adventurer in 1725, in com-
pany with Benjamin Franklin.  In 1728,
Ralph published a poem, entitled "Night,"
to which Pope thus alludes in the Dun-
ciad:—
"Silence, ye wolves, while Ralph to Cynthia howls,
Making night hideous,—answer him, ye owls !"
He afterwards  attempted the drama, but
without success; and having produced  a
tragedy, a comedy,  an opera, and a farce,
he took up the employment of a party
writer.  In 1742, he published an Answer
to the Memoirs of Sarah, Duchess  of
Marlborough ;  and  in 1744, appeared his
History of  England, during the reigns  of
Charles II, James  II,  William III, &c.
(2 vols., folio), which,  as a work of re-
search, is  by no means destitute of merit.
He was at length connected with the pol-
iticians and literary men who were at-
tached to the  service of Frederic, prince
of Wales;  in  consequence of  which,
Ralph is said  to have  become  possessed
of a manuscript written by the prince, or
under his direction,  to which so much im-
portance was attributed, that a gratuity or
a pension was bestowed on the holder, as
a compensation for surrendering it.  !!.■
obtained a pension after the accession of
George III, but he did not long enjoy it,
as his death took  place in 1762.  Besides
the works mentioned, he published a trea-
tise on the Use and Abuse of Parliaments
(2 vols., 8vo.); the Case of Authors  by
Profession (8vo.); and a number of polit-
ical pamphlets.
  Ram, Battering. (See Battering Ram.)
  Ramberg,  John Henry, distinguished
for his paintings and etchings, was born
in 1767, in Hanover.   He firet showed his
talent by drawings of scenes in the Ilartz
mountains.    These   drawings  became
known to the king of England, his sove-
reign, as elector of Hanover, who induced
him to go to London, where  he provided
for him.  He remained nine yeare in that
capital, and perfected himself under Rey-
nolds.  Murphy, Bartolozzi, and other en-
gravers of the first rank in England, en-
graved drawings of his.  In 17b8, the king
sent  him to Italy, whence he returned to
Hanover, where he was appointed painter
to the court.   Few painters and  design-
ers have produced so many works as  he
has; but this rapidity prevented  the  full
developernent of bis talent.  Ramberg dis-
tinguished himself particularly in the  hu-
morous caricature.  The drawings to the
magnificent edition of Wieland's works
are all by him: some he etched himself!
   Rambouillet, a  village  of  France,
thirty miles south-west of Paris, and near
the extensive forest  of the same name.
Here is situated a royal castle, with exten-
sive grounds, and several large buildings
connected with it. The castle has a fine
library, and there is a celebrated breed of
merino sheep here, introduced by Louis
XVI, in 1786.  Rambouillet was bought
by that prince in 1778, and was one of his
favorite  residences.  It was also the  fa-
vorite resort  of Charles X  for hunting,
and here he retired when obliged to aban-
don  St. Cloud,  after the revolution  of
1830.  He  was, however, forced to quit
Rambouillet  for  Cherbourg,  by  the  ap-
proach of a Parisian force on the night of
August  3d.
   Rameau, Jean Philippe, an able French
theorist in  the science of music, was a
native of Dijon, bom in 1683.   Having, at
an early age, acquired  some skill in mn-
sic, he joined a strolling company of  per-
formers, by whose assistance  a  musical
entertainment of his composition  was
represented at Avignon, in the eighteenth
year of his age.  He was afterwards  ap-
pointed organist in Clermont cathedral, ap- 
RAMEAU—RAMMOHUN ROY.                    509
plied himself to the study of the principles
of his profession, and, in 1722, printed the
firet fruits of his investigation in a treatise,
entitled Traiti de FHarmonic  Four yeare
after appeared  his  Nouveau  Systeme  de
Musique Thiorique, which was followed
by his Giniration Harmonique.  In 1750,
he published his celebrated Dissertation
sur-le Principe de FHarmonie, in which he
reduces harmony to one single principle—
the fundamental bass, on which he proves
all the rest to depend.  This work  pro-
cured him an invitation from the court to
superintend  the opera at Paris.  He pos-
sessed a great facility in adapting words
to music, and piqued  himself so much
upon this talent, that he is said  to have
declared he would set a Dutch gazette, if
it was required  of him.  His  remaining
theoretical works are,  Remarks  on  the
Demonstration of the Principles of Har-
mony;  Reply to a  Letter  of M. Euler
(both printed in 1752); On the Instinctive
Love of Music  in Man (1754);  On  the
Mistakes of the Encyclopaedia with Re-
spect to Music (1755); and a Practical
Code of Music (1760).   He was  also the
author of six operas, Hippolyle et  Aricie,
Castor d Pollux, Dardanus, Samson, Pyg-
malion, and Zoroaster, besides a great va-
riety of ballets and other minor pieces.
Louis XV acknowledged his merits by
the grant of a patent of nobility, and the
order of St  Michael.   Rameau  died at
Paris, in 1764.
  Ramillies ;  a village of Belgium, in
South Brabant,  thirteen* miles north of
Namur, and twenty-six south-east of Brus-
sels.  May 23,1706, the duke of Marlbo-
rough (see Churchill) gained here a signal
victory  over  the French under  marshal
Villeroy and  the duke  of Bavaria.  The
numbers were about 60,000 on each side:
the loss of the allies was 4000 men, that
of the French 15,000.  The consequence
of the battle was the immediate  evacua-
tion of Flanders by the French.
  Ramler, Charles William, a German
lyric poet, translator, and critic, was bom
at Colberg, in 1725, studied  at Halle, and
was appointed a professor in the royal
military school  for young noblemen in
Berlin, in 1748.   In 1790, he became co-
director of the theatre of Berlin.  He died
in 1798.  Ramler appeared at a period
poor in poets, and attached his fame to
that of Frederic the Great, whom he cel-
ebrated as Horace did Augustus.  From
this  circumstance,  and from his occa-
sional imitations of Horace, he has been
called the German Horace, but is greatly
below his model. Ramler had little poet-
                   43*
ical genius, but  he did much to polish
German versification.  His ideas respect-
ing German prosody were, however, very
deficient.  He  translated many  of the
classics.  His poetical works appeared in
two volumes (Berlin, 1800, 4to. and 8vo.);
a pocket edition, in the same place (1825,
2  vols., 12mo).  Ramler wrote  also in
prose.  The words to Graun's celebrated
oratorio (the Death of Jesus) are by him.
  Rammelsberg.  (See Hartz.)
  Rammer is  a  cylindrical block  of
wood nearly fitting the bore of a cannon,
and fastened  ou a wooden staff,  or on a
stiff rope  well  served  with spun yam.
It is used to drive the charge of a cannon
home, or to the innermost part of it  The
rope-rammers are most general  in 6hips
of war.
  Rammohun Roy was bom about the
year 1780, at  Bourduan, in  the province
of Bengal.  The firet elements of his ed-
ucation he received under  the  paternal
roof, where he also acquired a knowledge
of the  Persian language.  He was after-
wards sent to  Patna to learn  Arabic; and
here, through the medium of translations
of Aristode andEuclid, he studied logic and
mathematics.  When  he  had completed
these studies,  he went to Calcutta to learn
Sanscrit, the sacred language of the Hin-
doo scriptures,  the knowledge of which
was indispensable to his caste and profes-
sion as a Bramin.  (See Caste, and Bra-
min.)   About the year 1804 or 1805, he
became possessed, by the death  of his
father and of an elder and younger broth-
er, of the whole family property, which
is said to have been very  considerable.
He now quitted Bourduan, and fixed his
residence at Mourshedabad, where his an-
cestors had chiefly lived.   Shortly after
his settlement at this place, he commenced
his literary career by the publication of a
work in the Persian language, Avith a pref-
ace in Arabic, which he entitled, Against
the Idolatry of all Nations.  The freedom
with which he animadverted on  their re-
spective systems gave great umbrage, both
to the  Mahommedans and  the Hindoos,
and created him so many enemies that he
found it necessary to remove to Calcutta,
where  he again took up his residence in
the year 1814.   Two years previously to
this period, he  had begun  to  study the
English language; but he  did not then
apply to  it with  much ardor or success.
Being some years after appointed dewan,
or chief native officer in the collection of
the revenues, and the duties  of his office
affording  him  frequent  opportunity of
mixing with English society, and  of read- 
510
RAMMOHUN  ROY—RAMSAY.
ing English documents, he applied to it
with increased attention, and  very soon
qualified himself to speak and write it
with considerable facility, correctness and
elegance.   He afterwards studied the Lat-
in, Greek  and  Hebrew languages.  A
careful study ofthe sacred writings ofthe
Hindoos had convinced him that the pre-
vailing notions respecting the multiplicity
of deities, and the superstitious devotion
to the licentious and  inhuman  customs
connected with them, were grounded up-
on a gross perversion of their  religion.
These original records appeared to him to
inculcate a system of pure Theism, which
maintained the existence  of one God, in-
finite in his perfections and eternal in his
duration;  and that  it  required from its
professors a mental rather than a corpo-
real  worship,  accompanied by strict and
exemplary virtue. Having embraced these
views of the Hindoo  theology and  morals,
he became  anxious  to reform the creed
and practice of his countrymen, and de-
termined to devote his talents and his for-
tune to this important and honorable un-
dertaking.   The  sacred  books or Vedas
(see  Indian Languages  and Literature)
contain the religious documents of the
Hindoos.   This  work  Rammohun Roy
translated from the Sanscrit into the Ben-
galee and  Hindoo languages, and distrib-
uted the translation gratuitously.  This he
afterwards published in  English, for the
purpose  of  proving  to  his  European
friends, "that the superstitious practices
which deform the Hindoo religion, have
nothing to do with the pure spirit of its
dictates."   But, as might be expected, his
benevolent conduct, and zeal for the good
of his fellow men, exposed him to many
personal inconveniences.   He  has had,
nevertheless, the gratification of witness-
ing  the beneficial effects of his labors.
From the perusal of the New Testament,
in his "longand uninterrupted researches
into  religious truth, he found (he says) the
doctrines  of  Christ  more  conducive to
moral principles, and  better adapted for
the use of rational beings, than any other
which had come to his knowledge."  As
the  most likely method of acquiring a
correct knowledge  of his doctrines,  he
determined upon a careful perusal of the
Jewish aud Christian  scriptures in their
original languages.   From this undertak-
ing  he rose with a full conviction that
the Christian  religion is  true and divine.
In 1820, he accordingly published a work,
entitled the Precepts of Jesus the Guide
to Peace and Happiness, consisting chiefly
of a selection of moral precepts from the
EvangeUsts.  In this undertaking he was
governed by  the  consideration, that his-
torical  and some other passages are liable
te the doubts  and disputes of free-thinkers
and anti-Christians, especially miraculous
relations, which are much less wonderful
than the fabricated tales hauded down to
the natives of Asia,  and would conse-
quently be  apt at best to carry little weight
with them.  Rammohun Roy,  in his doc-
trinal views, is a Unitarian, holding,  how-
ever, the pre-existence and  superangelic
dignity of Christ, and considering the doc-
trine of the Trinity as a species of poly-
theism, objectionable in itself, and calcu-
lated to prevent the adoption of what he
considers the Christian  faith by the na-
tives of Hindoostan.—See Correspondence
relative to the  Prospect of the Reception of
Christianity in India (Cambridge,  New
England, 1824).   This  work  was  soon
after followed by the  First, Second, and
Final Appeal to  Christians, in reply te
the animadversions of Dr. Marshman, Bap-
tist missionary at Serampore,  who de-
fended the Trinitarian views of the  deity
of Christ,  and the atonement   Rammo-
hun Roy has  recently arrived in England.
  Rampant, in heraldry; a term applied
to a lion,  leopard,  or other beast, that
stands  on his  hind legs, and rears up his
fore feet in the posture of climbing, show-
ing only one  half his face, as one eye, &c.
It is difl'erent from salient, in which the
beast seems springing forward.
   Ramsay, David, M. D.,  an  eminent
American  physician and popular histori-
an, was born  April 2,  1749, in  Lancaster
county, Pennsylvania.  His father was an
Irish emigrant, and a respectable farmer.
In 1765, he graduated at Princeton col-
lege, and for two yeare subsequently was
tutor to the children of a wealthy gentle-
man of Maryland.  He then studied  med-
icine in Philadelphia, till early in the year
1772.  He commenced the practice of" his
profession  in Maryland, and, after a year,
removed to Charleston,  South Carolina,
where he  soon  acquired celebrity.  He
labored zealously with his pen to promote
the independence of his country.  For
some time  he attended the army in the ca-
pacity of a surgeon, and  was at the siege
of Savannah. He was a leading member
of the legislature of South Carolina, from
1776 to the conclusion of the war.  He
was  a member of the privy council part
of the time, and, with many of the most
respectable citizens of Charleston, suffered
banishment, by the enemy, to  St. Augus-
tine.   He was released, after an absence
of eleven months, and resumed his seat in 
RAMSAY.
511
 the legislature ef the state, where he dis-
 tinguished  himself by opposing  the  acts
 confiscating the estates of those  who ad-
 hered to Great Britain, many of whom he
 thought acted from feelings of duty.   In
 1782, he was  elected a member of the
 continental congress, and continued in
 that  body till the close  of the war.   In
 1785, he  was elected to represent  the
 Charleston district in congress,  and, in
 consequence of the absence of Mr. Han-
 cock, he was  chosen its  president,  pro
 tempore, and filled  the  station for a year
 with great credit.  In the following year,
 he again returned  to his profession,  anil
 his  literary pursuits.  He died  May 8,
 1815, in consequence of wounds received
 two  days  previous from the pistol  of a
 maniac, in open day, within  a few paces
 of his dwelling.  As a politician, doctor
 Ramsay was disinterested and patriotic.
 He always endeavored to allay invidious
 passions, and inculcate unanimity.  As a
 speaker, he was fluent, rapid, and ready.
 Doctor Ramsay's character, as an author,
 is well known.  In 1785, he published a
 histoiy of the revolution in South Caro-
 lina, which was translated and published
 in France.  In  1790, he  published  the
 History ofthe American Revolution, which
 passed through two  large editions;  in 1801,
 the Life of Washington; in 1808, the His-
 tory of South Carolina,  being an exten-
 sion  of a work entided A Sketch of the
 Soil,  Climate, Weather and Diseases of
 South Carolina, published in 1796.  These
 are his most important publications.  Be-
 sides his published works, doctor Ramsay
 left,  among  his  manuscripts, a  History
 of the United States, from their first set-
 tlement as  English colonies to the end
 of the year 1808 ; and a series of histori-
 cal volumes, entitled Universal  History
 Americanized,  or an Historical View of
 the World, from  the earliest Records to
 the Nineteenth  Centuiy, with a particular
 Reference to the State of Society, Litera-
 ture,  Religion, and  Form of Government
 of the United States of America. The first
 was published early in 1817, with a con-
 tinuation to the treaty of Ghent, by the rev-
 erend Samuel Stanhope Smith, and other
 hterary gentlemen (in 3 vols., 8vo.). The
 latter, which had occupied doctor Ramsay's
 leisure during more than forty years, was
 published in 1819 (12 vols., 8vo.).  In pri-
 vate life, doctor Ramsay was remarkable
for all the virtues by which it is adorned.
In every way that he  could advance the
general welfare of society, he was active
and zealous, even imprudently so, as the
wreck of his private fortune beare witness.
 He  never allowed himself any intermis-
 sions of study that were not indispensable
 for the preservation of health, and gave
 but  four hours in the night to sleep.
   Ramsay, Allan, the Scottish Theocri-
 tus,  born in 1685, in a little village in the
 south of Scotland, was the son of a peas-
 ant.  He went to Edinburgh at the begin-
 ning of the last centuiy, as apprentice
 to a barber.  Having obtained notice for
 his social disposition and his talent for the
 composition  of verses in the  Scottish idi-
 om, and  having changed his occupation
 for that of a bookseller, he became intimate
 with many of the literary characters of his
 time.  He published, in 1721, a volume
 of his own poetical  compositions, which
 was favorably received,  and undertook to
 make a collection of ancient  Scottish po-
 ems, under the title of the Evergreen.  He
 was afterwards encouraged to present to
 the world a collection of Scottish Songs.
 From what source he procured the latter
 is uncertain; but as, in the Evergreen, he
 made attempts to improve on  the originals
 of his ancient  poems, he probably used
 still  greater freedom with the songs and
 ballads.   To several tunes,  words  were
 adapted worthy ofthe delightful melodies
 they accompanied.   In  the execution of
 this  part of his undertaking,  Ramsay as-
 sociated with himself several men of tal-
 ent ; and the respective shares  of the editor
 of the Scottish Songs and his coadjutors,
 in the original compositions,  cannot now
 be ascertained.  Ramsay's principal pro-
 ductions are the Gentle  Shepherd, and
 two  additional cantos of Christis Kirk of
 the Grene, a tale, the firet part of which is
 attributed to  James I of Scotland.  The
 latter,  though  objectionable  in point of
 delicacy, has been regarded  as the hap-
 piest of the author's effusions. His chief
 excellence, indeed, lay in  the description
 of rural characters, incidents and scenery;
 and  he  was well acquainted with the
 peasantry of Scotland, their lives and opin-
 ions.  In  his Gentle Shepherd  (a  rural
 drama), the  characters  are  delineations
 from nature; the descriptive  parts are in
 a style of beautiful  simplicity, and the
 passions  and affections  of rural life are
 finely delineated.  Throughout the whole
 there is an air of reality which cannot but
 strike the most careless reader;  and  no
 poem, perhaps, ever acquired so high a
 reputation, in which truth received  so lit-
 tle embellishment from  the imagination.
When he  attempts descriptions of  high
life, and aims at pure English composi-
tion, he fails entirely, becoming feeble and
uninteresting; neither are his familar epis- 
512                          RAMSAY—RANA.
des and elegies in the Scottish dialect en-
titled to much approbation.  He died in
1758.
  Ramsden, Jesse, an eminent mechanist
and optician, was bom at Halifax, in York-
shire, in 1738.  He applied himself to en-
graving, and, in the course of his employ-
ment, having  to engrave several mathe-
matical  instruments,  finally constructed
them himself.  He married a daughter of
Mr. Dolland, the celebrated optician, and
opened a shop  in the Haymarket, whence
he removed to Piccadilly, where he re-
mained  until his death, in 1800.  Rams-
den obtained a premium from the board
of longitude, for the invention of a ma-
chine for the division of mathematical in-
struments ; he also improved the construc-
tion  of the theodolite, the pyrometer for'
measuring the dilatation of bodies by heat,
the barometer for measuring the height of
mountains,  &c.; also the refracting mi-
crometer and transit instrument and quad-
rant  He  made great  improvements in
Hadley's quadrant and  sextant, and pro-
cured a patent  for an amended equatorial.
Mr. Ramsden,  who was chosen  a fellow
of the royal society in  1786, was distin-
guished during the  whole of his life by
an enthusiastic attention to his own pro-
fession, which  formed his amusement as
well as his occupation;  and such was his
reputation, that his instruments were  be-
spoken from every part of Europe; and
ultimately to obtain  the fulfilment of an
order, was deemed a high favor.
  Ramsgate ; a fashionable bathing place
in the isle of Thanet, five miles from Mar-
gate, and seventy-three east of London.
It has an excellent artificial harbor, formed
by immense piers, extending  800 feet into
the sea;  more than  300  sail have been
sheltered in it at once; population, 6030.
  Ramos, Peter, a philosopher of the six-
teenth  centuiy, was a  native of France.
He went to Paris  about  1523, when he
was  but eight yeare old, and became a
lackey in the college of Navarre.  Such
was  his strong inclination  for learning,
that  he not only devoted to study all  the
time he could spare in the day, but also a
part of the night  After attending a course
of philosophy, he was admitted to the de-
gree of M. A.,  on which occasion he con-
tested  the infallibility of Aristotle.  His
opinions excited violent opposition,  and
the partisans of the Aristotelian philoso-
phy had recourse to the  civil power, in
order to sUence their adversary.   His pub-
lications were prohibited, and ordered to
be burnt before the royal college of Cam-
bray, and he was commanded to abstain
from teaching his doctrines, in 1543. Hav-
ing obtained the patronage ofthe cardinal
De Lorraine, the prohibition of lecturing
was withdrawn in 1547; and, in 1551, he
was appointed royal professor of rhetoric
and philosophy at  Paris.  . His spirit of
free inquiry ultimately led him to become
a Protestant.  This change obliged him
to flee from  Paris; but, in 1563,  he was
restored to his chair.  In the massacre of
St. Bartholomew's, 1571, Ramus was  one
of  the victims.   His works, relating to
grammar, logic, mathematics, &c, are  nu-
merous.
  Rana.  Under this head we shall  not
go into a description of this genus of rep-
tiles, but shall confine ourselves to an ac-
count of the frogs which make so impor-
tant a part of it.  Toads the reader will
find described in a separate article. The
muzzle of frogs terminates more in a point
than that of toads.   The nostrils are visi-
ble at its summit  The teeth are very
small; the eyes large and brilliant, and sur-
rounded with a yellow circle; the ears are
placed  behind them, and  covered by a
membrane.   The muscles  of  frogs  are
considerable in relation to their bulk, and
peculiarly elastic, strong, irritable, and sen-
sible to  the action of galvanism.  Their
general  sensibility does not appear to be
great; they are killed with difficulty;  the
heart contracts and dilates a long time af-
ter the death  of  the  animal,  and even
when it has been extracted from the body.
The ordinary mode of progression is  by
leaps.  Frogs feed on the larvse of aquat-
ic insects,  on worms,  small mollusca,
flies, &c, and always choose a prey which
is living and in motion.  They are useful
in gardens by destroying great quantities
of small slugs. These reptiles are usually
found during the summer on the ground
in humid places, in the grass of meadows,
and on the banks of streamlets, into which
they continually leap  and  dive.  They
swim well and  without   difficulty   by
means of their hinder feet, the  toes being
united by a membrane.  At the close  of
warm rams in the  fine  season, they fre-
quently  spread themselves through  the
country.   To this is owing the  popular
belief in the rains of frogs—a very ancient
prejudice.  Frogs are  distinguished by a
peculiar cry, termed croaking, particularly
during rain and hot weather, in the morn-
ing and  evening.  During  the  feudal  ri-
gime in France, when the castles were sur-
rounded with water, it was the occupation
ofthe slaves or villains to strike the water
of the dikes morning and evening to pre-
vent the frogs from disturbing the repose 
RANA-RANDOLPH.                        513
of their masters.  Even up to the period
of the revolution, this custom existed in
many places.  As soon as the summer is
over,  and the weather begins to be a little
cold, the frogs lose their natural voracity,
and cease eating.  As the cold increases,
they sink into the mud  of deep waters,
die holes of  fountains,  and sometimes
even  into ground not covered by water,
and pass the winter in profound lethargy.
The  female lays annually from six to
twelve hundred eggs; and frogs can live a
great  number of yeare if they escape their
enemies,—serpents, pikes, vultures, storks,
&c,—which  destroy  immense   quan-
tities of them.  In France they are much
used for food, and in Germany also.  The
continental physicians employ their flesh,
variously prepared, in the treatment of a
number of diseases.  There are numerous
species  of  this animal.   The green frog
(rana esculenta)  is  about two  or three
inches long, without reckoning the hinder
feet  It abounds in stagnant waters  on
the continent of Europe and in Asia, but
is less common in England than the rana
temporaria.  It seldom comes  to  land, and
never removes from the banks of streams,
.ponds, or lakes.  The rana temporaria, or
common frog of  England,  is  tolerably
abundant  throughout  Europe,  prefers
wooded and mountainous situations, and
frequents meadows and  gardens during
fine weather.  It  is generally found on
land in summer.  At the approach of win-
ter, it retires into fountains and ponds of
pure  water, but does not  bury itself in the
mud  at the  bottom.  The rana clamitans,
found in Carolina, of an obscure color, is
the liveliest of all known frogs.  It croaks
continually, and never removes far from
the shore.   The rana pipiens,  called in the
U. States bull frog, is the largest species
of this genus, being three or four inches
broad and  six or eight  iu length, without
including the feet; with the limbs extend-
ed, it measures about eighteen inches. It
inhabits North America, particularJy the
southern ,part of the U. States.  Its cry is
very  deep  and  hoarse.   It  is  very fond
of young  ducks and goslings, which it
swallows whole.   On  level ground, it
makes leaps of from six to eight feet.  The
rana grunniens, if distinct from the pre-
ceding species, is  fully  as  large.  It is
found in the West Indies, and is said to
be able to clear, with a leap, a wall five
 feet high.   The rana paradoxa is found
at Surinam, and  in  other  countries of
South America.  As the adult animal is
 less than the tadjiole, in  consequence of
 the Joss of an enormous  tail,  and of some
envelopements ofthe body, some observers
formerly supposed that the animal passed
from the frog to the tadpole state, and was
subsequently transformed into a fish; this
error, however, is completely refuted.
  Rance.   (See  Trappe, La.)
  Randolph, Peyton, president of the
firet  congress, was descended  from one
ofthe most ancient and respectable fami-
lies  of Virginia.  After passing  with
credit through the college of WUliam and
Maiy, he was sent to England to pursue
a couree ef legal study at the Temple. On
his return to Virginia, he entered at once
into  practice.  In  1748, when he was
about twenty-five years of age, he was
the king's attorney-general for the colony.
In the same year, he was elected a mem-
ber ofthe house  of burgesses for the city
of Williamsburg, and, during the session,
was placed at the  head of a committee
appointed to prepare a general  revisal of
the laws of the colony. From this period,
he continued to be a conspicuous and
useful member of the legislature.   Lieu-
tenant-governor Dinwiddie, soon after his
arrival, in 1752, attempted to impose an
exorbitant charge  for  his  signature  to
every patent for land. This being unau-
thorized  by any law, the house of bur-
gesses chose Mr. Randolph to oppose it
before die king and council. He accord-
ingly repaired to England, and urged the
suit, but without success.  In 1755, when
the defeat of general Braddock, and the
retreat of colonel  Dunbar, had laid the
frontiere of Pennsylvania, Maryland and
Virguiia, completely open to the inroads
of the savages, Mr. Randolph, and various
other gentlemen, fonned themselves into
a regiment, and  marched to the frontier
to join the  colonial  force under colonel
Washington; but the enemy retreated to
fort  Du Quesne  without any engagement
taking place.  In  1764, he drew  up  an
address from the house of burgesses to
the king of Great Britain against the pas-
sage ofthe stamp act.   April 12,1766,he
was chosen speaker of the house, aud,
about the same time, resigned  the office
of attomey-generaL  In all the measures
of opposition to the English government,
he took a prominent part.  He was chair-
man of the committee of correspondence,
appointed, by the legislature,  to  obtain
early and authentic information  of  all
such acts of the British government as
might bear upon the interests of the col-
onies, and to maintain a constant commu-
nication, on these subjects, with the legis-
latures of the other colonies, and which,
by its recommendations, brought about the 
'514                       RANDOLPH—RANGE.
meeting  of the first general congress at
Philadelphia.  To that assembly he was
sent as a delegate from his native prov-
ince,  and  was immediately elected its
president.  In consequence, however, of
indisposition, he retained it  only for five
or six weeks.  On the 20th of the ensu-
ing March, he presided at the convention
of deputies, assembled at Richmond, and
was again chosen a delegate to the con-
gress which was to be held at Philadel-
phia on  the 10th of May.   A few days
after the meeting of congress, in May,
1775, lord North's conciliatory proposi-
tion having arrived in America, Mr. Ran-
dolph returned to Williamsburg,  to be
present at the assembling ofthe house of
burgesses of Virginia, which the governor
had summoned, in order to lay before
them  the proposition.  He  resumed  his
situation  as speaker ofthe house, and con-
signed to Jefferson the task of drawing up
the answer to the  British minister—how
properly, that bold and masterly produc-
tion is sufficient evidence.  After the ad-
journment  of the house of burgesses, he
returned  to congress; but  his services
there were of short continuance. A stroke
of apoplexy put an end to his patriotic ca-
reer, Oct. 21, 1775, in  the fifty-third year
of his age.
  Randolph Macon College is situated
one nnle west of  Boydton,  in Mecklen-
burg county, Virginia, 100 miles south-
south-west of Richmond.   The  college
edifice is built after the Tuscan order, and
is to be completed in the summer of 1832.
It is four stories high,  and is divided into
sixty-one rooms.   It  consists of a centre,
fifty-four by fifty-two feet, and two wings,
of sixty-seven and a  half  feet each in
length, thus making a front of 189 feet.
A president and four professors have been
elected, and the institution is expected to
go  into operation in the  autumn of 1832.
It  is under the control of the Methodist
Episcopal church, and is well endowed.
A preparatory school has been established
half a mde from the college.   Boydton is
a flourishing and veiy pleasant town, sit-
uated six miles north of Roanoke river,
and is the seat of justice  for Mecklenburg
county.   It has a  Methodist and a Pres-
byterian church.
  Ranelagh  Rotunda  and Gardens;
near Chelsea, built and opened for musical
performances, in 1742. Degenerating into
a scene of licentiousness, it was shut up
hi  1803, since which  the buildings have
been wholly demolished.
  Range, in gunnery; the path of a bul-
let, or the line it describes from the mouth
of the piece to the point where it lodges.
—Range is also the distance  to  which a
bomb  or  cannon-ball  is thrown from a
piece of artillery by the explosion of gun-
powder.  The flight of a shot is distin-
guished by artillery men  into two differ-
ent ranges, of which the first is called the
point-blank,  and the second  die random
shot.  To these  also may be  added the
ricochet, or rolling and bounding shot.  The
point-blank range is the extent ofthe ap-
parent right line described by a  ball dis-
charged from a cannon.  The random
shot is when,  by letting the breech down
upon the bed of the carnage, the ball is
carried to its greatest  possible distance,
and describes a curve hi  its flight.  The
ricochet is  fired by elevating the piece
from three to six degrees, and only charg-
ing it with a quantity of powder sufficient
to carry the shot along the face of the
works attacked.  The shot thus discharg-
ed, so as to go just over the parapet, rolls
and bounds about,  killing, maiming,  or
destroying all it meets in its couree, cre-
ating much more disorder, by  going  thus
slowly,  than  if thrown from  the piece
with  greater violence.  As one of the
effects of the bomb results from its weight,
the range of mortars is extremely different
from that  of cannon, because  the former
is not pointed at  a certain object, like the
latter, but  inclined to the horizon at a cer-
tain angle, so that die bomb, being thrown
up  obliquely,  may  fall upon the place
intended: hence it appears that die mor-
tar has  no point-blank range, or, at least,
that no  use is made  of it.   Ricochet signi-
fies duck and drake—a name given to the
bounding  of a flat  stone thrown almost
horizontally into the water.   It  was the
opinion of engineers  formerly,  that, by
charging the pieces high,  the ball was
thrown to a greater distance: hence die
pieces were charged with two thirds,  or
even the whole weight of the  shot, in or-
der to impel it with  greater velocity; but
it has been discovered since, that the half
or one  third of the weight of the ball is
the fittest charge for the piece.  It may
not be  amiss  to observe here, that the
range of cannon is greater in the morning
and at  night than at noon, and in cold
than in hot weather. The reason is, that,
at these times, the air being less heated,
gives less way to the dilatation of the
powder, which  being, by these  means,
confined,  as it were, to a smaller sphere
of action,  must have a  stronger effect in
proportion.  When the lengths of cannon
are proportionable to the height of the
charge, the shot will be discharged with 
RANGE—RANZ DES VACHES.                  515
the same  velocity, whatever the  calibre
may be.   The greatest distance to which
a shell can be thrown, with the strongest
charge, is little more than  about 1800 or
2000 fathoms.
  Ranger ;  an officer ofa forest, appoint-
ed to drive the deer back  from the  pur-
lieus, to present trespasses, &c.
  Rangoon  (formerly Dagoon); a city of
Binnah, in Pegu ; 600 miles south-east of
Calcutta;  lon.  96° 9' E,;  lat.  16° 47'N.
It is the principal port of the Binnan em-
pire, situated on a branch ofthe Trrawad-
dy, or Ava, called the Rangoon river,
thirty miles from the sea, and was  found-
ed in the year 1755, by Alompra, king of
Binnah, who had taken the country from
the king of Pegu.  The river is commo-
dious for  budding ships, and the  forests
of Birmah and  Pegu yield teak  wood.
The population  has been estimated at
30,000, but is not more  than 12,000. It
was  taken by the  English  in 1824, but
restored.   The  American  Baptist mis-
sionary society has a mission here.
  Rank.   In the article  Ceremonial of
European  Powers, we have spoken of the
former and present arrangement of rank
among them.  As to the distinctions of
rank among  individuals, these will always
be more marked in proportion as the gov-
ernment of a country is arbitrary, and the
civic spirit dead.  The  Roman and By-
zantine imperial courts exhibit a striking
instance  of  the  importance attached to
thvse distinctions,  when compared with
the vigorous period of republican  Rome.
In Russia, the most absolute government
in Europe, the people are divided  into
fourteen classes; and whoever becomes a
member of one of the eight highest, re-
ceives  nobility  for himself and  famdy.
The rank of all these classes is estimated
with reference to military  degrees; thus
a doctor of medicine, if we are rightly
informed, is equal in rank to a captain of
iifantry.   In a countiy where the  mania
for titles  is  carried to such excess as in
Gennany  (see Counsellor, Ceremonial, and
the note to article Majesty), it may easily
be imagined that there  must have been
an abundance  of contested questions re-
specting  rank.  In die  seventeenth and
eighteenth  centuries,   these  prevailed
there, and in other countries of the  Eu-
ropean continent, to a ridiculous  extent
There  are, in  England, above sixty de-
grees of precedency; but these  are in-
tended principally to designate the order
to lie observed  in processions, and on
other occasions of ceremony, and have
little to do with determining the respect
which is paid to men in society.
  Rank,  in  war, is a row of  soldiers
placed side by side;  while file is a num-
ber drawn up in a direct line behind each
other.
  Ranunculus ; a genus of plants con-
taining about 150 species,  almost exclu-
sively  inhabiting  the northern  hemi-
sphere.   We have  several  in the U.
States, and three  introduced species are
very conspicuous in fields and meadows,
from their yellow flowers, commonly call
ed butter-cups.  Several are cultivated in
gardens  for  ornament  The  species of
ranunculus  are herbaceous plants, with
entire lobed or dissected leaves, and usual-
ly terminal flowers, ofa yellow color, but,
in a few species, white.  The calyx con-
sists of five caducous leaves.  There are
five petals,  and numerous stamens,  sur-
rounding a cluster of one-seeded capsules.
Almost all are acrid and caustic, poison-
ous if taken internally, and, when exter-
nally applied, will  raise blisters, which
are followed by deep ulcerations, if left on
too long.  Beggars sometimes avail them-
selves of this property to produce ulcere,
in order to excite pity.  This acrid prin-
ciple is destroyed by desiccation or im-
mersion in hot water.—The jR. Asiaticus
is a native ofthe Levant and North Afri-
ca, and was firet brought to Europe by the
cmsaders.   It is now a  favorite orna-
mental plant, which has produced innu-
merable varieties, of every shade  and
combination  of  colors excepting  blue.
The flowers are double and semi-double,
and often two inches or more in diame-
ter.
  Ranz des Vaches  (in  German, Kuh-
reHven) is the name of the celebrated na-
tional air, which die herdsmen  of the
Alps in Switzerland sing  or  play when
they drive out the herds.   It consists of a
few simple intervals, is entirely adapted
to the  simple life of these people and
their instmment (the Alpenhorn, hom of
the Alps), and has an uncommon effect
in the  echoes of the mountains.  This
effect becoming intimately associated widi
the locality  of Switzerland, explains the
many anecdotes  of the  home-sickness
caused by  the sound of  the  Ranz des
Vaches, when heard by Swiss in foreign
countries.    There are, however, varia-
tions in the melody,  and we find, even in
Rousseau's Dictionnaire de Musique, sev-
eral Ranz des Vaches.  In 1815, appeared
at Beme, die second edition ofa complete
collection  of these  airs.    AppenzeU  is 
5.6
RANZ DES VACHE&-RAPHAEL.
said to have the most genuine and original
iJanz des Vaches.
  Raoul-Rochette, Desire,  a  distin-
guished French archeologist and  numis-
matist, was born at St Amand, in 1790,
and, after having  taught  in  the imperial
lycie, was appointed adjunct  professor of
modem histoiy hi the JaculU des lettres de
Paris.  In 1818, lis succeeded Millin as
conservator of the cabinet of antiquities
and medals in the  Bibliotheque Royale in
Paris. Among his  works are  Histoire
antique de  FEtablissement  des  Colonies
Grecques   (4  vols.,  1815) ;   Antiquites
Grecques du  Bospore Cimmerien  (1822);
Lettres sur la Suisse; Histoire de la Re-
volution Helvetique de 1798 a  1803 (1823);
and Histoire d'Espagne (1825).
  Rape (brassica napus); a cmciferous
plant, with small yellow flowers, belonging
to the same genus with the cabbage  and
turnip, and cultivated, to a  considerable
extent, in many parts of Europe.  There
are two varieties, the rape and cole, the
latter distinguishable by its greater height,
fewer branches, and its being more  soft
and tender.  Botii are  frequently sown
intermixed.  When sown separately, the
cole is usually' used as fodder for sheep,
and the rape allowed to remain  for the
seed.   The harvest  commences  in  the
month of August, when the pods are yel-
low, but before perfect maturity;  and, as
the seed is  easily shed, it is customary in
some places  to thresh the plants in the
field,  upon  a large cloth.   Oil is obtained
from the seeds by pressure, and is used in
large  quantities for  various economical
purposes,  for making  the  soap called
green soap, for burning in lamps, by cloth-
iers and  others; also in  medicine,  &c,
&c.  It is  apt  to become rancid, though
there  are means of purifying it.  The oil-
cake is sometimes employed  for fattening
oxen, or as  a manure.  The roots may be
eaten as a substitute for turnips, but they
have a stronger taste.  The stalks are gen-
erally burnt,  and  the ashes, which  are
very rich in alkaline matter, are collected
and sold.  A  mixture of rape and millet
seed is frequently employed as food for
cage  birds.   This plant grows wild  in
many  parts  of Europe.   The   radical
leaves are  lyrate,  and the superior ones
very smooth, and embracing the stem.
  Rape Cake.  (See Rape, and Manure.)
  Raphael,  or Raffaello  Sanzio or
de' Santi, the  greatest painter ofthe mod-
ern, or, as he is considered by many, the
last of the ancient school of art, was born
at Urbino, on Good Friday, March 8,1483,
and died at Rome, on Good Friday, April
 7,1520. A Madonna and Child, painted by
 him on the wall ofthe yard of his father's
 house,  without  his having received any
 instruction  (which painting  was  subse-
 quently transferred,  together  with  the
 portion of wall on which it  was paint-
 ed,  to  a  room in the  house,  where it
 may still  be seen), convinced his  father,
 Giovanni Sanzio,  an indifferent painter,
 of his own  incompetency to do justice to
 the talents of his son, and induced  him to
 place him in the school of an abler master.
 At his  request,  Pemgino (q. v.) received
 the young painter  into the number of his
 pupils.  Raphael soon surpassed his nu-
 merous compeers,  and, in a short time, so
 completely acquired his teacher's manner,
 that it is difficult to distinguish the works
 ofthe two belonging to this period. This
 is shown by Raphael's first works,—the
 Coronation  of the  Duke  Niccolo da To-
 lentino, a Crucified Savior between two
 Angels, a Holy Family,  a  Betrothal of
 Mary, and,  particularly, the Crowning of
 Mary, for the Franciscan convent in Pe-
 rugia,*—all exeeuted by him between  his-
 fifteenth and  eighteenth  years.  During
 this  time,  the painting ofthe library ofthe
 cathedral  at Sienna was intrusted to Pin-
 turicchio, who had been a fellow pupil of
 Raphael,  and now invited him to assist in
 this  labor.  Raphael  had already com-
 pleted a great part  of the cartoons for this
 purpose, when he learned that the cartoons
 of Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vin-
 ci, which had been prepared by these twe
 great artists in consequence of the prize
 offered  by  the  city of  Florence, were
 publicly exhibited  in that city.  Burning
 with desire to behold them, he hastened to
 Florence.  These cartoons, and Florence
 itself, then the seat of all that was beauti-
 ful, made a deep impression on his youth-
 ful sensibilities; and he derived  great
 advantage from the acquaintance of many
 young artists of distinction—Ghirlandaio,.
 San  Gallo, &c.  Although Raphael's  bi-
 ographers do  not  expressly say that he
 studied assiduously, in Florence, the works
 ofthe earlier masters, Cimabue, Masaccio,
 Giotto,  Verocchio,  Ghiberti,  as  Michael
 Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci had done,
 the fact is evident from the pictures exe-
 cuted by him while there, among which a
Madonna and Child (now in the  Tribuna
at Florence)  is highly commended by Va-
sari.  The death of his parents obliged Ra-
phael to hurry  home;  and while he was
arranging  his father's affairs in Urbino, he
completed, in his  hours of leisure, sev-
eral  paintings,  e. g. two Madonnas, a  St.
 George, and probably its pendant, the St. 
RAPHAEL                              517
 Michael  (now  in  Paris), Christ praying
 in the Garden (in Paris), and, in 1504, the
 Marriage of Mary  (Lo Sposalizio, now in
 Milan).   His  love  for  Perugia soon in-
 duced  him to  return thither.   He there
 sustained his reputation  by  several paint-
 ings—a Madonna  for the church of the
 Frati  de' Servi, a Mater dolorosa,  over
 which  he delineated, in a second picture,
 God the Father (now in the Palace Co-
 lonna, at Rome) with some other easel-
 pieces, and a Christ, with God the Father,
 surrounded by several Saints, for the small
 Camaldulian convent, which was his firet
 painting  in fresco.   All  these works par-
 take somewhat  of the style of his master,
 and do not exhibit the grandeur, dignity
 and power of his later performances,  but
 are  distinguished for the sensibility and
 feeling belonging  to the earlier school.
 His desire for further improvement  drew
 him a second time to Florence, where he
 zealously  pursued  his  study of the  old
 masters above mentioned, and  where  his
 acquaintance with  Fra Bartolomeo gave
 him a more correct knowledge of coloring.
 He seems to have spent the whole time of
 his residence  in that city in his studies;
 at least it is known  that he executed there
 nothing  but a few  portraits  and the car-
 toon for his Entombing of Christ.  This
 picture  itself  he   painted   in  Pemgia,
 whence it was  afterwards traiisfereed to
 the  Borghese palace at Rome.  It  is a
 miracle of composition, design and expres-
 sion, and was surpassed,  in these respects,
 by few of his subsequent performances.
 After finishing  it, Raphael  returned,  for
 the  third  time, to   Florence, where  his
 studies became  again his chief employ-
 ment ; at least we  are able  to  point out,
 with certainty, as having been executed
 at this time, only the excellent Madonna,
 called La Bella Giardiniera (now in Paris),
 and  another Madonna, with  die Fathers
 of the Church (now in Brussels), neither
 of which  was entirely finished by Ra-
 phael.   His repeated residence  in  Flor-
 ence had  the  greatest influence, not only
 en himself, but on the  whole of the
 modem  school  of  ait.   He  found  that
 Cimabue, Giotto, Fiesole  and the Floren-
 tine  artists of die time,  could  not only
 compete with his teacher, Perugino, in all
 the departments of art, but that some of
 them—Masaccio, Fra Filippo Lippi,Mari-
 otto  Albertinelli, Ghirlandaio  and  Fra
 Bartolomeo—surpassed him in excellence
of composition, correctness of design, and
liveliness of coloring.  In the works of
Ghirlandaio, and above all of Masaccio,
he found, what he most desired, a grander
  vol. x.           44
  style in forma, drapery and  outline.  As
  Raphael had already acquired the excel-
  lences of the greatest mastere of his  time
  in Romagna, he now possessed himself of
  those of the Florentine school, for which
  he ever entertained a great esteem.  A
  striking proof of this was his copying, in
  his loggie, without the least alteration, two
  figures  by  Masaccio, which  may still be
  seen in the Carmelite monastery at  Flor-
  ence, viz. Adam  and Eve  driven from
  Paradise by the Angel.   Pope Julius II
  had employed Bramante in rebuilding St.
  Peter's,  and in the embellishment of the
  Vatican.  At Bramante's suggestion, Ra-
  phael was,  in 1508, invited to Rome.
  The pope received him with distinguished
  favor, and  the artists of Rome with the
  greatest respect   Here he executed the
  Disputa, or Dispute of the Fathers of the
  Church, on the wall ofthe second cham-
  ber, called the stanza della  Segnatura,
  next to the great hall  of  Constantine.
  Between this painting and his Entombing
  of Christ there is a similarity, which  is
  not the case with his later performances.
  In the grouping, also, he has adhered to
  the style of his earlier predecessors; but
  the Disputa is by far the more perfect of
  the two.  All is life, motion, action: the
  variety  of the characters is admirable;
  every stroke is full  of meaning.  If we
  divide Raphael's works into several peri-
  ods, the first comprising his  earlier per-
 formances, executed in the  manner of
 Perugino,  the  second comprising those
 which he executed in Urbino, Florence,
 &c, we recognise  in the Disputa  the
 transition to  the third manner,  which is
 still more clearly manifested in the School
 of Athens, the  second grand  painting in
 this chamber.   This painting (which was
 probably preceded by the Parnassus, the
 third great painting of" the room) displays
 far more freedom of handling, and more
 manliness and  energy.   By  it  Raphael
 gained so  completely  the favor  of  the
 pope, that he caused almost all the fresceea
 of other  artists in the Vatican to be ef-
 faced, that the  rooms might be adorned
 by him.  Raphael painted in their stead,
 in the above-mentioned stanza,  the alle
 gorical figures of Theology, Philosophy
 Justice and Poetry, in the comers of  tne
 ceiling;  the Fall of  Adam, Astronomy,
 Apollo and Marsyas, and Solomon's Judg
 ment, all having reference to the four
principal figures of the apartment; and,
lastly, on the fourth wall, over the win
dows, Prudence, Temperance  and Forti-
tude ; below them, the emperor Justinian,
delivering the Roman law to  Tribonian, 
518
RAPHAEL.
and Gregory X giving the Decretals to
an Advocate, and, under them, Moses and
an armed allegorical figure.  In 1511, all
the pieces of the first stanza or hall were
finished.   According to Vasari's account,
he now executed several less important
but excellent frescoes (Isaiah in St. Augus-
tine's, the Prophets and  Sibyls  in  Sta-
Maria  della  Pace,  and the celebrated
Madonna di Foligno in the Vatican).   The
progress  which Raphael  made, in  his
peculiar style, is shown by his next paint-
ing in the stanza, the Expulsion of Helio-
dorus from the  Temple.  Here the style
is far more earnest, grand, bold and ener-
getic, the execution far more spirited  and
masterly.  This  was followed, in 1514,
after the accession of the new pope,  Leo
X, by his Leo the Great stopping  the
Progress of Attila,  the Deliverance of
Peter from Prison, and, on the ceiling of
this stanza,  Moses viewing the burning
Bush, the Building of the Ark, the Sacri-
fice of Isaac, and Jacob's Dream.  Nearly
contemporary with them are the following
easel-pieces:  the famous  Madonna  del
Pesce (in the Escurial),  which was trans-
ferred, in  Paris, from wood  to canvass;
his equally beautiful Cecilia, which is said
to have been finished by Giulio Romano ;
a Holy Family, called La Pcrla (in the
Escurial); Ezekiel's Dream; among  sev-
eral Madonnas, that called Dell' Impannato;
Christ  bearing  the Cross, known by  the
name of Lo  Spasimo di Sicilia (now in
Madrid); Christ in Glory, surrounded by
saints; / cinque Santi; his own  portrait
(now  in Munich); the  portrait of Leo X
(now  in Paris), &c.  Albert  Durer, in-
duced by Raphael's reputation, is said to
have made him an offer of his friendship,
and to have sent him several of his  own
etchings, with his portrait, and to have re-
ceived, in return, a number of drawings
by Raphael's hand.  With the Conflagra-
tion of the  Borgo (Incendio dd Borgo),
extinguished by the Prayers of Leo,  Ra-
phael began the third stanza of the  Vati-
can.  This  work is a master-piece for
strength and truth of expression, beauty
of forms, excellence of grouping and va-
riety.  It was followed by the Coronation
of "Charlemagne, Leo Ill's Vindication
of Himself before Charlemagne,  and the
Victory of Leo IV over the Saracens at
Ostia  (on  which,  however,  Raphael's
scholars were employed in working from
his designs).  He next completed the  gal-
leries (loggie) of the Vatican palace, by
which the rooms communicate, and which
had been left  unfinished  by Bramante,
and  furnished  designs for the paintings
and  stucco-work with which  they  were
to be  adorned.   The execution of the
paintings (excepting four done by himself!
Raphael intrusted to Giulio Romano and
some of his other pupils, and the stucco-
work to John of Udine.  In this way was
fonned a complete series of works of art,
which  have exalted the palace of the Vati-
can into a temple of the arts.   The pope,
charmed  with the   excellence of these
performances, committed to Raphael the
decoration of another stanza of the  Vati-
can,  with images of the  saints  and apos-
tles,  appointed him superintendent of ali
the embellishments of this palace, and load-
ed him with marks of honor.  During this
time, Raphael produced many other excel-
lent pieces,prepared designs for several pal-
aces  in Rome and other cities of Italy, and
finished die Madonna for the church of St
Sixtus  in Piacenza (now hi Dresden), un-
questionably one of  the master-works of
his  pencil.   The loftiness,  dignity  and
sublimity, combined  with sweetness, grace
and  beauty, which  reign  in this picture,
render  it inimitable.   Other works of this
period  are St. Michael, the portraits of
Beatrice of Ferrara, of his lieloved  For-
narina, of Carondelet (now in  England),
of count Castiglione, and of the beautiful
Joanna of Areagon  (both  in Paris).  Of
the last there are two excellent  copies,
which  are often  represented as the work
ofthe artist himself,  one in the  possession
of count  Fries at Vienna, the other. of
Wocher at Basle. To this time, also, be-
long the frescoes in  the Farnesina, repre-
senting the life  of Psyche in twelve pic-
tures, and  Galatea,  all, except the last,
executed by his scholars; also the designs
from the fable of Psyche, altogether differ-
ent from the former, thirty-eight in num-
ber, and the Madonna della Seggiola (now
in Paris).  It was probably at a later peri-
od that Raphael  prepared  for  Augustino
Ghigi designs for the building and decora-
tion  of a chapel  in Sta-Maria del Popolo,
and  for Leo  X the  celebrated cartoons
(see  Cartoons) for the tapestry  of one of
the  chambers of the Vatican.   These
tapestries were afterwards annually exhib-
ited  in the Vatican, on the  festival of Cor-
pus  Christi, but  have lately been dispers-
ed. This is the more to be  lamented, since
they have often been  preferred to the
stanze  of  Raphael,  in point of composi-
tion, loftiness of character, variety of ex-
pression, grouping,   attitudes,  &c.   For
painting  the  fourth stanza—the hall of
Constentine,  in  oil—Raphael  left only a
few  sketches, especially of die battle be-
tween Constantine and Maxentius, which 
RAPHAEL.                              519
were used by Giulio Romano and his oth-
er scholars, to whom the labor was eventu-
ally intrusted.   The  pictures,  however,
of Justice and Benignity, in tins hall, were
probably executed by his own hand. Sev-
eral easel-pieces, also, seem to have been
executed by him about this period ; among
otiiera, John in die Desert (of which there
exist several copies, viz. in Florence, in
London, in die gallery of the king of the
French,  in  Vienna,  and in Darmstadt:
the copies are so good, and so much alike,
that the original  caimot  be distinguished,
and is not known); his Madonna and Child,
on whom an angel is strewing flowere, and
a St. Margaret   Raphael's last and  un-
finished painting—the Transfiguration  of
Christ—is in the Vatican.  Although crit-
ics have objected to tliis painting that it
contains two subjects,  and consists of two
pictures, every one must concede that it
is  the  most  perfect masterpiece which
modem art has produced.  The composi-
tion is so noble,  the design so perfect, the
expression so elevated  and sublime,  the
characters so various,  the coloring (as far
as it proceeds from Raphael) so true and
vigorous, that it surpasses all  his other
works  in these points.   The  head  of
Christ, in which this combination is most
admired, is  said to have been his  lost  la-
bor.  Attacked by a violent fever,  which
was increased by improper treatment, this
great artist died at the age of thirty-seven
years.   His  body was laid out in state in
his study, before his Transfiguration, and
consigned, with great pomp, to the church
of Sta-Maria Rotonda (formerly the Pan-
theon), where his bones still rest, with the
exception of his skull,  which was after-
wards  placed in  the academy of St. Luke.
His tomb is  indicated by his bust, execut-
ed by Naldini, and placed there by Carlo
Maratti,  and by  the epitaph of cardinal
Bembo:—
  Hie hie est Raphael, timuit quo sospite vinci
    Magna rerum parens, et moriente mori.

All contemporary authors describe Rapha-
el as kind, obliging, modest and amiable,
equally respected and beloved by high and
low.  The beauty of his figure, aud his
noble countenance, which inspired confi-
dence, prepossessed  the beholder in his
favor  at firet sight  He died unmarried,
though by no means averse to women.  In
accordance widi his last will, his property
went to his favorite scholare,Giulio Roma-
no and Francesco Peuni.  When we con-
sider the number of Raphael's paintings,
however severe we may be in judguig of
their genuineness, it seems hardly credi-
ble that the entire compass of a human life
could be  sufficient for  their execution.
They prove the  wonderful  fecundity of
his genius, and the facility with which he
executed.   It is,  moreover, to be consider-
ed that Raphael  furnished the designs for
a great number of pieces executed by his
scholars; devoted much study to his most
important  paintings (as is shown  by the
numerous  sketches of Madonnas,  of the
School of  Athens, of the Dispute  of the
Fathers, &c.); and, in many  cases, first
drew all his figures naked,  hi order  the
better to adapt the drapery and its folds to
their respective attitudes.  And if we fur-
dier  reflect that  the supervision of  the
budding of St.  Peter's church, and  the
preparation of designs for the  erection of
other churches and palaces, with several
other collateral  tasks, were imposed on
him, we must be struck with  the highest
admiration of his genius.  At first, his de-
sign, conformably  with the taste  of the
times, and the instruction which he had
received,  was somewhat stiff and  thy.
After studying with assiduity nature and
the antiques, he formed for  himself an
ideal, which, by  its harmony with nature.
touches the feelings, while the Greek ide-
al rather overpowers by its  loftiness.  In
his manhood, his pencil acquired greater
freedom, and his figures became full of
life and motion.  His  drapery, always
simple and light, in his latest pieces gene-
rally forms large  masses, and is excellent-
ly arranged, so as not to conceal the parts
intended to b3 shown. In foreshortening,
and in perspective, he was imperfect.  In
coloring, he was, at first, dry; till,  taught
by Fra Bartolomeo,  he consulted  nature
alone.  Although,  in this department of
the art, he never reached the excellence
of Correggio or Titian, his  colors always
appearing too heavy and dull, yet  his St
John hi Florence, the Fornarina, and his
Transfiguration,  show how far he had ad-
vanced ; and only from these pictures can
we form a judgment; for his other works,
ofthe best period, were generally execut-
ed by his scholars, or, at most, retouched
by him.   The distribution of light and
shade Raphael understood very well; but,
with respect to the chiaroscuro, he is by
no means  to be compared with the  above-
mentioned great colorists.  On the other
hand, composition and  expression must
almost be  considered Raphael's exclusive
property;  and, in these respects, he  has
never found a rival.  He  always selected
the moment  of  action which expressed
most clearly the dispositions of the actors.
Avoiding  all unnecessary exertion of 
520                          RAPHAEL—RAPP.
Btrengtn, all excess, occupied solely with
the object to be represented, he endeavor-
ed  to give to his pereons just so much
motion  as  was requisite.  Thence  it is
that we frequently find in his  works
straight, simple attitudes, which are, nev-
ertheless, so beautiful in their place, aud
leave so much room for the expression
of feeling.  Unlike other  artists, he first
meditated on the whole of the  scene  to
be represented, and the general character
of the expression; next proceeded to the
figures,  and lastly to the single parts of
them.  In this way, his figures possess a
harmony at which many other artists have
aimed in vain.  The most  distinguished
of his scholars were Giulio Pipi Romano,
Francesco Penni il Fattore,  Polidoro Cal-
dara di Caravaggio,  Benvenuto Garofalo,
John of Udine, Bartolomeo Ramenghi il
Bagnacavallo.  These,  with their follow-
ere, and later imitators, constitute the Ro-
man school, founded by Raphael,, which
has ever been distinguished above  others
for  the excellences which belonged to its
founder.  The latest Lives of Raphael are
those of Braun (Wiesbaden, 1815), of Fu-
seli (Zurich, 1815), and  of Qnatremere de
Quincy  (Paris, 1825).   Marco Antonio
(Ant Raimondi) engraved Raphael's draw-
ings, and Raphael himself is said to have
etched the outlines of some of the plates.
A Catalogue des Estampes gravies d'aprh
Rafael, par Tauriscus Eubaus (count
Lepell),  appeared, at Frankfort on the
Maine, in 1819; and the  fitudes calquies
d dessmies cFapres  5 Tableaux de Raph.,
accompagnies  de la  Gravure au  Trait  et
de Notices  hist, et crit., by Emer. David
(Paris, 1822).   These five  pieces are the
Agnus Dei, La Perle, La Visitation (since
engraved by Desnoyers^  La Vierge au
Poisson,  and  Lo  Spasimo, which were
carried to France  in 1813, were  retouch-
ed there, and returned to Spain in 1815.
  Rapin de Thotras,  Paul, a historian,
born at Castres, in  Languedoc,  in 1661,
studied law under his father, who was an
advocate, until the revocation of  the edict
of Nantes drove him to England, and sub-
sequently to Holland, where he entered a
company of French cadets.  In 1689, he
followed the prince of Orange into Eng-
land, and distinguished himself at the bat-
tle of the Boyne.  In 1707, he settled  at
Wesel, in the  duchy of Cleves, and de-
voted himself to the composition  of his
History  of England.  He died at Wesel
in 1725.  His great   work,  L'Histoire
d'Angleterre (Hague, 10  vols., 4to., 1725—
1726), has been twice translated into Eng-
lish ', and Tindal continued it up to 1760.
 It is prolix aud unanimated, butinipartial,
 and contains much solid information.
   Rapp, John, count of, a French gene-
 ral during the  revolutionary war,  was
 born in Alsatia, in 1772.   In 1788, he en-
 tered the military service.  As aid of gen-
 eral Desaix, lie  accompanied  him during
 the  campaigns in Germany and Egypt.
 After Desaix had  fallen at  Marengo, Rapp
 became aid to Bonaparte, to whom he had
 carried information of Desaix's death.  In
 1802, he executed the commission which
 he had received  from the firet consul to
 exhort the Swiss to a cessation of hostili-
 ties, and   to proffer the  mediation of
 France in the  conflict of parties, which
 had destroyed the tranquillity of the coun-
 try since its occupation by  the French ar-
 mies.   The Swiss   suiimitted  to Bona-
 parte's decision.  In the  following year,
 Rapp was despatched to the mouth ofthe
 Elbe to superintend the erection of works
 to protect  the country against a landing
 of the  English.   On the breaking out of
 the war against Austria, in 1805, he  ac-
 companied Napoleon, and, after the battle
 of Austeriitz, where he threw the Russian
 guards into confusion  by a bold attack
 with his cavalry, and took  prince Repnin
 prisoner, he was  made brigadier-general.
 In  the war with Prussia  and Russia, he
 also fought with  reputation, and, in  the
 summer of 1807, received  the chief com-
 mand in Dantzic, in the room of general
 Lefebvre.   With the exception of a short
 interruption in 1812, when  he distinguish-
 ed himself in Russia, he remained seven
 years commander of Dantzic, which he
 defended after the retreat of the French ar-
 my from Russia, till 1814, during a severe
siege, in which  he displayed great talent
and brilliant courage,  and not till all means
 of defence were exhausted, and he was
 compelled  by  famine, did he capitulate.
 He  was taken, as a prisoner of war, to
 Kiew.   Returning to France in 1814, he
 was received with distinction by the king,
 and, in March, 1815, was intrusted  with
 the command of  the firet  corps d'armee,
 destined to retard the progress  of Napo-
 leon.  But when the defection of the
 whole army rendered all resistance impos-
 sible, Rapp also went over to  Napoleon,
 who made him commander of the army
 of the  Rhine, which occupied the  lines
 on the  Latiter and from Weissenburg, and
 extended along the Rhine as far as Hunin-
 gen. After several battles  with an enemy
 of superior force, Rapp  retreated under
 the cannons of Strasburg. When Louis
 XVIII  returned  a second time to Paris,
 Rapp retained the command of the  fifth 
RAPP-RASCIANS.                         521
 division,  granted  him  Iry Napoleon, till
 September of the  same year, when the
 urnry was disbanded.   He retired to his
 estates,  but  soon  returned   to  Paris.
 When  the news  of Napoleon's  death
 arrived, Rapp was about the person of
 the king.  The information  moved him
 so strongly, that he expressed  his feelings
 aloud :—" I am not ungrateful," he  said,
 and immediately  withdrew.  The  king,
 informed ofiiis conduct, sent for him, and
 thus addressed him :—" Rapp, I  know
 that you are greatly affected at this  infor-
 mation r this  does  honor to  your  heart,
 and I only love and esteem you the  more
 for it"   Rapp died in 1821, being at the
 time lieutenant-general of  the cavalry.
 After  his  death appeared the interesting
 Memoires du Giiiiral Rapp, icrits par Lui-
 meme  (Puris,  1823).  (See Mim. des Con-
 tempordins, 1st No.;  these are genuine;
 a former  edition was declared spurious,
 by the widow of the general.)
   Rapp,* George and Frederic, the  latter
 the adoptive son of the former, founders
 of the  society of Harmony, in the  towii
 of Economy,  Beaver county, Pennsylva-
 nia. Both emigrated with the elder mem-
 bere of the society, in 1804, from Wiir-
 temberg to the U. States.  They first set-
 tled on Coimoquenessing creek, twenty-
 five miles north of Pittsburg.   Here they
 labored as  pioneers in  the  wilderness.
 They introduced community of property,
 taking the second chapter of the Acts ofthe
 Apostles as their guide. The town,founded
 Feb. 15, 1805, was called Harmony, and
 advanced rapidly. Agricultural and manu-
 factured articles were soon produced in
 sufficient  quantities for  sale by the flour-
 ishing colony.  In  1814, the colony pur-
 chased in Indiana, at that time a territory,
 27,000 acres on the Wabash, and, in 1815,
 the whole colony  had removed  thither.
 This town was called New Harmony, and
 prospered much more  rapidly than the
 former, as the society had already accu-
 mulated wealth in  its former residence.
 The bad administration of justice, how-
 ever, again caused them to remove.   New
 Harmony was sold in 1824, and Economy,
 eighteen miles below Pittsburg,  settled.  In
 the summer of 1831, Economy contained
 about200 houses, and about 900 members.
 They are more devoted to manufactures
 than to agriculture, yet the lands are culti-

  * This article  has been inserted, contrary to
 «>ur n»ie of not giving notices of living citizens of
 Uie U. States, with a view lo furnish some infor-
 mal ion  respecting the settlement of Economy,
 lor which we had not the materials at  Uie time
of prejuaiing the articles in E.
 vated  in  the best manner.  They manu-
 facture annually about 100,000 pounds of
 wool,  and 300 bales  of cotton.  They
 make  broadcloths, flannels, carpets, and
 even silk handkerchiefs (they having lately
 begun  to rear silkworms; in 1831, they
 had about 100 pounds  of silk which they
 had prepared).   Horses, cattle, sheep and
 swine   are  reared  in  great  numbers.
 Wheat, barley, rye, oats,  flax, clover, and
 garden fruits, are raised in  abundance,
 and even  wine  is made.  The  surplus
 produce is sold  for  their joint  benefit.
 Any one who wishes to  join them, lives
 with them for six months; after which he
 is voted for.  If he is admitted, he throws
 his whole fortune into the joint stock ; and
 if he should  leave the  society,  it is re-
 stored  to him,  but  without  interest, or
 share in the profits.  The novice prom-
 ises obedience to the laws and the elders,
 and never to make any claims for seivices
 rendered; whereupon the society prom-
 ises to  furnish him every thing necessary
 in health and sickness.  The punishments
 are reprimands, exclusion from the church
 for some  weeks, during which  time no
 one has intercouree with the offender, and
 expulsion.  The professed object of their
 religious system is to learn and follow the
 precepts of Jesus. Their music, instru-
 mental and vocal, is excellent  Members
 of both sexes are admitted, but they do
 not marry. The  wealth of the society is
 supposed  to be veiy  great  Mr. George
 Rapp is the patriarch.  Feb. 1, 1832, two
 hundred and seventeen  membere made
 known  their secession, and declared that
 all  the authority granted by  them  to
 George Rapp had ceased.
  Rappahannock;  a river of  Virginia,
 which rises in the Blue ridge, and runs east-
 south-east about 180 miles, and flows into
 Chesapeake bay, twenty-five miles south
 of the  Potomac.  It passes the towns of
 Falmouth, Fredericsburg, Port Royal and
 Leeds,  and is navigable to Fredericsburg,
 110 miles, for vessels of 130 or 140 tons.
  Raritan ; a river of New Jersey, form-
 ed by two branches which unite twenty
 miles above New Brunswick.  It becomes
 navigable  two miles  above that  city,  at
 a place called  Brunswick Landing.   It
 passes Amboy, and then widens into Rar-
itan bay, which is immediately connected
 with the ocean.
  Ras ; Arabian for head, and prefixed to
names  of promontories or capes.
  Rascians, or Raitzen ; a Sclavonic
tribe, which formerly inhabited Servia and
Ulyria,  but at present is  spread through
Sclavonia, Lower Hungary, Transylvania, 
632                    RASCIANS—RASPBERRY.
Moldavia and Walachia.  They profess
the Greek faith, but many of them have
joined the Catholic church.
  Rash (exanthema)', an emption of the
skin.  It consists  of red patches on  the
skin,  diffused  irregularly over  the  body.
Portions of the cuticle are often elevated
in a rash, but the elevations are not acu-
minated.  The eruption is usually  ac-
companied with a general disorder of the
constitution, and terminates in a few days
by cuticular exfoliations.
  Rask, Erasmus Christian, professor of
literary history, and librarian in the uni-
versity of Copenhagen, a learned linguist,
was the son  of a peasant, and  was  born
near Odensee, in the island of Funen, in
1784.  He studied at Copenhagen, after-
wards lived several  yeare in Iceland, and
made  scientific tours  through  Sweden,
Finland and Russia.  In 1808, he receiv-
ed an  appointment in the university libra-
ry at Copenhagen, and made himself fa-
miliar with the oldest sources of north-
ern histoiy.    His  Introduction  to  a
Knowledge of the Icelandic or Old Lan-
guage of the  North (Copenhagen, 1811);
his Angelsaxsisk  Sproglare (Anglo-Saxon
Grammar, Stockholm, 1817, translated into
English  by Thorpe); his Examination
into the  Origin ofthe Icelandic Language
Copenhagen, 1818), which received  the
prize from the Danish society of science;
his edition of Bjorn Haldorsen's Icelandic
Dictionary; and his valuable contributions
to other works on the  ancient northern
literature,—-are proofs of his learning and
industry.  In 1819, Rask undertook a tour
through Russia  to  Persia,  and  thence
sailed (1820) for Bombay,  and  visited
Ceylon,  for  the  purpose of prosecuting
his researches in  comparative  philology.
While in the  East, he collected 113 old
and rare Oriental manuscripts for the uni-
versity of Copenhagen: among them were
thirty-three relative to the ancient Persian
literature, and particularly to the Zenda-
vesta,  several  of which  had escaped the
notice of Anquetil du  Perron ; nineteen
of them in  the Zend, and the others in
the Pehlvi language: twenty-four of the
manuscripts belong to a hitherto  almost
unknown  portion  of Indian  literature.
Since his return to Copenhagen, profes-
sor Rask has published a Spanish Gram-
mar, a Frisian Grammar, a Danish Gram-
mar  for the  use  of Englishmen (1830),
and, very recently,  an  Arabic Grammar
and Text-Book.
  Raspberry.  The common cultivated
raspberry (rubus idaus) has a woody root,
from  which arise several upright stems,
attaining the height of tnTee or four feet,
and rough with numerous fine prickles:
the  inferior  leaves  are  pinnate,  com-
posed  of five oval acute toothed  leaflets,
green above, and whitish and  downy be-
neath ; the superior ones are ternate ; the
flowers are white,  and rather small,  sup-
ported on slender branching  peduncles,
which arise from the axils of the superior
leaves: they  are  succeeded by a  well-
known fruitjcomposed of numerous round-
ed succulent grains, and ofa delicious fla-
vor.  It  grows  wild  in  rocky  places,
throughout the colder parts ofthe northern
hemisphere.  Several varieties are culti vat-
ed,differing in the size and color ofthe fruit,
either red, flesh-colored, or yellow.   Ona
variety bears twice a year.  A light soil is
best suked to the culture ofthe raspberry,
and an eastern or western exposure, slight-
ly shaded.  It is generally propagated by
suckers, which the old roots give out in
profusion; and the time of planting con-
tinues from November till the  middle of
March.   A distance of three feet in every
direction, should be left round  the stocks,
and  no more suckers should be suffered
to remain than are intended to bear the
following year, unless  young  plants are
wanted;   and if veiy  large fruit is the
object, no suckers should be left.   On the
other hand, when the strongest suckers are
wanted, the fruit-bearing snoots should be
cut down. Raspberries have  a grateful
subacid taste, and, unlike  most fruits, do
not  undergo  the acetous fermentation in
the  stomach; their perfume is very de-
lightful.   They are much used  in cookery
and  confectionary, as well as in desserts :
with sugar they are made into jam  and
jelly, and also into cakes. The juice, mix-
ed with a certain portion of sugar and bran-
dy, constitutes the liqueur called raspberry
brandy; and it is sometimes manufactured
into wine. In some parts of Europe, a
white vinegar  is  prepared  by infusion,
which is converted into a sirup by adding
the requisite quantity of sugar.—A second
species of raspberry (R. stngosus),  bearing
a small red fruit, grows wild iu most of
the northern parts of the U.  States.   The
fruit has an agreeable flavor, and frequent-
ly makes its appearance in our 'Markets.
It is probably susceptible of as much im-
provement by cultivation as the preceding
species.—The genus rubus bek-ngs to the
natural order rosacea^, and is numerous in
the U. States, comprehending the. different
sorts of blackberries and  dewberries, as
they are termed.  One of  them, the flow-
ering raspberry (R. odoratus), is a highly
ornamental shrub,  distinguished  by its 
RASPBERRY-RAT;                          623
very large bright red flowers, and is fre-
qucndy cultivated in gardens, both in Eu-
rope and America :  it grows wild in Can-
ada, the Northern  States, and along the
whole  range of  the  Alleghany  moun-
tains.  Two other species, growing west
of the  Rocky mountains, are equally re-
markable for the size  and beauty of their
flowers.
  RastaoT ; a town  with 4200 inhabit-
ants, in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the
river Murg,  about nine miles from Carls-
ruhe.  The  beautiful castle Favorite was,
until 1771, the residence ofthe margraves
of  Baden-Baden.   At the congress of
Rastadt, 1713, prince Eugene (for Austria)
and marshal Villars (for France) began the
negotiations  which  put an end to the Ba-
varian war of succession by the peace of
Rastadt, May 6, 1714.   The second  con-
gress at Rastadt was opened Dec. 9,1797,
for  the purpose of concluding peace be-
tween  France and  Germany, and was
dissolved by the emperor  of  Germany,
April 7, 1799.  (See Congress.)   The
French ministers Roberjot, Bonnier,  and
Jean de Bry, set out to  return, April 28,
1799, but, about 200 paces from the sub-
urb, were attacked by  a troop of hussars.
Roberjot and Bonnier were killed,  their
papers taken, and their pereons plundered;
Jean de Biy and the secretary Rosenstiel
escaped to Rastadt  The diet at Ratisbon
ordered an inquiry into the affair, which
it left to the emperor.  This, after being
prosecuted for some time with  spirit,  was
ut length  dropped.   It is now generally
believed that, though the hussars had orders
lo take the papers from these ministers, the
killing was probably caused by their wish
to plunder.
  Rat.  The common brown or Norway
rat, now so extensively diffused over this
countiy, is not indigenous to our soil, but
was  introduced  from  Europe,  which
received it  from Asia in the  eighteenth
century (as late as the  year 1750).  There
are few parts ofthe  world, now visited by
navigators, where this animal has not been
introduced ; and the immediate  conse-
quence of its introduction has been, that
all the native rats have been destroyed, or
obliged to withdraw beyond the reach of
this subtle and implacable enemy.  Prior
lo  the year above mentioned, this rat,
now so  notorious  for its  ravages,  was
almost, if not wholly, unknown in Europe.
It was  conveyed to England about the
period above mentioned,  in the timber-
ships from  Norway; and  hence it  has
received one  of  its  common   names.
Many yeare  subsequently it  was brought
to this  country  in  European  ships,  and
lias been  gradually propagated from the
seaports over the greater part of the conti-
nent   The  brown  rat takes up its resi-
dence   about  wharfs,  store-houses,  cel-
lars, granaries, &c, and destroys the com-
mon black  rat  and mouse,  or entirely
expels   them  from  the vicinities it  fre-
quents.  To chickens, rabbits, young pig-
eons, ducks,  and various other domestic
animals, it is equally  destructive, when
urged by hunger and opportunity.  Eggs
are also a very favorite article of food
with this species, and are sought with
great avidity ; in fact,  every thing that is
edible falls a prey to their voracity,  and
can  scarcely be   secured  from  their
persevering  and audacious inroads.   In
the countiy,  they take  up their  abodes
according to convenience and  the abun-
dance  of provision, infesting especially
mills, barns and out-houses, or  residing in
holes along  the  banks of races or other
water-courses.   The brown  rat swims
with great facility, aAd dives  with vigor,
remaining under water for a considerable
time,  and swimming thus to  some  dis-
tance.   When attacked, and not allowed
an opportunity of escaping, he  becomes a
dangerous antagonist, leaping at his ene-
my, and inflicting severe and  dangerous
wounds with his teeth.  The most eager
cat becomes immediately  intimidated in
the presence of one of* these rats thus pen-
ned up, and is very willing to  escape the
dangers of an encounter.  The brown rat
is amazingly prolific, and, but for its nu-
merous enemies, and its own rapacious
disposition, would become an  intolerable
pest  Happily for the world,  in addition
to man, to die weazel, cat, some  species
of dog,  &c.-, rats frequently find destruc-
tive enemies in  each  other, both in  the
adult and young state.  The strongest of
the species  prey upon the weaker, and
are the most merciless destroyers of their
own kind.*  The weazel and  the terrier
are the most efficient rat-killers, as the
firet can pUreue the enemy to his most
secret  retreat,  and the second  derives,
from his superior su-ength and activity, a
very decided  advantage  in the  contest
The cat, though  in  general a very useful
auxiliary in  lessening the number of this
  * " It is a singular fact in the history of these
animals,  that the skins of such of them  as have
been devoured ia iheir ltoles, have frequently been
found curiously lurned inside out, every  part be-
ing completely inverted lo the ends  of the toes.
How the  operation is performed it would be diffi-
cult to ascertain; but it appears to be effected in
some peculiar mode of eating out the contents."
—Bewick, Hist, of Quadrupeds. 
524
RAT—RATE1*
species, is very liable both to be foiled and
woreted in her attempts.  As these rats
bring forth from  twelve  to eighteen at  a
litter, we have good reason to rejoice that
bo many animals have an instinctive ani-
mosity against so noxious a marauder. The
cunning of these rats is not less than their
impudence;  it is almost impossible to take
them in traps,  after one  or two have been
thus caught, as the rest avoid it with scru-
pulous care,  however tempting may be
the bait it contains.  The surest way to
remove them is  by poison, which, how-
ever, they frequently  detect and  avoid.
The powder of  nux vomica, mixed with
some Indian corn or oat-meal, and scented
with oil of rhodium, is found very effectual
in destroying them.  Arsenic is very com-
monly used in the same way for this pur-
pose ; but the fatal accidents which fre-
quently occur when this poison is kept
about the house, in consequence of the label
being removed or changed, and the arsen-
ic administered to membere of the family
instead of some  other medicine, render
it a very  objectionable  resource.   The
brown rat measures about  nine inches,
and  is of a light brown color, intermingled
with ash and tawny.  The  color of the
throat and belly is ofa dirty white, inclin-
ing  to gray.   It has pale,  flesh-colored,
naked feet, with  a tail of the same length
as the body,  and  covered with small  dusky
scales, with  short haire thinly scattered
between.—The black rat was much more
common previous to the introduction of
the brown rat than at present   It is now
found  only  in  situations to which  the
brown rat has not extended, and is almost
as injurious and destructive, resembling  it
closely in  manners and habits.  It is of a
deep iron-gray,  and indeed nearly of a
black color above, and of an ash color on
the lower  parts of its body.  Its  legs are
nearly naked,  and on its fore feet, instead
of the rudimentol thumb, it has a claw.
The length, from the nose to the root of
the tail, is seven  inches;  the tail itself is
almost eight inches long.  It has been  a
matter of dispute, whether this animal
was received here from Europe, or was
originally  taken  hence to that quarter of
the world. Blumenbach, who has devoted
much attention to the subject, states it as
his opinion that the black rat was carried
from Europe  to America.  GarcUaso de
la Vega states, that it was first introduced
into South  America by the Europeans,
about the  year 1544, and Geraldus  Cam-
brensis speaks of them in Europe previous
to the discovery  of America.
   Ratafia.  (See Liqueur.)
  Rata* (calamus)',  a genus of palm*,
but widely differing in habit from the rest
of that family, and, in this respect some-
what resembling the  grasses.  The spe-
cies have all perennial, long, round, solid,
jointed,  unbranchiiig stems, extremely
tough and pliable, often ascending among
the branches of trees, but without prickles
or  tendrils.   They   grow  in  profusion
along the banks of rivers in tropical Asia
and the  neighboring islands.   All the
species are very useful, anil are apjilied to
various  purposes:  the fruit and young
stems of all furnish nutriment, and a drink
is obtained from the  liquid which flows
from wounds made in the spadix.  One
specie* is even  cultivated  for  its  fruit,
which is about the size of a  walnut, and
covered with scales.   Certain species fur-
nish cables, cords and  withes of exceeding
strength; others  are  split into  strips for
making  the seats and backs of chairs,
baskets, and other light and elegant articles
of furniture;  those which are larger and
firmer, and whose joints are more distant,
afford elegant  walking-sticks;  in  short,
the  economical  purposes to which the
various species of ratans are  applied, are
very numerous, even in northern climates.
A trade  in ratans, to  considerable extent,
is carried on from several of the East India
islands to  China, which is the principal
market for therm
  Rate ; the  name of the  classes  into
which ships  of war  are  divided in the
navy, according to their force and magni-
tude: thus the first rate comprehends all
ships of 100  guns and upwards; second
rate includes all ships  carrying from 90 to
98  guns, upon  three decks; third  rate
consists of ships  from 64 to 80 cannon ;
fourth rates consist of  ships from 50 to 00
guns, upon two decks and the quarter-
deck.   All vessels of war under the fourth
rate are usually comprehended under the
general  names  of frigates,  and  never
appear  in  the line of battle. They are
divided  into  two rates, viz. fifth rates,
mounting from 32 to  40 or 44 guns; and
sixth rates, of from 20 to 30 guns.
  Ratel (ratdus mellivorus);  a species of
animals  allied to the  gluttons, inhabiting
the southern part of  Africa.  It lives on
honey, which it procures in great quanti-
ties, the bees in that part  of  the country
making  their  nests  in  burrows in die
ground,  which  have  been deserted by
some animal.  Sparrman gives an extraor-
dinary and almost incredible account of
its  sagacity, viz.  that it will ascend the
highest part of the desert it inhabits to
look  about, placing  one  foot above its 
RATEL—RATTLESNAKE.                      525
 eyes,  to prevent their being dazzled by
 the sun.  The reason he  assigns for its
 choosing this elevated situation is, that it
 may the better hear and see the honey-
 guide  cuckoo,  which lives on  bees, and
 serves as a guide to their hives.  From
 the toughness of its hide and the stiffness
 of its  hair, it is admirably defended, not
 only from the  stings of bees,  but  also
 from  the  attacks  of more  formidable
 adversaries.  The ratel has a blunt nose;
 no external ears;  a  rough tongue; short
 legs, furnished with long and straight
 claws,  deeply  grooved  beneath :  the
 crown of its head and upper part of its
 body  is gray; the rest is black, except
 that from each  ear a dusky line extends
 to  the tail.   The length  of the body  is
 forty inches; of the  tail,  twelve ; of the
 anterior claws, an inch and three quarters.
   Ration, in the army ; a portion of am-
 munition, bread, drink  and forage,  dis-
 tributed  to each soldier for his daily sub-
 sistence, &c.  The officers have several
 rations, according to their quality and the
 number of attendants they are obliged tc
 keep.
   Rationalism,  in   the  philosophy of
 religion ; opposed  to   supernaturalism.
 Both words are chiefly used in Germany.
 (See Supernaturalism.)
   Ratisbon  (in  German,  Regensburg),
 one ofthe most ancient cities in Germany,
 built by the Romans, and called Reginum,
 or Castra Regina, was, as early  as the
 second centuiy, a commercial  place, as
 appears  from an inscription on a temple
 brought to  light  by  K. T.  Gemeiner.
 Under the Agilolfingians, h was  the capi-
 tal of Bavaria.  After the deposition of
 this dynasty, it was under the immediate
 protection of the German king.   It under-
 went several changes, and, in  1663,  was
 made the permanent seat of the diet of the
 German empire, and so continued until the
 dissolution ofthe same.  In 1803, the city
 and the bishopric ofthe same name were
 given to the elector of Mayence, who  was
 now styled  " arch-chancellor of the em-
 pire."  The city and bishopric were made
 a principality, and the former see of May-
 ence transferred to Ratisbon.  When the
 prince-primate was made  grand-duke of
 Frankfort by  Napoleon  (in 1810),  the
 principality was given to Bavaria.  Ratis-
 bon has,  at  present,  26,100 inhabitants
 (mostly  Lutherans),  and  is the  chief
 place of the  circle of the  Regen.  The
 city lies in a  fertile valley, at the conflu-
 ence of the Danube and  the Regen.  A
 bridge  1091 feet  long  (built in 1135—46)
leads over the  Danube.  The  buildings
 are old;  the  streets crooked, but clean.
 The  city hall, in which the diet used to
 assemble, with the library, the cathedral,
 and several other public buildings* deserve
 mention.   There are several good schools
 and learned societies.   The manufactures
 consist chiefly of pottery,  bleached wax,
 soap, beer and brandy.  Yarn is here dyed
 Turkish red.  There  is also considerable
 commerce.  Near the city is the monu-
 ment, which  the late  archbishop  and
 prince-primate,  Charles  von  Dalberg,
 erected in 1817 to the memory of Kepler,
 who died here, Nov. 5,1630.   Respecting
 the battle of five days (from April 19 to 24,
 in 1809), near and in Ratisbon, see Eck-
 miihl.   On the  23d,  the  city lost 134
 houses by fire, and the loss of property by
 pillage was estimated  at  1,500,000 flor-
 ins.   Lat 49° 0' 53" N.; and  lon. 10° &
 23" E.
  Ratlines ;  small lines  which traverse
 the shrouds  of  a ship horizontally, at
 regular distances, from the deck upwards,
 forming a variety of ladders whereby to
 climb or to  descend  from any  of the
 mast  heads.
  Rattan. (See Ratan.)
  Rattany or Ratanhia Root ;  the root
 of the krameria triandra, a plant belonging
 to the order polygalete,  and growing wild
 in the mountains of Peru and Chili.  It is
 a  powerful styptic, and various marvel-
 lous properties have been  attributed to it.
 The  plant has lately  been brought into
 Europe,  and  probably will succeed in
 temperate climates.  It is  not  yet in the
 English catalogues of introduced  plants.
  Rattlesnake  (crotalus);  a genus of
 American serpents, celebrated for the dan-
 ger which accompanies their bite, and for
 the peculiar appendages to their tail. The
 scientific name crotalus is derived  from
 Kpora\ov, a bell, rattle,  or cymbal.   The
 head  is broad, triangular, and generally
 flat in its entire extent. The eyes are very
 brilliant,  and provided  with  a  nictitating
 membrane; the  mouth very  large, the
 tongue forked at its extremity.  The body
 is robust, elongated, cylindrical,  covered
 above with carinated scales.  The tail is
 short,  cylindrical,  and somewhat  thick.
 The number of the little bells which ter-
 minate it, increases with  age, an  addi-
 tional one being formed at every casting
 of the skin.  These bells  are  truncated,
 quadrangular  pyramids, received  within
 each other in such a manner that only a
third  part  of  each is  visible, the tip  of
every  bone running within two of the
bones below it.  Thus they are united by
 a kind of ball and socket joint, and move 
526                    RATTLESNAKE—RAUMER.
with a rattling sound whenever the ani-
mal agitates its tail.  The noise resembles
that  made  by rumpled parchment, or by
two  quills  of a  goose  rubbed  smartly
against each other.  The poison fangs are
traversed by a canal for the emission of
the poison.   These fangs, when not used,
remain concealed in a fold of the gum;
when the  animal  bites,  the  fangs  are
raised.  Tliey are two in number, one at
each end of die upper jaw.  The crotali
have a foetid odor; hogs feed upon them,
but most animals, especially horses and
dogs, dread them.  Their principal food
is birds and squirrels.   They also  devour
rats,  hares,  and  small reptiles.   Their
glance has  been sakl  to have the power
of fascinating their  prey so as to make it
drop into their mouths;   it  is probable,
however, that they only seize  it during the
terror and  confusion which the sight of
them occasions.   They creep slowly, and
do not bite  but when provoked, or for the
purpose of destroying their prey; aud they
sound their rattles some  time before at-
tacking their assailants. When seized by
the head, they cannot, like other reptiles,
raise their tails and twist themselves round
the arm, nor make use of their strength to
disengage themselves.   They usually rest
twisted iu a spiral form in the customary
paths of wild animals, particularly in those
which conduct to the  water.  The reme-
dies employed  against the bite of the rat-
tlesnake, are suction and  ligatures, caus-
tics and internal medicines.  All the spe-
cies  of  ci'otali  whose country  is well
known, are  confined to America; and  the
individuals  of this genus have diminished
in  proportion to the increase of popula-
tion.  Bartram says, that be has seen some
rattlesnakes as thick as a man's thigh, and
more than six feet long.  When the win-
ter is rigorous, the crotali pass some time,
in  a lethargic  state, near  the sources of
rivers, in  covert places, where the frost
cannot reach them.   They  bury  them-
selves thus,  before the autumnal equinox,
after they have changed their  skin,  and do
not emerge  until after the  vernal equinox.
Many of them are often found together in
the same hole.  Till the  month of July,
then* bite is comparatively harmless.   At
Cayenne, and in  the  hot  latitudes, they
are in constant activity all the year. They
are viviparous, and can five a long time.
Some have been mentioned as  having
forty or fifty pieces  in their  rattles,  and
being from eight to ten  feet in   length.
They have  great tenacity of life. The
crotalus  homdus,  Lin. (banded  rattle-
snake), is a native of Mexico and South
America, and is generally from four to six
feet long.   The crotalus durissus (striped
rattlesnake of Shaw) inhabits the tempe-
rate countries of North America as far as
the forty-fifth degree of latitude ;  it trav-
erses with ease rivers and lakes by swim-
ming, swelling out its body like a bladder.
Crotalus miliarivs (miliary rattlesnake) is
an inhabitant of Carolina, is of small size,
and not easily perceived ; it is fond of re-
maining coiled up on the tops ofthe roots
of  large trees,  or on the lallen trunks;
lives on frogs, insects, worms, &c.
  Rauch,  Christian, professor of sculp-
ture in the academy of fine arts in Berlin,
one of the first German sculptors  now
living,  was born in 1777,  in Waldeck.
After having spent  some  time in Ber-
lin, he  went, in 1805, to Rome.  In 1811,
the king of Prussia invited  him to Berliu
to execute a mausoleum for the late queen
in Charlottenburg.  In 1814,  this monu-
ment was erected, and forms one of the
finest works of modem art.  In 1815, he
was charged by the king to execute  the
statues of Schamhoret and Biilow, which
are now standing in Berlin,  nearly oppo-
site the king's palace.  He also made a
model of a bronze statue of Bliicher for
the city of Breslau.  Another statue  of
Bliicher, made by him, eleven feet high,on
a pedestal  sixteen feet high,  entirely of
bronze, stands in Berlin.   He  has  also
produced  many  other fine works.—See
Sketches of the principal Works of Chr.
Rauch,  with Illustrations, by Dr. G.  F.
Waagen  (Berlin,  1827, folio).  Rauch ia
distinguished for accuracy of execution.
  Raucourt, Sophia, a  French  actress
of eminence, whose proper  name  was
Saucerote,  was born at Nancy, iu 1756,
and  was the daughter of a theatrical
performer.   She  first  appeared on  die
stage at  Paris, in 1772, in the charac-
ter  of  Dido, and soon acquired  great
professional reputation, which she enjoy-
ed till 1776, when she suddenly fled from
France to  avoid her creditors.   Having
returned  to the Paris stage in  1779, she
continued to be one of its principal orna-
ments,  till  her imprisonment during the
reign of terror, in  1793.  She  was dis-
charged after six months'  confinement,
but experienced  other persecutions   till
she obtained the protection of Napoleon.
Madame  Raucourt  died  January   15,
1815.
  Raomer, Frederic  Louis  George von  ;
was born at Woilitz,  in  Dessau, 1781.
At the age of seventeen years, he studied
at Halle  and afterwards at Gottingen.
In 1801, he was appointed a  referendary 
RAUMER—ray.
527
under the Prussian government, and after-
wards discharged various offices, in which
he attracted the particular attention of the
chancellor von Hardenberg (q. v.);  but
his fondness  for the study of history in-
duced him to give  up the most brilliant
prospects for  a  professorship in the uni-
versity of Breslau, in 1811.   In 1815 and
1817, he travelled in Germany, Switzer-
land and  Italy, and collected  important
materials for  his  history of the Hohen-
staufen (q. v.).   In 1819, he was appointed
professor of politics in Berlin ; but,  since
the death of Runs, he has chiefly lectured
on history.   Among his many works are
the  following :—CCI  Emendationes  ad
Tabulas genealogicas Arabumet Turcorum
(Heidelberg, 1811);  Manual of important
Passages from the Latin Historians ofthe
Middle Ages  (Bresl., 1813);  Lectures on
Ancient History (Leipsic, 1821,2 vols.);
Histoiy  of the Hohenstaufen  and  their
Time (Leipsic,  1823—25, 6  vols., widi
engravings)—all in German, except that
whose title is given in Latin.  He has also
written a  great number of reviews in the
Heidelberg and Vienna  annuals, and  the
Hermes.  His History of  the  Prussian
Government  from 1808 to  1813, at  the
conclusion  of Manso's  (q. v.) Histoiy of
the Prussian State since 1763, in German,
is valuable.  He edits the Historical Pock-
et-Book,  an annual, the firet volume of
which appeared in 1830.  In 1831, he pub-
lished Lettere from Paris (France, 2  vols.).
  Ratjfach,  Ernest Benjamin Solomon,
one  of the most popular dramatists now
living in Germany,  was born  in 1784, in
Silesia.  In 1801, he entered the univer-
sity  of Halle.  In 1804, he went  to  St.
Petersburg to join his brother.   In  1816,
he was appointed professor in the univer-
sity  of that capital,  and taught German
literature and history.  In 1821, the gov-
ernment ordered an  inquiry  into his con-
duct aud that of several of his colleagues;
as the event was uncertain, he left Russia
in 1822.  Of late he has lived chiefly in
Berlin, where many  of his dramatic works
have been performed with considerable
applause.  He has composed comedies as
well as tragedies.   Several  other  small
productions of his have appeared in sou-
venirs, &c.  He has also written Letters
from Italy.
  Ravaillac, Francis, the  murderer of
Henry IV of France, bom at Angouleme
hi 1578, pursued the practice of law, and,
at the same time, instructed  the children
of his native place.  His naturally gloomy
disposition degenerated into a wild fanati-
cism, when he  began to meddle in reli-
gious controversies, which, at that time,
continued to distract his unhappy coun-
try.  Filled  with hatred of the new doc-
trines, he became accustomed  to consider
the good and humane Henry as the arch-
enemy of the church,  to  destroy whom
would  be a meritorious work.   May 14,
1610, he succeeded in his purpose. (See
Henry IV.)   He  was seized, condemned
to death, and underwent his sentence on
the 27th of May.  He died under the se-
verest torments of more than an hour's
duration, which  he endured  with tran-
quillity, as he had  done  the rack, and
without beu-aying any especial repentance,
or naming any accomplices.
   Ravelin, in fortification, was anciently
a  flat bastion, placed in the middle of a
curtain,  but  is  now a detached work,
composed only of two faces, which make
a salient angle, and raised  before the cur-
tain on the counterscarp of the place.  A
ravelin is a triangular work,  resembling the
point of a bastion with  the flanks cut off.
   Raven. (See Crow.)
   Ravenna ; one of the oldest towns in
Italy, in the  Romagna  (States of  the
Church), capital  of a delegation  of  the
same name, forty miles  east of Bologna;
population 16,000.  Ravenna was former-
ly the residence of the Western Roman
emperors, and, after the fall  of the Western
empire, of the Gothic kings, and  still later
of the exarchs. (See Exarchate.)  In 752, it
was captured by the  Lombards, from
whom it was taken by the  Frankish king
Pepin, and bestowed, with  the exarchate,
on the pope.  From 1440  to 1508, it was
in the hands ofthe Venetians, from whom
it was taken  by the league of Cambray.
Since that time it has belonged to the  pa-
pal see.  It is sunounded  with  marshes,
which, however, have  in  modem times
been partly  drained.  It had  formerly a
fine port on the Adriatic, which has been
filled up by the accumulation of mud; and
the city, though still occupying its former
site, is now three or four miles from  the
sea.  In the neighborhood, towards Forli
(q. v.), is the field of battle, on  which
Gaston de Foix gained  a victory over  the
Spanish and papal troops (1512),  and fell.
The bones  of the emperors Honorius,
Constantine,  and Valens  HI,  of Galla
Placidia, daughter  of  Theodosius   the
Great, and of Dante, lie in Ravenna.
  Ra wnoN, Lord. (JSee Hastings, Francis.)
  Ray.   The ray, in ichthyology, is a  ge-
nus of fishes, of which  the generic char-
acter is that  it has fine oblique spiracles
on each  side, placed beneath  the neck:
the head is small, pointed, and not distinct 
528                           RAV—RAZORS.
from  the body; the  mouth  is beneath,
transverse, toothed;  the body  is broad,
thin and flat.   The" individuals of this ge-
nus are all inhabitants of the sea only:
they keep at  the  bottom,  and in winter
cover themselves  with  sand and mud.
They feed on  testaceous animals, fish, or
any animal substances which they may
happen  to meet with.  They grow to a
large size, sometimes exceeding two hun-
dred pounds in weight.  The females are
the larger, and produce their young alive,
only one at a time, which are enclosed in
a black, quadrangular, homy shell.  The
eyes are half covered  with  a thin mem-
brane, oblong,  placed in the upper part of
the head;  above  these, in the place  of
nostrils, is a broad groove, divided  by a
reticulate membrane, consisting of crested
folds, and closed  with a valve.  Behind
this groove are two small semilunar ori-
fices.  The tongue is very broad, short and
smooth.   The ventral fins  are  covered
with a thick skin, and at  the base are con-
nected with the anal.  The flesh is gen-
erally eatable;  the fiver is large, and pro-
duces no small quantity of pure oil.  This
genus includes the electric ray or torpedo,
and skates, the sting-ray and  thornbacks,
and other species.
  Ray.  (See  Optics.)
  Ray, John, an  English naturalist, bom
in 1628, was the son of a blacksmith, and
received  his   education  at Cambridge,
where he obtained a  fellowship.   After
the restoration of  Charles  II, scrupling
to sign the declaration against the solemn
league and covenant, he  resigned  his fel-
lowship, and devoted himself to the culti-
vation of science and  literature.  In 1667,
he was chosen a  fellow of the royal so-
ciety, to whose Transactions he was a fre-
quent contributor.  In 1670, he published
a  Catalogue  of  English Plants,  which
was followed  by a Collection of English
Proverbs,  and (1673) an  account of  a
continental tour.  He particularly distin-
guished himself by his improvements  in
the classification of plants and animals,
in his Methodus Plantarum Nova (8vo.);
Historia Plantarum (3 vols, folio);  Synop-
sis Methodica  Stirpium  (8vo.); Synopsis
Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum; and
a Sylloge Stirpium Europearum extra Bri-
tannium  crescentium;  besides which, he
published Willughby's Ornithology, and
History of Fishes.  He was also the au-
thor of  a popular work, entitled, The
Wisdom of God manifested in the Works
Of Creation (8m); and  of Miscellaneous
Discourses concerning the Dissolution and
Changes of the World (8vo.).   His death
took place January 17,  1705.  The Phil-
osophical Lettere of Ray, and  those of
his  correspondents, were published  in
1718, by Dr. W. Derham.
   Raynal, Guillaume Thomas Francois,
a French writer, born in 1713, at an early
age  entered  the society of the Jesuits.
He distinguished himself by his eloquence
as a preacher, but, in 1748, quitted the so-
ciety and went  to Paris.   Here he gained
a  subsistence by  his pen;  but his first
works (History of the English Parliament,
and  History of  the Stadtholderate)  at-
tracted little notice.  His Histoire Philoso-
phique des Etablissemens et du Commerce
des Europeans dans les deux Indes (1770)
gained him reputation,  although he was
himself so sensible of its errors and de-
fects,   that he  took a journey  through
France, England  and Holland to  obtain
information;  and the new edition  (1781)
was much improved. His free expressions
on arbitraiy power, priestcraft and super-
stition, caused his banishment by the par-
liament, and the condemnation of his book
by the Sorbonne.   After  residing in Ger-
many and Switzerland, he finally received
permission to return, and arrived  in Paris
in 1788.   In the early part of the  revolu-
tion, Raynal, who was not favorably dis-
posed to the democratic  principles of the
day, was in a critical situation ; but, after
the fall of the Jacobins, his condition was
somewhat improved.  He died in 1796.
The  Histoire Philosophique (new edition,
Paris, 1820) has been the most celebrated
of his works, but  is now little esteemed.
Raynal also wrote Revolution des  Colonies
Anglaises de  FAmerique  Septentrionale

  Raynouard,  Francois Juste Marie, a
French poet, bom  in Provence in 1761,
was at first an  advocate, and  sat in the
legislative assembly. He first gained repu-
tation  by his  Socrate dans  le  Temple
d'Aglaure, a poem, which obtained a pnze
from the institute.  His principal  work is
the Templiers, a tragedy  (1805); the  his-
torical matter appended  to which, co»-
cerning the trial of the Templars, is valu-
able.   In 1807, Raynouard  became  a
member of the institute, and, in 1817, suc-
ceeded Suard as  perpetual secretary of
the academy.   In  1816, he published a
selection from the poetry of the Trouba-
dours (3 vols.), with which are connected
the elements of the Lingua Romano, and
a grammar of the language of the Trou-
badours.
  Razee.  A ship of war cut down to a
smaller size.
  Razors.  (See Cutlery.) 
RE—REAL.
529
  Re, or Rt; the Egyptian name  for the
sun, considered as a divinity.   (See Hier-
oglyphics, vol. vi, page 319.)
  Reaction.  (See Mechanics.)
  Read, George, one ofthe signers ofthe
Declaration of Independence, was born in
Maryland, in the year 1734.  His father, a
planter, soon after the birth of his son, re-
moved to Delaware.  Young Read com-
menced the study ofthe law in his seven-
teenth year, in Philadelphia. In 1753, when
but nineteen yeare  old, he was admit-
ted to the bar, on which occasion he per-
formed an act  of generosity towards the
other children  of the family, that deserves
to be recorded.  Being the eldest son, he
was entided, by tne existing laws, to  two
shares of his father's estate ; but he  con-
ceded all his rights to his brothers, assign-
ing as his  motive his  belief)  that in the
education bestowed upon him he had re-
ceived his proper portion.  In the follow-
ing year, he commenced the practice of
his profession in the town  of Newcastle.
In 1763, he was appointed attorney-gene-
ral of the  three lower counties  on the
Delaware—an office which he retained
until his election to congress in 1775.  In
1765, Mr. Read was elected a representa-
tive to the general assembly of Delaware,
and continued so for  twelve  yeare.  In
1775, he was sent to the continental con-
gress, and was annually re-elected a mem-
ber during the whole  revolutionary war.
When the question of independence was
agitated in congress,  Mr. Read voted
against  it,  because he deemed  the time
premature—an opinion which was enter-
tained by membere throughout the  colo-
nies.   When,  however,  the time arrived
for signing the instrument,   Mr. Read
affixed   his name to it.   In  September,
1776, he was chosen president  ofthe con-
vention which formed the first constitution
of the state of Delaware, and  was offered
the executive chair, but declined the hon-
or.  In  1779, ill health withdrew him from
public employment; but,  in 1782, he ac-
cepted  the appointment of judge ofthe
court of appeals iu admiralty cases, and
retained it during the  existence of the
court   In  1787, he represented Delaware
in  the  convention which framed  the
constitution of the U.  States.   On its
adoption, he was immediately elected a
member of the  senate.   He retained his
seat iu that body until  he was named, in
1793, chief-justice  of the state.  Whilst
in this office he suddenly died, in  1798.
   Real, Pierre Francois, count,  the son
of a gamekeeper of Chatou, acted a con-
spicuous part in the course of the revolu-
  vol.  x.           45
tion. When that event took place, he was
solicitor to the Chatelet at Paris.  He at-
tached himself to Danton, and, through
his  influence,  was  nominated   public
accuser to  the revolutionary  tribunal,
which was established immediately after
the 10th of August,  and which was  the
model of the subsequent horrible tribunal
of the same name.   Against the party of
Brissot he was exceedingly  active; and
with  him originated die  petition of the
forty-eight sections for the expulsion of
that party from the convention.  (See Gi-
rondists.)  He, however,  endeavored to
moderate the violence of the  revolution-
ists; but, after the downfall of Danton,
was imprisoned in the Luxembourg.   On
being liberated, after the execution of
Robespierre, he exposed to the public the
manner in which the prisons  had been
managed.  He then, in conjunction with
Mehee, established a paper bearing the ti-
tle  of Journal des Patriotes de 1789;  but
it was soon discontinued.   At this  epoch,
he  was appointed historiographer of the
republic. For a considerable time, he was
a pleader before the criminal tribunals,
and, in this capacity,  was retained in sev-
eral important causes, particularly in that
of  Baboeuf (q. v.), in which he displayed
great firmness  and  talent.  In 1798, his
friends endeavored to procure his election
as a deputy ;  but their efforts were frus-
trated by the director Merlin, who was
hostile to him.  When Merlin was turned
out of office, Real was appointed one of
the government commissioners in the de-
partment of Paris.   He  took an effective
part on the 18th of Bmmaire, and was
rewarded by being made a counsellor of
state, attached to the department of jus-
tice.  In 1804, he detected the plots of
Georges.  I le hoped to  become minister
of police.  Fouche was, however, prefer-
red to him; but he received  a gift of a
hundred thousand livres, and the cross of
commander  ofthe legion of honor.  (For
his concern  in the  death of the duke
d'Enghien, see Enghien.) For some yeare,
he  was one of the counsellors of state of
the ministry  of police, and was charged
with  the  superintendence of a  district
which  comprised  several departments.
When Louis was restored, M. Real ceas-
ed to be employed.   He is said to have
been one of those who planned the bring-
ing back of Napoleon; and the emperor
appointed him prefect of the police of
Paris.  M. Real was  among  diose  who
were banished by the ordinance of July,
1815.  He retired first to the Netherlands,
and then to the U. States, where he estab- 
530
REAL—RECITATIVE.
lished  an extensive  manufactory of li-
queurs.   In 1818, he  received permission
to return to France, of which he has since
taken advantage.  M. Real  is the author
of two or three pamphlets on events con-
nected with the French revolution.
  Real, opposed to the ideal, signifies, 1.
the same as true, i. e. actually existing ; 2
in philosophy, that which exists indepen-
dently of our  ideas or imagination. Hence
realism, in philosophy, is the opposite of
idealism, and is that  philosophical system
which  conceives  external things to exist
independently of our  conceptions of them.
The external  world is differently  explain-
ed, and realism is divided into different sys-
tems, of which  that of Spinoza is one of
the most  important.   He supposes one,
original reality,  and teaches that all other
things (substances) are but  modifications
of this one real  being, which he conceives
to be the Deity.—Realism liecomes mate-
rialism  ((j. v.) if it  considers  matter, or
physical substance,  as  the  only  original
cause of things, and  the soul  itself as  a
material substance.   Realism is found, al-
so, in dualism.  (See Dualism, and Ideal-
ism.)
  Real.  (See  Rial.)
  Real Injuria.  (See Injuria.)  Realin-
juria, in Gennan law, is an injury done to
the honor of a  man  by some act of vio-
ence, as beating,  throwing  out of doors,
&c. The laws against duels in the 18th
century imposed  heavy punishments on
such injuria,  even confiscation of goods,
&c. The more modern laws are milder.
  Realgar.  (See Arsenic.)
  Realism.  (See Real.)
  Realist ;  one  who adheres to realism.
(See Real.)
  Realists;  a philosophical sect,  opposed
to the nominalists, (q. v.)
  Rearguard.   The office of the rear-
guard of an army is  to cover the  retreat.
It must be composed of infantry, with ar-
tillery, chasseurs  or  shaqi-shooters, and
of light cavalry  ; and  one species of troops
must aid the  other, according  to the  na-
ture of the ground. The cavalry  is effec-
tual in a level country; the infantry assists
them if they  are  repulsed,  and occupies
the  narrow passes ;  whde the chasseurs,
or sharp-shooters, keep  the assailants in
check.
  Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de,
a philosophic naturalist, was bom, in 1683,
at Rochelle, studied  under die Jesuits at
Poitiers, and afterwards went through  a
couree of law at Bourges.  But his tastes
led him to the observation of nature; and,
having made himself acquainted with die
mathematical  sciences, he went to Paris
in 1703.  His relative, the president He-
nault, introduced him to the sat-ans of the
metropolis ; and, in 1708, he  was chosen
a member of the academy of sciences, to
which  he had presented  some memoirs
on geometry.   For nearly fifty  yeare he
continued to  be  one of its  most active
membere, his  labors embracing the arts,
natural  philosophy, and  natural history
He was appointed to assist in the descrip-
tive accounts of arts and  trades publish-
ed by  the  academy;  and, in  executing
his part of the undertaking, pointed out
the way to various improvements, by the
application ofthe principles of physics and
natural history.  He made important ob-
servations on the  formation of pearls, and
discovered  in  Languedoc mines of tur-
quoise (q. v.);  but among Ids most useful
researches  must  be reckoned those of
which  he gave an account in his Traiti
sur FArt de convertir le Fer  en Acier, et
d'adoucir le Ferfondu (1722).   As a natu-
ral philosopher, he is principally celebrat-
ed for the invention of an improved ther-
mometer, which he made known in 1731.
(See Thermometer.)  The  fabrication of
porcelain also occupied much of his atten-
tion, and led him to the  discovery of a
kind of enamel,  called  the  porcelain of
Riaumur, in  1739.  His Mimoires  pour
servir a FHistoire  des Insectes place him in
the firet rank of modern  naturalists.  He
died October 18, 1757.
   Recife ; a city of Brazil, capital ofthe
province of Pernambuco, situated  at the
entrance ofthe Capibaribe into the Atlan-
tic.  The name of Pernambuco is applied
to the two  cities  of Recife  and Olinda,
which  are nearly  three miles distant from
each other. Population of Recife, 25,000;
of Olinda, 4000; lat 8° 4' S.; lon. 34° 52
W.  Some parts of Recife are handsome-
ly built, with broad but unpaved streets,
and  several neat squares.  Among the
public  buildings are an episcopal palace,
several handsome churches and convents,
hospitals, a theatre, &c.  The upper har-
bor (Mosqueiro) is formed by a chain of
rocks running parallel with the city. The
lower harbor (Poco) is capable of receiv-
ing ships of 400 tons burthen,  but  is ex-
posed.  The  commerce,  which is exten-
sive, is rapidly increasing.  The environs
are fertile,  and are adorned with many
fine gardens and country-seats.  The heat
of the  climate is tempered by sea-breezes,
but changes of temperature  are very sud-
den.
   Recitative (Italian recitativo); a spe-
cies  of  musical recitation,  fomung the 
RECITATIVE—RECONNOITRE.
531
medium between song and rhetorical dec-
lamation, and in which the composer and
performer, rejecting the rigorous mles of
time, endeavor  to imitate the inflections,
accents and. emphasis of natural  speech.
But, though the  mles of time and rhythm
are not to be strictly observed, the recita-
tive is written in time, and generally in
| time.  In its approach to speech, there-
fore, the recitative is mostly syllabic song,
i. e. each syllable has generally  but one
tone,  and the tones themselves are less
prolonged than in song, strictly so called.
Hence the recitative  has  not a distinct,
developed melody (q. v.),  and a  regular
modulation (q. v.);  it may, according to
the meaning ofthe words, pass with com
parative  freedom   through  the  various
tones.  On the odier hand, the tones  of
the recitative are generally musical tones,
of  distinct  height  or depth  (we  say
generally, because in die recitativo par-
lanie, in the opera buffa, the tones become
completely thoso of speech).  When the
recitative  approaches still  more to the
strict song, in respect to time and melody,
the arioso originates.  In short, the reci-
tative may be called a declamation in mu-
sical tones.  Such a declamation  requires
a language between prose and lyric poe-
try.  The recitative consists mostly of nar-
rative and of poetical reflection ;  but it is
capable of passing  quickly from  subject
to subject, serves for dialogue, and to pre-
pare important changes in  great  musical
pieces.  For this reason, it is introduced in
cantatas, operas,  and oratorios, between
the songs, and is, as it were, the prose of
music.  As the music of recitative is free,
so  the  words  need  not  any  artificial
rhythm.   The recitative includes the sim-
ple  (by some  also called the parlante) and
the  accompanied, or, more properly, the
obligato.   In  the simple recitative, accom-
paniment  also takes place, but it consists
only in simple accords, which are given
continuously, or  interruptedly. In the ob-
ligato recitative,  the instrumental accom-
paniment is of more importance.  In the
recitative, much is left to the singer, in re-
spect to time, rhythm and melody, which
requires in him much musical judgment
and knowledge  of  harmony, in  order to
agree with the  obligato accompaniment.
The force and beauty of this  species  o
composition depends, in a considerable de-
gree, on the character of the language in
which it is used.  As that is more or less
accented and melodious, the more or less
natural and striking will be the recitative.
The recitative seems to be much  older
than the song.   Giac. Pesi, Cuccini, and
CI. Monteverde, are celebrated as having
introduced the modern recitative, and Ces-
ti and Giacomo Carissimi,  masters of the
papal chapel, in the firet half of the seven-
teenth century, as improvers of the same.
(See the article Opera.)  Leon,  da Vinci
and Nic. Porpora are said to have first ap-
plied the obligato recitative.  In the grand
and expressive recitative, Gluck and Han-
del are the chief masters.   In the modem
opera, Mozart is distinguished, also, in this
respect; for instance, in his recitative be-
tween Tamino and the priest, in the first
act, and the great recitative in Don Juan,
" Oh, heaven! what see I ?" the latter is
obligato.
  Reckoning, in navigation. (See Navi-
gation.)
  Recognizance, in law, is an obligation
of record which a man enters into before
some court of record,  or magistrate duly
authorized, with particular conditions ; as
to appear  at  the assizes,  or quarter-ses-
sions, to keep the peace, &c.
  Recoil, or Rebound ; die starting back-
ward of a fire-ann after an explosion. This
term is particularly applicable  to pieces
of ordnance, which are always subject to
a recoil, according  to the sizes  and the
charges which they contain.  To lessen
the recoil of a gun, the platforms are gen-
erally made sloping towards the embra-
sure.
  Reconnoitre (from the French) means,
in military language, to inform one's self by
ocular inspection of the  situation of an
enemy, or the nature ofa piece of ground.
It  is one  of the most important depart-
ments of  die military art,  and must pre-
cede every  considerable  movement  A
penetrating eye,  an acute ear, a  calm and
sagacious judgment, and much knowledge
of military operations, are indispensable
for  reconnoitring with advantage.   The
commanding general always reconnoitres
himself, but  he must of course rely much
on  his  aids-de-camp, as he cannot go ev-
ery where himself;  nor is  he allowed to
expose himself so much as is necessary,
on some occasions, to obtain the requi-
site  information.   The  choice  of  the
aids-de-camp is therefore  of the utmost
importance.   Reconnoitring not unfre-
queutly brings on engagements,  and con-
siderable bodies of troops often march out
to  cover the reconnoitring party, and to
make prisoners if possible,  in order to ob-
tain information  from them.   The bad
success of Napoleon in his  last campaigns
has been partly ascribed, with much prob-
ability, by French writers  themselves, to
the  unceasing  activity of the Cossacks, 
532
RECONNOITRE—RED RIVER.
which in many cases prevented the aids-
de-camp ofthe French emperor from ob-
taining the information which they were
commissioned to seek, and induced them
to supply from their own invention the
deficiences in their observations.
  Recorder ; a pereon whom the chief
magistrates of any city or town corporate,
having jurisdiction and a court of record
within their precincts, associate with them
for their better direction in legal proceed-
ings.  He is usually a pereon experienced
iu the law.
  Rectangular Figures and Solids are
those which have one or more  right an-
gles.  With  regard to  solids, they are
commonly said to be rectangular when
their axes are perpendicular to the planes
of their bases.
  Red Bay.  (See Laurel.)
  Red Book of the Exchequer is an
ancient record, in which are registered the
names of those that held lands, per baro-
niam, in  the  time  of king Henry II.  It
has also  some things (as the number of
hydes of  land  in  many of  the  English
counties) relating to the times before the
conquest.
  Red Bud.  This name is often applied
to the cercis Canadensis.  (See Judas Tree.)
  Red-Breast.  (See Redbreast, p. 533.)
  Red Cedar.  (See Juniper.)
  Red River, one ofthe principal branch-
es of the  Mississippi, rises at the base of
a range of the  Rocky mountains, called
the Caous mountains, near Santa Fe, in
Mexico.  There are many streams rising
in the same mountains, and flowing sepa-
rately for three or four hundred miles, and
at length uniting to form the Red river.
The  Blue river, and  the False Washita,
are the largest branches which it receives
within the first four or five hundred mUesof
its course.  Ofthe tract of country watered
by these upper branches, and even of the
waters themselves, our knowledge is very
limited.   The Pawnees are the principal
inhabitants of that region.  After the river
enters Louisiana, the south bank of it  is
the boundary, for a long distance, between
the U. States  and the province of Texas.
From both sides it continues, as it  pro-
ceeds, to receive large tributaries.   A great
part  of its couree  is through delightful
prairies, of a rich,  red  soil, and  covered
with grass, and vines which bear delicious
grapes.  About a  hundred miles above
Natchitoches, commences what  is called
the  Raft.   This is a swampy expansion
of the alluvion to the width of twenty or
thirty miles.   The river divides into a
great number of channels, many of them
shallow; and for ages these channels have
been  becoming clogged with a mass of
fallen timber canied down from the upper
parts of the river.  The river finds chan-
nels between these extensive masses of
timber,  and sometimes under them; and
there are places where the  Raft covers the
whole  river,  so that it can be crossed on
horseback.   Boats descend  by passing
round  these  places.   They follow some
stream above the Raft, which  flows  from
the river into a distant lake, and then take
the outlet by which  the lake flows  into
the river below the Raft.   About sixty or
seventy miles ofthe river is thus obstruct-
ed.  In many places  a considerable soil
has been formed on the Raft, upon which
flourish weeds, flowering shrubs, and wil-
lows.   This obstruction is  of incalculable
injury to the  navigation of the river,  and
greatly retards the  settlement of the rich
and healthful country above it  There is
probably no part of the  U. States, where
the unoccupied  lands have higher claims,
from soil, climate, intermixture of prairies
and timbered lands, position, &c, than the
countiy for nearly a thousand miles above
the Raft.   Steam boats would ascend to
that distance, at moderate stages  of the
water,  if the Raft  were removed.   The
state of Louisiana, and  also the general
government, contemplate adopting means
for its removal.   Below the Raft, the river
divides into many  channels, and fills an
immense number of bayous and lakes that
lie parallel to it; and the  breadth  of its
principal channel is much  less below the
Raft than above it.  The  valley of Red
river is three or four  miles wide, as far as
the Kiamesia, about a thousand miles, fol-
lowing its meanders, from its mouth.  It
widens as  it  approaches the Mississippi,
and is from six  to eighteen  miles wide
for a great distance  from its mouth.  Of
all the alluvions in  the Mississippi valley,
none is superior to this.  Cotton is at pres-
ent its staple production, but sugar cane has
been introduced, and is expected to succeed
better than in any other extensive tract in
this valley.  The climate and soil,  as  far
as Natchitoches, 200  miles, seem admira-
bly adapted to it  The  alluvions of the
lower branches of this river are also of
similar quality.  This valley spreads from
west to east; its waters, therefore,  never
become cold, like those ofthe Mississippi;
the winters are  milder, and spring ad-
vances much earlier than at New Orleans;
and the  sugar cane  will  probably grow
better in lat  31° on  Red river and its
branches, than in lat 30°  on the Missis-
sippi.   The cotton also  of this region is 
RED RIVER—RED-TOP.
533
the best  in  the  U. States, excepting the
sea-island.   Its indigo and tobacco are the
best in Louisiana.  The whole length  of
diis noble river is estimated at 2500 miles,
following its meanders, and it enters the
Mississippi in about 31° 15' north latitude.
It probably discharged its waters into the
gulf of Mexico, at some former period, with-
out uniting with  the Mississippi; and the
Atchafidaya now occupies its former chan-
nel.   Much of the  soil through which the
Red river passes in its upper couree, is of
a reddish color,  which is imparted to the
waters, and gives the river its name.—Red
river is also  the  name of a river  in the
northern  part of North America, flowing
into lake  Winnipeg, and  having a couree
of about  320 miles from the source of its
principal branch  in Red lake.
  Red Sea,  or Arabian Gulf (anciently
Arabicus  Sinus); an extensive gulf of the
Indian ocean, dividing Arabia  from the
opposite  coast of Africa, extending in a
north-west direction  from the  straits  of
Babelmandel  to the  isthmus  of  Suez,
where it  approaches to wiihin sixty miles
of the Mediterranean  ; lat. 12°  to 30° N.
Its  length is about 1400 miles; breadth,
where greatest, about 200.  This sea was
anciently a greater channel of commerce
than in modern  times.  Its navigation is
rendered difficult by frequent obstructions
from  coral rocks either above or  under
water, by storms, and by the paucity of
safe harbors.  The principal  harbors are
Suez, at its head; Cosseir, Suakem and
Massuah on the west side; Jidda, Jambo,
Ghunfude,  Loheia, Hodeida and Mocha
on the east side.  This part of the Indian
ocean was called by the Greeks the Ery-
threan sea,  according to some accounts,
from a king  Erythras, of whom, however,
nothing  is  known.  The Greek epithet
ipvOpatot signifies  also  red; hence the ap-
pellation  Mare rubrum, and in English,
Red sea,  not from any such  color in its
waters or sands.
  Redbreast (motacilla rubecula).   This
little bird, although not a native of the U.
States, is familiarly known to every child,
from  the numerous  nursery  stories,  in
which it plays a  prominent  part.  The
fame of this bird has arisen from its habit
of seeking the aid of man during the win-
ter season.'  During that inclement  period
of  the year, it  visits without dread the
cottage of the peasant and the palace of
the peer, tapping at the windows with its
bill, as if to demand  an asylum, and  re-
pays its hosts  by its confidence, gathering
the crumbs from the table, and warbling
forth its thanks in the  softest notes.  The
                  45*
moment, however, the spring appeare, this
familiarity with its protectors ceases, and
it again hastens to its native haunts.   The
redbreast builds its nest at the foot of some
shrub or upon a tuft of grass; it is  com-
posed of dried leaves, mixed with hair and
moss, and lined with feathers ; the female
lays from five to seven eggs.   Sometimes
it covers its nest with leaves, leaving a
small passage  for  egress  and  regress.
The  food of the redbreast varies with the
season;  in the  spring it is composed of
worms and insects, but in autumn is prin-
cipally fruits and seeds.  Its  delicacy in
preparing  a worm before partaking of it,
is somewhat remarkable ; it first seizes it
by one end in its beak, and beats it on the
ground  till the inner part comes away;
then, taking it in the same manner by the
other end, it cleanses the outer part, which
is the only portion it eats.  From its gen-
eral  familiarity  with mankind, it has re-
ceived a nom de caresse in almost  every
nation in Europe; in England it is known
as the Robin Redbreast; in Germany it is
termed Thomas Gierdet; and  in Norway,
Peter Ronsmad.
  Redemption, Equity of.  (See Equity
of Redemption.)
  Redemptorists ;  an order founded by
Liguori (q. Vi), and restored in Austria in
1820.  Beside the usual monastic vows,
they bind themselves to labor for the prop-
agation of the Catholic faith,  by the cure
of souls, and the education of youth.
  Redondillas signified formerly a spe-
cies of versification  used in the south  of
Europe, consisting ofa union of verses of
four,  six,  and eight syllables, of which
generally the firet rhymed with the fourth,
and the second with the third.  At a later
period, verses of six and eight syllables in
general, in Spanish and Portuguese poe-
try,  were called by this name, whether
they made perfect rhymes or assonances
only.  These  became  common in the
dramatic poetiy of Spain.
   Redoubt,  in  fortification;  a  small
square work without any defence but in
front, used in trenches, lines of circumval-
lation, contravallation,  and approach, as
also for the lodging of corps de garde, and
to defend  passages.  They are usually
figures of three, four, five, or six  sides,
encompassed with a ditch  and a bank of
earth, which consists of two parts, called
rampart and parapet.
  Redtop  (tricuspid  quinquefida).   Ac-
cording to  Pursh, this " is a  most excel-
lent  grass.  I have seen mountain mead-
ows in Pennsylvania where they  mow
this grass twice a  year, producing  most 
534                          REDTOP—REED.
excellent crops each time, without ma-
nure, or any other trouble than the mow-
ing, lasting for the space of sixteen years,
without the least decline in the crops, the
soil at the same time being a very indif-
ferent  one."   These remarks  of Pursh
seem very extraordinary to those who are
accustomed to see this  grass in  other
 [>arts ofthe U. States.   It is a tall, coarse,
 oose, flowering, dry, solitary grass, grow-
ing sparingly in a  sandy soil, and is one
of the last of our native grasses which we
should select as suitable for fodder.  The
subject, however, is worthy of inquiry.
The stem is erect, four or five  feet high,
and  smooth; the panicle very  large, ex-
panding  and flexnous: the spikelets are
purplish, about six-flowered, and peduncu-
late :  they resemble those of a festuca
or fescue grass, but the inferior valve of
the corolla has three points.
  Reed.  This term  is usually  applied
indiscriminately to all  tall, broad-leaved
grasses which grow along the banks of
streams,  and even to other plants,  with
similar leaves, growing in such situations.
Strictly speaking, it belongs to the genus
arundo, and especially to  the  A. phrag-
mites, the largest grass of northern cli-
mates, and  one of the most universally
diffused.  This grass grows in marshes,
often occupying exclusively certain tracts,
and attains the height of eight or ten feet,
with leaves one or two inches broad, and
bears large, nodding, silky panicles.  It
flowers in July.  It  is used  in many
countries for various economical purposes,
as for  thatching, for protecting embank-
ments  or sea-dikes, for ceilings to cot-
tages, &cl, for screens or fences, and hot-
bed covers in gardens, for chair-bottoms,
for weavers' combs, &c.   The  flowers
afford a green dye, which  is occasionally
used for coloring woollens; and it is said
that flour may be  made  from the dried
roots, capable  of being converted into a
wholesome and nutritive bread.
  Reed, Joseph, president of the state of
Pennsylvania,  was bom in New Jersey,
Aug. 27, 1741.  In 1757,  at the age of
sixteen, he graduated at Princeton college.
After studying law in that place, he repair-
ed to England, where he  prosecuted his
studies until the disturbances produced in
die colonies by the stamp act  On his re-
turn, he commenced the practice of his
profession in  PhUadelphia, and met  with
distinguished success.  He embarked ac-
tively in the political struggle of the day,
on the side of independence, and, in 1774,
was appointed one of the committee of
correspondence of Philadelphia.  He was
in the same year, also, president of the
firet provincial convention held in Penn-
sylvania, and a delegate to the continen-
tal congress.  On the formation ofthe ar-
my, he resigned a lucrative  practice, and,
at the solicitation of general Washington,
repaired to the camp at Cambridge, where
he was appointed aid-de-camp and secre-
tary to the commander-in-chief. Through-
out this campaign, though acting  merely
as a volunteer, he displayed great courage
and military ability.  In the beginning of
1776, he was made  adjutant-general, and
contributed materially, by his local knowl-
edge, to the success of the affairs at Tren-
ton and  Princeton.   During the week
which elapsed between the two actions,
he proposed to six Philadelphia  gentle-
men,  members of the city troop, to ac-
company him on an excursion to obtain
information.    They advanced into  the
vicinity  of Princeton,  where  the  enemy
was stationed, and  surprised twelve Brit-
ish dragoons  in  a farm-house, who sur-
rendered to this party of half their num-
ber, and were conducted by them to die
American camp.  At the end ofthe year,
he resigned the office of adjutant-general.
In 1777, within a period of less than two
months, he was  appointed chief-justice
of Pennsylvania, and named by congress
a brigadier-general.   He  declined  both
offices, however,  but  continued to serve
as a volunteer until the close of the cam-
paign.  He was present at  almost every
engagement in the northern and  eastern
section ofthe Union; and, although at each
of the  battles of  Brandywine,  White
Marsh and Monmouth, he had  a horee
killed under him, he had the good fortune
never to receive  a wound.  In  1778, he
was elected a member of congress, and
signed the articles of confederation. About
this tune, the British commissionere, gov-
ernor Johnstone,  lord Carlisle  and  Mr.
Eden, invested with power to treat con-
cerning peace, arrived in America; the
former of whom addressed private letters
to Mr. Laurens, Mr. Dana, Mr. Morris and
Mr. Reed, offering them various induce-
ments to  lend themselves to his views.
He caused information to be secretly com-
municated to  general  Reed,  that, if he
would exert his abilities to promote a rec-
onciliation, £10,000 sterling, and the most
valuable office in the colonies, should be
at his disposal.  The answer of Reed was,
" I am not worth purchasing; but,  such
as I am, the king of Great Britain is not
rich enough to do it."   Li the same  year,
he was unanimously elected president of
the supreme executive council of Penn- 
REED—REFLECTION.
535
sylvania, and continued in the  office for
the constitutional period of three yeare.
At the time, there were violent parties in
the state, and several serious commotions
occurred, particularly a large armed insur-
rection in  Philadelphia, which  he sup-
pressed, while he rescued a  number of
distinguished citizens from the most im-
minent danger of their lives,  at the  risk
of his own, for which he received a vote
of thanks from the legislature  ofthe state.
The revolt ofthe Pennsylvania  line, also,
iu  1781,  was  suppressed through  his
instrumentality ;  and  he  was deputed,
with general Potter, by the council ofthe
s.ate, with ample powers to  redress the
grievances complained of.  To him, like-
wise, belongs  the honor of having been
the original detector and exposer of the
rharaeter of Arnold, whom he brought to
trial for  mal-practices whfle in command
at Philadelphia, notwithstanding a violent
opposition  on  the floor of congress, and
tiie exertions ofa powerful party in Penn-
sylvania.  Amidst the most difficult and
trying scenes, the administration of Mr.
Heed exhibited  the  most disinterested
zeal and the greatest firmness and energy.
His knowledge of law was very useful in
a new and unsettled government; so that,
although he found it m no small weakness
and confusion, he left it, at the expiration
of his term of office, in 1781,  in as much
tranquillity and  stability as could be ex-
pected from the time and circumstances
ofthe war.  He then returned to his pro-
fession.  In 1784, he again visited Eng-
land, for the sake of his health; but his
voyage was attended with but little good
effect.  On the  5th of March, in the fol-
lowing  year, he died, in his forty-third
year.  In private life, he was accomplish-
ed in his manners, pure in his morals, fer-
vent and faithful in his attachments.
   Reed-Bird. (See  Rice-Bunting.)
   Reef ; a certain portion of a sail com-
prehended between the  top  or bottom
and a row of eyelet  holes, generally par-
allel thereto.   The intention of the reef is
to reduce the surface ofthe sail iu propor-
tion to the uicrease ofthe wind; for which
reason, there are several reefs parallel  to
each other in the superior sails: thus the
top-sails of ships are generally furnished
with three reefs, and sometimes four; and
there are always three or four reefs paral-
lel to the  foot or bottom of those main-
sails and fore-sails  which are extended
upon booms.—Reef also  implies a chain
of rocks lying near the surface ofthe water.
   Reefing; the operation of reducing  a
sad by taking in one or more of the reefs.
  Reel ; a hvely Scotch dance, generally
written in common time of four crotchets
in a bar, but sometimes in jig-tune of six
quavers.
  Reeling.  (See Silk Manufacture.)
  Rees,  Abraham; a dissenting clergy-
man, bom in Wales, in 1743.   Being in-
tended for the ministry, he was placed at
die Hoxton academy, where his progress
was so rapid that, in his nineteenth year,
he was appointed mathematical  tutor to
the institution, and, soon  after,  resident
tutor, in which capacity he continued up-
wards of twenty-two yeare.  In 1768, he
became pastor to the Presbyterian congre-
gation of St. Thomas's, Southwark (since
removed to Stamford street), and contin-
ued  in that situation  till  1783, when he
accepted an invitation to become  minister
of a congregation in the  Old Jewry,
whose spiritual concerns he superintend-
ed till his death.  On the establishment
of the dissenting seminary at Hackney, in
1786, doctor Rees was elected  resident
tutor in the natural sciences, which place
he held till the dissolution  of die acade-
my,  on die death of doctor Kippis.  In
1776, he was applied to  by the  proprie-
tore of Chambers's Cyclopaedia to super-
intend an enlarged edition of that compi-
lation, which, after nine  years' incessant
labor, he completed in four folio volumes.
The success of this work led to a new
undertaking, similar in its nature, but more
comprehensive in its plan,  projected and
carried on by him, under the title  of the
New Cyclopaedia (45 vols.,  1802—20;
republished Philadelphia, 47 vols.).  Doc-
tor Rees obtained  his degree from  the
university  of Edinburgh.  He was  also
a fellow  of the royal  and  Linnaean
societies.  His death  took place June 9,
1825.
   Reeve,  Clara ;  born  at Ipswich,  in
1738, and died there in 1808.   She  pos-
sessed great learning and research, which
she displayed in a translation of Barclay's
Latin romance of Argenis, under the title
ofthe  Phoenix, or the History of Po!yar-
chus and Argenis (1772);  and the Prog-
ress of Romance.  Her other works are
the  well-known tale of the Old English
Baron;  the Two Mentors;  the  Exile;
the School for Widows; a Plan of Edu-
cation ; and Memoirs of  Sir  Roger de
Clarendon (4 vols.).
   Reeving, in the sea language ; the put-
ting a rope through a block.  Hence to
pull a rope out ofa block  is called unreev-
ing.
   Reference.  (See Arbitration.)
   Reflection.  (See Optics.) 
536
REFLECTORS—REFORMATION.
  Reflectors.  (See Burning Mirrors.)
  Reform,  Parliamentary.   (See  the
end of the concluding volume.)
  Reformation.  The reformation ofthe
church, in its head and members, had be-
come the  watchword of all the lovers of mo-
rality and rehgion as early as the fifteenth
century.  Christianity, which was intend-
ed to elevate mankind, and to make them
happy, had been diverted more and more,
in the hands of its priests, from  its origi-
nal design.   The successful endeavors of
the Roman bishops to extend their spirit-
ual sway over all Christendom, to direct the
actions of kings, and the improvement of
society, undoubtedly contributed much, in
the confusion of the ages which  followed
the irruption of the barbarians into South-
em Europe,  to soften the savage manners
of the race which had trampled down the
old world, widi whatever remained of re-
finement. The Christian missionaries and
monks sowed the seeds of milder man-
ners in the German  forests, and  among
the northern barbarians, and promoted
the civilization of the converted  nations.
Many  beneficial  consequences  resulted
from the  unity of  faith and  worship;
from the  dependence of all the Western
churches on Rome; from that legislative
supremacy over the nations which com-
pelled the popes (q. v.) to adopt a settled
policy, in the middle ages; and the Ro-
man church may justly claim great merit
in regard to the gradual fonnation  of Eu-
ropean society.  But the church enjoyed
her victory with so little moderation ;  her
servants violated so openly,  in their  lives
and doctrines, the spirit of their Divine
Master, that the opposition to priestly des-
potism which had early arisen in the East,
and had been transmitted through numer-
ous sects to the secret societies of the mid-
dle ages,  became quite active in  the  thir-
teenth centuiy, and grew more violent in
proportion as the papal  power sought to
extenninate it with lire and sword.  The
question, What is truly Christian, and con-
ducive to human  happiness, in  the  doc-
trines and usages of the Roman churcii ?
must often have  been suggested to the
minds of sincere  clergymen and intelli-
gent  laymen.  The  arrogance  of  the
priests exasperated  the  princes; the en-
croachments of the  mendicant friars did
injury to the  secular ecclesiastics; and  a
diousand innocent victims of the inquisi-
tion called for vengeance. Still the author-
ity of the pope over the public mind, even
hi the fourteenth century,  was  such as
scarcely  to suffer the munnurings of dis-
content  to be heard.  The writings of
Wickliffe (q. v.) in England soon reached
the continent, and aroused Huss (q. v.),
with  his Bohemian  followere.   But the
fifteenth century  was not ripe  for  a re-
form, and  the papal party was strong
enough to suppress every attempt towards
improvement,  as  appears alike  from the
conduct of the princes and the people at
the breaking out of the Hussite  distur-
bances, and from the results of the coun-
cils of Constance and Basle.  But,  soon
after, the views of scholars were enlarged
by the study of the classics, revived by the
emigration  of a few learned Greeks  ; the
means of information were vastly increas-
ed  by the  art of printing; materials for
thinking were  laid before the people by
instructive  works in the vulgar tongues,
and by the new universities, of which sev-
en were instituted in  Germany alone, be-
tween 1451 and  1502; the number ©f
learned  men  increased; and the  intelli-
gence for which the  reformation was to
open  a way, began to act generally and
powerfully.  The reform, which the  libe-
ral divines had warmly advised, with  little
success,  now waited but the call  ofa  mas-
ter spirit.  Savonarola (q.v.) arose fortius
purpose in Florence ; but the same fune-
ral pile consumed him and his  work to-
gether.  Some monarchs also attempted
something.   Charles  VIII of France
caused the Sorbonne, in 1497, to declare
it expedient that  a council should be held
every ten  years  for effecting reforms in
the church, and that otherwise the  bish-
ops  should assemble  for that  purpose.
Maximilian I laid before the Roman  court
the strong  remonstrances of the German
princes,  passed in the diets of  1500 and
1510. By the influence of France, an in-
dependent council was held at Pisa, in  1511,
in spite of pope Julius II; but, although its
few speakers conducted themselves with
great boldness, it was soon overthrown by
its own weakness, and by the decrees ofthe
council in the Lateran,wliichwasopposedto
it in 1512, and which served, in the hands
ofthe pope, to palliate his measures anew.
In general, in all the plans that  had  been
proposed for the reformation of the abuses
of the church, on one side political ends
had too often been intermixed, and on the
other, in the heat of zeal against individu-
al wrongs, the chief faults in the doctrine
and discipline  of the church, from which
all the other evils originated, had been too
much overlooked.  Hence nothing  took
place but fruitless disputes and violent per-
secutions of the innovators, or futile  polit-
ical negotiations, in which the pope al-
ways prevailed in the end.  The services 
REFORMATION.
537
of Reuchlin (q.v.), in the cultivation of the
Greek language, and his victory over the
opposere of learning  in Cologne, had an
important effect. The cultivated taste and
the sound understanding which appeared
in the writings of Erasmus, addressed to
the most distinguished men in church and
Btate, exerted a wider  influence, and pro-
moted both  the cultivation  of classical
learning and the diffusion of liberal views
on the subject of religion.  Of still great-
er power oyer the mass of the people was
the host of satires, epigrams, caustic alle-
gories, and  coarse jokes, at the expense of
the church and the monks, from Renard
(q. v.) the Fox to the more delicate raillery
of these two scholars, who were not ardent
nor bold enough to  take a decisive step.
Thus, by the concun-cnce of favorable cir-
cumstances, and by the progress of a new
spirit stmggling for light and freedom, the
way of truth was  gradually  laid open.
The centre of Europe, together with the
north, which  had long submitted with re-
luctance to Rome, was ready  to counte-
nance the boldest measures for shaking off
the priestly yoke, of which the best and
most  reflecting men had  become impa-
tient   But no one anticipated the quarter
whence the first blow would be struck.
Frederic III, elector of Saxony, a wise
prince, but a zealous Catholic, and a great
collector of relics, only followed the ex-
ample of other German princes in estab-
lishing a university at Wittenberg (1502),
whidier, among other learned men, he in-
vited  Martin  Luther, an Augustine monk
of Erfurt,  to be professor of theology.
This man—of a powerful mind, and dis-
tinguished  niore for  his deep piety, and
strong love of  truth, than for extensive
erudition—was  well acquainted with the
Holy Scriptures, and, by a visit to Rome, in
1510, on some business of his order, had
also become  acquainted with the corrup-
tions  of the papal court.  Leo X (q. v.)
was created pope hi 1513.   Little affected
by the universal desire tor reformation in
the church, he  seemed placed at its head
merely to employ its revenues in the grat-
ification  of his princely  tastes.  Albert,
elector of Mentz and archbishop of Mag-
deburg, a prince of a similar character, re-
ceived from Leo, in  1516, permission to
Bed indulgences within his own jurisdic-
tion,  on condition of sharing die profits
with die pope.  In tliis traffic, Albert em-
ployed, among  others,  John Tetzel,  a
Dominican monk of Leipsic,  experienced
in the  business,  who went  about from
place to phue,  carrying on his trade with
the most unblushing impudence, and  ex-
tolling his certificates above the papal bulls
(which required repentance), as uncondi-
tional promises of the forgiveness of sins,
in time and  eternity.  The  buyers were
numerous, and the gain great; for the illit-
erate  people still venerated  highly their
ancient superstitions ;  and the easy abso-
lution from the deepest guilt,  and relief
from  temporal penance and eternal pun-
ishment, for a few groschen, were alluring
to the rude multitude.  (See Indulgence.)
When Tetzel commenced  his  traffic at
Jiiterbogk, in 1517, purchasers flocked to
him from Wittenberg,  which was in the
neighborhood, and there,  showing  the
certificates to their confessors, denied all
necessity for new penances.  Luther set
his face against this abuse, first in his ser-
mons (for he performed the duties of a
preacher, as well as professor), and after-
wards (in order to prepare the way for an
academic disputation on  the  subject, ac-
cording to long established usage) in nine-
ty-five theses, or questions,  which he af-
fixed to the  door of the great church, Oc-
tober 31,1517.  In these he declared him-
self wannly against the  abuse of indul-
gences, displayed a lively zeal for the Ho-
ly  Scriptures, and  for the  honor of the
church and the pope, and concluded with
a prayer for instruction.  His sermons on
indulgences were published  in German,
and, in a few weeks,'were spread over all
Germany.   His theses were in Latin, and
were soon spread through other Christian
nations.  Luther also  urged his spiritual
superiors and the pope to  put a stop to
the traffic of Tetzel, and to reform the cor-
mptions of  the churcii in general, in let-
ters at once bold and respectful.  With the
exception of Scultetus, bishop  of Bran-
denburg,  no one made him a becoming
answer.   On the contrary, the most ab-
surd  libels, full of  extravagant assertions
of the power of the pope and his  indul-
gences,  were brought forward  by   Tet-
zel  (in  whose  name  Conrad Wimpi-
na,   professor   of  theology  at  Frank-
fort on the Oder, took up his  pen), by
' the Augustine Sylvester Prierias, a  cour-
tier of the  pope at Rome, and by Jacob
Hogstraaten, the supreme inquisitor at Co-
logne, who  had  been rendered contempti-
ble by his dispute  with  Reuchlin;  but
these, and the  virulent Notes of Eckius
(Eck) of Ingolstadt, against Luther, were
too miserable to escape the ridicule of the
well  informed, and  only drew attention to
his  bold  enterprise.  The  severe replies,
in which he exposed the weakness of these
advocates for indulgences, and his Resolu-
tiones, by which he illustrated his theses, 
538
REFORMATION.
 gained new victories to the truth.  A dis-
 putation which he maintained in an Au-
 gustine convent at Heidelberg, in 1518, on
 the merit of good  works, and the use of
 the Aristotelian philosophy,  gained  him
 friends  among the  young   theologians
 present, as Bucer,  Brenz (Brentius), and
 others, who afterwards became celebrated
 as zealous advocates of reformation.  The
 conferences of Luther with the  papal le-
 gates, Cajetan, in 1518, at Augsburg, and
 Miltitz,  in 1519, at Altenburg, in  which
 those prelates, instead of bringing him to
 recant, as they were ordered, only showed
 their inability to support the Roman  doc-
 trines on the  authority of the Bible ; the
 scholastic discussion of Eck  with Carl-
 stadt and Luther, at Leipsic, in  1519, which
 lasted three  weeks, and  in  which   they
 warmly  discussed  the doctrines of  free
 will, the  authority of the pope, indul-
 gences and purgatory, though they  de-
 cided  nothing, attracted a more general
 attention  to the works of Luther,  who
 almost  every  month  sent  forth  new
 pamphlets and  printed  sermons.   From
 the Pyrenees to the Vistula, from the gulf
 of Venice to the Belt, every thing by  Lu-
 ther or about him was eagerly read.  The
 remarkable fulness and power of his style;
 his merciless humor; his acuteness  and
 learning, daily  increasing by his constant
 historical and exegetical studies ; the irre-
 sistible force of his reasoning; and, above
 all, the adaptation of his doctrines to  the
 wants of the age ; the approbation of Eras-
 mus, Pirkheimer, and  other distinguished
 scholars;  the  public  adherence of men
 like Melanchthon and  Hutten; the con-
 temporaneous  and yet bolder opposition
 of Zuinglius and Q3colampadius, in Swit-
 zerland, to indulgences  and the papacy
 (see Reformed  Church),—made this man,
 who was  hardly known before 1517, the
 champion of all enlightened  men who
 lamented the degeneracy ofthe church of
 Christ; and as  such he  now  spoke and
 acted  with  admirable  courage.   The
 respect for the Roman court, which was
 perceptible in his earlier writings, he now
 discarded, as the injustice of the papal
 pretensions  had become  clear to him.
 A glowing zeal, such as had been seen
 in  the time of the apostles,  character-
 ized his  masterly writings, addressed to
 the nobility of Germany, on the mass, on
 the Babylonish captivity, and on the free-
 dom of a  Christian.  In these vvorks he
attacked  the  papal  doctrines with  the
 weapons of the word of God, and direct-
 ed  attention to the nobler, but forgotten,
doctrines of the gospel.   In 1520, when
 Eck published the papal excommunica-
 tion against him in Germany, he appealed
 to a general council; and when his works
 were burnt in Mentz, Cologne and  Lou-
 vain, he  publicly  committed the bull of
 excommunication, with the papal canons
 and decrees, to the flames (December 10)
 amidst the rejoicings of the students at
 Wittenberg.  This year and the follow-
 ing, 1521, are, therefore, to be regarded as
 the true period of the reformation in Ger-
 many ; for  at this time, Luther formally
 separated from the Roman  church,  and
 many of the  principal  nobles,—Hutten,
 Sickingen,  Schaumburg, &c,—the most
 eminent  scholare, and  the univereity of
 Wittenberg, to which the young men of
 Germany and other countries now flocked
 in  multitudes,  publicly declared in favor
 of his  undertaking.   His  commanding
 appearance, and his bold refusal to recant
 at  the diet of  Worms (April  17, 1521),—
 the day of his  proudest triumph (see Lu-
 ther),—gave him the power and  dignity of
 an  acknowledged reformer ; the edict of
 Worms  and  the  ban  of the emperor
 made his cause a political matter.   We
 must not, however, overlook the circum-
 stances which favored the progress of ref-
 ormation.  The pope had risen  chiefly by
 the support  of Germany ; in his transac-
 tions with the  emperor, he had  generally
 been supported by the German princes,
 who thus maintained their own indepen-
 dence. Rome had, therefore, been obliged
 to  court them  in  turn, and the emperor
 congratulated himself iu  silence,  if dis-
 putes ensued  between  them.   On  the
 death of Maximilian I, in 1519, the elector
 Frederic  III, who was  already the  most
 powerful German prince, held the dignity
 of a vicar of the empire in all the Saxon
 territories, and his personal influence gave
 him the most decisive voice  in the elec-
 tion of the new emperor.  The pope, as
 well as Charles V, who was chosen chiefly
 by  his influence in 1520,  was obliged to
 consult  his wishes; the former in  chan-
 ging the original summons of Luther to
 Rome, to  a  conference  with  his legates,
 and the latter in suffering the reformation
 to   go on without violent opposition, as
 long as it allowed itself to be  responsible
 to  the pope and the Catholic states.   By
 his  ten  months' residence in the Wart-
 burg, Luther was  secured from the  firet
 consequences of the  ban  of the empire,
 and the edict of Worms had so  much  the
 less force in  Saxony, as the emperor, en-
 gaged,  in  1521, in  the war with France,
or occupied  in  Spain, almost wholly lost
sight of religious affairs in Germany, and 
REFORMATION.
539
 each prince did what he pleased  in his
 own territory.  But that Frederic the Wise,
 although he did not call himself an adhe-
 rent of the  reformers, yet protected the
 heroes of the reformation, is easily ex-
 plained from the concern which  he took
 in the  prosperity of the Wittenberg uni-
 versity, from his  uprightness, his gradu-
 ally  increasing conviction  of the justice
 of the  views of Luther and his  friend
 Spalatin, who managed every  thing at
 the court of Frederic.   Leo's successor,
 Adrian VI, who was himself desirous of
 a reformation,  in answer to his  demand
 for the extirpation of the doctrines of Lu-
 ther, received  a list ofa hundred  com-
 plaints  from  the German states assembled
 at the  diet  of Nuremberg in 1522, in
 which  even  the Catholics joined against
 the papal chair. The  people  of  Witten-
 berg were, therefore, as little impeded in
 their attempts at  a reform iu religious
 worship (beginning  with  the mass), as
 those of Zurich, whose rapid progress in
 the change of their religious doctrines and
 rites found the  most powerful  support in
 the governments ofthe northern cantons ;
 and Luther  was even  obliged to hasten
 from the Wartburg  to  quell the  tumults
 excited by the turbulent zeal of Carlstadt
 (q. v.)    While he  was publishing  his
 translation of the  New Testament, the
 fruit of his exile, which was soon followed
 by the  Old,  and Melanchthon his  Loci
 Communes (the first, and, for a long time,
 the best exposition  of the Lutheran doc-
 trines, first   published  in 1521),  serious
 preparations for the reform of papal abuses
 were made  in Deux-Ponts, Pomerania,
 Silesia,  in the Saxon  cities  (of which
 Leissnig was  the firet  after Wittenberg),
 and in Suabia.   Luther's liturgy  had  no
 sooner  appeared, in 1523, than  it was
 adopted  in  Magdeburg and  Elbingen.
 The new church was not without its mar-
 tyrs. In 1522, the inquisition in the Neth-
 erlands secured it this, honor by the exe-
 cution of some Augustines, who favored
 the new doctrines.  Translations of the
 Bible into  French and Dutch now ap-
 peared.   In the very heart  of France, at
Meaux, a Lutheran church was organized.
In  vain did the Sorbonne  condemn the
principles of Luther; in vain was  the ex-
ecution  of the  edict of  Worms  against
religious innovations resolved upon at the
diet of Nuremberg, in 1524, and the con-
vention of Ratisbon;  in  vain did George,
duke of Saxony, Henry, duke  of  Bruns-
wick, Austria,  France,  Spain, and  the
spiritual princes of the empire, labor to
suppress the reformation  by the persecu-
 tion of the  followers of Luther  in their
 states.   The same year, Luther laid aside
 his  cowl; monasteries were deserted;
 priests  in  Saxony and  Switzerland mar-
 ried.  In 1525, John, successor of Fred-
 eric in the Saxon electorate, Philip, land-
 grave of Hesse, and  Albert of Branden-
 burg, duke of Prussia,  publicly declared
 themselves Lutherans.  All their territo-
 ries, Livonia, a considerable part of Hun-
 gary and Austria (Bohemia had  already
 been gained by the  Hussites), Liineburg,
 Celle, Nuremberg,  Strasburg,  Frankfort
 on  the  Maine, Nordhausen, Brunswick,
 Bremen, embraced the new doctrines, and
 a great  number of the most  respectable
 clergymen and theologians in  Germany
 followed the  example  of Luther, who
 married Catharine von Bora,  formerly a
 nun. Sweden received the reformation
 in 1527, under Gustavus Vasa, through the
 labors of Olaf and Lorenzo Petri; and its
 example was soon followed by  the greater
 part of Lower  Saxony and the north  of
 Westphalia, Hamburg and Liibeck.  The
 tranquillity of this period, resulting from
 the absence of the emperor, during which
 the  reformation advanced with astonish-
 ing  rapidity, and almost without any im-
 pediment, interrupted the dispute  of Lu-
 ther  with  Zuinglius  and  Erasmus (see
 these articles, and Lord's Supper) less than
 the apprehensions of a war, excited in 1528
 by the information of a secret alliance of
 the Catholic states against the Protestant;
 and  violent measures on the part of the
 latter were with  difficulty  prevented by
 Luther's earnest  exhortations  to  peace.
 This circumstance,  however, united  the
 party in favor  of reform more closely;
 and  from their general protest against  u
 decree of the diet of  Spires, in  1529, they
 received, in 1541, the  name of Protestants.
 (q.  v.)  They now,  therefore,   formed  a
 di.stinct  political party (Corpus Evangeli-
 corum); and, as the emperor returned  to
 Germany at this time iu a threatening at-
 titude, they were forced  to adopt decisive
 measures.  After the  visitations  under-
 taken for the organization of the church
system,  with the aid of Melanchthon's
instructions  and  Luther's catechisms,
which appeared in 1529, while  the teach-
ing of the people in schools and churches
by faithful  ministere was gradually im-
proving,  Melanchthon was employed to
draw up a full exposition of the Lutheran
doctrines; which  was subscribed  by the
princes already united by the  league of
Torgau  (1526)  and  the convention of
Schwabach (1529) (see Schwabach, Articles
of), transmitted to the emperor  at the diet 
540
REFORMATION.
 of Augsburg in 1530, and solemnly read
 before a full assembly (June 25th), whence
 the declaration was  called the Augsburg
 Confession, (q. v.)  The emperor caused a
 reply from the Catholic party to be read,
 which was  to  put the  question at rest;
T rejected  the defence  (Apology) of  the
 Augsburg  confession,  written  by Me-
 lanchthon in answer to this  confutation,
 and   insisted upon  the suppression  of
 religious innovations.   A similar reply
 was   given  to  Strasburg,  Constance,
 Memmingen and Lindau,  which had
 sent   the  emperor   a  similar   paper,
 styled the  Confession  of the Four Cit-
 ies, or  Confessio  Tetrapolitana.   This
 conclusion of  the diet was  a new mo-
 tive of union to the Lutherans.   (For a
 history of subsequent events, see  Smalcal-
 dic League, Interim, and Peace, Rdigious.)
 The German Protestants were united  by
 common political interests and a common
 creed, contained in the Augsburg confes-
 sion,  and its Apology  (see Melanchthon),
 and illustrated by the articles  of Smalcal-
 den and the two catechisms, and  finally
 confirmed, "in  1580, by the Fonn of Con-
 cord.  (See Concord, Form of, and Creed.)
 The Lutherans, or adherents ofthe  Augs-
 burg  confession, were the three electors of
 the Palatinate, Saxony, and Brandenburg,
 twenty  dukes  and princes,  twenty-four
 counts, four barons, and thirty-five impe-
 rial cities; in all eighty-six  members of
 the empire.  Sweden and Denmark (since
 1536a Protestant country),Sleswick,Poni-
 erania, Silesia, and many important cities,
 on political grounds, Hesse and Bremen,
 from  a preference for Calvinism, refused
 to adopt the Form of Concord.   The Pa-
 latinate fell back, and the cour^. of  Berlin
 became Calvinistic (or Reformed).  The
 dispute concerning the presence of the
 body of Christ in the sacrament  of the
 supper  (see Lord's Supper),  between the
 Swiss and French Protestants, ou one side,
 among  whom, after the death of  Zuiu-
 glius, Calvin was the champion, and the
 Saxon  Protestants on- the other, resulted
 iu a  total separation  of the  reformed
 church (q. v.) from the Evangelical Lu-
 theran.  The foundation of this difference
 between the two churches, so unfavorable
 to the progress of the reformation, was
 deeply laid in the diversity of the charac-
 ters of their founders.   Luther, more ac-
 customed to think systematically,  and to
 adhere implicitly to the letter of the Holy
 Scriptures,  immediately brought  every
 new  idea, which was suggested,  to the
 touchstone  of  his system,  and  admitted
 nothing which seemed to oppose that be-
lief.  Zuinglius, less trammelled with fixed
dogmas, and more ready lo follow his own
judgment, was, on the other hand, more
prompt to embrace those views, which at
firet  sight appeared  reasonable  to  him.
Hence he was more in danger of adopting
error as truth, while Luther was more apt
to reject truth as error, lest he should re-
nounce his faith.  The east and north ad-
hered to the  opinions of Luther; the west
and south followed the more liberal views
of the Reformed  church.   The  greater
part  of Switzerland and Geneva (1535), a
great part of the population of  France,
particularly of the southern part (see Hu-
guenots), England (in 1547, with the res-
ervation of the hierarchical dignities, and
with a temporary interruption, in the reign
of Mary, in 1555—58), Scotland, where
Knox introduced the Presbyterian form of
church government, in 1560, on the Gene-
va model, and the United Provinces ofthe
Netherlands, which, at  one blow, gained
Protestantism and  freedom, belonged  to
the  Reformed  church.  (See England,
Church of, and Henry VIII; Knox; Neth-
erlands ;  and Creed.)  In Transylvania,
the  Lutheran  confession  prevailed;  in
Hungary, Calvinism entered  with it; and
in Poland, where the reformation had
found  numerous adherents  (from 1556),
the two Protestant parties, with the Mora-
vian  Brethren,  concluded  a convention
(consensus) at Sendomir,  in 1570, which
united them in one political body, known
as the Dissidents, (a.  v.)  The attempt of
Gebhard, elector of  Cologne, in 1582, to
introduce the reformation into his arch-
bishopric totally failed, owing to his want
of prudence. JVhatever dissensions may
have separated the Lutherans and Calviii-
istsat this period, they had, and still have,
the fundamentals of doctrine and disci-
pline,  the spirit aud the name of true
Protestants iu common, and every step in
the progress of the reformation  is to be
considered as a gain to both  parties.   But
the ill will which continued to exist be-
tween the Catholics and Protestants, even
after the religious peace,  eventually kin-
dled the thirty yeare' war  (q. v.)  and de-
vastated Germany.   The peace of West-
phalia established  between  the parties a
legalized  toleration; but  the Protestant
subjects of Catholic  princes too often ex-
perienced its violation, and  the Catholics
in Protestant states (as the Irish) not un-
frequently suffered a similar fate.  (See
Religious Liberty, and Catholic Emancipa-
tion.)—After this  general outline of the
history of the reformation, it remains  to
give some views of the influence which it 
REFORMATION, CONSEQUENCES OF THE.           541
has exercised on the religion and morals,
on  the literary and political condition, of
nations.
  From  what has  been said,  it appears
that the reformation was a necessary con-
sequence  of the  mental progress of the
Western, and particularly of the Teutonic
nations.  The opposition of its  enemies
gave it consistency and imponance.  The
assaults of passionate and ignorant oppo-
sers, the intrigues and violence of the Ro-
man court, and the applause of his whole
nation, urged Luther farther than be had
diought  of going.   Circumstances,  the
concurrence  of which human  wisdom
could neither produce nor prevent, fa-
vored the enterprise  beyond his highest
hopes.  Involved in contests with adver-
saries whose victory seemed almost cer-
tain, and convulsed  by internal dissen-
sions (the peasants' war, and the troubles
of the Anabaptists), the reformation still
made rapid progress.  After it had been
going on  a few yeare,  it  no longer  de-
pended on its authors for the direction  it
should take.  The influence of Protestant
principles has had a large-share in bring-
ing about those improvements, which, in
modern times, have extended to almost
every class of society iu Europe.   Before
the  reformation,  the  doctrines   of  the
church comprised a mass of propositions
and  precepts,  the  fruit  of  circumstances
which were intended  to support the di-
vine authority ofthe priesthood, and rest-
ed  iu part on perversions of history ; but
the great truths  which every Christian
ought to know, were either neglected  or
adulterated, and the gospel of Jesus could
hardly be  recognised.  In the view  of
Catholics, indeed, such of these doctrines
as are not founded on the  Bible, rest on
verbal traditions,  which the teachers  of
the church received from the apostles and
fathers, and which the popes or councils,
with the aid of the Holy Ghost, gradually
made known  (see Tradition); but their
fruits bore no traces  of their pretended
divine origin.  The place of religion was
supplied, in the minds of the lower classes,
by a mixture of fear and diversion, aided
by a service full of mechanical ceremony
and  superstition.   At one time, it was  a
timid fear of a spiritual being wielding the
terrors of temporal suffering and eternal
damnation;  at another, delight in the or-
naments of the churches and their priests;
admiration of their splendid, and, for the
most part, unintelligible exhibitions; some-
times the occupation  of the imagination
with various legends and miraculous his-
tories, and  prayers repeated in the order
  vol. x,           46
ofthe beads ofthe rosary, confessions, pen-
ances, fasts, pilgrimages, and rich gifts to
the churcii of money and other valuables.
The ignorance of  the  common  people
blinded them to the  wretchedness of their
spiritual condition; but the better informed
soon perceived that the entire reference
of the doctrines ofthe church to the sup-
port of the papal power, and of its  wor-
ship to the visible images of the saints,
directed nearly all  the  devotion  of the
faithful  to things which  do not belong to
the Christian profession, and in  no way
promote a sincere reverence of God.   No
wonder diat Christianity, thus perverted,
became, in the eyes  of many of the  most
distinguished divines and laymen, whose
taste had been formed by the study of the
classics, a subject of unmingled contempt.
The ecclesiastical  princes of Italy used it
only as the instrument of  their selfish
purposes, and  opposed with obstinacy a
reformation of the  church,  which  they
viewed as dangerous and chimerical.   Au
open rupture with the pope  gave the re-
formers the power of throwing off the
corruptions and foreign appendages of
religion, both  in  doctrine and  worship,
and  of restoring  a Christianity  which
knows no  rule of piety  but the  Holy
Scriptures, asks nothing but faith and vir-
tue, and, instead of being the secret pos-
session of a privileged caste of priests, was
laid open to all.  The idea that  there is
something for which man is accountable
only to himself and his God; that in reli-
gion human  authority  is  nothing;  and
that it is, therefore, the duty of every one
to study the Holy Scriptures, as its source,
and to rest his faith on  his  own convic-
tions ;  that acts of  worship  derive  their
whole  value from the faith  of the  wor-
shippers, and  their  obvious  tendency to
improve those  who take part in them; in
short, a living commentary  on the  doc-
trine,  " God must be worehipped in spirit
and in truth," was spread by the  preach-
ing, and still more  by the writings of the
reformers, among the whole  mass of the
people.  Thousands of  the scholars  of
the universities, the friends  of philoso-
phy and of classical antiquity, intelligent
citizens, and discontented individuate of
the lower clergy, had long been ready to
share in the dissemination of these prin-
ciples ; princes and nobles, and even some
bishops, felt the power of truth; and 7^x\
for innovation  was  aroused,  in the 'o''.cr
ranks,  to  such a  degree, that m  csome
places  they aimed at nothing less than to
burst all resttaints.   The success of their
first appeals encouraged  tin>.  refonners to 
542
REFORMATION, CONSEQUENCES OF THE.
venture the  second step towards the res-
toration of true  religion  hy removing all
obstructions to it  in  the forms of  the
church.  Among these was the mockery
of a sacramental consecration  of priests,
which elevated the sacred office above
humanity, made a privileged  order  the
legislators of the faith, and sanctioned ev-
ery abuse of ecclesiastical power;  the
worship  of saints, relics,  and  images,
which, as it was then conducted, detract-
ed from  the reverence  of the invisible
God; transubstuntiaiion, making the Son
of God to bs created and sacrificed daily
by the hands of men, and thus justifying
the worship of the host; extreme unc-
tion, and the masses for the souls of the
deceased, which drew immense tributes
from the fears of the dying  and  the grief
of mourners ;  and a multitude of other
customs, which  distracted and degraded
devotion.  From the superstitious fables
and cunniug inventions of  ambition,  the
religious spirit now turned to a faith which
it might embrace without abandoning  the
use of reason ; for the eternal truths of the
gospel,  by means  of Luther's  excellent
German translation ofthe Bible, and accu-
rate  versions into  other languages,  by
the sennons and liturgies founded on it
in the vernacular tongues, by catechisms
and comprehensive manuals, came una-
dulterated before the world at large.  Re-
stored  once  more  to its  original  destina-
tion, the  Christian ministry among Prot-
estants devoted  itself exclusively to  the
labor  of  explaining the Word  of God,
and applying it to spiritual improvement;
of erecting schools for the neglected youth,
and raising the character of  those already
existing,  while the clergy renounced  the
privileges by which they had  been dis-
tinguished from the laity.  Every Protes-
tant partook ofthe  cup in the Lord's sup-
per;  every  one could  understand the
simple celebration of divine worship, and
could join in the sacred  hymns.  Thus,
wherever Protestantism found  its way,
the worship of God recovered that sim-
plicity, and  warmth, and sincerity, which
had  characterized  it among   the  first
Christians.  It became a common work,
and  a bond of  union, in  proportion as
the feeling of obligation to defend the
newly acquired  purity of religion from
dangers and attacks from  without, fan-
ned  the  flame  of  religious  zeal,  and
strengthened tho love of brethren in the
faith ; hence a clearer knowledge of God,
and a higher tone of piety.  Religion was
no longer a mere subject of the imagina-
tion, but appealed to the reason and feel-
ings of men, and invited close investiga-
tion.   Not that  this beneficial  influence
became at once universal and complete,
or was interrupted at no  period of the
advance of Protestantism: the best ideas,
the wisest institutions, succeed only by de-
grees,  and are never carried into execu-
tion without the alloy of human weak-
nesses. If we carefully examine the period
of tin; reformation, and the spirit which
animated its firet friends, we shall find it a
time of contest and  division, when the
silent  operation of  the  new  light was
blended  with violent hostility  towards
false  brethren  and  ever-active enemies.
Hence the  abusive  language  from tho
pulpits and   in  controversial  writings,
which, though abundantly provoked  by
the menaces, violence and intrigues ofthe
opposite party, and excusable on  account
of the rude tone and contentious spirit of
the age, was,  nevertheless, always unfa-
vorable to the improvement of Protestant-
ism.   Hence the  extravagances of pre-
cipitate innovators,  which the reformers
could  not resist without retainiug more
of the forms of the existing religion, out
of regard to the consciences of the weak,
than a strict application of their principles
would permit.   HeiJce that war of opin-
ions among divines, which  not only pre-
vented the cooperation of the Swiss with
the  Saxon reformers, hut  also gave  an
accidental importance to certain points of
comparatively small importance, which, in
the future system, especially of the Luther-
ans, occasioned great incongruities, and
left deep traces ofthe time of their origin.
The absurd adiaphora (q, v.), so called,
gave rise to violent disputes.  Altars, can-
dles, images, mass-dresses,  surplices, wa-
fers, auricular confessions, exorcism, and
even the position of the words Voter wi-
ser (Our Father,  in the Lord's prayer), in-
stead of Unser Voter, became the distin-
guishing  signs of the  Lutheran party.
These contests, however, must be admit-
ted to have  had  a salutary influence
on  the settlement  of particular points
of  doctrine,  and  to have contributed
to excite  a  lively zeal  for religion.  In
the period subsequent  to  the  reforma-
tion, deep religious  feeling always re-
mained the characteristic of the  Protest-
ants.   There was, however, a difference
between the  two  principal parties; for
the circumstance that the Lutherans still
made the Lord's supper a mysteiy, while
the Calvinists submitted every  thing to
reason, produced an essential variance in
their religious feelings.  But that levity
and infidelity which were festered by the 
REFORMATION,  CONSEQUENCES OF THE.          543
indifference of many eminent Catholics in
Italy and France, scarcely ever found ad-
mittance into either party.  They thought
too highly of  their faith, they were too
deeply convinced  of its truth, to  regard
any  thing holy  with indifference:  they
were ready, if necessary, to sacrifice their
property and lives  in the cause of reli-
gion.   And this  religious  feeling was
nourished by the affecting solemnity of
the devotional exercises, which assembled
die faithful in their churches, and, in the
6tillness ofthe domestic retreat, collected
families   around  their  fathers.   Rich
treasures of passages from the Bible were
laid up in retentive memories, with many
striking hymns, of which  no church ever
possessed  more  than  the  Protestant
church  in Gennany and  France.   They
passed from mouth to mouth: in busi-
ness, and in all the vicissitudes of fortune,
they were companions and  comforters.
They did more injury to  the  pope, as
even the Catholics confess, than the most
elaborate writings of the reformers.  The
diligent study of the Bible, and the didac-
tic works  of Arndt and other ascetics, at a
time when a spirit of contest had usurped
the  sacred desk, made up to many the
want of ingenious and  powerful sermons.
Through  the influence of Spener, the re-
ligious character of the Lutheran  churcii
gained new life.
   The reformation also had an important
influence  on morals.  While the reform-
ers abolished the  principle of blind obe-
dience to  the pope and other ecclesiasti-
cal dignitaries, denied the merit of what
were" called good works (penances, fasts,
alms), and the opinion that  the outward
observance of the  precepts ofthe  church
was virtue,  and rejected the possibility
of acts of supererogation, by which (as
was taught by a decree of 1342) saints
had enriched the treasuiy of the church,
they again awakened the smothered moral
feelings of men, and introduced that more
elevated morality which requires holiness
of heart and purity of conduct.  With the
prevalent emirs in morals were connec?jd
usages  which,  though  probably  well-
meant in  their origin, had terminated in
the  greatest corruptions—auricular con-
fession, which was employed as an instru-
ment of tyranny over the consciences and
private affairs of laymen; penances, or
ecclesiastical  punishments,  which  were
imposed on offenders; and  indulgences,
by which they purchased, at  no small
price,  permission  to   sin ;  pilgrimages,
which great numbers ofthe unhappy un-
dertook, to seek absolution from wonder-
working images, and to indulge in pro-
miscuous excesses.   While the reformers
wholly suppressed these abuses, which
made the remission of sins venal in the
eyes of the people, they deprived licen-
tiousness of the  support of legal tolera-
tion, and directed  penitents  to seek for
reconciliation  with  God only by faith and
new obedience.  They  exhibited  in  its
true vileness  that gloomy   asceticism,
which  represented inhuman self-torture,
solitude, poverty, nakedness, filth, hunger
and miseiy, and even privileged beggary
and idleness, as pleasing to God, and steps
towards  the  highest  perfection:  they
threw  open the  monasteries, discharged
monks and nuns from their vows, and per-
mitted marriage to die teachers of religion.
At  one blow, the workshops of supersti-
tion, and the  abodes of secret sins and
private cnielties, were desfroyed; a mul-
titude of unhappy beings were set  at lib-
erty and  restored  to mankind; and the
flames of a passion which had destroyed
the peace of thousands of noble natures, or
sated itself by the seduction of innocence,
were reduced to the limits of moderation,
and made to promote  domestic happi-
ness.  Thus,  by  the abolition of celibacy
and monasticism, the reformers restored
to  nature the rights which  make it the
nurse  of virtue.   But what places die
merit of the reformation, in regard to mor-
als, in the clearest light, next to the re-
moval of those obstructions  to  virtue
which existed in the ancient  church, was
its  leading to  the acknowledgment of the
intimate connexion of religion with daily
life, furnishing purer motives of action,
and kindling the moral  feeling, of which
it was itself  the offspring, to a warmth
which produced the most valuable fruits
in all the relations  of public and domestic
life. The reformers themselves were  not
the only noble examples of moral dignity
and faithfulness: among their adherents/
likewise, the power ofthe gospel and  the
sense  of duty, gave birth to an honesty
and a  self-control which  elevated  the
character of society, wherever Protestant-
ism triumphed.  The minds of men, lib-
erated from the constraint of human  au-
thority, and referring every thing to God
and the judge in their own bosoms, attain-
ed  a true conscientiousness.   The integ-
rity and noble sentiments of the Protest-
ant princes put to shame the artifices of
Roman policy.   A heroic courage, which
sacrificed every tiling earthly to the cause
of trudi, a firmness in the profession of
faith, a cheerful  spirit under die severest
oppressions, a boldness and confidence in 
544
REFORMATION, CONSEQUENCES OF THE.
death, examples of which the world beheld
with admiration,  appeared  among high
and low.  The courts of the Spanish in-
quisition, which raged against Protestant
Christians in the Netherlands, found it
necessary to substitute private executions
for public ones, in order to conceal from
the eyes of the  people the  firmness of
their victims.  The  moral tone of the
Protestants could not long remain at such
a pitch: in proportion as the numbers of
the Protestants increased, unworthy mem-
bere  found  their way into  the  church.
Moral improvement was sometimes neg-
lected, in consequence of the zeal for or-
thodox  opinions,  especially  among the
Lutherans,  who wanted, in  general, a
well-ordered system of church discipline;
and an abuse of Luther's doctrine—that
faith is the only ground of salvation—was
sometimes made an excuse for a vicious
life.  But, notwithstanding this, the mo-
rality ofthe adherents of the reformation
received from its influence much firmness
and constancy.  It spread most  rapidly
among the citizens, who had attained in-
dependence by means of the constitution
of the  towns; and with this class the
Protestant clergy had  become intimately
connected by a common mode of life, by
common interests, and by family alliances.
The spirit of morality which  they called
into life, struck its roots deep and lastingly
in this  numerous and most  flourishing
class of the people.  Institutions  were
founded in the cities  for the instruction
of the  young and the relief of the poor;
laws were made for the promotion of mo-
rality ;  industry was  encouraged by the
abolition of  superfluous festivals; and a
public opinion was formed, distinguished
for strictness, purity, and power over the
minds of men.  In these respects, the Re-
formed  or Calvinistic party excelled the
Lutherans.   Reformed Switzerland, and
especially Geneva, where Calvin intro-
duced a system of churcii discipline, and
instituted a court of morals, composed of
clergy and laymen, presented an example
of purity, unique  in  its  kind, which was
imitated by the societies of France and
Holland, and the  Presbyterians of  Scot-
land and  England.   The salutary and
durable effects of the reformation on the
virtue of its adherents in general are obvi-
ous to every traveller, even  in modem
times, by a comparison of Catholic coun-
tries with Protestant.
  The  influence  of  the  reformation on
literature has been very important.  An
acquaintance with classic antiquity, at the
beginning ofthe 16th century, was a luxu-
ry enjoyed only by a few distinguished
scholars; and  it could not be otherwise
under the papal dominion, which might
allow classical reading, but could by no
means tolerate philosophical  deductions
therefrom,  and practical applications of
them to the existing state of things, with-
out the risk of its own overthrow. Hence,
even in 1515, Leo X prohibited the print-
ing of translations ofthe ancients into die
vernacular tongues, though he patronised
classical scholare, and gave them splendid
rewards.  Pomponatius  was  suffered to
teach,  at Bologna, the unreasonableness,
in a philosophical point  of view, of the
most important doctrines  of Christianity;
and it was left to the  contentious monks
to dispute the point with him.   Aretino
was allowed to vent his  wit  in  virulent
libels and licentious poems.  Leo X and
his successors loaded  him with wealth
and honors, and Rome styled this monster
of impiety and vice " the Divine."  The
sciences were permitted  to become the
nurses of unbelief and moral  corruption,
if no doubt of the supremacy of the pope
was circulated, and no ray of intelligence
was  let in  upon the people.  With the
learned  luxury which  prevailed in Italy
at the revival  of ancient learning, a sys-
tematic plan of keeping the people in ig-
norance went hand in hand.  The Holy
Scriptures,  with the  original of which
scarcely an individual clergyman in the
largest diocese was acquainted, narrowly
escaped being added to the Index of Pro-
hibited Books, in which all translations of
them were actually inserted,  except the
Latin version  ofthe church. The divines
who argued against Reuchlin had seen no
New Testament in Greek; and they looked
upon the Hebrew as a cunningly-devised
language of sorcerers.  The pliilosophy <-;f
the scholastics followed the philosophy of
Aristotle; not that ofthe instructor of Al-
exander, but a tissue of empty subtleties
and rash assumptions, which  was called
by its disciples, "the wisdom of Aristotle;"
but by Luther, "a cold, stinking and dead
dog."—The study  of  the ancient  lan-
guages, the general use of Latin, as a me-
dium of literary intercourse, and the in-     *
vention  of the art of printing, promoted
the progress of learning; but the only ele-
ment in  which they  could flourish, and
the only direction in which they could Iw
of general utility,  they received through
the reformation.  This broke the fetters
in which the hierarchy had bound the hu-
man mind; wrested from the clergy the
abused monopoly  of  knowledge ; estab-
lished and protected freedom  of thought 
REFORMATION, CONSEQUENCES OF THE.
545
and the liberty of the press;  awakened
a spirit of investigation and a love of learn-
ing, and opened to criticism, in all brunches
of knowledge, a boundless field.  Among
the firet promoters of it, there were some
men,  who loved  tranquillity,  that,  like
Erasmus, remained  ostensibly attached to
the ancient  church; but their principles,
their  exertions, the  spirit of their worksj
showed beyond dispute that they  really
belonged  to  the  Protestant  party.  The
principle of freedom from  human author-
ity, pronounced by the reformation, open-
ed the way to all  scientific improvement
The Bible being now acknowledged as
the only rule of faith, it became the duty
of  every  theologian  to understand  the
Greek and Hebrew text  This naturally
led the Protestants to an acquaintance with
the language of Homer and Plato, which
Reuchlin  had first  recommended to the
Germans, and to the cultivation of Orien-
tal literature, of which none but the Jews
and Arabs then knew any thing.  A mul-
titude of old  Latin and Greek manuscripts,
which till then  had been not at all, or
but partially  understood, were brought to
light from the dusty libraries  of the abol-
ished  convents, and by  the  critical dili-
gence, mostly ofthe Protestant literati, were
made capable of being generally used.
Science sprung into new  existence, with
the freshness aud  strength  of youth, when
Melanchthon, who had become wiser and
better for his studies, and the bold and in-
dustrious  Calvin, were  the  teachers of
Germany and France.  This effect ofthe
reformation  appeare strikingly  from the
fact, that before  its commencement the
south of Germany was superior in literary
refinement to  the north ; and half a cen-
tury later, when Protestantism  had fixed
its seat in  the north, the reverse was the
case;  and, from that period, the Protestant
countries of  Europe have  far outstripped
the Catholic  in intellectual  cultivation.
  The influence of the reformation on the
arts was  less happy.   It removed  the
images  from  the  churches, and deprived
the masses of their dramatic  and musical
attractions.   It repressed  the  predom-
inance  of imagination,  and restored to
reason its rights.  ' It taught men to prefer
the good  to  the beautiful, and to feel a
dignity in despising those  means  of ex-
citement  which  operate  through  the
senses, and to abstain from outward splen-
dor.  This severity  to the  arts, which cut
off their connexion with religion, and rob-
lied them of that  share of public venera-
tion which they  had received  from  Ca-
tholicism, met with  its punishment in the
decline of the fine arts among the Protes-
tants.  This  was  particularly  the  case
with the Calvinistic or Reformed party; for
the Lutherans retained many paintings in
their churches, and always celebrated their
festivals with  music.  On the other hand,
Protestantism inspired a love of devotion-
al poetiy, and was favorable to eloquence,
as it made the sennon the chief part, the
very soul, of public worship, and,  by the
introduction ofthe vernacular tongues into
the liturgy, gave them  a dignity  which
had an important influence on the national
literature  of the people under its sway.
The useful arts were greatly promoted by
the reformation.  It  aroused  a spirit of
seriousness, accuracy and perseverance ;
it promoted commerce  and  public pros-
perity ; and England, the north of Germa
ny, and Switzerland, have shown that, in
this respect, no Catholic nation can com-
pare with them.
  The most visible consequences of the
reformation, and those  long  since most
fully  acknowledged in  histoiy, are those
which relate to politics.   The church was
no longer  independent of, but became in-
corporated  with, and  merged in the state.
The reformers had no political object in
view; but their work first attained a politi-
cal importance and direction on account
of the zeal of its great enemy for worldly
dominion.  A large proportion of those
abuses of the ancient religious usages—
in  which all ranks, including  even well-
disposed  clergymen,  found  a motive to
urge  the  reformation of the  church—
rested on the  political encroachments and
avaricious  demands  of the  popes.  On
them, not the clergy only, but the nations
and  princes,  were  made dependent ; to
them they were obliged to pay enormous
tributes, under various pretexts, increased
from  age  to  age.  Their influence ex-
tended to a great part of the administra-
tionnf public  justice, in consequence of
the ever-augmenting  extent of the epis-
copal jurisdiction, and the power which
the papal legates assumed to the injury
of the bishops.   Hence the  princes were
perpetually interrupted in the exercise of
their authority by the church, which form-
ed, as it were, a state within the state. The
kings of France alone were able to main-
tain a position of honorable independence.
The mass of the people was  oppressed;
in  the administration of government, ar-
bitrary rule and personal authority every
where prevailed over  legal order.   In the
nobility, there was a spirit of rudeness
and violence, which led them continually
:o violate the rights of the other classes 
546            REFORMATION, CONSEQUENCES OF THE.
No wonder that,  under these circum-
stances, the magic name of evangelical
freedom immediately awakened thoughts
of civil liberty, and became to the suffer-
ing people  a  signal  for  insurrection.
Still, however, the guilt of having occa-
sioned the peasants' war can as little be
charged to the reformers, who expressly
discountenanced such excesses,  and la-
bored  both  by word and deed to check
them, as the foolish struggle of the Ana-
baptists against all civil order.   Wherever
the reformers, in their advance, impinged
on the relations of civil life or of establish-
ed rights, they went to work with a mode-
ration which gained for them the confi-
dence of governors and princes. The Swiss
reformers, indeed,  were  far bolder than
those  of Wittenberg; they  were favored
with republican governments, and  acted
with the consent ofthe rulers. The course
of the reformation in Protestant Germany,
and Switzerland generally, was this: The
communities, particularly in the cities,
negotiated with their rulers according to
their own consciences and  the advice of
the reformers.   The princes concurred in
their  plans,  and established  institutions
accordingly.  In Prussia, Sweden, Den-
mark, England, and those German states
which came over  later, the  princes made
changes of their own accord, and the peo-
ple found  themselves sinking gradually
into  the  new  forms imposed upon them.
Where the government continued Catho-
lic, the friends of the new doctrines exer-
cised  dieir worship in  secrecy  and si-
lence.   The reformation  liberated  the
princes from all the obligations and griev-
ances which their dependence on a for-
eign  spiritual  power  had  imposed  on
them.  They now obtained for themselves
the episcopal privileges which had once
limited their authority; and the instru-
ments  of power,  which had  formerly
served the church, came, as far as Protes-
tantism permitted  their  use, into  their
hands.  The return of  the clergy to civil
society increased  the number  of their
subjects,  and various causes augmented
their resources and the prosperity of their
people beyond  computation.  These were
the acquisition of the church estates, which
had come under their power, or, as in the
case of the abolished convents, into their
possession; the cessation ofthe vast emis-
sions  of money from their  states, which
had been occasioned  by the avarice of
Rome, the efforts of legates, the privileges
of foreign  archbishops, the begging of
mendicant friars, and the connexion of the
religious  orders with foreign governore :
another cause was the new  spring given
to commerce, trade and agriculture, and
the increase of population, occasioned hy
the immigration of their exiled brethren
in the faith. They were now free to ar-
range their financial systems, to improve
the state of their dominions,  to  augment
their armies, and to provide for  the wars
with which they were threatened.  And,
as religion, which, till  the peace of West-
phalia, was really or ostensibly the  chief
motive of the civil alliances and  ware,
was also the subject dearest  to the heart
of every individual, the animation of the
people prompted them to risk their wealth
and their blood in the cause of their rulers.
Thus the Protestant princes became great,
and states of small extent obtained u high
political importance, for which they were
mostly indebted to the reformation.   The
church gained  much in spirituality by its
improvement, as has  appeared  from the
preceding views  of morals, literature and
religion.   It lost its temporal goods, in-
deed, to the princes, but received back a
large proportion of them, to be applied to
worthier purposes.   From the patrimony
ofthe ancient church, the funds for public
institutions of learning  were increased :
new and better ones were established ; or-
phan asylums aud hospitals were founded ;
rewards provided  for literary  men of
merit, and the income of the  lower clergy
increased.  With the goods of the church,
the persons of the  clergy came likewise
under  the jurisdiction of the  temporal
princes.  The  influence of the  reforma-
tion has not been felt merely by the  na-
tions which have adopted its principles;
the states  which most violently opposed
it, have learned by experience the danger
of attempting to repress the operation of
deep-rooted and wide-spread convictions.
If Charles V had cherished sufficient love
for the Germans, and  for the cause of
evangelical truth,  which  probably  had
made some impression on him,  to  sacri-
fice to it his Spanish crown, he might have
preserved  Germany, which,  in his time,
was almost entirely devoted to the new
doctrines, from the bloody religious ware
which  afterwards desolated  it, and have
made it an invincible monarchy under the
Austrian sceptre.  The struggle  of Spain
against the new doctrines procured  her
more hatred and  ridicule from Europe
generally, than honor in Rome, and was
followed by the decay of her greatness.
France, whose kings,  in conformity with
their-maxim, to use the reformation abroad
as a means of exciting dissension among
the neighboring powere, and to  suppress 
REFORMATION—REFORMED CHURCH,
547
tts doctrines whlim  their own dominions,
were at die same time the friends of the
Protestant  princes  and the  bitter perse-
cutors of their own Protestant subjects,
expiated the guilt of its double-dcalkig in
the ruinous civil wars and emigrations
which it occasioned. Still more pernicious
was the opposition to Protestantism in die
case of Poland,  for the destruction of
which Russia made, use of the  same poli-
cy which France had  employed with tol-
erable success in Germany ; viz. affording
support to the Dissidents (q. v.), and enter-
ing deeply into its internal dissensions.
The states of Italy, which tolerated noth-
ing that savored of  reformation,  sunk
deeper  and deeper in political insignifi-
cance, which was, indeed,  owing more to
tiie discovery «of a passage by  sea to the
East  Indies,  anil  the intercourse  with
America, than to the  reformation.  The
popes struggled against diis formidable
enemy with resolution, aud in some cases
with success.  In the  states which  con-
timied faithful to die church, they estab-
lished institutions for resisting the progress
of the new doctrines, and for the perse-
cution of heretics.  By the happy result
of  their missions to  Asia and America,
they gained a spiritual dominion over ter-
ritories  more extensive than the half of
Europe, which they had lost by the refor-
mation.  Btrt this success was transient,
and of little utility to  their treasury.  No
mission could compensate for  what they
had formerly drawn from Germany, Eng-
land and Scandinavia.  They were obliged
by necessity to curtail tlieir ancient ex-
travagance, and  by shame  to correct the
morals of  the clergy.  Even the Catho-
lic  princes, by degrees, grew  more pru-
dent, and diminished  the power and the
revenue of the papal court  in their states,
particularly after the peace of Westphalia.
(See Pope,)  The Catholics   would no
longer yield the same obedience to it as
before;  for, particularly in Germany (Aus-
tria and Bavaria), in France, and even in
Spain, principles and  opinions  were im-
perceptibly propagated, which made them
partakers in the new light that had spread
over Europe.  They began to distinguish
the true Catholic from die Roman church;
and the doctrines ofthe latter not founded
on the Bible were viewed  as merely dis-
ciplinary, and not to he put on the same
footing "with  divine truth.—See Planck's
Histon/oftheProtestant Doctrine (6 vols., 2d
ed., Leipsic, 1791); Heeren's Developcmmt
ofthe political Consequences of theReforma-
tvon (Historical Works, parti); Menzefs
History  of the Germans Jrom  the Refor-
mationi &c.  (part i, Breslau, 1826); Bur-
net's History ofthe Reformation ;  the his-
tories of England,  by Hume, Lingard,
Mackintosh ;  and also the article Great
Britain.
  Reformed Church, in a general sense,
comprehends all  those churches that have
been  formed by  a  separation from the
church of Rome ; but die term Reformed
is  often  restricted  to those  Protestant
churches which did  not embrace the doc-
trines and discipline  of Luther.  The title
was firet  assumed by the French Protes-
tants, and afterwards became the com-
mon denomination of all the Calvinistical
churches ou the  European continent   It
is  in  this restricted sense that we wish it
to  be understood in the present article.
The same need  of  a  reformation of the
church, which excited the  zeal of Luther
in  Germany,  in the first half  of  the six-
teenth century,  induced  many distin-
guished literary men  and  clergymen  iu
Switzerland and the Netherlands,  in Eng-
land and France, to labor for the same
end.  Among the Swiss, Ulrich Zuiuglius
and John QEcolauipadius  (see these arti-
cles) were the most prominent.   When
the Franciscan Bernard Samson, a kin-
dred spirit with Tetzel, preached  the effi-
cacy  of  indulgences with  equal  shame-
lessness, and came to Zurich, where Zuiu-
glius  was a religious  teacher, the  latter
violently  attacked him, and, the council of
Zurich seconding his zeal, Samson  was
not tolerated in  the city.  In vain did a
papal nuncio labor  to put down the  re-
former, and in vain did the Swiss confed-
eracy warn  and threaten him.  After
many changes in the forms of public
worship, on his own responsibility, in 1523,
he transmitted sixty-seven  propositions in
German,  in which he set  forth bis doc-
trines, to  the council of Zurich ; the coun-
cil gave them to  the  world, and invited
the reformer to a disputation,  and attend-
ed, with  many of the citizens,  when it
took place.  A large part of the audience
was gained over to  his sentiments.  The
work of reform was now earned  on with
impetuosity, and much that was in itself
innocent, and perhaps even useful,  was
abolished.  The  altars, fonts and images
were  banished from the churches; even
vocal music  and  the  organ  were pro-
scribed.  The confederacy, January 26,
1524, at the diet of Lucerne, threatened
to  exclude Zurich from the council; but
she stood firm,  and the town of Muhl-
hausen soon declared hi favor  of  the new
doctrines.  Capito  (Koeflin)  introduced
the refownationinto Basle; and, after 1523, 
REFORMED CHURCH.
    GSeolampadiiH contiuuerl his  work.  In
    1521,  the  firet efforts  for a reformation
    were made at Schaff hausen.  From 1525,
    Berne also was more inclined to the same,
    and even  the zealous Catholic cantons
    began to feel their need of it.  At length,
    a religious disputation took place iu 1526.
    Here CEcolampadius maintained the con-
    test against a  large number of vehement
    Catholics,  among  whom John Eck  was
    most prominent   Zuinglius did not ap-
fc~   pear, and the papal majority issued against
j:   hi in a sentence of excommunication ; but
    they could not  obstruct his  influence.
    Berne resolved, in  1528, upon another dis-
    putation, though against the will of all the
    other  cantons and the  emperor himself
    But nothing was settled ; and the only con-
    sequence was, that the people of  Berne
    were more decided in favor of the refor-
    mation.  It now  spread more and more,
    notwithstanding all the resistance of the
    Catholic cantons—Schweitz, Uri, Uiiter-
    walden, Zug, and Lucerne.   A large pro-
    portion of the confederates had already
    become devoted  to the Protestant doc-
    trines, when these Catholic cantons, hav-
    ing formed an alliance, for the  defence
    of  their opinions, with king  Ferdinand
    (brother of the emperor Charles V) pre-
    pared to appeal to arms.  The Catholics
    renounced all connexion with  the  Prot-
    estants, and in  October,  1531,  Zurich,
    abandoned by the rest  of its party, was
    forced to appear on the  field alone.  Oc-
    tober 11,  her soldiers  were defeated at
    Cappel.  Zuinglius himself, who  led his
    adherents, fell in the  battle.   But the
    bloody defeat did  not check the progress
    of  his opinions.    Zuinglius had  made
    known his doctrine, that the  bread and
    wine,  in  the  Lord's  supper,  are  mere
    symbols of the body and blood of Christ,
    in  a letter  published,  much against his
    will, November 16, 1524, and had firet de-
    clared them publicly, in 1526, in his Com-
    mentary on true and false Religion  (Com-
    mentarius de vera  et falsa Rdigione), and
    afterwards in many controversies with Lu-
    ther and  others.   In  fact, his religious
    views, in  general, were characterized  by
    a reference to reason.   By his restless
    spirit of inquiry, his peculiar sagacity, and
    moving eloquence, he  succeeded in rais-
    ing his own notions  to a dogmatical au-
    thority in the Swiss  churches.  Out of
    Switzerland, too, his system found much
    favor, and in several countries became the
    prevailing one.  The churches, however,
    which inclined to his doctrines, were early
    divided in various ways, and a  perfect
    union was never effected. Zuinglius him-
self lived too short a time to bring alxwt
a complete  organization  of  the Swiss
churches.   QScolampadius, who was  the
pillar of the new church after him, was
soon removed by death.  Buteven during
bis life, Zuinglius never had that decisive
authority among his adherents, which Lu-
ther  possessed  among the German Prot-
estants, and which led to a greater unity
among them.  The other Swiss reformers
did not stand in the same relation to Zuin-
glius  as  the German  reformers  did  to
Luther; they acted  more independently,
and hence not,  at first,  in perfect harmo-
ny,  in the work of the reformation.  But
there  soon arose a  man  in  the  Swiss
church, who acquired most important au-
thority, and even gained over many Swiss
and French Protestants to the opinions in
which he differed from Zuinglius.  This
man  was John  Calvin (q. v.), who; flying
from France, found an asylum in Geneva,
and soon acquired the greatest influence.
In his doctrine concerning the   Lord's
supper, he differed somewhat from Zuin-
glius.   But the  doctrines of election and
predestination he made the distinguishing
characteristics of his system, and his opin-
ions  on these subjects excited  opposition,
and  awakened  new dissensions  in the
Reformed churches.  Before his death, the
ecclesiastical relations of Switzerland were
more  fully settled, and Glarus, AppenzeU,
Liel, the Grisons, and  Neuberg,  became
attached to the Reformed party. This party,
however, never formed a proper church
with n uniform creed.  In 1530, Zuinglius
had made known his own creed  and the
creed of his adherents to the diet of
Augsburg, where the German  Protestants
al.<o  set forth  their  profession cf faith.
But this was not the universal creed of
the Reformed patty,  and did not  secure
their recognition as a church by the secu-
lar authorities.  The Swiss, however,  to
secure the aid of the Protestants in Ger-
many against the Catholics, sought a rec-
onciliation with the Lutherans;'  but the
Wittenberg Concord, so called (see Sacra-
ment), failed of its object.   Afterwards, in
1549,  in the Consensus  Tiguriens,  the
controversy between the people of Ziirich
and the Calvinists of Geneva was com-
posed ; but even then, there was  no true
union  of  doctrine.    At  length,  in  the
peace of Westphalia, in 1648, the Swiss
were recognised as adherents of the Augs-
burg confession and a religious party.  But
they  did not adopt the Augsburg confes-
sion  unconditionally, or  acknowledge it
as their symbolical book.   At length, after
tedious contests, John  Henry Heidegger, 
REFORMED CHURCH-REFRACTION, DOUBLE.
549
a divine of Zurich, in 1671, drew up the
Formida Consensus Helvetia, in twenty-six
articles, with  particular  reference to the
existing disputes among the Reformed the
ologians.  This new form of concord, af-
ter  1075,  was gradually adopted by the
Reformed Swiss cantons, but by several
of them only  nominally, and a perfect
concord could never be effected in Swit-
zerland. Out  of Switzerland, the  Reform-
ed  party  were decidedly  opposed to it,
and  thus  new dissensions were  kindled.
In the midst  of the severest contests, the
refonnatioti had spread through the Neth-
erlands, where the majority of the Prot-
estant party  adhered to  the doctrines  of
Luther; but the Netherlandish confession
of 1551 inclined to the  Swiss creed, and
it was afterwards greatly altered.  Mau-
rice, prince of Orange, whom the Nether-
lands termed  the  preserver of their civil
 liberty, was  an advocate  of the latter.
Soon^ however, a violent controversy was
kindled here among its adherents, when
Jac.  Arminius attempted  to  soften the
Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, and
Francis Gomarus, his colleague in Ley-
den (especially after 1604), violently op-
posed him.  Excellent men, such as Hugo
Grotius and others, agreed with Arminius;
and  after his death, Simon  Episcopius
(bishop) <lefoudad his opinions.   Hut  the
contest grew more and  more violent; for
 political motives became interwoven with
 religion. The Arminians—now called Re-
 vi&nstrants (q. v.), from  their Remonstran-
 tia, or confession, transmitted, in 1610, to
 the states of  Holland—were cruelly perse-
 cuted bv the  Gomarists, or Contra-remon-
 strants/and  the  religious  conferences at
 the  Hague and Delft led to no reconcilia-
 tion.   At length, in 1618, the celebrated
 synod of Dort was convened, and, after
 protracted deliberations, rejected the doc-
 trines of  the Remonstrants, in May, 1619,
 and  confirmed the severe, but somewhat
 mitigated doctrine of predestination.   But
 foreign theologians would  not concur un-
 conditionally in the decrees of the synod ;
 the Remonstrants (q. v.) maintained then-
 standing  as a distinct party, and published,
 in  1621, a  distinct creed, composed by
 Episcopius.    In  France, the  Reformed
 party (see Huguenots) Was exposed to the
 severest  attacks; by the edict of Nantes,
 in  1598, they first enjoyed   toleration.
  But although they submitted to the doc-
 trines of Calvin, they had no firm  bond
 of union  within themselves. The Eng-
  lish church, which is reckoned among the
  Reformed, was instituted in so peculiar a
  way, was involved so  early in controver-
sies among its membere, and divided  into
so many parties, that  it hardly  deserves
the name of a church.  The creed of
1551, which  consisted  originally  of forty-
two articles, but was  reduced to thirty-
nine articles, iu 1502, by the synod of
London* and was neither purely Zuinglian
nor Calvhiistic, could not unite  the con-
tending parties.  (See England, Church of)
Unsuccessful  attempts have often  been
made to  finite the Reformed and Lutheran
churcheS:  In the Prussian dominions, and
some other German states, however, since
1817, the long projected amalgamation of
the Reformed and Lutheran churches into
one evangelical  Christian churcii has been
partly effected, and attended with impor-
tant results.
  Reformeo, Dutch.- The general synod
of the Dutch Reformed is the oldest body
of Presbyterians in America.  It descend-
ed  immediately from the church of Hol-
land, and its doctrines are the sahife with
those of  that  church.   (See Reformed
Cliurch.)  The  firet churcii was founded
iu New York, about 1639.   The doctrines
of this  sect were the  established religion
of the  colony  of the New Netherlands,
until it surrendered to the British in 1664.
Most of the Dutch Presbyterians are in
New York; the remainder are  chiefly in
NcwJcrsfy anU Pennsylvania. Tin; wliote
number at present in the U. States is about
125,000.—Reformed German is  the coun-
terpart  Of  the  Reformed  Or Calvinistic
church  iu  Germany.   (See  Reformed
 Church.)  The people of this persuasion
 were among the early settlers of Pennsyl-
 vania.  There  their churches were  first
 formed ; but they are now to be found in
 nearly  all the  states  south and west of
 Pennsylvania.   The  present number in
 the U. States is about 2O0,0C0.
   Refraction, double.  Rays of? light,
 hi traversing the greater numlier of? crys-
 tallized bodies, are commonly split into
 two pericils, one of which, called the or-
 dinaryray,  follows  the  common laws of
 refraction, whilst the  oilier, called the ex-
 traordinary  ray,  obeys   veiy different
 laws.   This phenomenon, first observed
 in the  Iceland spar, or crystallized lime-
 stone,  is called dduble  refraction.   It oc-
 curs in all transparent  minerals,  whose
 primitive forms are  not referable  to  the
 cube or the regular octahedron.  The di-
 vision  of the  beam  is greater or  less in
 different  substances, and  according  as
 they are cut.  Double refraction is found
 iu various animal  and vegetable bodies;
 anil it may be communicated,  either per-
  manently or transiently, to substances in 
550                REFRACTION, DOUBLE—REGALIA.
which it does not naturally reside.  In all
double refracting substances, there are one
or  more  lines,  or  planes, along which
double refraction  does not take  place.
Those substances in which there is only
one such plane or line, are called crystals,
or  bodies with one  axis, or one plane of
axes of double refraction; and those which
have two, three, four, &c, such lines are
called  crystals, or bodies with two, three,
four, &c. axes, or planes of axes, of double
refraction.   When  the doubly refracting
force does not exist in any of these axes,
or planes of axes, the axis is called a real axis
of double refraction ;  but when the disap-
pearance of double refraction arises from
the existence of two  opposite  and equal
doubly refracting forces, which destroy one
another, theaxis, or plane of axes, are called
a resultant axis, or plane of double refrac-
tion, or an axis  or plane of compensation.
If the  ray, which suffers the extraordina-
ry refraction, is  refracted towards the ax-
is, or plane of axes, ofa doubly refracting
body, the axis is called a positive axis of
double refraction; and if it is refraeted^rom
the  axis, it  is called  a negative axis of
double  refraction.  (See Optics.)
  Refractor,   or  Refracting  Tele-
scope.  (See Telescope.)
  Refuge, Cities  of, among the  He-
Ium»w.) • ylx cities lkf>louging to thft F ovilps,
in  which  a  person, who had committed
involuntary  murder,  might  take  refuge
from the vengeance of his pursuers, until
his case was investigated. (Deut. xxxv, 6.)
If the  murder was  proved to have been
intentional, the culprit was  given  up to
the avenger of blood; if otherwise, the
latter could not injure him  within the pre-
cincts of the city.  (See Asylum.)
  Refugees.  This name is given partic-
ularly to the French Protestants, who  fled
from their native country  on account of
the persecutions to which they were ex-
posed  after  the repeal, iu 1685, of the
edict of Nantes, under which the reformed
doctrines had enjoyed toleration  from the
year 1598.  {See Huguenots, Maintenon,
and Louis XIV.)   The cruelties which
inquisitorial  zeal had produced in other
countries, were renewed in France, against
the herdics,  as they were  called.  Drag-
oons were quartered on them,  and were
to compel them, by oppressions of eveiy
description, to renounce their f'lith; and
those who could not  be made to recant,
either  died  under the sabre,  or  were
obliged to pass their lives in prison, or irf
banishment beyond the sea.  To escape
this state of misery, many fled from their
native land.  But the  government did all
which they could to deprive them of this
means of escape.  The frontiere of France
were occupied by troops, and every Prot-
estant,  who  fell  into their hands,  was
abused, deprived of his property, loaded
with chains, and confined  in  the galleys
with the most abandoned criminals; chil-
dren were taken from their parents, and
educated, in monasteries, in the Catholic
faith.  Nevertheless, 800,000 Protestants,
at least, were able by artifice, and in some
cases by force, to escape from their native
country.  England, Denmark,  Holland,
Switzerland, Germany, in the latter espe-
cially  Saxony,  Bradenbuig, and Hesse,
received these fugitives with hospitality.
Merchants  and  manufacturers  went to
England and Holland, whither they could
more easily convey their property, and at
the same time employ it more profitably.
The nobility, soldiere, artists, literati, me-
chanics,  and manufacturers, went to the
states of Bradenburg.  In many of these
Countries, the governments gave to the
emigrants equal privileges with their other
subjects, and received large additions to
their resources from the wealth and skill
which a fanatical king had driven  from
his own  kingdom.  In the  Brandenburg
states, where these refugees obtained the
most extensive civil  privileges,  they be-
came the founders of a large part of the
manufactures, which at the present time
constitute so considerable  a part of the
wealth ofthe Prussian monarchy.  They
exerted a still more important influence
on  the  intellectual and moral  culture of
the countries to which they fled.   Con-
cerning  the  reception  of the  fugitive
French Protestants, in the electoral states
of Brandenburg, see the Denkwurdigkei-
ten  of Christian William von Dohm (5th
vol., 475).
  Regalia (jura regalia);  in general, the
privileges connected with  the sovereign
power.   They are either such as necessa-
rily originate from the nature of govern-
ment, or such as are accidentally attached
to the sovereign.   Of the former sort  is
the power of judicature;  of  the latter,
such  rights  as that of collecting amber,
which belongs  to the king of Prussia.
Some rights are now so intimately con-
nected with the public order, that they be-
long to the  former  class,  though many
states have  existed without  them  (e.  g.
the privilege of coining money, which was
exercised by certain families  in ancient
Rome).  As states and governments have
gradually grown  up from  rudeness and
lawlessness,  it may  easily  be imagined
how much ignorance, in some  cases, and 
REGALIA—REGIOMONTANUS.
551
force in others, have influenced the idea
of regalia.  Among some German  tribes,
the precious metals and stones were con-
sidered as  belonging  exclusively to the
sovereign;  and even now a  citizen has
not, in all  countries, the  right to work
mines on  his  own ground.  Some tribes
allowed their princes the sole privilege of
hunting all the larger animals, except ani-
mals of prey ; some sovereigns declared
all unclaimed  property, as waifs, est rays,
or newly formed land on the seashore,
&c, regalia. These regalia are also  called
majora (comprehending what  relates to
the sovereign's power  and dignity) and
minora (what relates to his fiscal or  pecu-
niary prerogatives).—Regalia also denotes,
in England, the regal insignia, the sceptre
with  the cross, sceptre with the dove, St.
Edward's staff, four several  swords, the
globe, the orb with the cross,  and other
articles used at the coronation.—Regalia
of the church  denotes, in England, those
rights and  privileges  which  cathedrals,
&c, enjoy by the  concessions of kings.—
Regalia is  sometimes  also used for the
patrimony of a church.
  Regardant, in heraldry, is applied to
a lion or  other beast of prey, in the atti-
tude of looking with his eyes towards his
tail.
  Regatta, a public diversion in Venice,
in which boats run races on the canals
that intersect  the city.   Each  boat  con-
tains one pereon only, and the boat which
first reaches the goal, receives a small prize
in money.  The  number of  spectators
present, in ornamented gondolas, make the
principal attraction of this festival.
  Regensburg.   (See Ratisbon.)
  Regent. Regent, in a general sense, is a
ruler, the ruler of a state;  in a more limit-
ed sense, one  who exercises the highest
power vicariously during the  absence or
incapacity of the  lawful sovereign.  The
right  to the regency is created  by law,
agreement, or  by last will aud  testament
By a testamentary  appointment, a  ruler
can legally establish a regency only when
the right of a third pereon to the regency,
founded  upon law, is not injured.  The
same is true in respect to regencies made
by agreement.   Among the regencies of
modern times, that of Philip, duke of Or-
leans (q. v.), during the minority of Louis
XV of France (from 1715 to 23), was de-
plorable in its consequences for France,
and,  indeed, all Europe.  Our times have
seen the regency of George, prince of
Wales (George IV), and the short regen-
cies  of the former empress  of France,
Maria  Louisa, and dial of the queen of
Etruria of the same name;  the regency
of the crown-prince  Frederic of  Ben-
mark (1784—1808), when he ascended the
Danish throne under the name of Fred-
eric  VI. (q. v.)   It is  worthy of remark,
that, within the last fifty yeare, three re-
gencies of crown princes have taken place
in Europe on account of the mental im-
becility or insanity of the kings of  Great
Britain, Portugal and Denmark.  Of late,
when Belgium separated herself from the
kingdom of the Netherlands,  and  Poland
rose  against Russia, persons were placed
at the head of affaire with  the title of re-
gent, indicating that the revolted countries
did not declare themselves against  mon-
archy.
  Reggio.  (See Modena.)
  Reggio, Duke of.   (See Oudinot.)
  Regiment ; a body of troops, either in-
fantry or cavalry, consisting in the former
case  of one or  more  battalions (q. v.),  in
the latter, of several squadrons.  The ave-
rage  number of a regiment of infantry,  in
the various services, may be stated at  about
1800.   A colonel  or lieutenant-colonel
generally commands a regiment. Artillery
is also sometimes divided  into regiments
in time of peace  (e. g. in  France and
Prussia).  Regiments were first formed in
France in  1558, and in England in 1660.
By the act of congress of March 2, 1821,
the military peace establishment of the  U.
States is composed of four regiments  of
artillery, consisting each of nine  compa-
nies, and seven regiments of infantry, con-
sisting each of ten companies;  each com-
pany consisting of forty-two privates.
  Regiomontanus. whose  real name was
John Muller, and who, according to the
custom of his time, assumed  that of Re-
giomontanus, in allusion to the place  of
his birth, Konigsberg (King's mountain),
in Franconia, was born in  1436.  He ex-
hibited  great  precocity of  talent,  aud,
having received  a  classical education  at
Leipsic,  placed  himself  under   Pur-
bachius  (Peurhach),  the  professor   of
mathematics at Vienna.  Under  so able
an instructor, he made the  greatest  profi-
ciency, and became one of the firet as-
tronomers  as well as mechanics of that
age.   Regiomontanus, together with Pur-
bachius, accompanied cardinal Bessarion
to Rome in 1461, where Beza gave him
further instructions in Greek  literature,
which enabled him  to complete a new
abridgment in Latki of the Almagest  of
Ptolemy (Venice,  1496),  and  to correct
many  errore in the  former translation,
made by George of Trebizond.  In 1471,
he built an observatory at Nuremberg, and 
552                   REGIOMONTANUS-REGULUS.
established a press ;  but, after a stay of lit-
tle  more  than  three  years, returned to
Rome, on  the invitation of Sixtus IV, who
employed  him  in the reformation of the
calendar,  and  rewarded his services by
raising him to the bishopric of Ratisbon.
He died in 1476, according to some, ofthe
plague, according to others, by poison ad-
ministered by the  son of George of Tre-
hizond, out of revenge for  his having ex-
posed the errors  of his father.   Regio-
montanus  was  the  first in  Germany to
apply himself to the  cultivation of the neg-
lected science of algebra. He made great
improvements in trigonometry, into which
he introduced  the use of taugents.   His
refutation  of a supposed discovery of the
quadrature of the circle, and his numer-
ous writings ou various subjects of natu-
ral philosophy, display extensive learning
and  great  acuteness.   His  astronomical
observations from 1475 to 1506 (under the
title Ephemerides) are very accurate.   Of
his works, the  most  valuable are his Ca-
lendarium; De Reformatione Calendarii ;
Tabula magna primi Mobilis ; De Comda
Magnitudine Longitudineque; De  Trian-
gulis.  His life has  been written by Gas-
sendi (Opera,  vol. v).
  Regius   Professors.    Henry VIII
founded five lectures iu Oxford and Cam-
bridge, viz. divinity, Hebrew, Greek, law
and physic, the  readers of which lectures
are in the  universities' statutes called regii
professores.
  Regnard, John Francis; a comic poet,
born at Paris, Feb.  8, 1655.  Having re-
ceived a  good education, and being set
free from restraint hy the death of his fa-
ther, he went to  Italy iu  1676 or 1677.
He was fond of play, and, being very
fortunate,  was  returning  home  with a
considerable addition  of property, when
he was captured by an Algerine corsair,
and, being sold for a slave, was  carried
to Constantinople.  His skill in the art of
cookery rendered  him a favorite with his
master; but at  length he was ransomed,
and  returned  home.  He  did not, how-
ever, remain there long; for in April, 1681,
he set off, in  company with others, on a
journey to Lapland, and after going as far
north as  Tomco, he  returned through
Sweden, Poland and Germany.  Regnard
then retired to an estate near  Dourdan,
eleven leagues from  Paris, where he died,
in September, 1709.  He wrote an account
of  his  northern tour, a  number  of
dramatic  pieces  (the  best of  which
are  the  Joueur,  Legataire  Universel,
Distrait,  and  Rctour  Imprivu),  poems,
aud other  works, which  have been often
published, in six vols., 8vo., and four vols.,
12mo.
  Regnier, Mathurin, born at Chartrefl
in 1573, died at  Rouen  in 1613, early
showed an irresistible inclination to satire.
His poetical talents gained him  powerful
friends, and  the  cardinal  Francois  de
Joyeuse took him to Rome, whither  he
also afterwards  accompanied the French
ambassador Philippe de Bethune.   Some
valuable benefices, which  were conferred
upon him, enabled him to lead a  life  of
ease und pleasure.  His works consist of
satires,  epistles, elegies, odes,  epigrams,
&c.;  but his satires,  sixteen in number,
are the  principal  basis of his reputation.
Pereius and Juvenal sre his models, which
he surpasses iu the licentiousness  of his
pictures.   His  coloring is vigorous, but
his style is incorrect, and his jests are often
low and indecent; yet he is not destitute
of true poetical turns, delicate wit and a
pleasing humor.
  Regnier Desmaraib, Francois  Sera-
phin,  born in Paris in 1632, died in 1713.
While yet at  college, he translated the
Batradwmyomachia, and after travelling in
the train of several men of distinction,  he
became secretary of legation  to  the duke
de Crequi,  French ambassador at  Rome.
Such was  his knowledge of Italian, that
an ode  written by him  in that  language
was believed  to be  by Petrarch, and the
academy della Crusca  chose  him a mem-
ber of their body.  He was  equally well
acquainted with the  Spanish.   In 1670,
he was admitted  into the French acad-
emy, of which, in 1684, he became per-
petual secretary.  His labors  in  the com-
pilation  of the Didionnaire de FAcadimie,
were  of the greatest value,  and he was
the author ofthe grammar which appear*
ed under the name  of the  academy  in
1676.   In his 80th year, he collected his
poems  under the title  of Poisies Fran-
coises, Latines, Ilaliennes,  d  Espagnoles.
liis hir-torical works are of less value.
  Regular denotes   any  thing  that   in
agreeable to the rules of art; thus  we say
a regular  building, verb, &c. A  regular
figure, in geometry, is one whose sides,
and consequently angles, are equal.  All
regular figures may be inscribed in a cir-
cle.
  Regulator of a Watch ; the small
spring belonging to the balance, serving to
adjust its motions, and make it go faster
or slower.
  Regulus, Marcus  Attilius, a  Roman
general, celebrated for his  patriotism and
devotion in the service of  his country,
was made consul a second  time about 256 
REGULUS—REICHENBACH.
553
B. C, and with his  colleague, Manlius
Vulso, commanded in the firet war against
Carthage.   Notwithstanding the little ex-
perience which the  Romans then had in
naval warfare, the consuls defeated  a su-
perior Carthaginian fleet, and  effected a
landing in Africa. Here Regulus followed
up his victories so  successfully, that in a
short time he presented himself before
the capital of the enemy.  Carthage, de-
prived of its fleet, and not accustomed to
military operations by land, sued for peace.
Regulus, more of a soldier than a  politi-
cian, persisted, with the Roman haughti-
ness, in his demand  of unconditional sub-
mission.  The Carthaginians preferred to
die rather  than to accept such terms, and
at this juncture  were joined by a  small
body of Spartan volunteers  under Xan-
thippus.  The Grecian general gave battle
to Regulus under the walls  of Carthage,
where thirty thousand Romans fell, and
Regulus was made prisoner.  Carthage
could now hope to obtain a peace upon
better terms.   An embassy was, therefore,
sent  to Rome, accompanied by Regulus,
who was  obliged to bind himself by an
oath to return to Carthage, if Rome should
refuse  the  terms   proposed.   Regulus,
however, considered it his duty, in oppo-
sition to the wishes of the Carthaginians,
to advise   the continuance  of the  war;
and  neidier the prayers and tears of his
wife and children, nor the entreaties of the
senate and people, who were ready to
save the liberty and life of such a citizen
by any sacrifice, could bend  him from his
purpose.   The prosecution of the  war
was,  therefore,  decided upon, and the
Carthaginian ambassadore returned home
astonished and  irritated, and with  them
Regulus, in obedience  to his oath.  The
cmel revenge  which  the Carthaginians
are  said  to  have  taken on Regulus,  is
doubted by many modem inquirere, and
the  silence of  Polybius and Diodorus
Siculus upon this subject, is certainly  re-
markable; however this may be, his firm-
ness in refusing to purchase his life by the
sacrifice of the public  good, is worthy of
admiration.
   Regulus, in chemistry, denotes a metal
in its most extensive sense—a metal in its
proper metallic state.   The  term  is now
little used.  The old chemists chiefly em-
ployed it as a distinctive appellation, when
a metal and one of its ores happened to
be called by the same name.
   Reichardt, John  Frederic; a musi-
cal  composer, and author, who  was a
corresponding member of the  French in-
stitute.  He  was born at Konigsberg, in
   vol. x.          47
1751; studied in the university of Konigs-
berg, under Kant; travelled much ; was ap-
pointed, in 1775, master of the chapel for
the Italian opera in Berlin;  did a  great
deal for music  under the reign of Fred-
eric William II; was appointed, in 1807,
by the king of  Westphalia, director ofthe
French and German theatre ; and died in
1814.   His compositions are very numer-
ous ; among which are  the Tamerlane of
Morel and the Panthea of Berquin. Some
of his lighter productions are  very fine.
His literary productions are, Familiar Let-
ters, written  during a Journey in France
in 1792 (2 vols., 8vo.); New Familiar Let-
ters during a Journey in France in 1803
and 1804 (3 vols., 8vo.); Familiar Lettere
on Vienna, &c.; Napoleon Bonaparte and
the French  People under his Consulate,
&c. In 1804 and 1805, he was conductor
of the Musical Gazette of Berlin.  Reich-
ardt was not a great musical  genius, but
had formed himself by study and an  ex-
cellent taste.
   Reichenbach, George of, a distinguish-
ed mechanical artist, was bom, August 24,
1772,  at Manheim, and died  at Munich,
May 21,  1826.   In the establishments for
the manufacture of optical  instruments,
which  he founded at Munich and Bene-
dictbeurn (q. v.), in 1805, in conjunction
with Utzschneider and Fraunhofer, all the
instmments  necessaiy for  astronomical
and geodetical  operations  were   made
in great perfection.  The great meridian
circles of three feet diameter, the  twelve
inch repeating circles,  theodolites,  &c,
which  proceeded from these manufacto-
ries, are unsurpassed  in simplicity and
convenience of construction, in the fine-
ness and delicacy  of their divisions, and
in their  whole an-angement   The  tele-
scopes from the optical manufactory of
Fraunhofer  at  Benedictbeurn,  are distin-
guished  for the excellence of their flint
glass, and, in fact,  their whole constmc-
tion. (See Telescopes.)   The  great equa-
torial instrument of Reichenbach and the
heliometers  of Fraunhofer have satisfied
the highest  expectations of astronomers.
Reichenbach  constructed a peculiar in-
strument for baron Zach, in 1812, which
may be called  a portable observatory, as it
unites  in itself the two principal  instm-
ments of an observatory—a perfect me-
ridian telescope joined to a repeating  cir-
cle together with  a repeating theodolite
for' the  measurement  of azimuths.  He
likewise distinguished  himself by his in-
genious constructions at die Bavarian salt-
works (see Berchtesgaden, and Reichenhall),
and by his  invention of iron bridges, ac- 
554                       REICHENBACH—REID.
cording to a new method, to which he de-
voted a particular treatise.
  Reichenbach, Congress and Conven-
tion of.  (See Congress.)
  Reichenberg,  the largest  provincial
town of Bohemia, in the circle of Buntz-
lau, at  the foot of the Jeschkenberg, on
the river Neisse,  has 14,000  inhabitants
and much manufacturing industry.   The
environs afford precious  stones.  There
are about 900 master weavers of woollen
cloth, producing annually  100,000 pieces
(of thirty-six ells each);  numerous dyers,
spinners, &c.  There are also 400 master
linen-weavers, and 300 master workmen
engaged in  making stockings.  About 38
populous villages around Reichenberg are
supported by it.  The Bohemians are nat-
urally great musicians, and the traveller is
surprised by excellent musical choirs in
many of the manufactories in this place.
  Reichenhall, a  town in the Bavarian
circle of the Isar, with 2400 inhabitants,
on the  Sala,  is, in some measure, the cen-
tral point of the  four gigantic  Bavarian
salt-works.   The most ancient documents
respecting the salt-works of Reichenhall
reach back  to  the  eighth  centuiy;  but
the wood in  the immediate vicinity having
been  so far exhausted, that  the  brine
could no longer be  boiled on  the  spot,
a brine-conductor was constructed as early
as 1618, by a Mr. Reifenstuhl,  to Traun-
stein, a distance  of several leagues, by
which  it is carried  over a perpendicular
height  of 828 feet  A similar  conductor
of brine  was  executed  in 1809, in 20
months, by  Von Reichenbach  (q. v.), to
Rosenheim,  on the Inn, a  much greater
distance, in spite of numberless obstacles.
Mr. Reichenbach effected, in 1817, a con-
nexion of the  salt-works at Reichenhall,
Traunstein and Rosenheim, with the salt-
works  at Berchtesgaden. (q.v.)  Though
the Ferdinandsberg, near Berchtesgaden,
is situated 160 feet  higher than Reich-
enhall, yet, on account of the intervening
mountains, the brine is raised by two ma-
chines 1579 Rhenish feet, and descends
again 1740 feet  to Reichenhall.   For this,
a structure of pipes, partly covered, partly
open, 102,000 Rhenish feet in length, part
of  wood, part of  iron, was  necessary.
One of the machines, constructed, accord-
ing to a new principle, by Reichenbach,
raises the saturated  brine 1218  Rhenish
feet perpendicularly.
  Reichstadt, Duke of.  Reichstadt is a
lordship in  Bohemia.   The chief town
of the  same  name  contains a beautiful
castle and 1900 inhabitants;  about fifty
miles north-east of Prague.  The empe-
ror Francis I bestowed  the  title of duke
of Reichstadt on his grandson Napoleon
Francis Joseph Charles  (born March 20,
1811), son of Napoleon and Maria Louisa,
daughter to Francis I,  now duchess of
Parma.   The letters patent  (of July 22,
1818) grant the young prince the dignity
of serene highness, with a rank next after
the princes of the blood, and a particular
coat of arms.  The revenue of the lord-
ship, consisting of  the  fourteen Tuscan
estates, is about 400,000 guilders, or about
$160,000. When Lucca passes  into the
possession of the grand-duke of Tuscany,
this  lordship will  fall to the duke.  (See
Parma.)  The duke of Reichstadt resides, at
present, at Vienna.  Even previously to his
birth, he was designated as king of Rome;
and  a few days after his baptism  he re-
ceived  the homage of  the different au-
thorities,  whom the countess of Montes-
quiou, as governess of France, answered
in his name.   After the fall of Napoleon,
he was placed under the care of his grand-
father, who, at  firet, destined  him for  the
church, but afterwards gave him a military
education.  He had excellent teachers, as,
for instance, Von Hammer.  In Austrian
and other German official papers, his name
is given as Francis Joseph Charles  only;
so that the  name of Napoleon  seems to
have been dropped.
  Reid, Thomas, an eminent metaphysi-
cian, was born in 1710, at  Strachen, in
Kincardineshire, where   his  father was
minister,  and educated at Marischal col-
lege, Aberdeen.  In 1737, he  was pre-
sented by King's college, Aberdeen, with
the  living of New  Machar,  in  the same
county, where the greater part of his time
was spent in the most intense study.  In
1752, he  was elected professor of moral
philosophy at  King's college,  Aberdeen,
and, iu 1763, accepted the same office at
Glasgow. In 1764, he published his cele-
brated  Inquiry into the Human Mind on
the  Principle of Common Sense,  which
was succeeded, in 1786, by his Essays on
the  Intellectual Powere  of Man, and, in
1788, by  his Essay on the Active Powere.
These, with au Analysis of  Aristotle's
Logic and an Essay on Quantity, form the
whole  of his publications.  He died in
October, 1796,  in  his eighty-sixth year,
with a high  character for benevolence and
integrity, as  well as  for talents.—See the
article Philosophy, Intellectual, and his life
by Dugald Stewart.   A French transla-
tion of his  works  by Jouffroy, with an
Introductory Essay, and the  Notes of
Royer  Collard, has recently appeared at
Paris (1828 seq.). 
REIL—REISKE.                          555
  Reil, John Christian, professor in  the
univereity of Berlin, was bom Feb.  20,
1758, in East Friesland.   In 1783, he was
graduated at Halle.  After having practised
medicine for some time, he was appoint-
ed professor of therapeutics, in 1787, in
Halle.   He taught and practised there for
twenty yeare, until  the  conquest  of Ger-
many by the French ruined this ancient
univereity.  In  1810, he was  appointed
professor in the  newly created  university
of Berlin.  In 1813, he was appointed one
of the highest medical officere in the mili-
tary department; but before the time for
his entry on his new avocation, the typhus
fever  carried  him off, Nov.  22,  1814.
Reil  had  many  excellent qualities.  He
was particularly distinguished for his skill
in mental maladies, and has acquired a
lasting reputation  by his investigations
into  the structure  of  the brain,  and his
new  physiological  views.  His work On
the Symptoms  and Cure of Fever will
long survive him.
   Reindeer.  (See Deer.)
   Reinecke. (See Renard.)
   Reinhard, Francis Volkmar,  a cele-
brated Protestant preacher, born in 1753,
was  a native of the duchy of Sulzbach,
in Germany.  He  was  instructed  by his
father (who was  a clergyman) till he was
sixteen, when he was  admitted  into  the
gymnasium of  Ratisbon, where  he re-
mained five years; and, in 1773, he was
removed to the university of Wittenberg.
The study of sacred eloquence especially
attracted his attention ;  and his reputation
procured him, in 1782, the chair of theol-
ogy, to which, in 1784, was added the of-
fices of preacher at the university church
and assessor of the consistory.   In 1792,
he was invited to Dresden to become firet
preacher to the  court of Saxony, ecclesi-
astical counsellor, and  member of the su-
preme consistory.  After filling these sta-
tions with high reputation for about twenty
years, he died, Sept 6,1812.  His princi-
pal works are, A System of Christian Mo-
rality ; An Essay on the Plan formed by
the Founder of Christianity for the Hap-
piness ofthe Human  Race;  Sermons;
Letters of F. V. Reinhard  on his Ser-
mons, and on his Education as a Preach-
er ; Lectures on  Dogmatic Theology.
   Reinhold, Charles  Leonard,  bom in
Vienna, Oct 26, 1758, was professor of
philosophy, firet in  Jena (from 1787), then
at Kiel (from 1794), where he died, April
10, 1823.  His Catholic parents  destined
him for the church, and sent him to study
with die  Jesuits in Vienna.   When the
order was  abolished in 1774, he entered
the college of the regulated priests of St.
Paul (generally called Barnabites),  where
he became, at the age of twenty-two years,
professor of philosophy.  During the reign
of Joseph II, he distinguished himself by
many philosophical treatises in periodical
works.   But his vigorous and inquiring
mind could not fail to discover the weak-
ness of many Catholic dogmas.  He left
Austria in 1787, and the same year was ap-
pointed professor at Jena, having written a
celebrated Vindication of the Reformation
against two chaptere in Schmidt's History
of the Germans.   Jena owed to  him
much of its reputation.  We  cannot enu-
merate his many works; but they are all
remarkable as the productions of a mind
which freed  itself by its own efforts from
the prejudices of education.   In his  phi-
losophy, he  followed Kant, Fichte, Bar-
dili and Jacobi.   Professor Ernest Rein-
hold, his son, published, in 1825, in Jena,
his life, with a number of letters address-
ed to  him  by  Kant, Fichte, and many
celebrated philosophers.
  Reinsurance, in commerce, a contract
by which the firet insurer relieves himself
from the  risks  he had undertaken,  and
devolves them  upon other underwriters,
called reinsurers.
   Reis Effendi.  (See Effendi.)
   Reiske, John James, a distinguished
German philologist, was  born at Zorbig,
in Saxony, in 1716.  He was the son of a
tanner, who was able to do  but little for
his education.   After studying, from 1728
to 1732, in the orphans' school at Halle, he
went, in 1733, to the univereity of Leipsic.
Rendered gloomy and melancholy by his
monastic education at Halle, he did not at-
tend any lectures at Leipsic, but studied
by himself,  without method.  He  here
studied the Arabic language, devoting to
that object all the resources  at his com-
mand; and, in 1738, though  entirely des-
titute, undertook a journey to Leyden, then
the seat of Arabic literature.  In Ham-
burg, he found two patrons (Wolf, a cler-
gyman, and professor Reimarus), who ena-
bled him to accomplish his wishes.  In
Leyden, Schultens gave him access to the
library, of which  he made  diligent use.
D'Orville  and Bunnann,  who employed
him in making translations and correcting
the  press, became his patrons.   Reiske
pursued his  philological studies  with the
greatest zeal, and, at the  same time, at-
tended to theoretical medicine, and receiv-
ed the degree of doctor, free of expense,
from the medical faculty.  He had gained
much  reputation  in Leyden for learning
and industry ; but he refused offere which 
556
REISKE—RELIEVO.
were  made him, in the hope (which was
never, however,  fulfilled) of better.  He
might have succeeded in Holland, if he
had not made enemies by his self-will and
love of independence.  He returned to
Leipsic in 1746, but was there,  also, una-
ble to procure  any place, except that, in
1748, by the favor of the elector, he re-
ceived the title of professor of Arabic, and
was obliged to gain his subsistence by pri-
vate instruction, writing of books, correct-
ing the press, translating, and by contribu-
tions to critical journals.  Meanwhile, he
was always pressed for want of money, as
he spent almost all which he acquired in
purchasing books, especially in  Greek and
Arabic literature, and turned Ins works to
little account.  In 1756,  by the explana-
tion of an Arabie inscription, he attracted
the notice of the count  of Wackerbarth,
who procured him, in 1758, the rectorship
in St. Nicholas's school at Leipsic; the du-
ties of which  he discharged with fidelity
for sixteen years, notwithstanding his nu-
merous literary labors.   In 1768, he mar-
ried Ernestine Cliristina Muller,  a lady
of uncommon talents and learning, who
assisted him  hi  his labors, and was his
faithful companion till his death in 1774.
Greek literature  is indebted to  Reiske for
excellent  editions  of Theocritus (Vienna
and  Leipsic, 1765, 2 vols.,  4to.),  of the
Greek orators (Leipsic, 1770—75,12 vols.),
of Plutarch (Leipsic, 1774—79, 12 vols.),
of  Dionysius  of Halicarnassus (Leipsic,
1774—77, 6 vols.], and of Maximus Tyri-
us (Leipsic, 1774,  2 vols.).  Uncommon
erudition  and critical acuteness are dis-
played in  his Animadversiones  in  Grcecos
Audores (Leipsic, 1759—66, 6 vols.), con-
taining emendations of a great number of
passages of the Greek classics. His collec-
tion of manuscripts, chiefly Arabic, which
he had himself transcribed or purchased,
was bought, after his death, by Suhm of
Copenhagen.  His  Life, written by him-
self, with  impartiality and frankness, was
continued to his death  by his  wife, and
published, at Leipsic, in 1783.  The ex-
cellent Vita Reiskii by Moms (Leipsic,
1777) should be compared with it.
   Reka ;  Russian for river, as Tchemaia-
reka (Black river).
   Relation (Italian rdazione) was  the
name given to the full and minute account
which a Venetian ambassador was obliged
to render, on his return, to the council of
the Pregadi,  respecting  the state  of the
country to which he had been sent, its for-
eign and domestic relations, the character
of the prince, chief officers and people.
These, together with the repoits which
the ambassadore were obliged  to  make
every week,  were  preserved in the ar-
chives.  As early as 1268, the senate pass-
ed a law obliging the  ambassadors to
write down every thing remarkable which
fell under their observation.  In 1465, the
word rdazione came into use.  The last
of these relaziani mention the beginning
of the  French revolution.  They were
often copied by order  of patrons of sci-
ence, so that many are found in the li-
braries at Rome,  Paris, Berlin ;  some are
in Gotha,  and several hi smaller libraries
of Italy.  In  the  beginning of 1831,  a
number of  them  were sold among the
manuscripts of the  late lord Guildford.
The  circumstance  that  Venice  stood, in
early tunes, in very important relations to
all the principal powere of Europe, partic-
ularly to Spain and  the  sultan, when the
Porte was at the apex of its power, ren-
ders  the relazioni one ofthe most impor-
tant and most interesting sources of mod-
ern history.
  Relegatio  (exile) ; a punishment in
use among the Romans, particularly under
the emperors.  The. name  has  been re-
tained in the government of German uni-
versities.  (See Consilium Abeundi.)
  Relics; the remains or supposed remains
of holy pereons, saints (q. v.), or martyrs, or
some objects belonging to them, or in some
way  connected with them.   These relics
were multiplied particularly after the cru-
sades.   Thus  in some places are shown
the shroud in  which the body  of Christ
was  laid,  pieces of die cross, of objects
sunounding the sepulchre,  and relics of
Olary,  Joseph, and the holy men of the
early Christian church.  At firet, these ob-
jects were only held in high esteem; but
eventually  superstition  ascribed to such
relics miraculous powers, and a system of
fraud was countenanced  by the Roman
clergy  for their profit: honors, little short
of divine, were paid to these objects, and
more virtue was  attributed to a splinter of
the cross than to the word of the Sa-
vior.
   Relief.  (See Relievo.)
   Relief, in law; a certain sum of money,
which the tenant, holding by mihtary ser-
vice, and being at full age at the death of
his ancestor,  paid to the feudal lord  at
his  entrance  on  the  possession of the
estate.
   Relievo  (Italian), or Relief ; scul|>-
tured  work,  raised above  a surface with
which it is connected.  It lias several gra-
dations (basso,  mezzo, and alto-rdievo).
Originally, with  the Greeks, it was very
flat,  as in the instance  of the hon  on the 
RELIEVO—RELIGION.                       557
gate of Mycenaj, perhaps the most ancient
preserved relief.   Phidias  brought it to
perfection; and the cornices and metopes
ofthe Parthenon, and the temple of Apol-
lo at Bassse, near Phigalia, in Arcadia, pre-
served by a fortunate accident, are yet un-
rivalled models of relievo.   In the sculp-
ture of the later Romans,  who  strove to
supply by technical  execution what was
wanting in spirit, the high relief  (altissimo
relievo) was adopted, in which the figures
were so raised as to  stand  almost entirely
out from the  ground, w hich was covered
with other figures, in low relief. Proba-
bly works in precious stones of several
layers, cameos in pietre dure,  occasioned
these attempts, of which the collection of
antiques at Dresden contains remarkable
specimens.   It was  the intention of Al-
gardi and his followers to carry relief still
farther.  They even attempted  perspec-
tive  representations, including landscapes.
A misconception  of the  true  limits  of
sculpture  and glyptics, in  relation  to
painting, was die  cause of these aberra-
tions from a  just taste, which have main-
tained themselves in medals. Thorwald-
sen (q. v.) has restored to the relief its true
and  simple  character, whilst  Canova's
rdievi strive too much to imitate painting.
Another kind of relief has been employ-
ed of late, which,  however, is  not to be
commended.   On  medals, particularly,
the figures have been represented  on an ele-
vated surface, as if cut in an onyx of two
layers.  For aU these kinds of work, the
Greeks had the general name avay\v(j>a; al-
so ypanra avay\v$a, because they were  fre-
quently painted.  As yet, no Greek rdiefs
en creux have been found, such as were
used in Egypt—slightly raised sculpture,
in a depressed surface, often filled with
colore.   In  hard stones,  these can  be
worked only with die best steel.
   Religion.  This  word,  defined in so
many ways, is derived from the  Latin  re-
ligio (a sacred oath, or obligation), but that
which it signifies, is as old  as man aud his
relation to God, whom  it presupposes.
Man is not only placed in a certain rela-
tion towards  the Deity, but is naturally led
to the idea of his existence, the compre-
hension, in some degree, of his nature,
and the study of his own relations towards
him.   This disposition and capacity, rude
as its early manifestations may be, makes
man a religious being- Religion, therefore,
in its widest sense, may be  defined to  be
jthe sentiment and knowledge of our rela-
tion to God,  and  of the great variety of
consequences flowing therefrom.  Rdi-
gion is also used hi English for piety, or the
disposition to do what the indi.idual be-
lieves to be the will of God.  The reli-
gious disposition,and the degree of religious
knowledge, show tiiemselves in various
ways; and  the  communication of  this
knowledge,as it relates tosupematural sub-
jects, must be often  effected in a symboli-
cal way; and the forms in which the reli-
gious feeling expresses itself (forms of wor-
ship), must be of a  symbolical character.
The variety in the modes in which the re-
ligious feeling manifests itself in different
nations, gives rise'to the idea of positive
rehgion.  A positive  religion is religion
modified by the peculiar developement of
the religious disposition, by peculiar views
respecting the relation of man to God, and
of his destiny, as well as by peculiar cus-
toms and symbols  of worship.  In  this
sense we speak of a Mohammedan, pagan,
Christian, Jewish religion.   A  particular
form of religion becomes predominant by
a variety of causes; by the growing author-
ity of tradition, or the intellectual superior-
ity of particular men, who imbue families,
tribes, nations,  with their  own religious
notions, by the blending of politics  and
religion, and not unfrequently by persecu-
tion  itself.  The adherents of most reli-
gions, moreover, refer the establishment of
their own particular fonn of faith  to the
direct interference  of the  Deity  whom
they worship.  It is the  province  of the
philosophy of religion to investigate the
original principle of all religions, and the
most hidden causes  of the variety  in tin
developement of this great, eternal, origin-
al principle.   The  history  of rehgion
shows the liistorical developement of this
principle, and those general notions which
lie at  the  basis of each religion.   (See
Benjamin Constant's  work  on rehgion.)
The different views entertained of revela-
tion  (q. v.) lead,  of course, to different
views  of religion.   Those who are con-
vinced that man could not have obtained
a sufficient knowledge of his relation to
God by the faculties within him, but that a
direct interposition ofthe Deity was  neces-
sary, oppose revelation to natural religion,
by which is understood  that knowledge
of our relations to  God which we may
obtain by our own  faculties,  unaided by
the  special  interference of the   Deity.
Some  theologians, however,  particularly
in Gennany, do not confine  revelation to
a direct  interference  of the  Deity on a
particular occasion,  but give this name to
all communion,  of  the highest kind, of
man with God; so that they, in fact, blend
natural aud revealed religion, and  do not
admit any thing as revelation  which does 
558
RELIGION—REMBRANDT  VAN  RHYN.
not satisfy their reason.  These are called
naturalists, or rationalists.  Their oppo-
nents are called supernaturalists. (q. v.)
The rationalists must not be confounded
with deists.
  Religion, Established, or Religion
of the State, is that form of religion to
which certain privileges are attached;  for
instance, certahi political rights to its pro-
fessors, or certain distinctions to its priests
or ministers.' The revolution of July, 1830,
changed the clause in the French charter,
which declared the  Catholic religion the
religion of die state, to a declaration that
it was the religion of the majority.  (See
Religious Liberty, Non-Conformists, and
England, Church of.)
  Religious, as a substantive, is used for
the members  of religious orders, monks
and nuns.  (See Orders.)
 Religious Liberty,or Liberty of Con-
science, is the freedom of a man to  wor-
ship his God as he pleases,  if he does not
thereby disturb the peace ofthe common-
wealth.  It exists in perfection  where the
adherents of every  religion can worship
publicly, conduct schools and seminaries,
make their own liturgy, and, in fact, con-
duct all their religious concerns according
to  their  own  pleasure, without being in
any way subjected to the ministere  or
churches of another faith ; where the pro-
fessors of all religions enjoy equal rights ;
where, in fact, government takes no cog-
nizance  of religious concerns, provided
the public peace is not  injured nor the
mles of morality violated.  This perfect re-
ligious liberty exists only in  the  United
States, and, as far as we know, has never
existed elsewhere.   According  to the con-
stitution ofthe United States (art VI), " no
religious test shall  ever  be required  as
a qualification to any office or public trust
under the United  States,  and (amend-
ments, art. I) congress shall make  no law
respecting an establishnient of  religion, or
prohibiting  the free   exercise thereof."
To this day no Christian sect is tolerated
in  Portugal, Spain, Naples, Sardinia, the
States of the Church, and the minor gov-
ernments of Italy, but the Roman Catho-
lic, though Jews and  their worship are
tolerated.
  Religious  Peace.    (See  Peace,  Re-
ligious.)
  Remainder, in law, is an estate limited
in lands, tenements, or rents, to  be enjoyed
after the expiration of another particular
estate.
  Remains, Organic  (See Organic Re-
mains, and Geology.)
   Rembrandt van Rhtn, Paul, one ofthe
most celebrated painters and engravers of
the Dutch school, was born  in 1606, in a
mill near Leyden, which belonged to his
father.  His passionate love for art disap-
pointed  his father's desire of  educating
him as a scholar.  Paul received instruc-
tion from James van Zwanenburg, a paint-
er of  little note, and afterwards studied in
Amsterdam under Lastmann, Pinas and
Schooten.  But he  soon returned  home,
and pursued his labors there, taking na-
ture as his sole guide: the  nature  which
he consulted, was, however, low ; his sit-
uation was by no means  adapted to  lead
him to a conception of the truly beautiful,
sublime and ideal; and, as he made no ef-
fort to correct the defects of his early ed-
ucation, it was natural that he should con-
fine himself to delineations of common
life, and  find pleasure in  them  alone.
Throughout his whole life, he retained
both this view of art and the same mode
of living,  associating only with common
people, and never acquiring a taste for bet-
ter society.  About 1630, Rembrandt re-
moved to  Amsterdam,  and  married  a
handsome  peasant giri, whom  we find
often copied by him.  His paintings were
soon in extraordinary demand ; and his av-
arice induced him to abandon his former
careful and finished execution for a hasty
manner.   He also took a great number
of pupils, of  whom  he received a high
price  for his  instructions,  selling their
works, retouched  by himself, for his own.
His avaricious  shifts  have given rise to
several  erroneous statements  respecting
his life ; thus, for example, he dated  sev-
eral of his etchings at Venice,  to make
them more saleable; and this circumstance
led some of his biographers to believe,
that he was actually in Venice in 1635 and
1636.   But  he never  left Amsterdam
again, though he was constantly threaten-
ing to quit Holland, in order to increase
the demand for his works.  As early as
1628,  he had applied himself zealously to
etching, and soon acquired great perfec-
tion in the art:  his etchings were esteem-
ed as  highly as his paintings, and he had
recourse  to several artifices to raise their
price, which  are  still employed  by cele-
brated engravers.   For example, he  sold
impressions from unfinished plates, then
finished them, and, after having used them,
made some slight changes,  and thus  sold
the same works three or four times.  He
would secretly buy up, at auction sales or
otherwise, his own works, and then cause
them to be secretly offered for sale by his son,
as if they had been stolen from his father,
&c.   By these tricks, and by  his parsi- 
REMBRANDT  VAN RHYN—REMUSAT.
559
monious maimer  of living,  Rembrandt
amassed a considerable  fortune.   Rem-
brandt, was  master of all that relates to
coloring, distribution of light and shade,
and the  management  of the pencil ; but
he has no claims to the other requisites of
a true artist—composition, grouping, dig-
nified expression, design, perspective, dra-
pery  and taste.   He  drew,  indeed, from
naked models, for which he used  his
scholare; but what sort of  models they
made, iseasily perceived from his works. In
his composition and grouping, he followed
common nature  alone, and his humor at
the moment; in designing, he followed his
model.  He  generally concealed  the  na-
ked parts as much as  possible, rarely  al-
lowing the hands  or feet to  be  seen, be-
cause he was unable to execute them cor-
rectly, almost always making them too
large  or too small.   In those works where
he could not avoid naked figures (for in-
stance, in the Descent from the Cross, the
Burial,  and  in some  representations  of
Bathsheba in the Bath), he is entirely desti-
tute of proportion, generally  disagreeable,
at least common.   His drapery is fantasti-
cal, entirely  without  judgment, for the
most  part without  taste, and  even ridicu-
lous.  He purchased  a collection  of all
sorts of foreign dresses, arms and utensils,
which he introduced into his  pictures.
Notwithstanding  his  great  readiness of
touch, his designs, even in portraits, and
his drapery, are said to have cost him  infi-
nite pains.  It cannot be denied that his
works possess expression and character ;
but they have no dignity.   His heads are
expressive, but, for the most part, carica-
tured;  his Maiys are common women,
his Christ, a man  of  the lowest class of
people, &o.  On the odier hand, his pencil
is masterly and unique, possessing an ener-
gy and  effect belonging to no other artist;
and  in  this  consists  his peculiar  talent
His coloring is magical.   Each tint  he ap-
plied  in its proper place, with the greatest
coii-ectiiess and harmony.   His pictures
are therefore all  full of warmth, and  his
chiaroscuro  replete with inimitable truth.
In his lights, he laid on the colore  so un-
sparingly, that they project  far from the
surface,  and  thereby  much  increase the
effect   He  generally  introduced very
strong lights in his pictures.  He always
preferred light from above, and therefore
had a small aperture made in Iris  cham-
ber, by  winch alone his model was light-
ed.   To this  uniform  method it must be
ascribed, that his coloring is almost always
alike, and  somewhat monotonous.  His
numerous paintings arc dispersed in vari-
ous public and private  cabinets.   The
most celebrated arc Tobias and his Fami-
ly  kneeling  before  the Angel; the Two
Philosophers ;  Christ  at  Emmaus ; the
Workshop ofa Caipenter ; the Good Sa-
maritan ; the Presentation in the Temple;
the portrait of himself and his wife ; the
Threatening Prisoner ; Samson and Deli-
lah; a Descent from  the Cross;  Christ
among the little  Children ; the Apostle
Paul; the pom-aits of his mother and him-
self; a Holy Family; llagar; Christ in
the Temple; a Burial of Christ; the Sac-
rifice of Manoah ; the Feast of Ahasue-
rus; Ganymede ; portraits of himself and
his mother and daughter (the Girl with
the Carnation); Saul and David; Tobias;
a Circumcision ; Himself and Family, and
landscapes.  Rembrandt's engravings pos-
sess a  wonderful  freedom, facility and
boldness, and are truly picturesque.  His
careless,  unstudied  manner agrees with
the low subjects which  he generally se-
lected.   His most  distinguished  pupils,
who are easily recognised by their manner
of coloring, were Ferdinand Bol,  Gerard
Douw, Gerbrand van  Eckhout, Michael
Poorter, Philip Koning, Govaert Flint
   Remonstrants.  (See Arminians, and
Arminius.)
   Remscheid; a village and parish in the
duchy of Berg, now in the government of
Diisseldorf, in Prussia, one of the most im-
portant manufacturing places in Gennany.
It is extensive, and has about 6000 inhab-
itants.  About 400,000 scythes, many files,
saws, &c, are made  here annually; alse
steel ware of all  kinds.
   Remus.  (See Romulus.)
   Remusat, Jean Pierre Abel, one ofthe
most  distinguished linguists  of Europe,
member of the academy,  and professor of
the Chinese and  Tartar languages at  the
college de France, was born at Paris, Sept.
5,1788.   Having studied medicine, he re-
ceived the degree of doctor in 1814, but
at the same time followed his inclinations,
which led him to the  study of the Orien-
tal languages, particularly the Tartar, Chi-
nese,  Thibetan,  &c.  In 1811 appeared
his Essai sur la Langue  et la Litterature
Chinoises, which attracted the attention
of the learned, and opened  to him the
doors ofthe academies at Grenoble and
Besaucon.   Some other  writings on the
Chinese soon  followed.   In 1814, Louis
XVIII appointed  him professor,  and in
1816, he was admitted into the academy
of inscriptions.  After Visconti's death in
1818, he was appointed editor  of die Jour-
nal des Savans.  Many excellent treatises
by him  have appeared iu the Monittur, 
560                        REMUSAT—RENNIE.
in the Journal des Savons, in the Fundgru-
ben des Orients, &c, some of which have
also been published separately.  His prin-
cipal  works, besides the Essai,  are  his
Plan  cFun Didionnaire Chinois  (1814);
Le  Livre  des Recompenses et des Peines
(translated  from the Chinese, 1817).   He
also assisted in the Mimoires concernont
les  Chinois  (1814, in 16 vols.),  and,  in
1820. made  known to us  a second Plato
in the Chinese philosopher Lahotse. His
Melanges Asiatiquti (Paris, 1825, 2 vols.)
contain treatises upon the rehgion, morals,
language,  history and geography of the
nations of the East  In  1827, he made
the Parisians acquainted  with  the man-
ners of the Chinese through his Contes
Chinois (3 vols.).  Concerning Remusat's
Chinese grammar, and the difference be-
tween the  structure of the Chinese and
the Sanscrit, Greek,  German and Latin
languages, consult Alexander von Hum-
boldt's Sendschreiben  an Rimusat  (Paris,
1827).
  Renard the Fox (in German, Reinecke,
or Reinicke der Fuchs).  This famous sat-
ire, in the epic form, appeared at Lubeck,
in 1498, in  Low  Gennan (q. v.), in the
Frisian dialect,  under the title Rynke de
Vos.  It  is  an  admirable satire  on the
intrigues practised at a weak court.  The
characters are animals, and the arch rogue
the fox,   called  Renard,  is  die  hero.
Nothing is known with certainty respecting
the author, who calls himself "Henry von
Alkmaar, schoolmaster and tutor of the
duke of Lorraine," and pretends  to have
translated it from the  French.  (Meon has
published  the French Roman du Renard,
written in  the thirteenth century, from
manuscripts, Paris, 1823).  Rollenhagen,
in his preface to the Froschmausler, thinks
Nicholas Baumann (bom at Emden, in
1450) to have been the author.  He was in
various public employments, and a doctor
of law.  The wrongs which he suffered
at the court of the duke of Juliere are said
to have induced him to write this poem.
In 1479, appeared at Gouda, in Holland,
and, in 1483, at Delft, a Historie von Rey-
naert de Voss, in prose, which is consider-
ed by some as the true original, composed
of several French fables. This was repub-
lished in 1783, at Lubeck.   The latest edi-
tions are those of Eutin (1797), by Bredow,
and of Halberetadt (1825),  by  Scheller.
Several  rifacimenti, in  High  German,
have appeared: and a part of it has been
rendered  into hexameters by  the poet
Gotlie.  It has been translated into several
modern  languages, and also into Latin.
The English prose translation ought not
to be taken as a specimen of the original,
in which humor and wit abound.
   Re.vdezvous ; the port or place of des-
tination, where the several ships of a fleet
or squadron are appointed to join compa-
ny, or to rejoin, in case of separation.—
Rendezvous is also  a name given  to any
house where  a press-gang resides, and
volunteers are  invited to  enter into the
navy; also a place appointed to meet in
at a certain day and hour.
   Reni, Guido.  (See Guido Reni.)
   Re.nnel, John, was born in 1742,  and,
at thirteen, was sent on board a ship-of-
war as a midshipman, and served in India.
In 1766, he entered  into  the East India
company's military service, and was after-
wards appointed surveyor-general of Ben-
gal.   He soon after gave to the world his
Bengal  Atlas,  and  an Account of the
Ganges and Burrampooter.   He returned
to England in 1782, and published  a Map
of India, accompanied by a memoir.  Be-
sides the works already mentioned, he was
the author of Memoir on the Geography
of Africa, with a map (1790); the  Marches
ofthe British Army in the  Peninsula of
India (1792); Elucidation of African Ge-
ography (1793); a second and third  Me-
moir of the Geography of Africa (1799);
the Geographical System of Herodotus
explained (4to., 1800); Observations on
the Topography of the Plain of Troy.
He died in 1830.
  Rennes ; a city of France, with  30,000
inhabitants, formerly capital of  Brittany,
at present of the department of  the  Ille-
et-Vilaine, situated at the  confluence of
the two rivere; 218  miles west of Paris;
lat 48° T N.;  lon.  1° 41' W.  Rennes
contains several public buildings and lit-
erary and scientific  institutions,  with a
public library  of 30,000  volumes.   Its
trade and  manufactures are inconsidera-
ble.   It was, before  the  revolution of
1789, the seat  of a  parliament,  which
was distinguished for its opposition to the
arbitrary measures ofthe court
  Rennie, John; a celebrated engineer,
bom in East Lothian, in 1760. His father
was a respectable farmer, who gave  him
a good education, and placed him  with a
millwright.  After  serving out  his  arti-
cles, he commenced business on his  own
account, but, in 1783, was induced to re-
move to London,  where  his reputation
rapidly increased, until he  was  regarded
as standing at the head of the civil engi-
neers of Great Britain.  Among his pub-
he works may be mentioned Ramsgate
harbor, Waterloo and Southwark bridges,
at least as to constmction; the  break- 
RENNIE—REPTILES.
561
water  at Plymouth, and the Bell Rock
lighthouse,  erected on  the  same  princi-
ple as that of the  Eddystone.  Mr. Ren-
nie was remarkable for steady resolution
and inflexible perseverance, and was, at
the same time, in  the  highest  degree
punctual and steady in  all his engage-
ments ; and, although in  some respects a
self-taught  man, he acquired the respect
of the most distinguished men of science
and learning in his  day,  and was elected
a member ofthe royal society.  His death
took place in  1821.
  Rente, in French, signifies, in general,
all the net  income  which a man enjoys
without labor;  therefore the  profits of
real estate as  well as of capital.—Rentier;
one who lives  on his rentes.   (For the
French public stocks which  go under the
name of rentes, see the article  Public
Stocks, division French Stocks.)
  Repnin (Nicholas Wasiliewitsch),prince,
a  Russian  field-marshal, the  son of  a
prince of the  same name, who served in
the army of  Peter I, was bom in 1734,
and  distinguished himself  in the  seven
years' war  in the French army.   After
the elevation of Stanislaus Poniatowski to
the throne of Poland, in 1764, he became
Russian  minister at  Wareaw, and  for
some years governed the Poles in effect.
In 1774, he was sent ambassador to Con-
stantinople, and, in  1778, to Breslau, as
general and negotiator, where he contrib-
uted to the  treaty of Teschen.  In 1789,
he commanded the  army of the Ukraine,
and formed the blockade of  Ismail, after-
wards  taken by Suwanow.   In July,
1791, he defeated the grand-vizier Yussuf.
He was afterwards governor of Livonia.
After the last partition of Poland, he re-
ceived the  government of Lithuania, and
subsequently  served  under Suwarrow.
Paul I, in 1796, made him a field-marshal,
and, in 1798,  sent him on a secret mission
to Berlin.   He died in May,  1801.
  Representative Governments. (See
the article Constitution.)  The history  of
representative governments  has not yet
been written, though few works  would
be of more interest to the times in which
we live,  than one in which the various
manifestations of the representative prin-
ciple should be traced from  the conquer-
ing military  republics,  erected on the
ruins of the Roman empire, through the
aristocratic  institutions   of  the  middle
ages, down to the present democratic age,
and in which it should be shown how all
the branches of civil, and  many of ec-
clesiastical, government,  were originally
blended, and  gradually  acquired more
distinctness and purity;  how  the  repre-
sentative principle expanded in England
more quickly than in the rest of Europe,
and its democratic part, being transplanted
to another hemisphere,  branched forth
with new vigor, and produced a  degree
of liberty never known before.
  Representatives,  House of.  (See
Congress of the United States.)
  Reproduction.    (See  Microscopical
Animals.)
  Reptiles.   In the Linnaean  arrange-
ment, the class of cold-blooded vertebral
animals which breathe by lungs (amphibia)
consisted of two orders: reptilia (having
four feet), as the tortoise, frog, lizard, &c,
and serpentia (having  no external  organs
of motion).  In Cuvier's classification, the
class of reptilia corresponds nearly to the
amphibia of Linnaeus, and is divided into
the four orders of chelonia (tortoise, turtle),
sauria   (crocodile,  lizard,   chameleon),
ophidia (serpents,  boa,  viper), batrachia
(frog, salamander,  proteus,  siren). (See
Animals.)   Reptiles are distinguished from
birds  and   quadrupeds by  their  cold
blood and single  heart (with only one
ventricle), and from fish by their respiring
through lungs.  Their blood is never at a
much higher temperature than that of the
medium in which they live.  No other
animals are capable of enduring so great
extremes of heat and cold as the reptdes,
especially some particular species: frogs,
for instance, have continued to live in the
human  stomach, and in lumps of ice.
From the peculiar structure of their bodies,
they are able to suspend their respiration
for a considerable  time, and are also en-
dowed with the faculty of enduring an ab-
stinence that would prove fatal to warm-
blooded animals.   Most  of them can live
in the air as well as in water.  Many live
indifferently in either element. Some pass
a certain period of life, or certain seasons
of the year, in one,  and the  rest  in the
other; and some, finally, are confined to the
water, or to the  land.  They live chiefly
in morasses, swamps and stagnant  waters,
damp, dark places, caves,  and holes  in
the earth.  As means of defence, nature
has given  to some of them  great bodily
strength, or sharp teeth, as to the croco-
dile ; to others a deadly poison, as to cer-
tain kinds  of serpents;  to others  a hard
covering,  as to the tortoise; to many a
disgusting smell, or an acrid humor, which
they eject  Some of them have a remark-
able power of reproduction, by which they
renew  parts of the body of which they
have been deprived.  Some can live for au
incredibly long time without air, and even 
562
REPTILES.
without food, and some undergo transform-
ations like insects.   None of them chew
their food, but they swallow it whole, and
digest it at leisure.   They are in general
extremely tenacious of life, and will con-
tinue to move, and perform other animal
functions, even after the severest injuries.
Their colore and general  appearance are,
in most  instances,  disagreeable:  some,
however, are  decorated  with  the most
vivid coloring.   Their voices are either
hareh  and grating,  or they are entirely
dumb.  Most reptiles are oviparous.  In
some, particularly in the frogs, the eggs are
not fecundated until after  their expulsion
from die female; hence they are merely
provided  with a thin membranous cover-
ing.   The eggs of others, as the tortoise's,
have a soft, tough skin, resembling parch-
ment, while, in other genera, the eggs are
furnished with a  hard, calcareous shell.
In those species which are viviparous, the
eggs are regularly formed, but are hatched
internally, as in vipers, &c.  (See Organ-
ic Remains.)  The following arrangement
of the reptilia is that given by the prince
ofMusignano;  and, although it presents
points of objection, these are as few as in
any  other attempt of the kind; added to
which it is the latest:—
         Class.
     REPTILIA.

    First Sub-Class.
      PULMONEA.

        Order I.
      CHE LONII.
       First Family.
      TESTUDINIDjE.
     § Testudinina.
1. Testudo, L.
     Sub-genera, 3.
2. Terrapene, Bonap.
3. Kinosternum, Bonap.
4. Emys, Bonap.
     Sub-genera, 2.
5. Hydraspis, Bell.
6. Chelonura, Flem.
     §§ Chelydina.
7. Chelys, Dumer.
     §§§ Trionicina.
8. Trionix, Geoff.

      Second Family.
      CHELONID.S.
     § Sphurgidina.
9. Sphargis, Merr.
     §§ Chelonina.
10. Chelonia, Brong.
       Order  II.
        8 A URI.
      Third Family.
     ICHTHYOSAURI.
11. Teleosaurus, Geoffr.
12. Steneosaurus, Geoffr.
13. Ichthyosaurus, Koenig.
14. Saurodon, Hays.
15. Plesiosaurus, Conybeari.
16. Geosaurus, Cuv.
17. Megalosaurus, Buckland.

      Fourth Family.
      CROCODILI.
18. Crocodilus, Cicv.
      Sub-genera, 3.
       Fifth Family.
    LACERTIFORMES.

     First Sub-Family.
      IJICERTWJE.
    § Tupinambina.
19. Varanus, Merr.
      Sub-genera, 4.
20. Teius, Merr.
      Sub-genera, 6.

      §§ Lacertina.
21. Lacerta, L.
      Sub-genera, 2.
22. Tachydromus, Oppel.

    Second Sub-Family.
      STELLIQJVIDJE.
      §  Agamina.
23. Uromastix, Cuv.
24. Cordylus, Gronov.
25. Stellio, Daud.
      Sub-genera, 2.
26. Agama, Daud.
      Sub-genera, 15.
27. Lophura, Gray.
28. Draco, Z.
      Sub-genera, 2.
29. Pterodactylus, Cuv.
30. Chlamydosaurus, Gray.
      §§ Iguanina.
31. Iguana, (juv.
32. Ctenosaura, Wiegtn.
33. Ophryessa, Boie.
34. Leiocephalus,  Gray.
35. Basiliscus, Daud.
36. Polychrus, Cuv.
37. Ecphimotes, Fitzinger.
38. Ophlurus,  Cuv.
39. Anolius, Cuv.
40. Mosasaurus, Conybeare.
41. Iguanadon, Mantell.

    Third Sub-Family.
      OECKOTIDJE.

42. Cirtodactylus,  Gray.
43. Euplcphoris, Gray.
44. Phyllurus, Gray.
45. Gymnodactylus, Spix.
46. Stenodactyfus, Cuv.
47. Spheroidactylus, Cuv.
48. Ptyodactylus,  Gray.
49. Phyllodactylus, Gray.
50. Thecadactylus, Cuv.
      Sub-genera, 4.
51. Hemidactylus, Gray.
52. Platydactylus, Cuv.
      Sub-genera, 6.

    Fourth Sub-Family.
   .CHAMJELEOMDJE.
53. Chamaeleon, Daud.

     Fifth Sub-Family.
       SCUVCIDJE.
54. Scincus, Daud.
      Sub-genera, 3.
55. Gymnophthalmus, Merr
56. Spondylurus, Fitz.
bl. Heteropus, Wiegm.
58. Gerrhosaurus, Wiegm.
59. Gerrhonotus, Wiegm.
60. Trachysaurus, Gray.
61. Cicigna, Gray.


       Sixth Family.
        ANGUID^E.

      * Tetrapodi.
62. Seps, Daud.
      Sub-genera, 5.
63. Chalcides, Daud.
      Sub-genera, 4.

       **  Bipedi.
64. Bipcs, Lacep.
      Sub-genera, 2.
65. Chirotes, Cuv.

       *** Apodi.

       § Anguina.
66. Pseudopus, Merr.
67. Ophisaurus, Daud.
68. Anguis, L.
69. Acontias, Cuv.

   §§ Amphisbsenina.
70. Typhlos, Schn.
71. Amphisbaena, L.
      Sub-genera, 2.
  Order HI.
SERPENTES.

 S«yenth Family.
   OPHIDII. 
REPTILES—RESIN.                          563
     First Sub-Family.
      COLUBRIDJE.
       § Ericina.
72. Anilius, Oken.
      Sub-genera, 2.
73. Erix, Daud.
74. Clothonia, Daud.

       §§ Boina.
75. Boa, L.
      Sub-genera, 2.
76. Python, Daud.
     §§§ Colubrina.
77. Erpeton, Lacep.
78. Scytale, Merr.
79. Coluber, L.
      Sub-genera, 13.

  §§§§  Acrochordina.
80. Acrochordus, Hornstedt.

    Second Sub-Family.
       HYDRIDJE.

      §  Bungarina.
81. Bungarus, Daud.
82. Ophis, Wagler.
      §§ Hydrina.
83. Hydrophis, Daud.
      Sub-genera, 4.
84. Disteria, Lacep.
85. Aipysurus, Lacep.

     Third Sub-Family.
       VIPERIDJE.
      § Viperina.
86. Vipera, Daud.
     Sub-genera, 4.
87. Sepedon, Merr.
88. Naja, Laur.
89. Elaps, Schw.
     Sub-genera, 2.
90. Platurus, Latr.
91. Trimeresurus, Lacep.
92. Otocephalus, Cuv.
93. Acanthophis, Daud.
94. Echis, Merr.
95. Langaha, Brug.
      § Crotalina.
96. Trigonocephalus, Oppel.
     ftub-genera, 4.
97. Crotalus, L.
     Sub-genera, 2.


     Eighth Family.
       CCECILID^E.
98. Coecilia, L.
   Second Sub-Class.
      AMPHIBIA.
       Order IV.
       ANOURA.
99. Hyla, Laur.
     Sub-genera, 4.
100. Rana, L.
101. Megophrys, Kuhl.
102. Ceratophrys, Boie.
     Sub-genera, 2.
103. Dactylethra, Cuv.
104. Breviceps, Merr.
105. Bombinator, Merr.
106. Pipa, Lauren.
107. Bufo, Lauren.
108. Rhinellus, Fitz.
     Sub-genera, 3.
      Tenth Family.
       URODELA.
109. Salamandra, Lauren.
     Sub-genera, 3.
110. Triton, Lauren.
       Order V.

  NULLIBRANCHIA.
     Eleventh Family.
     AMPHIC.MID^E.
111. Prototiupsis, Barton.
112. Aniphiuma, Garden.


     Twelfth Family.
       SIRENID^E.

      § Proteina.
113. Axolot, Cuv.
114. Proteus, Laur.
115. Neclurus, Rafinesque.
      §§  Sirenina.
116. Siren, L.
     Sub-genera, 2.
   Republics.  (See Political Institutions,
and Politics.)
   Repulse Bay.  (See North Polar Ex-
peditions.)
   Requetes.  (See Maitre.)
   Requiem,  in   the  Roman  Catholic
church; a solemn musical  mass for the
deceased, which  begins Requiem aternam
dona  eis, &c.  (See  Exequies.)  The re-
quiem  forms an  important  part of the
beautiful Cathohc church music; and the
most  distinguished musicians have em-
ployed  their talents  on it, as Mozart, Jo-
melli, Neukamm, and many others.
   Reservation, Mental (reservatio men-
talis), consists in this, that a person making
a promise gives a different signification or
inter]iretation in  his own  mind to the
words ofthe promise, from  the meaning
which he to whom the promise  is  made
will naturally attach to  them, with the
purpose of deception.  It is always an
intentional violation  of the  truth,  and
of course of the mles  of morality.   It
was, nevertheless, permitted among the
Jesuits in its greatest extent.
  Reserve.   The distribution of mihtary
forces is one of the most  important  parts
of warfare.   Generally speaking, they are
divided into three parts: the first, the van,
is destined to begin the conflict;  the  sec-
ond, corps de bataille,  to  sustain it; the
third,  the reserve, has to supply fresh
forces  as they are needed, to support those
points  which are shaken, and to be ready
to act  at  decisive moments.   The com-
position and disposition of the reserve  is
of the utmost importance.  It ought to be
composed ofthe best and most experienced
troops, not exposed, yet placed  so  that
they can  operate easily on all sides, and
ought  to  be commanded  by an  experi-
enced, cool, but resolute, general.  Napole-
on's guards, and his disposition of them,
are models.  They often decided the vic-
tory when the enemy felt sure of success.
  Residence.  (See  Domicil, Appendix
to vol.  iv.)
  Resin ;  a vegetable  substance, which
exudes from many trees, either from  nat-
ural fissures or artificial wounds.  (See
Plants.)  Common resin, or rosin, is ob-
tained  by distilling the exuded matter of
some species of  pine:  oil  of turpentine
passes  over, and the resin remains behind.
(See Pine.) The resins are insoluble in
water,  but soluble in alcohol, and inodor-
ous, though they sometimes derive odor
from containing an  essential oil.  They
consist chiefly of carbon, with about  one 
564
RESIN—RESTORATION.
quarter of oxygen and hydrogen.  (See
Gum, and Gum Resin.)
  Respiration ;  the  alternate  inspira-
tion and expiration of atmospheric air, for
the purpose of bringing it  into contact
with the blood, and exchanging the hy-
drogen  and  carbon  with  which  it is
changed, for oxygen.  (See these articles,
and Air.)   This  function  is  therefore
closely connected with that of the circu-
lation of the blood.  (See Blood, Heart,
and Lungs.)  The organs and mechanism
by which this wonderful function is car-
ried on, vary considerably in the different
classes  of  animals.  In  die mammalia,
birds (see Ornithology) and reptiles (q. v.),
the organ of respiration is the lungs; in
fish (q. v.), the  gills;  in  most  insects
(q.  v.), the trachea?;  and in the lower
classes of animals, different  parts of the
system.  The air, being brought  into con-
tact with the blood, is decomposed, its
oxygen is united  with the blood, and its
nitrogen  is returned by expiration, un-
changed, with  an additional  quantity of
carbonic acid gas. A part of the oxygen
of the inhaled air is united in the lungs
with the free hydrogen, and forms water,
which is emitted in the form of vapor,
visible at 40° Fahr.  Another part of the
oxygen unites with the superfluous car-
bon in the blood,  and  forms  the carbonic
acid gas, which passes off with the watery
vapor.  It  is evident  from  observation,
diat oxygen gas  is necessary to animal
life.  As to its manner of operating in the
body  after inspiration,  opinions differ.
Upon respiration depends   also animal
heat,  which is greater, at  least  in the
mammalia and in birds, than that of the
surrounding element.  (See Animal Heat.)
The mechanical part  of the  function of
respiration is effected by the action of the
ribs and diaphragm.  In the natural state,
the ribs  are inclined  downwards,  and
when this  series of  movable  hoops is
raised by the action of the muscles, the
cavity ofthe chest is enlarged.  The de-
scent ofthe diaphragm (q. v.) by its  con-
traction increases this effect, and the air
therefore rushes  in to fill up the vacant
space: the ribs  then descend,  and  the
diaphragm rises, and the air is necessarily
driven out  in consequence of the result-
ing contraction of the chest. About twenty
respirations take place in a  minute, and
from thirty to forty cubic inches  of air are
inhaled at each inspiration.   A man  con-
sumes about a gallon of air  in the same
time.
  Restaurateur ; the French name for
an  eating-house,  where provisions  may
be bad ready cooked at all hours.  The
name  has  become common  in  other
countries.
  Restitutio in Integrum.  Where un-
deserved damage was  suffered from the
strict mles of law, or the common fonns
of legal procedure, the  Roman pretor al-
lowed, under certain circumstances, a dis-
solution of the  contracts or obligations
which occasioned  it,  and prescribed a
restitutio in integrum; for instance, to mi-
nors, who, after their actual tutelage  had
expired,  but  before  their  twenty-fifth
year, had entered  into engagements to
their prejudice; to absent  persons; to
diose who had been influenced by fraud or
threats; and, in general, whenever  he
found good reason for so doing (si qua
alia causa justa mihi videbitur).  The res-
titutio is, in some  shape, and in certain
cases,  admitted into  all  codes.    In
France, actions for  fraud,  force, &c, are
admissible for ten years after the occur-
rence of the cause. Actions for  relief
against the decisions of courts, are  called
there requites civiles. By die provisions
ofthe German law, actions for restitution
must be entered within four  years.  To
support such actions, the  damage suffer-
ed must have been considerable,  and in-
nocently incurred.
  Restoration is  used  in many differ-
ent applications.  In the  fine arts, it sig-
nifies the repairing of the injury suffered
by works  of art, buildings,  statues, pic-
tures, &c.   Even in ancient times, statues
were restored, as, during the civil wars,
many were injured.   Their transporta-
tion to Rome must also have often been
injurious to them.   When, after the re-
peated devastations of Rome, during the
middle ages, statues were exhumed, many
ofthe first  artists were employed  to re-
store them ;  for instance, Michael Angelo.
(For much information on this subject, see
the  article  Restauration, in MMini's Dic-
tionnaire des Beaux Arts.)   There  are
now  in  Italy some  very skilful restorers
of paintings,  as  J'almaroli, Pereira, and
others.  It  often requires the eye of a
perfect connoisseur to discover restora-
tions, and not a few remarks on the char-
acter of ancient art have been  founded
on undetected restorations.—In  politics,
this word is used for the replacing  of de-
throned monarchs or houses,  particularly
the Stuarts in England, in 1660, and the
Bourbons  in  France, in  1814 and 1815.
This last  restoration  gave   rise  to the
name of Mr. de Haller's  work, Restora-
tion of Politics.  (See Holler.)  This work
is directed against the  original rights of 
RESTORATION—RETZ.
565
men, their equality in the eye of the law,
the. sovereignty of the people, and is in-
tended to restore the theory of divine
right.
  Resurrection signifies sometimes the
restoration of Christ from the dead, and
sometimes  the  expected  renewal of the
human body destroyed  by death.  The
credibility of the resurrection  of Jesus
Christ rests partly on the testimony of the
apostles, and partly on this circumstance,
that, without it, we  cannot explain how
the apostles, who saw their hopes disap-
pointed  by his deadi, and had  lost their
ronfidence  in him, could have been in-
spired with a lively faidi in his divine
mission, and with a belief which gave
them strength to preach die gospel amid
danger and persecution.  He  who con-
siders Christianity as a  revelation, as an
institution founded by the immediate act
of God, cannot think it strange that it was
established by miracles, and  that Provi-
dence used extraordinary means to attain
an  extraordinary end.  Of the  resurrec-
tion of the body, men have often adopted
the grossest ideas.   In the notion itself,
that Almighty Power can form, ofthe ma-
terials of the old body, dissolved by death,
a new body, which  may serve  as  an in-
strument in a new order of things, there
is nothing opposed to reason.
  Resuscitation.   (See Drowning.)
   Reticulated Walls.  (See Architect-
ure, voL i, p. 335.)
   Retina, in anatomy; a membrane of
the eye, formed by  an  expansion of the
optic nerve, and constituting the immedi-
ate organ of vision.   (See Eye.)
   Retort, in  chemistry, is a kind of
round-bellied vessel, made of earth, glass,
or metal, having a crooked neck or beak,
to which the recipient is fastened.  Retorts
are of essential service in distillations, and
 most frequently for those which  require
a degree of heat superior to that of boil-
 ing water.
   Retrenchment, in the art of war; any
 kind of work raised to cover a post, and
 fortify it  against the  enemy.  (See In-
 trenchment.)
   Retrocession of  the   Equinoxes.
 (See Precession ofthe Equinoxes.)
   Retz,  Jean Francois Paul  de  Gondi,
 cardinal de, was bom at Montmirail,  in
 1614, and, contrary to  his  own  inclina-
 tions, was designed by his father, general
 of the galleys, for the  church.  His in-
 structor was the celebrated St.  \ incent
 de  Paul.  In 1643, be received a doctor-
 ate at  the Sorbonne, and was  appointed
 coadjutor ofthe archbishop of Pans. AI-
    vol. x.          48
though earnestly  desiring to eftter the
military service, Gondi  was too politic
and ambitious not to bring his talents into
action in the career forced  upon  him;
and, although levity and  vivacity led him
to commit many actions very inconsistent
with his  station—his numerous amours,
and  affairs  of honor  setded  by the
young abbe with the sword—yet  his im-
passioned  eloquence won him  the  favor
ofthe Parisians, and often served to ap-
pease the indignation of  the clergy.  His
talents and address, together with his evi-
dent ambition  of  political  distinction,
which  too often degenerated into  cabal
against the court party and the ministers,
could not fail to  draw the attention and
excite  the  hatred of the all-powerful
Richelieu, and,  after his  death, of Maza-
rin.  The Fronde (q. v.), or the party op-
posed to the court and Mazarin, received
the coadjutor as a man whose genius and
popularity made him a valuable accession,
and De Retz embraced  their cause with
zeal.  The intrigues which  agitated the
court,  the  various insurrections of the
people and  the Frondeurs, &c,  offered
him a wide field for the  execution of Ids
projects, and, when the court finally saw
itself compelled by a decree ofthe parlia-
ment to release the prince Conde (q. v.),
and Mazarin himself (see Mazarin) was
obliged to leave France,  De Retz  seemed
to have attained his object, and to have it
in his power thenceforth to hold the reins
of government.  But  Mazarin soon re-
turned from his banishment, more  pow-
erful than ever.  The Fronde, which had
never been firmly united, and the mem-
bers of which, with the exception of Con-
de  and De Retz, were weak and waver-
ing, was dissolved; and, soon after, the
latter, by the mediation of the court, and
not without the management of his ene-
my Mazarin, had  obtained the cardinal's
hat, the storm which  had  just  before
threatened Mazarin burst upon him.  At
the command  of the court, or rather of
Mazarin, he was suddenly imprisoned  in
the castle of Vincennes, whence  he was
removed  to  Nantes.    Here he  found
means to escape, and, perpetually pursu-
ed by the minions of Mazarin, wandered
for nearly  eight years  through  Spain,
Italy,  Holland, Germany and England,
meeting with  a series of truly romantic
adventures.   Iri pope Innocent, he found
a powerful support; and his death was a
heavier loss to  Retz, as  Ids successor Al-
exander, who was in some degree indebt-
 ed to him for his elevation, • gave  him  no
 assistance.  In addition to his early ex- 
566
RETZ—REUCHLIN.
travagance and  proiuseness,  the  enor-
mous burden of his debts was daily in-
creased by the expenses of a princely reti-
nue, with which he  surrounded hims.-lf,
partly from love of pomp, partly for pro-
tection against die persecutions of his en-
emy.  This debt amounted to 5,000,000
livn-F, when Retz repaired to Holland by
way of  Germany.   Here  be  dismissed
the* mass of his attendant-, but, chagrined
by his misfortunes, plunged into a course
of excesses.   The offers of the Spanish
court, of an i:.syliim and  support, lie re-
jected; tluwe  of Charles 11 he accepted,
and  proceeded to  England.  But,' as  that
monarch was  not disposed to follow  his
counsels, De Retz returned to the conti-
nent, where the peace of  the  Pyrenees,
concluded between  Spain aud France,
opened to him a gleam of hope.  But his
situation was, nevertheless, so distressing,
that he was on the point of printing a de-
scription of his circumstances, and of tiie
hatred  of his  enemies, to be sent to the
higher clergy of all countries—a proceed-
ing  from wiiich he  was only restrained
by the information that his enemy Maza-
rin was on the point of death.   But, even
after the death of Mazarin,  in 1661, he
was not allowed to return,  till  he had sol-
emnly promised never to take part again
in  political  combinations.  From  this
time he seemed to be a different person,
and appeared  before the throne with the
language of a flatterer.   When  Louis
XIV said to him, " Cardinal,  you  have
grown gray," he replied, " Sire, one glows
gray quick, who is under  the displeasure
of your majesty."  He now resigned  his
archbishopric,  governed  the  abbey  of
St  Denis, lived  retired,  restricted   his
wants, paid his immense debts, and, be-
sides, distributed pensions to bis friends.
Reconciled with  all  parties, the  man
whose comprehensive mind had hitherto
taken  pleasure only in the tangled web
of  politics, now lived quiet and retired
like a philosopher.  " Cardinal de Retz,"
says Roehefaucault,  "has much elevation
of mind, but more ostentation  of courage
than  true  courage ;  an  extraordinary
memory ; readiness  and elegance of ex-
pression.  He seems ambitious, without
 being so; and his attacks upon Mazarin
 were aimed less to subvert the latter, than
to render himself formidable and impor-
 tant to him.   His  imprisonment he bore
 with firmness, and he owed his freedom
 to his own boldness.  As  long as Maza-
 rin lived, he maintained his archiepiscopal
 see, unshaken by all the vicissitudes of
fortune; when his enemy was no more,
be voluntarily resigned it   As a cardinal,
be gained respect by bis conduct in seve-
ral conclaves.  Although he had a strong
propensity to pleasures and idleness, yet
his activity was really astonishing as soon
as it  was awakened by  circumstances.
The presence of mind,  with which  lie
was able to understand and turn to advan-
tage the most imlooked for circumstances,
is worlliy of admiration." His posthumous
Memoires (Cologne, 1718, 3 vols.) give an
interesting picture of his  character.  A
histoiy of the conspiracy of count Fiesco,
in Genoa, wliicblie wrote while a youih
of seventeen  years of age, with a \isibi6
predilection  for bis hero, shows the ten-
dency of bis mind—a fact which  did not
escape the notice of cardinal  Richelieu,
when be first saw tins youthful  produc-
tion.  In the last years of bis life, be rarely
went  to  Paris.  He  died  in that city in
1679.   Some years  before  his death,  be
returned his cardinal's hat to Clement  X,
for the sake, as he said, of withdrawing
wholly from  the world ; but he received
it back, with the command of the holy
father.to retain it.   See St. Aulaire's His-
toire de la Fronde (Paris, 1827, 3 vols.).
  Rktzsch,-  Maurice,  professor  in  the
royal  academy of. Dresden, was  born in
Dresden,  Dec. 9,  1779,  and  descended
from  a family of Protestant Hungarian'
refugees.  He and his brother drew much
together, but  without regular instruction,
until 1798, when he studied  in the acade-
my.   The melancholy t*-->te of Germany
from  1806 to 1814, prevented him from
visiting Italy.  During this period, he was
the chief stay of his family.  Retzsch is
an enemy to all imitation, and has chosen
his subjects  from  the  little explored field
of romantic poetiy.   In 1812, he designed
twenty-six illustrations for Gdtbe's Faust,
which have  been  copied in  London and
Paris.   In  1816,  he painted two altar
pieces.  In 1827,  he  began his gallery of
illustrations  of  Shakspeare's  dramatic
works, published by Fleischer, in Leipsic,
in 4to.  As  a portrait painter, he is also
very successful.   In  1824, he  was made
professor  in the academy of Dresden  by
the king of Saxony,
  Reuchlin, John  (calletl also, in allu-
sion  to the  signification  of  his  name,
Capnio),  was born   at  Pforzheim,  in
1455,  of respectable parents.  He distin-
guished himself at school by his  industry
and good conduct; and the excellence  of
his  singing procured him a place in the
chapel of his prince, Charles, margrave of
Baden, who  appointed him companion, on
Ids travels, to his son Frederic, afterwards 
REUCHLIN—REUSS.
567
'bishop  of Utrecht.   In 1473, Reuchlin
 accompanied that prince to Paris, to study
 there in the most celebrated school of the
 Line*.   He was  obliged to leave Paris
 again, in 1475, with the prince.  In Basle,
 he excited the astonishment of his  coun-
 trymen by his knowledge of languages, at
 that time unparalleled, displayed in  his
 Latin  dictionary (under the title Brevi-
 loquus), and his  Greek grammar, both the
 first published in Germany.  In 1478, he
 went back to France, studied law at Or-
 leans, while he  taught, at the same time,
 the  ancient languages.  In 1481, he re-
 turned  to Germany, and taught  law and
 the belles-lettres at Tubingen.  Eberhard,
 count of Wurtemberg,  soon after  took
 him, as the best Latinist  in  Germany,
 in his train, on an embassy to Rome. The
 treasures of science,  which  Lorenzo de'
 Medici had accumulated in Florence, and
 those of Rome,  were thus  opened to the
 curiosity  of Reuchlin.   The  emperor
 Frederic  III created  him a  noble of the
 empire in 1492.   After Eberhard's  death,
 Reuchlin lived several years  at the court
 if Philip, elector of the  Palatinate.  Here
 he enriched the Heidelberg library with
 manuscripts, and  productions of the new
 ?ut of printing.  The elector having been
 basely calumniated at the  Roman  court,
 and  even   excommunicated,  Reuchlin
 repaired again to Rome,  and defended the
 rights of his prince with equal prudence
 and  eloquence.  He  wa3  subsequently
 appointed president of  the  court of the
 confederacy, which had  been established
 by  the  Suabian  princes  against  the
 encroachments  of the house of  Bavaria.
 lie  was  also engaged  iu translating the
 penitential jisalms, preparing a  Hebrew
 grammar and dictionary, and  correcting
 the translation of the Bible.   His agency
 in introducing  his relative  Melanchthon
 into the field, where he eventually exerted
 himself so beneficially in conjunction with
 Luther, places Reuchlin among  the con-
 tributors  to the reformation.  But in an
 age.  in which  ignorance and  priestcraft
 prevailed, he could not fail of having ene-
 mies.   A converted  Jew, John Pfeffcr-
 coiii, and one Hoogstraten, were the in-
 stigators of these blind  zealots in their at-
 tacks upon Hebrew literature.  They per-
 suaded the emperor  Maximilian that all
 Hebrew works, the Old Testament only
 excepted, were  of bad tendency.  In 1509,
 the emperor issued a decree, ordering all
 such works in his dominions to be burned ;
 but he  added, that the opinion of a secu-
 lar scholar might, in all cases, be consult-
 ed:  this saved  the  Oriental literature.
Reuchlin assured  the emperor that these
works, instead  of injuring  Christianity,
contributed, on  the contrary, to its honor
and glory, since the  study of them  pro-
duced  learned  and bold champions  to
fight for the  honor of the Christian  reli-
gion,  and that  to destroy  these books-
would be to put arms into the hands of its
enemies.   This  measure  cf Reuchlin
served to exasperate his enemies  still
more.  A war of pens raged  for ten years.
On one side  were Hoogstraten and  the
universities of Paris, Louvain, Erfurt and
Mentz; on the other, Reuchlin  and the
most learned  and  enlightened men of alt
countries.  Unmoved  amid the revilings
and excommunications of his opponents,
Reuchlin finally brought this dispute be-
fore the pope, when  Maximilian, regret-
ting that he had given rise to so unhappy
a controversy, declared in favor cf Reuch-
lin.  Francis  von  Sirkingen and Ulrich
von Hutten avowed themselves ready to
use the sword  in this contest, in case it
should be necessaiy.   About the same
time appeared  the Epistol(B Obscirorum
 Virrorum (q. v.), in which Reuchlin's ene-
mies were rendered ridiculous. This gave
the matter another turn ; the umpire ap-
pointed by the  pope, the  archbishop of
Spires, decided for Reuchlin.  Reuchlin
subsequently  resigned his judicial station,.
to avoid being compelled to give a decis-
ion against his prince,  duke Ulric, who
had  precipitately attacked  the  city  of
Reutlingen.   William of Bavaria appoint-
ed him professor  in the university of In-
golstadt.  The  plague having broken out
in Ingolstadt,  in  1522,  he removed to
Tubingen, where, retired from state affairs,
lie again devoted himself to study.  He
died at  Stuttgard, June 30, 1532.—See
Mciner's Account  of the  Life of  Reuchlin
(in German).
  Reuv ; a sovereign principality in the
central  part  of Germany, lying  between
the Thiiringian forest and the Erzgcbirge,
bounded north  by Saxe-Weimar, east by
Saxonv, south  by Bavaria,  and  west by
Saxc-Mc-iningeii  and Schwartzburg-Ru-
dolstadr. It is  divided betweentheelderline,
Reuss-Greitz, with a population of 24,100
(capital Greitz,  63C0  inhabitants), and the
younger  line,  Reuss-Schleitz  (capital
Gera, 8000 inhabitants), with a population
of 57,090; total, 81,790, on GOO square
miles.  Each of the princes has a vote ia
the Germanic plenum, and the two  prin-
cipalities, in  union with Hohen-Zollern,.
Liechtenstein, Waldeck  and Lippe, have
the sixteenth  vote in the ordinary assem-
bly. (See Germanic Confederation.)  Con- 
568                 REUSS—REVELLIERE LEPAUX.
tingent of troops to the army of the con-
federacy, 744 men : revenue of the elder
line, $60,000; debt, $80,000: revenue of
theyou.-.ger line, $200,000; debt, $280,000.
  Revel, or Reval ;  a Russian naval sta-
tion, the  capital of the Russian province
of Esthonia, on the gulf of Finland, 200
miles  south-west  of  Petersburg; lat 59°
26' N.;  lon. 24° 39/ E.   It "is built in
an old style, with narrow  and irregular
streets; population, 13,000.   Revel con-
tains  thirteen churches, an  imperial pal-
ace, with public gardens, several hospitals,
an arsenal, &c.   The harbor, constructed
in 1820, is deeper than that  of Cronstadt,
but is more difficult  to be entered : the
road,  which is sheltered by islands, allows
of vessels sailing with any  wind.   Revel
was one of the  llanse towns. It was con-
quered by the Swedes in 1561, and taken
by Peter the Great in 1710.  The inhab-
itants  are Swedes, Finns, Esthoniatis and
Russians.
  Revelliere-Lepaux, Louis Marie  la,
one of the members of the French direc-
tory, born at Montaigne, in 1753, on the
breaking out of the revolution, the princi-
ples of which he embraced, became a mem-
ber of the constituent assembly, and, in
1792, of the convention, where he opposed
the violence ofthe terrorists. He was after-
wards named one ofthe directory (q. v.);
and  having, in a memoir read before the
institute, of which he was a member (Re-
flexions sur le Culte, les Cirimonies Civiles,
et les Files Nationales),  recommended
some religious ceremonies and principles
which resembled those of the theophilan-
thropists  (q. v.), he was, by bis enemies,
represented as the founder and high-priest
of that sect  He  refused to take the oath
of allegiance to  the  emperor,  and  still
later to accept the offer of a pension,  on
condition of his making application for it.
He died in 1824, leaving Mimoires, to  be
pubUshed after a given time. 
APPENDIX.
  Xapoleon Boxaparte* wasljorn Aug.
1",  1769, at Ajaecio, in the island of Cor-
sica, and was the second son  of Charles
1'cnaparte, a Corsican nobleman,-}-  and

  *  Indifferently written Bonaparte and Buona-
parte, in the same documents, and speaking of the
same  person.  The former spoiling- was adopted
by Napoleon, when  his name begr.n  to acquire
celebrity ;  and in this he conformed, like the rest
cf his family, to the spelling in the  letters patent
of the supreme council  of Corsica, dated Sept. 13,
1771.   These were in  confirmation  of an instru-
ment by which  the Bonaparte family of Florence,
one of the most ancient families ©f Tuscany, de-
clared its origin to be the same with that of Charles
I'onnpn.-.e.  The council  wrote the name in this
way in order that the French pronunciation might
come nearer that of the Italians, who write simi-
lar names indifferently Bu-o and Bo, and make no
difference  in the pronunciation.  Take,  for  in-
stance, Buonarotti, or Bonurotti; Buoncotnpngni,
or Boncompagni ; and  many others.  We should
not  have dwelt on this  point, but that some wri-
ters affectedly retain the u; as if Napoleon had
not  a right to spell as he pleased the name which
he himself made illustrious.

  t  The following account of Napoleon's ances-
Irv is from authentic documents; and  the stories
of his  descent from one  of the Byzantine empe-
rors, as well as those  which represent the Bona-
parte family as very obscure, are eqaally void of
Irulli.  Jn' 1120. a  Bonaparte was exiled from
Florence as a  Giboline  ob murium potestatem.
(S, e the book Del Ciiodo of Florence.)  In 1170,
Curado Bonaparte was kni ,iit ofthe golden spur.
1210, Jam.-:, Bonaparte w..-i knight  ot the golden
spur.   J 250, Bonaparte,  syndic of Ascoli, was
uamed commissioner to receive the submission of
Montc-Gallo.  1272,  Nordilius Bonaparte  was
podesta of Parma. 127i>, Bonsemblant Bonaparte,
his brother, was plenipotentiary to negotiate peace
between 'Proviso ami Paiua.   121-5, Peter Bona-
parte  was podeatu of Padua.   He  overthrew the
tyrannical government of the  princes Cammes-
ci.  12%, John Bonaparte- was i;amed commis-
sioner lo  negotiate  peace with Carrara.   1314,
John Bonaparte was ambassador to the govern-
ment of La  Marca.   1333. John Bonaparte was
podesth of Florence.   1404, John Bonaparte was
plenipotentiary to  Gabriel  Visconti, duke  of
Letitia, his wife, whoso maiden name was5
Ramolini.   (See  the  article  Bonaparte.)
His  lather was  desirous  to  have  him
educated at one ofthe military schools in-

Milan.  He married tiie niece of pope Nichola*
V.  1440, Ctesar Bonaparte was elected chief of
the  elders ofthe city of Sarzana.   1454, Nicholas-
Bonaparte was ambassador from pope Nicholas
V to several courts, and vicegerent of the holy
sec  at Ascoli.  1527r James Bonaparte  wrote a
hislnry of the sack of Rome.  He was attached
to the court of Rome, and an cyo-witness of the
sack.   1567, Gabriel Bonaparte established him-
self at Ajaecio, receiving several privileges from
the  republic of Genoa.  1571, Jerome Bonaparte
was elected chief of the elders, and deputy ©f the
city of Ajaecio  to the senate of Ge»oai  lG14r
Francis Bonaparte was elected  captain of  the
city, and one of the  elders.  1(748, Sebastian,.
Charles,  Joseph.  Sebastian, Jo^ph Bonaparte
were successively heads of the ciders of the city
of,Ajaccio from 1648 until 1760.   Napoleon Lo-
mclfini was  the godfather of Sebastian, and intro-
duced the name of Napoleon into the Bonaparte
family.  Charles, son of Joseph, bom in  1746, at
Ajaecio,  died at Montpellier,  in 17C5, was a
member of the  states of Corsica, and a deputy
from that assembly to the French court  in 1777.
In 1830, Napoleon Louis Bonaparte, son  of Louis
Bonaparte, ex-king of Hollancf, a you;;? man of
promise lately deceased (see the  end ol the arti-
cle  Joseph Bonapi'fte, Appendix  to vel. vii), pub-
lished  at Florence  a translation of the above-
mentioned account of ibe  sa<k  of Rome, with-.
some  historical notices  of the Bonaparte family
prefixed. There is a mistake, t-owever, in those-
notices.  It is said that Louis Mary Fortunatus-
Bonaparte went to Corsica in 1612, and, settling
al Ajaecio, became the founder of the Bonaparte
famil v in Corsica;  whereas,  in fact;,  Francis
Bonaparte,  of tsarzana, went to Corsica iu 1512,
andlusson Gabriel, above mentioned, founded the
familyat Ajaecio. It is, however, indifferent wheth-
er Napoleon was descended from  an emperor or a
cobbler.  He himself had little pride of ancestry.
In  the year  1807, the  municipality of  Treviso
bavin c" laid  before him a collection of documents
which  showed the importance of his forefather*
in   that citv,  he  replied, "Every man, in this-
world, is the child of his own actions : my titles,.
moreover, 1 hold from the French people." 
570                     APPENDIX.

France.  Of his early education, under
the eye of his mother, we have  no ac-
count.   Some anecdotes in the mimoires
of the duchess of  Abrantes, relating to
this and a later period of his  life, have
heen shown to he unfounded.  The char-
acter ofthe Bonaparte family was patriot-
ic, and they were intimate with  the  fam-
ily ofthe celebrated Paoli (q. v.) until the
death of Louis XVI, when Paoli declared
lumself warmly against  the convention.
Thus the early impressions of Napoleon
were  favorable to  liberal  and patriotic
feeling.  Through die influence of  Leo-
pold,  grand-duke of Tuscany, who rec-
ommended Charles Bonaparte to his sis-
ter, the queen of France, and by the sup-
port of the count de Marbceuf,  governor
of the island of Corsica, Napoleon receiv-
ed a place in the royal military school at
Brienne, hi 1779, where he remained un-
til 1784.  During his stay there, his  con-
duct is represented as having been unex-
ceptionable.  He seems to have cultivated
mathematics more than any other branch
of study.  He was fond of the history of
great  men, and Plutarch seems to  have
been  his favorite author, as  he is  with
most young persons of an animated char-
acter.  For language s he manifested little
taste.  He made himself well acquainted
with the French classics.  From the mil-
itary school at Brienne, he went with high
recommendations to that of Paris. In
178(5, he commenced  his military career,
being appointed in that year lieutenant en
second in the regiment of artillery La Fere,
after a successful examination,  one year
after the death of Charles Bonaparte, his
father.  While at  the  school  in Paris,
young Bonaparte   expressed a decided
dislike ofthe discipline and mode  of liv-
ing there, which he thought by no means
fitted to prepare the pupils for the priva-
tions ofa military life.  Not long after, he
attended affectionately to the  education
of his brother Louis (see Louis Bonaparte),
as the  latter tells  us in his Reponse  a
Sir Walter  Scott.  When he was  twenty
years  old,  the French  revolution re-
moved the barriers to  his great  career.
Belonging  to a patriotic family, he  was
naturally excited by the struggle for liber-
ty in France.  He  corresponded with Pa-
oli, then in England.  In 1790, Paoli went
to Paris, was presented to the constituent
assembly by Lafayette, and received in
the capital all the honors which the lovers
of liberty could bestow  on its  defender.
Napoleon,  being, at this time, in Corsica,
on a furlough, showed himself a zealous
partisan of this friend of his  deceased
(NAPOLEON.)

 father.   In 1792, Paoli, having returned
 to  Coreica, was made  lieutenant-general
 in the service of France, and;commander
 of the twenty-third division.   Napoleon
 was at Paris at the epoch of the  10th of
 August.  In  September,  he returned to
 Coreica.  Vice-admiral Truguet, charged
 with the conduct of an expedition against
 Sardinia, arrived  at Ajaecio, and Bona-
 parte was ordered to join the expedition,
 which  proved unsuccessful, and he re-
 turned  to  Ajaecio.   I'aoli  had, mean-
 while, been proscribed, with twenty other
 generals, as a traitor, and  a  price was set
 on his head.  In May, 1793, Paoli raised
 the standard  of revolt to secure  his own
 safety, and throw off the yoke ofthe con-
 vention.  He assembled a consulta of the
 Corsican  malcontents,  the  secretary of
 which assembly was Pozzo di Borgo (at
 present,  Russian  ambassador  in  Paris).
 Bonaparte  openly opposed  the views of
 Paoli, and a war broke out between the
 adherents  of that  leader and those of
 France.  Many excesses were committed,
 and Paoli went so far as to make attempts
 upon the pereons of young Bonaparte and
 his  family.  He succeeded, however, in
 conducting them safely to France, where
 they retired to La Valette,  near  Toulon,
 and, at a later period, to Marseilles. In the
 same vessels  with the Bonapartes  were
 the-commissioners of the convention and
 the French troops.  It was the persuasion
 of Joseph Bonaparte, one ofthe members
 of the departmental administration at the
 time of Paoli's revolution,  that engaged
 his family in  the French cause, and thus
 had an important influence on  the future
 career of his brother.  Bonaparte proceed-
 ed to Nice, to join the  fourth regiment of
 artillery, in  which he had been  made
 captain.  We are now arrived at the peri-
 od of 1793 and 1794, when  the Mountain
 party developed its energies with an un-
 exampled  rapidity, by an equally  unex-
 ampled system, airl, finding no founda-
 tions for  a rationtd liberty on the first
 emersion ofthe country from the corrup-
 tion and tyranny of centuries, strove to
 save it by terrorism.   Terror  was to si-
 lence its  adversaries,  glory to win it
 friends.  Foreign enemies  also  contrib-
 uted to develope  the  power of France.
 Fourteen  armies were  raised, and the
 victorious  legions  of  Rome became the
 exemplars ofthe republican warriors, who
 thirsted for glory and vengeance.  Such
 a state of  things would naturally awaken
 a strong excitement in young Bonaparte,
 a soldier whose age and profession would
 alone make  him  eager for distinction. 
APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON.)                    571
His subsequent proclamations show that
he viewed the French armies in the light
of triumphant  Roman  legions.   Lyons
was destroyed, after 4000  of the inhabit-
ants had  been shot by order of Collot-
d'llerboisand Fouche, as  a testimony of
the vengeance ofthe convention "coming
like the thunders of heaven ;" Toulon was
doomed to  suffer a  similar fate.  The
commissioners in the south were Salicetti,
Albitti, Freron, Ricord, the younger Robes-
pierre, and Ban-as. Treachery had open-
ed the  gates of Toulon to  the English,
Spanish and  Neapolitans, August 27,
4793.   Louis   XVII  had  been  pro-
claimed king, and the  French ships deliv-
ered to  the  enemy.  Bonaparte received
the commandof the artillery, at the  siege
of Toulon, in the  place of general Dutheil,
who was taken sick.   In a council of war,
he showed the necessity of occupying the
fort L'Eguillote, called Little Gibraltar, on
account of  its  favorable  situation.   His
advice was   followed, and  Toulon was
taken.  The English, before evacuating
the place, set fire to the town as well as to
the French  ships; but the  galley slaves,
who had  been  released, extinguished the
flames, and saved some ofthe vessels.  It
is probable that the enmity, which  Bona-
parte manifested against the English dur-
ing all  the period of his power,  was in
some measure  owing to  the impression
made upon him by their conduct at Tou-
lon.   December 19, the day of the taking
of Toulon, the commissioners appointed
him  general  of brigade and commander
of the artillery of the  army of Italy ; he
having been previously made major, when
he received  the command  of the artillery
employed in the siege.  The 9th Thermi-
dor (27th July) overthrew the  reign  of
die terrorists, and general  Bonaparte was
arrested by order  of Salicetti and  Albitti,
because the  younger Robespierre and
Ricord, who were proscribed on the occa-
sion  of this  revolution,  had placed the
greatest confidence in the young officer.
A giitird was stationed at his door, and his
papers were seized; but in a fortnight he
was set at liberty and restored to his com-
mand, either because his  innocence was
manifest,  as  he  had  acted only  in the
quality of a soldier, or because his milita-
ry talents  had already rendered him in-
dispensable.    General  Bonaparte  next
served under general Dumerbion in Pied-
mont, who,  after the  battle of Cairo  (in
Piedmont), acknowledged, in a letter to the
commissioners, that he owed to the young
officer the skilful  combinations which had
secured the victory. Bonaparte urged the
necessity of advancing into Piedmont and
conquering Italy,  according  to the  plan
which he executed at a  later period; but
the commissionere would not listen to his
proposition.  Aubry, who was  then pres-
ident of the  military committee, recalled
him from the army of the south, and of-
fered him a place  in the line, taking him
from the  artillery.   General  Bonaparte
went to Paris  to complain of this injustice,
and lived there iu  retirement until Aubry,
who, from jealousy or some  other cause,
was ill  disposed towards him,  was  suc-
ceeded  by  31. Pontecoulant.  The  latter
employed the young general  to assist the
committee in  drawing up the plan of the
campaign.  When first consul,  Bonaparte
gratefully called M. Pontecoulant into the
senate, as soon as he was of lawful  age.
Bonaparte  always  retained his rank of
general of brigade in the line (Aubry  hav-
ing taken from him only the  artillery).
After remaining some time  in Paris, he
again joined the artillery.  The cast which
the political notions of Bonaparte received
from the stormy character ofthe period in
which he was educated, and at which he
commenced his career, is apparent  in
much of his future conduct:  he never
had the  good  fortune to see the calm ope-
ration of peaceful liberty—the  happy de-
velopement of the elements ofa free  gov-
ernment.  At this period, he became ac-
quainted with Madame  de Beauharnais,
for whom he conceived an ardent passion.
(See Josephine.)  The 13th Vendemiaire
changed his  situation.   On this day, the
sections of Paris rose against  the conven-
tion.  Barras  commanded  the  troops of
the latter, and, remembering the services
of Bonaparte at the siege of Toulon, he
appointed him general of division.  This
appointment  secured  the victory to  the
convention; the constitution ofthe year III
established  the directory, and  Bonaparte
was made chief of the army of the inte-
rior, in the room of Barras, who had been
elected a director*   At the house of Bar-
ras he  often  saw the citoyenne Beauhar-
nais, whom he married March 9,  1796.
Five mouths after the day ofthe sections,he
was appointed by Caruot (q. v.) general-
in-chief of the army  destined for Italy..
At the time when the way was thus open-
ed  for   his brilliant career, he was but
twenty-seven  years old.  March 30, 1796Y
he succeeded  Scherer in the command at
Niee.  This appointment to a  command
so vitally important to  the  interests of
France, conferred by Carnot, the tried re-
publican, who had no object but the  wel-
fare  of his country,  was, perhaps, the 
APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON,)
greatest tribute ever paid to the genius of
Bonaparte.  The coalition (q. v.)  at  that
time existing against France was formida-
ble;  it was composed of England, Aus-
tria,  Piedmont, Naples,  Bavaria,  and all
the minor  states of Germany and Italy ;
but Fiance really made war against Aus-
tria,  which  it was determined to attack
chiefly iu Italy.  The conduct of this war
was  intrusted  to general Bonaparte,  who
left Paris  a few  days after his  marriage
with Mad.  de  lieauharnais, to  whom he
pver continued  tenderly attached.   He
now followed that plan which, a year  pre-
viously, hail been rejected by the commis-
sioners.  Arrived at Nice, his head-quar-
ters,  the young general had fust to obtain
an influence with veteran officers,  already
distinguished by a  series of successes—
Augereau, Massena, Laharpe,  tvie.  The
army was young, enthusiastic and victo-
rious ;  but  without money,  provision*,
clothes, and  almost without arms, desti-
tute  of artillery, and  poorly  disciplined.
With such an army, under such circum-
stances, he  had to encounter numerous,
well  provisioned, well disciplined forces,
who commanded all the resources which
were wanting to  the French.   The posi-
tion of the French  army in the rocks of
Liguria was dangerous; Bonaparte  saw
that nothing could save them but victories.
His proclamations to his soldiers, admira-
bly calculated to excite their enthusiasm,
pride, and feeling of honor, had a striking
effect; and, like Frederic die Gnat, he
astonished his  enemies by a  new  system
of tactics.  Within six days, in which vic-
tory  followed victory, obtained by manoeu-
vres  not less scientific than bold,  he sep-
arated the Piedmontese and  Austrian ar-
mies, reduced 12,000 Austrians to inac-
tion, took forty cannons, became  master
of the fortresses of Coni, Ceva, Tortona
and  Alexandria, and obliged the king of
Sanhnia to sue for peace.  The eyes of
all Europe were now  turned  upon  the
youthful general, and the  officers of the
hostile armies themselves acknowledged
the superiority of his system  of concen-
tration.  Massena,  Augereau and Joubert
distinguished themselves in this campaign;
but  the superiority of Bonaparte  was so
decided, that jealousy was silent, and his
soldiers began to adore  hi in; in fact, no
commander ever took  more care of his
soldiers.  He had next to conquer Upper
Italy, of which Mantua is the key.  That
place was  considered impregnable,   and
Salicetti, commissioner of the directory,
and  Berthier, chief of the staff, opposed
his project  of besieging it; but he deter-
 mined to take  it before  the  Austrians
 should be able to throw a  strong garrison
 into the  place.  Bonaparte  finally relin-
 quiuhed his pian ; but he afterwards found
 that his calculation  had bet n correct, and
 he resohed henceforth to trust to his own
 genius uloue.  By the treaty if Turin, Va-
 k-nza had been ceded to him; but  his ob-
ject in obtaining this cession wns merely
 lo attract the attcnion ofthe tin my to that
 point,  whilst  he marched rapidly upon
 Piacenza, passed the Po, and advanced
 upon  Lodi, w here a  long  and  narrow
 bridge crosses the Adda.   Hie celebrated
 battle cf Lodi  was  fought on the 10th of
 Way,  in which the  personal  coinage  of
 Bonaparte was conspicuous.  (See Lodi.)
 Alasrcua  and Berthier particularly distin-
 guished  themselves.   The   capture  of
 Lodi made Bonaparte masti r c 1 Lombur-
 i:y ; but he could not, as he desired, cany
 tin! war into Germany, by the way of the
Tyrol, without the possession of Mantua.
 His correspondence with C'ainot and the
directory at this time thows  not only the
 ardent gen end, but the sagacious politi-
 cian.   He was det-irous to  ct epoixle with
 the army  ofthe bhinc, and losign « peace
 in the heart of i'avaiia ; but the diiectoiy
 threw  obstacles  in  bis  way ; they wire
 even jealous of the  arni'.Mwes which  he
concluded, and formed the project of di-
viding the army in Italy between him and
 Kelk-rmann,  which deep!;' wounded his
 feelings.   In his letters to Carnot and tho
directory, these feelings are expressed widi
spirit, and he obtained his object, lie  was
Icit to conduct  the war in Italy alone, and
 Kellermann received the command ofthe
country, and  the places ceded to France
by the treaty of Turin, signed on May lb,
by the directory.   Bonaparte's attention
was now directed to the conquest of Man-
tua, and  the nrrangi ment of political af-
fairs in Italy ;  but, ii.ratnvctionary move-
ments  bit.-.king  out in many places of
Lombardy, lie  was obliged  to resort to
military  executions.   Towards  Venice
and Genoa he  conducted with the sagaci-
ty of an experienced statesman.   On the
14th of May, he  entered Milan, where he
found 150 cannons.  Heavy contributions-
were levied, part of which," with many of
the  finest works of art,  were  sent  to
France, and part were appropriated for
the  support  of the  armies of the  Rhine.
In the mean time, Bonaparte had passed
the  Mincio,  and driven Beattlieu out of
Italy; Massena occupied the attention of
the Austrians in  Tyrol; St mirier block-
aded  Mantua; Augereau passed the Po,
 and obliged the pope to sign an armistice 
APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON.)
573
With Vaubois, who advanced to Leghorn,
and  took that important place from the
British.  Thus  the  little army  of  Bona-
parte commanded Italy from the Alps to
the papal dominions.   Naples, Modena
and  Parma  had  hastened to  conclude
peace,  but Mantua was not yet  taken.
Wurmser, the Austrian general, was on
the march, with a large army,  to relieve
Mantua ;  but, fortunately  for Bonaparte,
the Austrian  forces  were divided, and he
immediately  resolved  to beat them sepa-
rately.   He drove  back  one part  of the
Austrian army under Quosdanowich into
Tyrol,  and  defeated  Wurmser,  in  the
famous battle of Castiglione (August 5,
i?9(j).   Augereau,  having rendered  im-
portant service in this battle, was  after-
wards  made duke  of Castiglione.  (See
Augereau.) Bonaparte pursued the enemy
to  Tyrol; Wurmser,   however,   found
means  to reach Mantua.   Meanwhile two
republics were formed on the two banks of
the  Po, under  French  protection.  The
English  were driven  from Corsica,  and
Venice, Genoa and the pope  compelled
to remain neutral.   In Germany, Austria
was more successful than in Italy,  which
she resolved to recover at any price.  Re-
inforcements were sent to  the garrison of
Mantua. Bonaparte's  forces were much
diminished,  but his genius  and activity
rose with the danger.  With the divisions
of Augereau and  Massena, he marched
upon Ronco, threw a  bridge over the
Adige, and,with the two above-named gen-
erals and Lannes by his side, fought the
battle of Areola, which  lasted three days
(from October 15 to 17).  It was here that,
in order to  force the passage over the
bridge,  he seized a standard, and,  in the
midst of a murderous fire, took the lead :
his aid-de-camp Muiron was killed upon
his body; Lannes was wounded;  but in
spite of the greatest exertions, he could
not obtain his object; and  he suddenly
decided to return to Ronco, concealed his
march  from the enemy, and the next day
attacked the strongest of the three divis
ions ofthe Austrian army, and was victo-
rious.  He followed the same plan with
the second division, and Wurmser, com-
manding the  third, had only time to shut
himself up in Mantua.   A new army de-
scended  from Tyrol under Alvinzi  and
Provera, but  was beaten at Rivoli, Jan.
14, 1797, where Massena decided the fate
of the  day, for  which be afterwards re-
ceived  the title of duke of Rivoli.  (See
Massena.)  After gaining several  minor
victories, and shutting  up Wurmser in
Mantua, that  fortress, considered impreg-
nable, was  itself taken, February 2, and
the contest  of Italy  was decided.  The
battles of Rivoli and Favorita, and the cap-
ture of Mantua, cost  Austria 45,000  men
killed and taken, and 600 cannons.   On
the same day that Mantua was captured,
after  having proclaimed  the  truce  with
the pope, who had been making prepara-
tions against France, to be at an end, he
entered the  papal territories, defeated the
papal troops on the Senio, took Faenza, and
soon after, Ancona, Loretto and Tolentino.
February 19> the pope concluded the peace
of Tolentino oil hard terms, which left him
the States of the Church beyond the Apen-
nines. Bonaparte  was  now enabled to
wage war with Austria on her own soil.
The archduke Charles had fortified himself
•behind the Tagliamento. While the French
army of the Rhine threatened Germany,
Bonaparte crossed the Piave, and, on the
16th of March, forced a passage  over the
Tagliamento and Lisonzo. On the 19th, he
took possession of Gradisca; on the 20th,
of Gortz; and, on the 23d, of Trieste. By
the end of the month, most of Carinthia
and Carniola, and a  part of Tyrol, were
conquered.  At a favorable moment, Bo-
naparte entered into negotiations with the
archduke Charles, and, April 7th, granted
the Austrian deputies, ut his head-quarters
at Judenberg, an  armistice of six days.
His situation, however, was highly critical:
in front he was threatened by the Austri-
ans,  strengthened  by reinforcements of
militia and  volunteers, who had already
made themselves again masters of Trieste,
and liberated Tyrol.  In Italy, new insur-
rections were breaking out.  He therefore
concluded  preliminaries  of peace, April
18, at the  castle  of Eckenwalde,  near
Leobeti,  by which  the  Austrians  were
compelled to make great sacrifices, while
the French  were again put in  possession
of Trieste,  and  allowed  to execute their
views on Venice.  Bonaparte had already
(May 3) made a declaration of war against
the republic of Vrenice, anil demanded the
abolition of the  ancient constitution.  In
vain did the senate exculpate itself from
its violation of neutrality ; in vain was the
old constitution of the republic abolished
(May 12), and a hasty democratic  constitu-
tion' established.   The  Venetian territo-
ries and the capital continued to  be occu-
pied by tbq French.  In May, Genoa also
was revolutionized, and, June 6, received
a  French  constitution,  as the  Ligurian
republic.   On the 29th, Bonaparte pro-
claimed in  Milan  the new Cisalpine re-
public, with which he united the Cispa-
dane republic.   Lucca  saved  itself  by 
574
APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON.)
repeated contributions.   The king of Sar-
dinia, after  a dearly-bought peace, bad
fonned a  close connexion  with France.
At this early period, Bonaparte collected
a Polish  legioxi (see Polish legions), and
sought to extend his connexions even to
Greece and Egypt.   Meanwhile he sup-
ported his army entirely at the expense of
the conquered countries, especially of the
Venetian Terra Firma, and sent numerous
works of art  to  Paris.  He  now  went,
with threats of war, from Milan to Udina,
where (September 1) he opened negotia-
tions for peace with  Austria.  October 17,
the definitive peace of Campo-Forinio
(q. v.) was concluded, depriving  Austria
of Belgium and its finest Italian provinces,
with secret articles,  taking  from the Ger-
man empire  the  left bank  of the Rhine.
On the other hand, Austria had  already
(in June) taken possession of the Venetian
provinces Istria  and  Dalmatia.   Bona-
parte  now ceded to these provinces Ven-
ice and the main land of the republic, as
far as the Adige, entirely on his own au-
thority, so great  was  already the  powor
which his genius had procured him.  In
the peace of Campo-Formio, the negotia-
tions  were carried on directly by  Austria
and Bonaparte.  The directory now ap-
pointed Bonaparte, widi Treilhard  and
Bonnier, deputies to the congress of Ras-
tadt.  (See Congress.)   Scarcely  had he
begun the negotiations  there (November
25), when he  left Rastadt  (December 2),
and  hastened to Paris.  Here he soon
perceived the insincerity of the  directory
in their marks of esteem  towards  him:
trembling for their power, they wished to
occupy  and  remove the ambitious gen-
eral.  He received the chief command of
what  was called  the "army of England,''
which, however, was intended for Egypt.
It is not certain who firet  projected *diis
expedition.   A  fleet  was  very speedily
collected at Toulon,  with more than 3QjO00
chosen troops, and set sail May 19.   Bona-
parte  was perhaps carried to Egypt by
the hope of shaking the British  power ill
India, of making Egypt a colony, render-
ing France mistress ofthe Mediterranean,
and of finding such scope for his energies
as Europe did not, at that moment,  offer.
The  plan  had been agitated under Louis
XIV.  (See Egypt, Campaign in.)  The
capture of Malta (June 12, 1798) and of
Alexandria (July 2) were the firet results of
this expedition. The victory over the Turks
(July 25,1799) and the recovery of Abottkir
(Aug.2) were Bonaparte's last achievements
in Egypt.  He was unable  to execute the
extended views which he had formed re-
specting Egypt by the establishment ofa
permanent colony.*   His brother Joseph
informed him of the critical state of the
republic.   Sieyes had selected him for the
redeemer of humbled France.   The con-
viction, moreover, that France could no
longer exist without a man at  the helm,
who  was  at  once able to  repel foreign
enemies and  establish  domestic order,
was universal.  (See the article  Otranto.)
Having  hastily  taken the  resolution to
return to Europe, he gave  up the com-
mand to general Klebcr, and,  promising
to revisit Egypt with additional forces, he
embarked, with Lannes, Murat, Berthier,
Aiidi-t!ossy,Bourrienne,Gantheaiuni', Mar-
mont,  Lavalette,  Bertholh-t  and  Monge,
August 23.  Escaping die English cruis-
ers, he arrived (September 30) at Ajaecio,
where lie  was detained by  unfavorable
winds.  October  9, he  landed  at Erejus.
lie proceeded, in a sort  of triumph, to
Paris,  which  he entered  October 1-!.
The  Parisians  welcomed  his  appear-
ance  with rejoicings.    But those who
would gladly have kept him at a distance,
und  feared his  presence,  assembled  in
consternation.    Well  might  Bonaparte;
make it a matter of reproach to the direc-
tory,  that he had left the republic victori-
ous and powerful, and found it vanquished
aud  feeble. (See France.)   The'demand
for a change of government was universal.
Barras,  it is said, wished to restore the
monarchy, and calculated on the assist-
ance of Bonaparte.  Sieyes, on  me con-
trary, aimed at elevating the republic by
'means of Bonaparte.  But be saw deeper
than either of them, and guided the course
of the conspiracy according to his own
views.  The council ofthe ancients com-
mitted to him the command in chief of
the troops, with unlimited power to pro-
tect  the   national   representation.   He
swore fidelity  to the republic, and, on the
9th November (ISth Brumaire), 1799, over-
threw the directorial  government.   On
the 10th, the council of the  ancients, and
that ofthe five hundred, met at St. Cloud.
In the  latter,  the cry of the republican,;,
"No dictator!  Down with the dictator!*'
was  raised. On  this, Bona|airte entered
the hall with several grenadiers.  He was
seized by the collar; but no dagger was,
tis he pretended, aimed at him.t  Bona-

  * The communications addressed by Bonaparte
to the directory,  on this subject, and contained in
the life of him by llourrieime, we have good rea-
son lo believe genuine.
  t The story of the dagger has been explicitly
contradicted by  l'.igoiin«t aud Dupont de I'Eure,
in the chamber  of deputies, June 18, 18.1'J, who 
APPENDIX. (NAPOLEON.)
575
 parte  then  withdrew.   Lucian  imme-
 diately resigned  the presideucv, hastened
 to tiie general, and exhorted the troops to
 disperse  the  five hundred.   The grena-
 diers entered the hall at the command of
 Bonaparte, but stopped a moment, while
 a member of tho council (general Jourdan)
 warned  them  that thev were guilty of a
 violation of the rights of the representa-
 tives ofthe people.  They dien advanced,
 with fixed bayonets, and drove the coun-
 cil from  the  hall, general Leclerc,  their
 commander, crying out,  " In the name of
 general  Bonaparte, the legislative council
 is dissolved ; grenadiers, forward !"  Thus
 ended the constitution of 1795.  Ou the
 same day (November 10), Lucian, as presi-
 dent, assembled the few members of the
 council who were privy to the conspiracy,
 and decreed the abolition of the directory,
 and the  appointment of three provisional
 consuls (Napoleon Bonaparte, Sieyes and
 Roger Ducos), who entered  upon  office
 November 17.  The fourth new constitu-
 tion of the republic was hastily completed,
 and promulgated on the 15th December
 (22d Frimairc).  Bonaparte was appointed
 first consul  for ten yeare, with powers
 such as  few constitutional kings possess.
 Widi him were joined, two consuls, with-
 comparatively  little power.   From this
 time, Bonaparte's line of policy  unfolded
 itself more distinctly.  To establish order,
 a firm government, and a regular adminis-
 tration of justice, was the chief aim of his
 domestic, and the humiliation of the ene-
 mies of France that of his  foreign policy.
 He selected from those around  him the
 most useful instruments of his plans, and
 the most distinguished men, such as Tal-
 leyrand and  Fouche.  The  list of emi-
 grants was closed, and peace was prom-
 ised to the people.  The firet consul de-
 clared war, indeed, on the 28th December,
 on  all  the enemies of the  republic; but,
 on the following day, he proffered  peace
 to the king of England ; but the proffer,
 made contrary to the usual  forms,  was
 refused.   The German  empire, Russia,
 Naples, and the Porte, were still in arms.
 Under these  circumstances.  Bonaparte
 collected an army of reserve, and, April 15,
 1800, Moreau  opened  the  campaign in
 Germany.  Before the end of May, Bona-
 parte had passed the Great St. Bernard into
 Italy, where Massena was retiring before
 the superior forces of the enemy.  June 4,
 Bonaparte again entered Milan.  In a few
 days, the Cisalpine republic was restored.
 While Moreau advanced victoriously into
 were both  members of the  council  and  eye-
witnesses of the scene.
 Germany, the Austrians, who had  taken
 Genoa on  the  4th  of June, were sur-
 rounded by the French forces.  The fate
 of Italy depended on a single battle.  It
 was fought, June 14, at Marengo (q. v.),
 in the spacious plain between Alessandria
 and Tortona.  Melas, the  Austrian  gen-
 eral, concluded  an armistice in  Alessan-
 dria, June 16, and evacuated to the French
 the greater portion of Upper Italy.   On
 the 22d, Bonaparte left the army, "having
 appointed Massena to the command, and,
 on the 1st of July, entered Paris, where he
 was received with great demonstrations of
 joy. To enable the reader to understand die
 position of the first consul, and to estimate
 fairly his administration at this period, it
 would be  necessaiy  to go at length into
 the then existing state of France,  which
 our  limits  will  not  allow.  We must,
 therefore,  refer  to  the various memoirs
 which have been published  relating to it.
 France was at that time torn by parties,
 oppressed by the unprincipled rapacity of
 some,  excited by priests,  surrounded by
 irreconcilable enemies to the new state of
 things, and impoverished by the long inter-
 ruption of commerce and industry.  The
 consul found almost all social ties dissolv-
 ed ;  the  administration corrupt ; religion
 abolished; justice insecure; the laws dis-
 regarded ;  violence  and weakness every
 where coupled together; factionsintriguing
 against each other;  Jacobins, royalists,
 constitutionalists, atlherents to the directo-
 ry (the directory itself having been divid-
 ed) opposed to each other;—in one word,
 a state of anarchy,  which  disgusted the
 people at large, and which led to the most
 daring attempts  upon the pereon of the
 chief magistrate.  Such was the  state of
 France when Bonaparte took the  reins
into his hand. He directed his attention
to every branch of government.   The
law,  the finances,*  prisons, education,
arts, indusUy, even the fashions of the la-
dies, which  had  become highly  indeco-
rous,—every subject of general interest,—
attracted  his attention.   Every thing was
to be put on a new footing.   Thus situat-
ed, gifted with such a variety of talents,
and surrounded by foreign enemies, it is
not surprising, although it is to be lament-
ed, that he gradually  concentred all the
powers of government  in himself, so that
he became the nucleus of all order and
law, whereby the civil organization of the
government was left destitute of that prin-
ciple of  life and independence  which

  * Even in his youth, when he had the command
of the army in Italy, he had kept a watchful eye
over the honesty of the public functionaries. 
576                     APPENDED  (NAPOLEON.)
alone can secure its permanence among
civilized  nations—a circumstance which
proved fatal towards the latter part of his
reign.  Soon after  the return  of Bona-
parte to Paris, the conspiracy of the sculp-
tor Ceracchi,  the painter Topino-Lebrun,
Demcrville and Arena, was  discovered.
Their plan was to assassinate the consul
at the opera, and their object was the res-
toration of liberty.  On the 24th  of De-
cember,  1800,  another conspiracy pro-
duced the explosion  of the infernal ma-
chine, on which occasion Bonaparte nar-
rowly escaped.  The authors of the latter
plot   were Saint-Regent,  Carbon, and
Limoelan,  chouans, and correspondents
of George Cadoudal.  (q. v.)   Another
plot  for his assassination by the republi-
cans Metget and Chevalier was discover-
ed ;  and  several other similar conspiracies
were frustrated by  the vigilance of the
police, Arena, Ceracchi, and their accom-
plices, were executed January 31.  Sev-
enty others, accused of being concerned
in the affair ofthe infernal machine, were
transported to Africa, of whom Lefranc,,
Saunois  and Vauverein obtained permis-
sion  to return to France during Napole-
on's reign,  and  the  eighteen survivors in
that  of Louis XVIII.  At that time, when
a mistaken policy led to the publication of
the most absurd libels against France, but
chiefly against the first consul,  it was as-
serted that most of these conspiracies were
contrived by the government itself, for the
purpose of striking its enemies  with  ter-
ror by the execution of the beguiled con-
spirators.  Without referring to Napole-
on's character, such charges can be made
only by  people  unacquainted with poli-
tics.  A  long-established and vicious gov-
ernment might, perhaps, resort to such ex-
ecrable means ; but, as Fouche justly ob-
served, "A new government always dates
from the discovery of the last conspiracy,
which imsetdes whatever had already been
settled."    To invent  such conspiracies
would have been as impolitic as criminal.
As soon as general Bonaparte had seized
the  reins of government, he directed  his
attention particularly to the formation and
completion of the code of laws, for which
steps had already been taken under previ-
ous  governments of the revolution.   Bo-
naparte  personally  took part in the de-
bates on the various laws which were to
constitute the code; and,  throughout  his
.life, he considered the  code as one of his
chief claims to distinction.  (For more
 particulars, see the article Codes, les Cinq.)
 September 3,1800, a treaty of peace and
 commerce was concluded with the  U.
States of North America.  Moreau's vic-
tories now compelled Austria to accede to
a peace without the concurrence of Eng-
land..  After  protracted negotiations be-
tween  Joseph Bonaparte and  the  count
Cobent/.l, a treaty was concluded at Lu-
neville, Febniary 9, 1801,  such, said die
first consul,  as the  French people had
wished.  (For the details of this peace,
see Luniville.)  March 28, followed the
peace with die king of the Two Sicilies ;
July 15, a concordate widi the pope ; Au-
gust 24,  a separate treaty  with Bavaria;
August 29, another with the Batavian re-
public ; September 29, the peace of Ma-
drid with. Portugal; and, October 1, pre-
liminaries of peace, at London, widi Great
Britain ;  finally,  October  8, peace  with
Russia, and, October 9, preliminaries with
die Porte.  The celebration of the  gene-
ral peace at Paris, Novemlier 9  (the anni-
versary of the eighteenth of Brumaire),
was splendid, and the people gave Bona-
parte the title of  pacificator.  He doubly
deserved this title when he turued his at-
tention  to  domestic  improvement  of all
kinds ; to the promotion of arts, sciences
and education, of commerce and manu-
factures ; to the  restoration  of the navy,
and the maintenance ofthe colonies. No-
vember, 1801, a large French and Spanish
fleet had sailed from Brest and  Rochefort,
with an army of 20,000 men,  under the
command of general  Leclerc, brother-in-
law to the first consul, for St.  Domingo,
to restore  the French authority in that
island.  This expedition (in which a noble
army,  so often victorious under Moreau,
and the other troops afterwards seut out,
were swept away by  fever, within a few
months) is only one of aseries of unsuccess-
ful naval expeditions  in which Bonaparte
was engaged. Sixty thousand whites per-
ished in St. Domingo. (See Hayti.)  Jan-
uary 8,1802, the  first consul repaired to
Lyons, accompanied by his consular guard,
in order to arrange the affairs of the Cis-
alpine republic, which took the name of
the Italian republic, and of which he be-
came president January 26,1802".   A de-
finitive peace was finally  concluded with
England at Amiens, March 26, 1802 (for
the particulars of which, see Amiens). The
celebration of this peace was solemnized,
April  28,  in Notre  Dame,  from  which
event we may date the reestablishment of
the Catholic  worship.  The joy ofthe na-
tion was excessive,  and the  first  consul
could  therefore  the  more easdy accom-
plish a bold measure, which, under other
circumstances, would have met with mnch
resistance—we mean the elimination, as it 
APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON.)
577
-vas styled, of many members of the tri-
bunate.  In May, a senatus-consulte added
ten years to the term of Bonaparte's con-
sulship. A law of amnesty, which grant-
ed the emigrants permission to return, was
now passed ;  also a  law for  establishing
the legion of  honor, which met with con-
siderable opposition in the tribunate,  and
one for the restoration of negro slavery.
There can be no doubt that Bonaparte
aimed at die  crown even anterior to  this
period. And here  we must say  a  few
words respecting Napoleon's  assumption
and exercise of power.  The  great ques-
tions which the historian will  have  to de-
cide, in forming a judgment of Napoleon,
seem to us to  be,.firet, whether he  was-
right in taking for granted that a republic
in France  was impracticable;  secondly,
whether  the  situation of France actually
required that  developement of the milita-
ry spirit, which Napoleon so completely
effected, and  which, in modern  represen-
tative governments, is almost  always  dia-
metrically  opposed  to  that  civic spirit
which is the only  sure basis of liberty,
particularly in a nation peculiarly sensible
to military glory; and,  thirdly, whether
Napoleon was obliged to concenfrate the
whole government in himself,. and cany
the system of constraint through  all the
ramifications  of  the social system,  de-
priving men of that free action,  with-
out which all constitutional forms, oaths
and   declarations  are  void,  and, with
which liberty may exist, in a considera-
ble  degree,  even unprotected  by such
forms.  This latter question is particular-
ly important, as touching, not merely the
rights of Napoleon's contemporaries, but
the future fitness ofthe people for the en-
joyment of civil  liberty.  If  it was not
necessary to  stimulate the mihtary spirit
to such a degree as to overbalance greatly
the other springs in the  social system,
and if it was  not necessary for Napoleon
to concentrate  the whole  activity  of the
government in his own person—then he is
responsible, not only for the various  suf-
ferings of  his  contemporaries  springing
therefrom, but as one of the chief  causes
ofthe protracted and painful  struggle for
a free government, which has gone on  in
France ever since his downfall, and  will
yet  long  continue, by  preventing  the
growth of the  calm civic spirit, without
which liberty is impossible.   Civil liberty
—the great aim of modern civilization—
has never begun with the military glory
of numberless victorious legions.  But  if
this  growtii  of the mihtary spirit  was
necessary, that is to say, if Napoleon could
   vox. x.            49
not prevent  it in the existing  circum-
stances ; and  if it was even advisable to
promote it, in order to prevent the greater
evil ofthe loss of national independence ;
and if the concentration ofthe whole gov-
ernment in himself was required to avert
internal dissensions,  and ail the miseries
following from them, insecurity of justice,
property  and pereon—then  the necessity
is to  be  deplored, not the  individual to
be condemned.   A  proper estimate of
Napoleon's character depends  upon the
settlement of these points, which wfll re-
quire  great study, .comprehensiveness of
view,  and sagacity, with a sense, of justice
unbiased  by libels, or panegyric, or even
by the accusations of real and heart-rend-
ing suffermg> which  must often  mistake
its own true causes. It must be left to time
to determine the  truth in  regard  to
the character of Napoleon.  At  present^
this point is still in some measure a party
question, and therefore  subject  to  the
influence of prejudice.  A mere biograph-
ical sketch, like the present, cannot go into
a  minute  analysis of it.   One  remark,
however, we may be  permitted to make—
that Napoleon cannot be said to have abol-
ished  republican  liberty, as-it did not, in
fact, exist when he took the reins of gov-
ernment.   Republican forms, indeed, had
been  presented in abundance; but  they
had no  Jiving principle.   The  govern-
ment had always been essentially concen-
trated in Paris.   Equality  had been ef-
fected, but liberty remained to be estab-
lished:  until  the former was properly
secured, the  latter  could have  no suf-
ficient basis.   It was expected, and still
is insisted  on, by some  writers, that he
should have  beaten  foreign   enemies,
quelled civil dissensions, put a stop to an-
archy, established justice  and public con-
fidence, counteracted conspiracies, recall-
ed the emigrants, reestablished the church,
and yet have left perfect liberty to alii
After the military spirit had been inflam-
ed to  the  highest pitchrand the military
establishment had acquired  a gigantic ex-
tent ; after  the government had  become
absolute, and the ambition  of Napoleon,
" the last infirmity of noble minds," had
received  so much  excitement—that he
then,  and especially  towards the end
of his reign, mistook sometimes the means
for the end, cannot be denied (he himself
acknowledged the fact, after his return
from  Elba), nor much surprise us.   (For
the legion of honor, so powerful an engine
in the hands of Napoleon,  see the article
Legion of Honor.)  The concordate, con-
cluded as  before stated, widi  the pope, 
578
APPENDIX.   (NAPOLEON.)
 was declared a  law of die land, in April,
 1802, and thus  the Catholic worship was
 reestablished in  France.  (See the article
 Concordate.)  The  question, "Shall  Na-
 poleon Bonaparte be consul for life ?" was
 now proposed to the nation.  A senatus-
 consulte of Aug. 2 declared the result of
 the election: 3,577,885 votes were given,
 of which 3,368,259 were in the affirma-
 tive.  The constitution soon after under-
 went some important changes.   The civil
 list was increased;  a court established at
 St. Cloud; the power of the firet consul,
 as to all domestic affaire, was made very
 extensive;  and he  received the right to
 nominate a successor.   When the defin-
 itive treaty with the Porte was concluded,
 June 26, he could say to die  republic,
 that he had established a  general peace,
 and augmented its  tenitory by the addi-
 tion of 42,000 square miles. This circum-
 stance, doubtless, powerfully influenced
 the vote on the consulship for life.  Aug.
 27, die senate took the oath of allegiance
 to him.   The consul could now act more
 freely towards  foreign  countries.   The
 protracted  and perplexing subject of in-
 demnification in Germany required his
 attention.  Even German princes suppli-
 cated the favor and mediation ofthe con-
 sul, wh! -h  resulted, Feb. 25, 1803, in the
 new decree of the deputation ofthe Ger-
 man empire. The disturbances in Switzer-
 land occasioned his interference  in Swiss
 affairs.  Aug. 26, the island of Elba was
 united  with the  republic,  and,  Sept. 11,
 the incorporation of Piedmont took place.
 While  French troops were stationed in
 Switzerland and on the  frontiers,  the
 deputies  ofthe Swiss confederacy repair-
 ed to Paris  to confer with the first consul,
 who showed, in  these transactions, great
 skill, and great acquaintance with foreign
relations.  Jan. 24,  1803, the scheme of
the system  of mediation was laid before
them, and, Feb.   19,  they received it
as the constitution  of the state.  (See
 Stvitzerland.)   Jan.  4, 1803, thirty-one
senatorehips were created within the  re-
public; and, Jan. 23, the  national insti-
tute received a new organization. The
report on the state ofthe republic, of Feb.
23,  and  that on the state of  finances,
 March 12, were highly satisfactory to  the
nation, so short a time previously without
 money and without credit.  The con-
struction of new roads and canals, and
 the foundation of prizes and splendid insti-
 tutions, occupied the attention of all classes.
 It is generally, perhaps universally, stated,
that England saw  an  infraction  of  the
 treaty of Amiens in the incorporation of
 Piedmont, the island of Elba,  and  the
 states of Parma, with the French empire,
 aud in the armed mediation iu the aflairs
 of Switzerland; and these circumstances
 are alleged as strong instances  to prove
 that Napoleon did not, in spite of his prot-
 estations, wish for peace, because he com-
 mitted acts that would  inevitably lead to
 war, and which England could not allow;
 but we have it from the chief of the French
 delegation for the conclusion of the peace
 of Amiens, that he informed lord Cornwal-
 lis, on several  occasions, of the changes
 which would take place in the relations of
 France and Italy.  The English govern-
 ment was therefore  instructed of these
 changes, and they were not the cause of
 the rupture of peace.   When  Mr.  Pitt
 (q. v.) regained power in England,  lord
 Whitworth was sent to  Paris, charged to
 demand the  evacuation  of Holland  by
 France, and the surrender of Malta, which
 had been  declared  independent by  the
 treaty.  The firet consul  felt great indig-
 nation at this demand, and declared, when
 first informed of it by his brother Joseph,
 that "the times of the  Pompadours and Du
 Barrys were over, that the French wished
 sincerely for  peace, but for a peace be-
 coming honorable men."  Complaints ac-
 cumulated on  both  sides, without  ever
 being adjusted; and as matters then stood,
 the minds cf men  rather exhausted than
 calmed, and the principles of the French
 revolution, and the  old order of things,
 still in active opposition, lasting quiet was
 hardly to  be expected from the peace of
 Amiens.  March 13, Bonaparte announced,
 in a solemn audience of foreign ministers,
 the approaching rupture with  England.
 He attempted, however, new negotiations,
 even when the English  ambassador  had
 demanded  his  passports.   But after  he
 had left Paris, Bonaparte  laid an enibar-
 fo (May 15) on all foreign vessels in the
 'rench harbors; the  same  was done  by
 Great Britain on the 16th, and on the 18th
she declared war.  France was at peace
with the German empire; but,  as the elec-
torate of Hanover, part ofthe  empire, be-
longed to George III, king of England,
Mortier occupied it, June 3, and that coun-
try, by the treaty of Suhlingen, fell, without
 resistance, into the power of the French.
All the anns, artillery, stores and horses of
the Hanoverian army  were delivered to the
French, who found in Hanover such am-
ple resources, that the French forces pro-
vided diemselves there  with almost ev-
ery thing necessary for prosecuting a war
against England.  At this period, the ex-
tensive works of defence on the French, 
                         APPENDIX.

 Belgian and  Dutch  coasts were  begun,
 end the canals which were to unite"the
 Knine, Meuse and Scheldt.  A circum-
 stance which will not fail to interest the
 student of Napoleon's life, is, that, through
 inadame Bonaparte, herself the daughter
 of a  nobleman (see Josiphine), who was
 pleased with the society of the emigrants,
 because their manners corcesponded  to
 those of her fonner life, the consul became
 more  disposed, perhaps,  to connect the
 faubourg Saint Germain with himself; than
 the principle  which  had elevated  him
 would have led him to be.  The ancient
 nobility were ready to accept any thing
 from him, but still never  considered him
 legitimate; aud if Napoleon acted on the
 high principle of pacifying and uniting all
 France, he at least  reaped  little  grati-
 tude  from  the ancient nobility.  They
 could  not be  reconciled to the new order
 of things till after the lapse of generations.
 George III refused to ratify the treaty of
 Suhlingen, but could not  prevent the oc-
 cupation  of Hanover.  Now  began the
 developement of that project which exert-
 ed so momentous an influence throughout
 the reign of  Napoleon—the continental
 system, which is treated  of in a separate
 article, and which Napoleon considered
 as die only way to force  England into a
 lasting peace  with revolutionized France.
 11 was the most gigantic  political project
 ever  attempted, to obtain which many
 ware were waged and thrones overturned
 and established, and which finally brought
 ruin on the contriver.  June 20, 1803, he
 prohibited the importation of English com-
 modities into France; but he also resolved
 to encounter England on English ground,
 and in all the French ports, from Havre
 to  Ostend,  immense preparations  were
 made for an invasion of the island.   The
 plan of attacking the English on the other
 side of the channel, was not conceived of
 then for the firet time since  the revolu-
 tion, as Hoche sailed in 1796 for Ireland,
 to assist the Irish insurgents. (See Hoche.)
 (A work has lately appeared, which con-
 tains some interesting information on this
 subject—the Life of Lord Fitzgerald, by
 Moore).  Meanwhile, the  English fleets
 blockaded several   French and  German
 ports,  together with the Elbe and Weser.
 A conspiracy was  soon after discovered,
 February  15,  1804, against the  life  and
 government ofthe first consul, and for the
 restoration of die Bourbons, the heads of
 which  were Pichegru and George  Ca-
doudal. Both were imprisoned, and, at
different times, forty-five other participa-
tors or strongly suspected persons, among
(NAPOLEON.)                     579

 whom was Moreau.  At the beginning of
 the process against them, an event took
 place which seemed to be connected with
 this process, and which amazed France
 and all Europe—the arrest and execution
 ofthe duke of Enghien.   (A frill account
 of the latter, and  the  explanation  of
 some important  points of this tragic affair,
 are given in the article Enghien.  Under
 Pichegru, and George Cadoudal, the reader
 will  find more particulars relating to the
 conspiracy.)   The  protests of Russia and
 Sweden against the execution of die duke
 of Enghien, were answered by pointing out
 the secret artifices  by which the English
 ministers Drake, at  Munich, and Spencer
 Smith, at  Stuttgart, had sought to intro-
 duce rebellion into France—a charge which
 was  pronounced a calumny in England,
 where Drake and Smith had returned, but
 which was not disproved.  These new at-
 tempts against the favorite of the nation,
 as well as against the internal peace  of
 France, brought ou the decision of the
 question, Is it  necessary to  reestablish
 hereditary power in France ? much sooner
 than would otherwise have been possible.
 March 27, 1804, the senate first discussed
 the subject of confirming the government
 by the establishment of hereditary power;
 and, April 30, a  proposal was made in the
 tribunate, to commit the government to an
 emperor, and make it hereditary in Bona-
 parte's family.  Carnot was the only mem-
 l>er who opposed this proposal. Addresses
 from all the departments came in, express-
 ing the wish  to see the  benefits of the
 revolution  secured  by a  hereditary mon-
 archy. These proceedings were followed,
 May 18, by a senatus-consulte, presented
 to the firet consul by a deputation of the
 senate, at the head of which was the sec-
 ond consul, Cambac6res,  who addressed
 him, for the first time, with the terms sire
 and your majesty.  The senatus-consulte
 consisted of sixteen divisions, in which
 provision was made for the succession,
 guardianship ofa minor heir, the dignities
 of the empire,  the oath to be-taken  by
 each emperor, two  senatorial committees
 for the protection of individual liberty, and
 the liberty of the press, a superior impe-
 rial court, &c.   Immediately  after the
 publication of the senatus-consulte, Napo-
 leon—as he was now called, in the usual
 style of monarchs—appointed his broth-
 ers Joseph and Louis (the only ones who
 had been elevated to the rank of princes
 by  the   senatus-consulte),  the  fonner
 grand-elector, the latter,  constable of the
 empire.  The second consul, Cambaceres.
 was made arch-chancellor of the empire; 
580                      APPENDIX.

the third consul, Lebrtm, arch-treasurer of
the empire.  The dignity of marshal of the
empire was conferred on Berthier, Murat,
Moncey,Jourdan, Mass6na,Augereau, Ber-
nadotte, Soult,Brune, Lannes,Mortier,Ney,
Davoust, Bessieres, &c Seven days after,
the emperor received  the oath of fidelity
from  the senate,  the  tribunate,  and the
legislative  body.  The ether  authorities
did not remain behindhand, and the cler-
gy called Napoleon a Mattathias, a pious
Onias, a second Jehoshaphat, &c.  Mean-
while, the process against George,  and
the others mentioned above, wras conclud-
ed.  Pichegru had been  foimd dead in
prison, April 6.  The enemies of Napole-
on accused him ofthe murder of Pichegru,
as well as of that  of me English captain
Wright (see Wright)-, but against all prob-
ability, as'is now generally acknowledged.
Savary, duke of Rovigo, has also satisfac-
torily defended himself against this charge.
(RespectingPichegru's death, see also the
article Otranto.)  Moreau, who was privy
to the conspiracy, without being precisely
an accessory, Was adjudged to die; but
public opinion, as well  as Napoleon's re-
luctance to sign the death-warrant of the
victor of Hohenlinden, saved  him.  (See
Moreau.)   George and nine  others were
executed.  Of the rest, part were pardon-
ed by the emperor—of whom even Bour-
rienne says, that he took a real pleasure in
pardoning—part sentenced to imprison-
ment. (See Polignac.)   Louis XVIII was
at Warsaw when the news of Napoleon's
elevation  to the imperial dignity reached
him,  and he issued a protestation  against
it, June 6,1804. Napoleon had taken the
title of emperor undoubtedly  for  several
reasons: 1. If hereditary monarchy was re-
quired in France,  it was certainly a mon-
archy totally different from the  former
one, and, therefore, it was advisable to
choose a  name which would  not recall
the ideas of ancient royalty, and offend
the people's ear.  2.  Napoleon wished for
a transition from  the  republic to  monar-
chy ;  he could call himself emperor of the
republic, and did -so (for instance, on the
firet coins of the empire); he never could
have  called himself^ing- of the republic.
3. It compotted better with the vastness of
his views, and he Was gratified to call to
mind, in  his actions  or institutions, the
Western empire of Charlemagne.*  July

  * The title of emperor of the French, and not
emperor of France, was given to Napoleon, as the
first constitution of the revolution gave to Louis
XVI the title king of the French, which was again
conferred on Louis Philip, to indicate that the sove-
reign is merely the head of the government, aud
(NA^OLEO'N!)

 15, 1804, the legion of honor was  sol-
 emnly consecrated  in  the church of the
 Invalides.  The ceremony was performed
 with  much pomp, and was calculated to
 extinguish the recollections of the former
 kingdom, by substituting a new and impe-
 rial pomp,  yet  accompanied  by strong
 marks of a popular character, grow ing out
 of the principle on which the  new empire
 was founded.  This' celebration has been
 several times described; for instance, in
 Bourrienne. The cardinal-legate celebrat-
 ed dje-mass.  August 15, bis birth-day, Na-
 poleon -appeared in die camp of Boulogne,
 and on the next  day distributed the cross
 of the legion of honor, after the legiona-
 ries had taken the oath* in  the presence
 of 80,000 men.   Before Napoleon  left
 Boulogne,  he  founded prizes  for  the
 promotion of science and industry, agri-
 culture included, to be distributed every
 ten yeare by the hand of the emperor;
 but in the great events which took place
 afterwards, this  institution was forgotten.
 He then went with the empress to Brus-
 sels, Aix-la-Chapelle and  Mayence.   All
 the German princes immediately acknowl-
 edged the emperor;  the German emperor
 only making the condition that  the French
 emperor  should  recognise  him as  he-
 reditary  emperor of Austria.    England,
 Sweden and Russia, only, refused at first
 to acknowledge Napoleon.    The  pope,
 who,  since the times of Pepin the Short,
 had never anointed and crowned a sove-
 reign  but at Rome, consented to go to
 Paris  to  be present at the coronation of

 not the owner ofthe country; so that his power is
 limited to  controlling  the actions  of men, and
 does not extend to the disposition of their property.
 Defenders ofthe ''right divine'' frequently ridicule
 this title, which expresses what Frederic the Great
 said of himself, " I am but the highest officer of the
 state;" and philosophers, like Hegel, have attempt-
 ed to prove that it does not express the true rela-
 tions of a  sovereign, which they consider essen-
 tially ditferent from those  of a chief magistrate.
 This fjbrm, however, of referring to  the people in-
 steadof ihe country, in the royal title, is vcrv old,
 and vfas used in  feudal  times, when  the" king
 was but primus inter pares, and could not claim
 any right  to interfere with the land or property
 of the  other nobles. Among other instances are
 the following: An engagement between Philip II
 of France, and Richard of England, was signed
 thus:  Moi Philippe, »-oi des Franqois, erirers
 Richard mon ami, et  mon fdele vassal: Mc i
 Richard, roi des Anglais, enrers Philippe, mon
 seigneur et mon ami. Philip IV of France (1285—
 1314)  caHs himself, in his famous  letter to pope
 Boniface,  roi /les Francois. (See it, e. g., in Chi-
 teaubriand'-s Etudes, vol. iii, p. 331.) Even the
 sovereign of Prussia is called, in  Latin, always
 rex Borussorum; and the Romans frequently used
 the same form, as, rex Romanorum, Macedonian.
   * See, fcr!this oath, our cuticle Legion of Honor. 
APPENDIX.   (NAPOLEON.)
581
Napoleon, which took place December 2,
1804, after the senate  had set  forth the
result of the  votes for  and agauist a he-
reditary  emperor,  December 1.   It ap-
peared from 60,000 lists, kept for the pur-
pose, in 108  departments, that  out  of
three millions five hundred and seventy-
four thousand eight hundred and ninety-
eight voters, only two thousand  five bun-
dled and sixty-niue votes were against the
elevation oi" Napoleon  to the throne.  In
the mean time, the fleet of Boulogne had
been often exposed to the  most  ingenious
and  repeated  attacks by fire-ships of all
kinds,  which, however, by the  judicious
measures of admiral Bruix, were almost
entirely  frustrated.  Soon  after, Bmix
died.  The death of this  eminent officer
was so much the more felt, as  he would
have been of great  service in  the naval
war which threatened France, and which,
in the case of Spain, had  already begun,
by the arbitraiy capture, on die part of the
English, of four royal register-ships com-
ing from the La  Plata,  though Spain was
entirely disposed for peace.  Though the
senatus-consulte declared only Joseph and
Louis princes, yet the  sisters of the em-
peror were soon treated as imperial prin-
cesses, which had an effect upon the sta-
tion of their husbands.  Murat, husband
of Napoleon's youngest sister, and Eugene
Bcauhamais, were made princes: the for-
mer was also made grand-admiral of the
empire, the  latter  arch-chancellor #of the
state.   Soon  after,  an event  happened
which seems to be the first indication that
Napoleon intended to make a marked dif-
ference between the French state and the
French empire—an  idea which soon de-
veloped itself rapidly.   Napoleon's eldest
sister, Eliza, who had been married, since
1797, to general Bacciocchi, received from
die emperor the principality of Piombino,
for her and her male descendants, but with
this condition, that the hereditary prince
should not have a right to ascend  the throne
before he had received the investiture from
the  emperor of the French.  The prince
of Piombino entered, besides, into many
obligations for this fief.  In the  beginning
of 1805, Napoleon wrote, with his own
hand, a letter to George  III, offering to
conclude peace, for die welfare of Europe.
George III  had  just  then expenenced
a return of his  mental disorder; so that
lord  Mulgrave,  then  secretary of state,
wrote an answer to the French  minister
of foreign affairs, under date of January
 14, stating that the king could not accept
the proffer without  consulting  his allies;
and containing great praise of  the empe-
                 49*
ror  of Russia, which indicated  that this
power was inclined to join the enemies
of France.   Napoleon may now have firet
determined to banish  all regard for the
balance of power supported by England,
and to adopt the idea of a  federative sys-
tem, in which France should have a pre-
ponderating  influence.  January 12,  a
treaty was concluded with  Spain, which
put five vessels of the line  and 5000 men
at the emperor's  disposal.  The emperor
of the French could not well remain the
president of the  Italian republic. Depu-
ties from die latter came to offer  him the
crown of Italy, which Ws accepted, in or-
der to place it upon a younger head, as
soon as the state of the nations would al-
low  it.   He  had  in vain requested his
brother Joseph to accept  the  crowu of
Lombardy.  (See Joseph.)  This was on
March 17;  and from that  day he called
himself emperor of the French and king
of Italy.  The reason for  his  using the
name of the  country, in the second title,
instead of that ofthe people, as in the first,
is, that he considered  his relations to
France proper, and odier countries under
his  sway  essentially different.   His au-
thority over  the latter was a matter of
temporary expediency; but bis relation to
France he deemed firm, and therefore his
title, as French sovereign, was made to ex-
press precisely his authority.   May 26, he
crowned himself with the iron crown (q. v.)
in the cathedral at Milan, pronouncing
these words, whilst he took  the crown from
the altar: Dieu me la donne; gore a qui la
louche (God has given it to me ; wo to him
who touches it)—words which became the
device ofthe order of the iron crown, es-
tablished after the coronation.   The oath
which Napoleon took was similar to that
which he had taken in France.   June 7,
Eugene Beauhamais was appointed vice-
roy  of Italy, and  the Ligurian  republic
was incorporated with  France, after the
vote of the people to that effect had been
obtained.   With Genoa, also  Parma, Pi-
acenza, and Guastalla, were  added  to
France.  The Po and Sesia were declared
to be the division between France and the
kingdom of Italy. The republic of Luc-
ca was given as a principality  to  Felix
Bacciocchi.  Before  Napoleon  left Italy,
the convents were abolished, with the ex-
ception of  the charitable orders, or those
which devoted themselves to  instruction,
and a few  others,  in order not to do too
much at once; and several other salutary
regulatioi is were made.  Notwith standing
the benefits which his policy conferred on
the country, these changes were consider- 
  582                    APPENDIX.

  ed as violations of the law of nations, and
  the incorporation of Genoa with the em-
  pire became the pretext for a war long re-
  solved upon.  April 11,1805, a treaty was
  concluded between Russia and England,
  by which they engaged to  use the  most
  effective means to form a general coalition
  against France. An army of 500,000 men
  was to force  this empire to restore die
  balance of power in  Europe.  England
  .engaged, besides furnishing troops, to pay
   1,250,000 pounds sterling annual subsidies
  for every 100,000 men furnished by her
  allies.  The various treaties between Rus-
  sia, Austria, England, Sweden,  &c, for
  this purpose, should be read, as they con-
  tain  many important  particulars.   The
  French government even published secret
  articles, agreed on between the powers,
  and providing that Lyons should be given
  to the king of Sardinia, and that Belgium
  should be placed in the same relations in
  which it was placed in 1815.  Napoleon,
  though well inforrtied of all these transac-
  tions, continued, apparently with the great-
  est zeal, the preparations for an invasion of
  England. He spoke the language of peace
  to Austria; but the Austrians had already
   marched,  September  14,  into  Munich.
   Napoleon called his army the grand army.
   The  plan of the  campaign, with its vari-
   ous combinations and provisions, is a  strik-
   ing exhibition of "genius; and the sagacity
   with which he made his victories conduce
   to his political objects, shows his  great
   qualifications  forruling.  September 25
   and 26, his army crossed the Rhine.   Oc-
  tober 2, he concluded a treaty, in  Lud-
   wigsburg, with the elector of Wurtem-
   berg, which gave him a new accession of
   troops: on die same day, the Bavarians
   formed a junction with the French army.
  -On the 3d, Bemadotte, who had super-
   seded Mortier in Hanover, marched with
   his corps through the neutral Prussian pos-
   sessions  in Franconia.  Thus, on the 4th,
   the Austrians were menaced on the  flank
   and rear.  On the 8th,  Murat gained an
   important victory at Wertingen.  On the
   10th, Napoleon concluded a treaty  with
   Baden, at Esslingen.   On  the  I4th, the
i   Austrians were partially defeated at Ulm.
   On the 17th,  Mack capitulated in  Ulm;
   and  on the next day, another  Austrian
   corps at Trochtelfingen, and  another  at
   Bopfingen.  Napoleon's fortune seemed,
   nevertheless, to waver.  On Xhe 21st, die
   French and Spanish fleet was annihilated
   by Nelson at Trafalgar;  the archduke
   Charles  entered Italy;  Prussia  put its
   troops in motion; the Russian emperor
   appeared himself in Berlin, and persuaded
(NAPOLEON))

 Frederic William to take part in the War:
 but the French  advanced  without  delay
 into Austria; and, November 13, Murat en-
 tered Vienna, and Napoleon, Schonbrunn.
 Heavy contributions were imposed upon
 the country (among other  things, for the
 support  of the  orphans and widows of
 French  soldiers who had died in the cam-
 paign) ;  and after the (so called) battle of
 the three emperors, at Austeriitz  (q. v.),
 December 2, the emperor Francis had an
 interview with Napoleon on the 4th, and
 on the 6th concluded an armistice.  This
 was  followed, December  26th,  by the
 peace of Presburg, which deprived Aus-
 tria of some fine provinces, and aggran-
 dized Bavaria,   Wurtemberg,  and  Ba-
 den.   (See the article  Presburg, Peace of.)
 Such a series  of rapid and decisive victo-
 ries was almost unexampled. Aconvention
 had been previously cob eluded with Prus-
 sia, at Vienna, December 15, giving to that
 country  Hanover,  and thereby severing
 Prussia from England.  The new king of
 Bavaria gave his daughter  in marriage to
 the step-son of Napoleon; Stephanie Beau-
 harnais, niece of the empress Josephine,
 was married to  the crown-prince of Ba-
 den.   A decree  of the senate conferred on
 the emperor the title of Great.   Pitt, his
 implacable enemy, had died, January 23,
 1806.  March 2, Napoleon proclaimed to
 the legislative  body  the  dominion  of
 France over Italy.  March 16,  Napoleon
 created his brother-in-law  Murat duke of
 Cleves and Berg, and, on the  30th, his
 brother Joseph king of Naples and Sicily,
 after the latter had  occupied diat kingdom
 with French  troops,  because Ferdinand,
 king of  Naples,  had allowed 20,000 Eng-
 lish and Russian -soldiers to land, contrary
 to his engagements with France (see the
 article Joseph, in the Appendix of vol. vii);
 Venice was united with France; Guastal-
 la was  given to Pauline, the sister of
 Napoleon; Neufchatel to Berthier, the
 minister of war. The family law of March
 31 closely connected all the  members of
 the  imperial family,  with all their do-
 minions, to the emperor, who saw no oth-
 er way of overcoming England, and forc-
 ing her to conclude  peace, than by de-
 proing her of all influence on  the conti-
 nent ; and this  he intended to effect by
 extending his power as  far as possible.
 Besides, he had seen that the other powers
 of the  continent would  not fulfil their
 promises without the compulsion of fear.
 This  family law, however,  could  never
 have continued, if a successor of less mU-
 itary and political talent had followed him,
 as was to be expected. May 24, his brother 
APPENDIX. tfNAPOLEONO
sea
Louis  also received a crown,  Napoleon
transmuting the Batavian republic into the
kingdom  of  Holland.   Talleyrand and
Bemadotte were created dukes.  Domains
in die conquered  countries were  the re-
wards  of the generals and ministers.  July
12, 1806,  the  confederacy of the Rhine
(q, v.) was formed in Paris, and Napoleon,
as its protector, became the ruler of the
greater part of Germany ; and the empe-
ror Francis renounced, August 6, the im-
perial throne of Germany; and,  without
a struggle, the ancient empire was dissolv-
ed, after it had long ceased to be an em-
pire in effect, and for all the purposes for
which  governments are established. What-
ever the dreams  of some fanciful politi-
cians may-iiave been, and continue to be,
ever}' unprejudiced observer must confess
that the destruction ofthe German empire
was necessary. A few notes were written,
and the empire fell to dust, like those bod-
ies which retain their fonn for a long time
when undisturbed, but crumble as soon as
touched.  In the  article Prussia,we  have
spoken of the painful and embarrassing
situation  of that country  in relation  to
France and England.  At  the beginning
of 1806,  England declared  war against
Prussia,  for  having  taken possession  of
Hanover; yet Fox, now prime minister of
Great  Britain, showed himself willing to
treat respecting peace with France; but
when  the Prussian ambassador  learned
that the restitution of Hanover' was spo-
ken of as one of  the conditions of a peace
between France  and England, it may be
said that war between Prussia and France
was certain; and when  Napoleon estab-
lished  the  confederacy  of  die   Rhine,
Prussia thought it her duty to endeavor to
check his growing  power in Germany.
She declared war, and the combined Prus-
sian and Saxon army, consisting half of
foreigners, was totally routed, October  14,
1806, in a double battle at Auerstadt and
Jena, a long description of which is given
under the head of Jena.  Before the battle
of Jena, Napoleon directed a letter to the
king of Prussia, in order to try to stop the
effusion of blood, dated Gera, October 12.
 Saxony was  separated from the alliance
 with Prussia, and the scattered portions of
 the army of  the latter submitted to the
 enemy, whilst almost all her fortresses fell
 by treachery or  cowardice.  October  27,
 Napoleon made  his entry into Berlin, and
 organized a  government for the conquer-
 ed Prussian territories.*   General Mortier

   * The pardon of  prince Hatzfeld (q.  v.), at this
 time, is a pleasing incident in Napoleon's life. In
 the heat of political  excitement, whose effect is al-
had occupied  the  principality of Fulda,
and driven the elector of Hesse out of his
country.   The house of Brunswick was
declared to have ceased to reign, on ac-
count of the celebrated manifesto issued
by the duke, which, however, was drawn
up by French emigrants.   Some negotia-
tions for peace, which took place at Cbar-
lottenburg, near Berlin, were fruitless. No-
vember 21, Napoleon issued the famous
Berlin decree, declaring  Great Britain
in a state of blockade, and strictly pro-
hibiting all  intercourse  with her.   (See
Continental System.) The French armies
continued to advance.  At Posen, Napo-
leon promised to the long-wronged Poles
the restoration of their kingdom.  A Rus-
sian army hastened, indeed, to aid the king
of Pmssia; but the battle of Pultusk, De-
cember 26; the  bloody  battle  of  Eylau,
February  7 and 8,1807 (see Eylau); the
capitulation of Dantzic;  the  division  of
the Russian power by the Turkish  war;
the skirmish at Heilsberg, June 10; at
Ostrolenka, on the 12th; and the battle
of Friedland (q. v.),on the 14th,—finally re-
sulted in a truce on the 21st; and, on the
7th of July, in a  peace between  Russia
and France, and, on the  9th, tbetween
France and Prussia, at Tilsit.  In the arti-
cle Tilsit, Peace of, are given theresults of
this peace, the  main features of which
were, that Prussia! lost upwards of four
millions of subjects, and had to pay exor-
bitant contributions.  Her principal for-
tresses remained  in the  power  of the
French until all was paid.  The newly-
created  duchy of  Warsaw was given to
the elector of Saxony, who was promoted
to the royal dignity.  A new kingdom was
composed of Hessia, Brunswick, Hanover,
Osnabriick, and part of Pmsaia, reaching
to the Elbe, called the kingdom of West-
phalia (q. v.),  the crown of which was
given to Jerome, the youngest brother of
the emperor, married to a princess  royal
of  Wurtemberg.  (See Jerome.)  What-
ever views Napoleon himself entertained
respecting these newly-created kingdoms
—whether they were at some future time
to give way to institutions more calculated
for stability and independence, or whether
he actually thought it possible and desira-
ble to establish, in this way, a  permanent
dependence of foreign  countries  upon
France—a view which can hardly be as-

ways to exaggerate or distort, this pardon of Hatz-
feld was called a theatrical display; as if, at that
moment, Napoleon either needed, or could expect,
to conciliate the  Prussians.   Similar  censures
were  also  often cast on his  offers  of peace,  to
stop the effusion of blood. 
584
APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON.)
 cribed to him, as the impracticability of it
 was too evident (die existence of this sys-
 tem of foreign dependencies resting upon
 his personal energies, and the strange con-
 flict of  interests  in Europe)—we  say,
 whatever were his  views, it ought to  be
 remembered, that he abolished aristocratic
 privileges in the conquered countries, and
 transplanted  thither various  institutions,
 founded on liberal principles, the free op-
 eration of which, of course, was impeded
 by the protracted ware in Europe.  Na-
 poleon returned to  France, and received
 in Paris the visits of the German princes.
 In  destroying the  power of Prussia, he
 probably had three  objects: 1. to deprive
 Russia of a power  ever ready to unite it-
 self with her, in her attacks upou the new
 order of things, particularly since the spo-
 liation of Poland, in which they both shar-
 ed ; 2. to be safe against attacks from the
 east, whilst his attention was attracted  to
 the west; 3. to ensure the rigorous observ-
 ance  of  the  continental  system  along
 the coast of the Baltic  The interview of
 Napoleon and Alexander, at Tilsit, result-
 ed in a personal friendship between the
 two monarchs, prom iced, perhaps, by the
 late conduct of England towards the em-
 peror of Russia.   England suspected the
 conclusion of secret articles of peace be-
 tween  them, and  insisted  on  knowing
 them.  As this was refused, she feared that
 Detimark, unable to maintain her neutral-
 ity in such a state of things, would yield
 up her ships to supply the French loss at
 Trafalgar.   The English cabinet,  there-
 fore, resolved to possess themselves ofthe
 Danish fleet, and succeeded, September 7,
 after the  bombardment of  Copenhagen.
 The Dmish fleet consisted  of 18 vessels
 of the line,  15 frigates, 6 brigs, and  25
 gun-boats.  The fate of Denmark, at  this
 time, was the harder, as she had honestly
 struggled to preserve her neutrality ; but,
 in great  political  crises, it  is impossible
 either for nations or for individuals to  re-
 main neutral.  One of the first measures
 of Napoleon, after his return to St. Cloud,
 July 27,1807, was  the  dissolution of the
 tribunate. On the  other hand, the cow des
i comptes was established, containing, as be-
 fore the revolution,  three departments;—
 one for the expenditure ;  another for the
 revenue; and the  third  for  the expendi-
 ture and revenue of the cities and com-
 munities.  His attention  to  internal im-
 provement was unabated.*   Still further
 to straiten England, Napoleon now shut

   * His attention to this subject appears front ma-
 ny documents, and is strikingly shown in the fol-
up the ports  of the Pyrcncan peninsula.
Portugal, which has, for the last century,
always b \.n  dependent on  i itigkuid,  at-
tracted particularly Napoleon'* attention.
Spain, ever  since  1793  subservient to
France, had  been sj  merely  from fear;
and, when Napoleon, in 180(5, was  occu-
pied  with Prussia,  Godoy, the prince of
peace, had isoiied a proclamation, calling
upon the  Spaniards to take  up anns against
the common enemy, who, however, was not
named more definitely. Pradt  (q. v.) (Mi-
moires sur la Revolution d'Esp.) ascribes
Napoleon's conduct towards Spain,  to his
being irritated  by this foolish proclama-
tion ; but the  plans of  Napoleon  were not

1 )wing letter, which was published in  No. 12 of
liie Revue  Britannique.  It shows liis large,  pen-
etrating, p.Tispectivo views, and constant refer-
ence to posterity, and to their opinion ; the lofty
spirit in which  he undertook labors of practical
utilit}'; the blended familiarity  and  elevation of
tone with which he addressee! his nrnisters; the
impulse which  he gave to his government by the
paths which he traced  out for  others to follow;
and his practical spirii.  As it was not wrilten for
publication, it will not be charged with deception.

              " Fontaineblsau, Nuv. 14,1807.
" Monsieur Cretet,—
 " Von have received the imperial decree by which
I have authorized the sinking fund to lend 3 .in !0.000
francs to the city of Paris.  1 suppose that  you
are employed in taking measures which may bring
these works to a speedy conclusion, and may aug-
ment Ihe revenues of the city.  In these  works,
there are soma which will not be very productive,
but are merely for ornament. There are,  others,
such as the galleries over the markets, the slaugh-
ter-houses,  &.c, which will be  very productive;
but to make them  so will require activity.  The
shops, for which I  have granted you funds, are not
yet commenced.  I suppose you have taken up
the funds destined  for die fountains, and that yon
have employed them provisionally  for the  ma-
chine at Marly. Carry  on th„>  w;i .!e with spirit.
This system of  advancing money to the city of
Paris, to augment  its branches of revenue, is also
intended to contribute to its enibellisb.nent.  My
intention is to extend it to other  departments.
  '• I have  many canals to make : that from Dijon
to  Pans ; that from the Rhine t»the Saone ; and
that from the Rhine to the  Scheldt.  These three
canals can be carried on as vigorously as could be
wished. My intention is, independently  of the
funds which are granted  from the revenues of the
state,  to seek extraordinary funds for the three
canals.   For this  purpose, 1 should like  lo sell
the canal of St.  Quentin, the produce of which
might be employed to expedite  tiie works  of the
canal of Burgundy.  In fact, I would sell even
the canal of Languedoc, and apply the proceeds
to  the construction of the canal from the Rhine to
the Sa6ne.   I suppose that the canal  of St. Quen-
tin might be sold for 8,000,000 francs ; that of
Loing for as much; and the canal of- Languedoc
for more.  There would then be 30,000,000 pro-
cured immediately, which I should employ in car-
rying on the three great  canals with all possi-
ble rapidity.  I  have the money j the  state  will 
APPENDIX.   (NAPOLEON.)
385
nkely to be influenced by the proclamation
ofa subject like Godov. (q. v.) Between the
agent of the-Ktter at Paris  (Izquierdo by
name) and the French court, a convention
was signed,  on October 27, at Fontame-
bleau, in  which it was  provided that the
house of Braganza should cease to reign in
Portugal, which  was to be divided  into
North Lusitania, for the king of  Etruria,
who  was to  restore  Tuscany to  France ;
South Lusitania, for Godoy, as a-sovereign
prince;  and the central provinces, which
were to  be  subsequently  disposed  of.
Napoleon had informed  the prince regent
of  Portugal,  in August, " that he must
give irr>'.all.*;onnexion with England, con-

lose nothing: on the contrary, it will gain: since,
if it loses tiie revenues of the canals of Loing, St.
Quentin, and that of the south,  it will  gain the
product  of the canals of the Scheldt, Napoleon,
and Burgundy; and when these works are com-
pleted, il circumstances permit, 1 shall sell these,
in order to make others.  Thus  my object is to
pursue a directly opposite course to England, or
to what is proposed lobe done there.  In England,
a charter would have been granted, for construct-
ing the canal of St. Quentin, and the work would
have been left  to capitalists.   1 have, on the con-
trary, begun  by constructing the  canal of St.
Quentin.  It has cost, I believe, 8,000,000 francs ;
it will produce 500,000 francs.  I shall, then, lose
nothing by selling it to a company for what it has
cost me; since, with this money, I shall  construct
other canals. Make me, I beg of you, a report up-
on this subject; otherwise, we  shall die without
seeing these three canals navigated.  In fact, it is
six  years since  the canal of St. QuciHin was be-
gun, and it is  not yet finished.  N«Kv,these canals
are of much more importance.  The expense of
that of Burgundy is estimated at thirty millions.
What can be expended from the general funds of
the state, does not exceed a  million  yearly: the
departments do not furnish  more than 500,000
francs.  It would, then, require twenty years to
finish this  canal.  What may not happen in this
time?   Wars  and  inefficient  mon will come,
and the canals will remain unfinished.  The canal
from the  Rhine to  the Scheldt will also cost a
large sum.  The general funds of the state are not
suincient to carry them on as quickly as we could
wish.  The canal of Napoleon is in the same sit-
uation.  Let me know how much it will be possi-
ble  to expend   yearly on each of these  three ca-
nals.  I suppose that, without injuringotherworks,
we  might allow to each, yearly, three or four mil-
lions ; and that thus, in five or six years, we might
see them all navigated.  You will inibrm me how
much the existing imposts will furnish for these three
canals; how much I have granted for 1808, and
the  supplementary funds which I granted in 1806,
for carrying on these works with the greatest activ-
ity. You will propose to me to sell the three canals
already finished, and at what  price it would be best
to sell them. I take upon myself the charge offfind-
ing purchasers : then we shall have money in abun-
dance. You  must tell  me, in your report,  how
rauch the three which I wish speedily to finish are es-
timated to cost, and compare it with the sums which
(he  three old canals have cost that I wish to sell.
  " You understand  what I wish. My  intention
it, to go beyond your report.   Perhaps it will lead
 fiscate  English  merchandise  in  Portu-
 guese ports, and adhere, without  reserve,
 to the continental system, if the house of
 Braganza wished to remain on the  throne"
 —a demand which it was actually impos-
 sible to fulfil, besides being inconsistent
 widi the oath taken by eveiy ruler of Por-
 tugal.   When a French and Spanish ar-
 my approached, he  and his family  em-
 barked,  November 29,   for  Brazil:  the
 next day, Junot entered  Lisbon,  and the
 conquest  of  Portugal   was  completed.
 The political state of Spain at this time
 was deplorable,  and  the condition-of the
 Spanish court shocking.   It  consisted of
 a king,  universally called inepte and im-

 lo opening a fund for public works, into-which the
 proceeds of the navigation of the canals would
 be immediately thrown.  We might thus grant lo
 this the proceeds of the sale of the three canals,
 and of others besides, if there are any which can
 be sold.   \\ ith this institution we should change
 Clie faqeof the country.
   " 1 have made the glory of my reign  to consist
 in changing the face of the territory of my empire.
 The execution of these  great works is  as neces-
 sary to the interest of my people as  to my own
 satisfaction.  I attach equal importance and greal
 glory to the suppression of mendicity.  Funds arc
 not wanting; but it seems to me that  the work
 proceeds slowly, and, meantime, years are passing
 away. We must not pass through this world with-
 out leaving traces which may commend  our mem-
 ory to posterity. I am going to be  absent  for ;«
 month.   Be ready on the 15th December to an-
 swer all these questions, which you will have ex-
 amined in detail, that I may be able, by  a general
 decree, to put the finishing blow to mendicity. You
 must find, before the  loth December,  in the re-
 served funds, and the funds of the communes, the
 necessary means for the support of sixty or one
.hundred  houses  for the extirpation of  beggary.
 The places where they shall  be erected must be
 designated, and the regulations completed.  Do
 not ask me for three.or four months to obtain fur-
 ther instructions. You have young auditors, intelli-
 gent prefects,  skilful engineers ; Dring al! into ac-
 tion, and do not sleep  m  the  ordinary  labors of
 the bureau.   It is  necessary,, likewise, that,  at
 the same time, all that relates to  the admiuistra
 tion of the public works, should be completed; so
 that, at the  commencement  of the  fine  season,
 France may present the spectacle of a country
 without a single beggar, and  where all  the popu-
 lation may be in action to embellish and render
 productive our immense territory.
   " You must, also, prepare for me all that is ne-
 cessary respecting the measures to be taken for ob-
 taining from the draining of the marshes of Cot-
 tentin and Rochefort, mopey  for  supporting the
 fund for public works, and-tor finishing  the drain-
 ings, or preparing others.
   " The  winter evenings are long; fill yeur  port-
 folios, that we may be able,  during the evenings
 of these  three months, to discuss the means  tor
 attaining great results.
   " Upon this, &c.
                            " Napoleon."

   " >1. Cretet, ray  minister of the interior." 
586
APPENDIX.   (NAPOLEON.)
bicil;—which,  indeed,  the  conduct  of
Charles IV shows that he must have been ;
—a criminal queen, who did not even ob-
serve appearances; an ambitious and in-
triguing favorite and prime-minister; and
an heir-apparent conspiring against his fa-
ther's throne.  A conspiracy  of the prince
of Asturias induced even the king to make
public avowals, which proved the trutii of
all the scandal, political and  domestic, re-
specting the royal family, that  many,  till
then, had not fully credited.   These cir-
cumstances had taken place  when Napo-
leon made a journey to Italy, towards  the
end of 1807.   In  Venice he  saw Joseph,
king of Naples; and when he returned to
Mantua from Venice,  he met his brother
Lucien,  who   had come thither from
Rome.  Some have believed  that he then
offered the latter  the crown of Spain;
but we cannot judge  whether he had
then fully  formed  the project of  placing a
new race on the Spanish throne.  In the
article Joseph (Appendix to vol. vit), it is
stated diat, at  a later period, Lucien was
offered  the crown of Naples, when Jo-
seph  exchanged  it  for the crown of
Spain.  Eugene at this  time was  made
prince of Venice,  his  infant   daughter
princess of Bologna,  and Melzi d'Erile
duke of Lodi,  and the order of the iron
crown  was  extended.   The  kingdom
of Etruria was changed again into the
grand-duchy of Tuscany, and added pro-
visionally to France.  The queen Maria
Louisa, of Etruria, returned to Spain. Dec.
17,1807, Napoleon issued the famous de-
cree of Milan  (see Continental System),
which was followed by a still severer de-
cree, of January 11,1808.  In the same
month, Kehl and Castel, Wesel and Flush-
ing,  were united  to the French empire.
General Miollis marched into Rome, oc-
cupied it, and kept the pope in a state of
dependence, but  not, as many  have be-
lieved, in order to  prevent him  from im-
peding the execution of the  plaus  re-
specting Spain.   A new hereditary no-
bility was now created, in order, as the
emperor expressed himself,  to  give the
imperial throne the requisite  dignity, and
to excite a praiseworthy emulation in the
hearts of the French.   The  titles of the
new nobility  were those  of the  feudal
times; yet no privileges  were attached to
these titles.  This blow was considered
by the old nobility more severe  than any
previous one, and, perhaps, was  so. This
event took place a short time before the
great changes in Spain.  (For a connected
relation of these occurrences, and for the
war in Spain, see  the  articles Spain, aud
 Joseph.)  The schools and institutions of
 instruction in the whole empire were uni-
 formly organized, but in a military m;m-
 ner; and a new religious catechism was
 prepared for  the French empire, which
 was offensive to the  thinking part of the
 nation, though the object of it was prolia-
 bly to deprive certain fanatics of the in-
 fluence which they exerted over the un-
 informed against Napoleon and the new
 order of tilings.  The English landed in
 Portugal, and the Portuguese showed a
 great disposition to rise against the French.
 Napoleon brought about the congress of
 Erfurt, in order to make one  more effort
 to  establish  peace, or at least to  secure
 himself on the east, that he might devote
 his whole strength to  the reduction ofthe
 Pyrenean peninsula,  particularly as Aus-
 tria had shown a great disposition to break
 once more with France.  The article Er-
furt contains some details respecting this
 congress, which took place in Sept., 1808,
 and at which  the emperor Alexander ap-
 peared, with many odier potentates. The
 reader will fiud there  also the  joint letter
 of Napoleon and Alexander to George III.
 England, however, refused to enter into
 negotiations for peace, and replied to the
 letter by a public note, written by  Can-
 ning ;  as a different mode of answer, stud
 the minister, would have amounted to an
 acknowledgment ofthe title of Napoleon.
 October  li,  Napoleon returned to St.
 Cloud: on the 29th,he set out for Spain,
 where his presence brought victory to the
 French arms.   But  threatening  move-
 ments of the Austrian cabinet  speedily
 obliged him to return.  Austria  declared
 war April 9, 1809.  Napoleon entered In-
 golstadt  on the 18th.  On the  20th, he
 defeated the Austrians at Abensberg; on
 the 21st, at Landshut; on the 22d, at Eck-
 miild (see Eckmuhl) ; on the 23d, at Rat-
 isbon; and on the 12th of May,Vioiiiia ca-
 pitulated.  An attempt to excite die Hun-
 garians to  insurrection  was  unsuccess-
 ful ; mid in Tyrol, then belonging to Ba-
 varia, the peasants took  up arms again.-:;
 the French, being  promised  support by a
 letter of the Austrian  emperor, and after-
 wards shamefully abandoned.  (See IIo-
 fer.)  Even in the north of Germany, an
 insurrectionary spirit  broke out.   (See
 Sehill)  On tiie 21st and 22d of May, Na-
 poleon lost, the battle of Aspcm (q. v.) and
 Esslingon ; but the Italian army came to
 his  aid; and, after the  battle ofRaab, June
 14,  the  Austrian.-! also lost, July 5th and
 Gtb, the battle of Wagram (q. v.), which re-
 sulted in the truce at Znayni, July 12.   The
 Tyrolese  alone continued  to fight with 
APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON.)
587
success, and the duke of Brunswick-CEls
escaped the pursuit of a superior force.
But the occupation of Walcberen by the
English (see Otranlo), the capitulation of
Flushing, August 15th, and the conquest
ofthe Ionian Islands, October 9th, did not
affect the success of Napoleon in Austria.
On the 13th, a German youth ofthe name
of Staps (q. v.)  attempted to stab him in
Schdnbrumi.  Meanwhile he had united,
May 17, le'09, the whole ofthe States of
the Church with France.  Pius VII (q. v.)
had  no arms but excommunication, and
this he pronounced, June 12, against the
emperor.   For  this he  was carried to
France,where Napoleon thought he could
deprive him of  all  political  influence.
October 14, peace was concluded at Vi-
enna.  Austria lost some valuable prov-
inces and its seacoasts.   The  Ulyrian
provinces were made  a French  govern-
ment.  The most important of the nego-
tiations following this campaign was that
for the hand of an Austrian princess for
the emperor, who, if his  elevation to the
imperial dignity had been necessary, ac-
cording  to the general opinion, to give
quiet to France, certainly wanted a son
for the firm establishment of his throne,
and  the security of the laws and institu-
tions connected with it. Hard as it was for
him to separate from Josephine,  the step
was one that might have been expected;
but whether he  acted  the  wisest part in
marrying an Austrian princess is another
question, not to be discussed here.   (See
 Otranlo.)   December 2,  Napoleon cele-
brated the anniversary of his coronation at
Paris with unusual pomp—a festival re-
markable for the great number of sove-
reigns from Germany and other parts of
Europe, who attended it, and  for the
speech which Napoleon delivered on that
day  in the hall ofthe  legislative body, and
 which was directed much more to all Eu-
rope than to the assembled representatives
ofthe numerous departments of  France.
December 16, a decree ofthe senate annul-
led the marriage between Napoleon and
Josephine.  March 11,1810, the  nuptials
ofthe emperor with the archduchess Ma-
ria Louisa (q.v.) of Austria were celebrated
in Vienna, and, April 2,  cardinal Fesch
performed the marriage ceremony at Par-
is.  Peace had also been concluded, Jan.
6,1810, with Sweden, on the basis ofthe
 continental system.  March 1, moreover,
the viceroy of Italy was appointed hered-
itary grand-duke  of Frankfort,  as  suc-
cessor of the prince primate; the remain-
ing part of Hanover  was united with the
kingdom of Westphalia; and, on the 16th,
the king of Holland was  compelled to
make great concessions.  He  therefore
unexpectedly nsigm d bis crown, July 1,
which he could no longer wear with in-
dependence and hn.cr (see Loi*is Bona-
parte) ; and on the 9th, the incorporation of
the whole kingdom with the French em-
pire was declared.   A similar fate befell
Valais and the countries of the German
confederacy at the mouths of  the Ems,
Weser and  Elbe, the Hanseatic towes,
Oldenburg, a portion ofthe grand-dv.chy
of B.rg, and even some parts  of West-
phalia, which  the king was obliged to
cede.  A  great portion of Europe was
subjugated.  Spain  alone  continued to
fight.  England  remained unconquered,
and Russia was still a formidable power.
Widi America, too, differences arose re-
specting the continental system; for this
reason the decrees of Berlin and Milan
were ostensibly revoked, April 28, 1811.
But the tariff of Trianon, as it was called,
the continued captures and burning of
English and colonial goods, inflicted still
deeper wounds.  Napoleon stood on the
pinnacle of his power, which, if possible,
was still more consolidated by the young
empress giving birth to a prince, March 20,
1811, to whom, even before bis  birth, had
been given the title of king of Rome. (See
Reichstadt.) About the end of the year
new differences arose with Russia and
Sweden.   Sweden was easily deprived
of its German provinces,  Jan. 27, 1812.
Preparations on the most extensive scale
were soon after made  in France against
Russia.  The  difference between France
and Russia, it is generally stated, was caus-
ed by Napoleon's annexing the territory of
several  members of the confederation of
the Rhine to France. Among these was the
duke of Oldenburg, who refused to take
Erfurt, with the territory appertaining to
it, in exchange for his duchy, and prefer-
red to retire to the court of the emperor
;of Russia, his near relation.  But, in fact,
the chief cause ofthe war between France
and Russia was,  that Alexander would
not adhere so  strictly to the continental
system as he had promised to do at Erfurt.
Napoleon thought that peace  could not
be obtained but  by carrying this system
through.  He  had made too many sacri-
fices already, in maintaining it, to be will-
ing to give it up.  Moreover, he saw that
the two empires would necessarily come
to war as soon as Russia should attempt
to execute her plans upon Constantinople,
which western EurofJe could not permit.
Napoleon was then at the head of such a
force as he might never again be able to 
599                      APPENDIX.  (NAPOLEON.)
command,  and thought it a great object
to preveut  the  execution of the projects
of the Russian colossus.  The formidable-
nes3 of this gigantic power to the west of
Europe, and the necessity of clipping the
wings of its ambition, are now sufficiently
apparent. ■  But Napoleon foresaw not the
burning of Moscow, and the great impulse
given thereby  to the  Russian  people.
The winter, which set in several  weeks
earlier than  usual,  did  the rest.  The
battalions of the  French and  allied ar-
mies  assembled  in Germany  and  Po-
land.  The Prussian fortresses and Dant-
zic were still occupied by  the French.
Napoleon left St. Cloud May 9.  In Dres-
den he  collected  around him  the Ger-
man kings and princes, the emperor and
empress  of Austria.   June  24,  he led
his army  across  the Niemen.   Thus
began the war with Russia.   He called it
the second Polish  war.  (See  Russiom-
German  War of  1812—15,  forming a
division of the  article Russia.)  Napo-
leon's genius, however, shone amidst his
reverses, and amazes even amidst  the
horrors  of  the  passage of the  Berezina
(November 26 and 27).  How striking is
the twenty-ninth bulletin, of December 3!
The battle  of Leipsic, on the 16th, 17th
and  18th of October,  displayed  all his
talent, but  its consequences were most
disastrous to him.  All his energies were
called into action in the  series of con-
flicts  between the Marne and  Seine, in
February and 3Iarch, 1814.  In spite of
the entreaties of all who surrounded him,
he refused to make peace.   (See  Chatil-
lon, Congress at.)   Several of his minis-
ters, who thought his ruin certain, con-
sidered  it prudent to provide, in time, for
themselves, especially Talleyrand.   They
assisted the enemy on their way to Paris.
The senate, too, formerly so submissive,
rose against the emperor, and  the inse-
curity of absolute power was strikingly
demonstrated*  Marmont,  at  last,  aban-
doned  his master.   (See  Marmont.)
April 11,1814, Napoleon signed the act
of abdication, and the  treaty, which  left
him the island of Elba, with sovereign
power, the title of emperor, and an income
of 2,000,000  francs.  He abdicated with
the words, "The allied powers  having
proclaimed that the emperor Napoleon is
the only obstacle to the reestablishment
of peace in Europe, the emperor Napo-
leon,  faithful to his principles, declares
that he renounces, for  himself and his
heirs, the thrones of France and Italy,
because  there  is no personal  sacrifice,
even  that of his life,  which he  is  not
ready to make, for the Welfare of France,
and for the peace of the world."  At this
point we may consider the history of the
empire as, in the main, closed, and pause
for a moment.  The time has not  yet ar-
rived when Napoleon can be coolly esti-
mated. It must be left to future genera-
tions to consider calmly his whole career,
undisturbed by persoual or party  feeling,
and unembarrassed by the multitude of
details which now prevent the true bear-
ing of his  measures  from  being seen.
The opinions now entertained respecting
him may be  classed, we think, under the
following heads :  1. Tfcat he was a usurp-
er.  This charge is preferred by two very
different parties ;  a. by the adherents of
legitimacy, who think his  noblest course
would  have been to play the part of gen-
eral Monk.   We need not discuss  this
point,  in this  country,  and  in  the  year
1832.   b. The charge  of  usurpation is
also  made by some republicans.  We
have already  observed  that, up  t<»  the
time when Nappleon took the reins of
government, no  republic can be said to
have existed  in France.  We need then
only ask, whether the tendency of France
was towards  a republic,   and whether
Napoleon ought to have lent his power to,
establish it,  provided he could have seen
the possibility of its permanence.  The
forms of governments, important as they
are, are but secondary compared to  the
primary elements of national character
and  political condition, and  are  always
dependent on the latter.  The preservation
of the  new  politico-social  relations was
first to be attended  to.  If  a republic
was incompatible with justice, safety of
person and  property, internal peace, or
national independence,  the  former ought
to have given  way  to  the latter.  We
believe there are few people of judgment
who, at present, maintain that, at that
period, a republic would have comported
with the internal and external relations of
France. Firmly  attached as we  are te
republican institutions,  we yet must  ad-
mit that, as there must  be a difference in
the habitations of men, according to  the
materials which  they  possess  for their
construction, so governments  must differ
with the character  and condition of the
governed.  Republics cannot exist with-
out republicanism, and republicanism can-
not be  created by the forms of a  consti-
tution,  but springs, in  a  great measure,
from the nature of men's relations in ordi-
nary life. Those forms of social connexion
which  are favorable to  this spirit, it is, of
course, the duty of every lover of liberty to 
APPENDIX.   (NAPOLEON.)                     589
 promote.  2.  There are some who admire
 Napoleon, and acknowledge that he did
 much good to France, but maintain that his
 own genius and success  led  him astray;
 that by degrees he deviated from the prin-
 ciple which had elevated him, and afforded
 the only firm basis  of his  power;  and
 that  he  gradually gave  way to princi-
 ples  which must ruin him; that, more-
 over, he laid  the foundations of numerous
 institutions which, if they had been de-
 veloped, would  have brought  in again
 many of those evils which the revolution
 had just removed;  and  that he omitted
 to lay the foundation of those institutions
 which,  if  developed,  would have pro-
 duced that  wide-spread  political  and
 social activity, on which true liberty can
 alone rest; but, on the contrary,  deprived
 the nation of free action, and organized
 the whole body politic less in a civil than
 in a military manner; and that ambition,
 so  natural to noble  and  elevated souls,
 overpowered him.   3. Lastly, there are
 those who  insist upon Napoleon's having
 sincerely wished for peace; that he had no
 desire for  renewing war  after the peace
 of Luneville  and of Amiens, but that he
 was forced to war by  the  unrelenting
 attacks ofthe aristocracy  of Europe, sup-
 ported by  the money of  England, which
 was itself  ruled  by  its own aristocracy,
 who  expected  that Napoleon would ex-
 haust France, and exasperate Europe, by
 continual conflicts.  As his repeated of-
 fers of peace were  spurned,  he  was un-
 able,  they say, to establish in France
 institutions in accordance with free prin-
 ciples, which  he sincerely  wished  to
 establish, and which he  must have been
 desirous of establishing from his love of
 posthumous fame, and from his knowl-
 edge ofthe character of his age, in which
 authority could no longer be maintained
 merely by brute  force, but required the
 support of public opinion.  They sum up
 the whole history of  the empire  in, these
 few  words :  " Napoleon   was forced to
 war by the English, and to the dictator-
 ship by the war."  Napoleon used,  not
 unfrequendy,   to  say to  his confidants,
 " If a general peace is ever concluded,
 then only shall I be able  to show myself
 such as I am, and become the moderator
 of Europe.   France is enabled, by  her
 high civilization,  and the absence  of all
 aristocracy, to moderate the  extreme  de-
 mands ofthe two principles which divide
 the world, by placing herselfbetween them,
 thus preventing a general conflagration, of
 which none of us could reasonably  ex-
pect to see the end, or guess the issue: for
  vol. x.        50
 that, I want ten years' peace, and the Eng-
 lish oligarchy will not allow it." We quote
 his  brother Joseph, as one to whom he
 disclosed himself in this way repeatedly.
 The latest  events are melancholy com-
 mentaries in favor of Napoleon,  wheth-
 er we do or do not approve entirely of
 his  course,  considering what the inter-
 nal state of France,  as well as what the
 condition of Europe, required.—We re-
 turn to our brief biographical sketch.  On
 the  island of Elba, Napoleon  occupied
 himself with literature, and the construc-
 tion of public works ; and whilst he  was
 observing the discord of the European
 powers at the congress of Vienna, and the
 blind folly manifested by the Bourbons in
 Fiance, the court papers  of Paris repre-
 sented him  as mad!  We are unable to
 state what  caused  him to return from
 Elba precisely at the time when he  did.
 He  embarked,  February  26, 1815, with
 900  men, and landed, March 1, at Cannes,
 not far from Frejus, where he had landed
 sixteen years before, on his return from
 Egypt; and his march to Paris at  this
 time might well be compared  to  his
 former journey.  On the  voyage, he  had
 written a proclamation, which set forth
 the reasons of his return, and of which he
 caused many copies to be made.  Without
 encountering any royal troops, he advanced
 rapidly.  March 7th, he first met a body of
 royal troops, commanded by Labedoyere,
 who could not prevent them from joining
 Napoleon's  guards.   The  same evening,
 the  gates of Grenoble  were opened to
 him. Lyons was entered on the  evening
 ofthe  10th.  On the 13th, marshal Ney
 (q. v.) went over to him; and March 20th
 he reached Paris, which Louis XVIII had
 left in haste,—an event which plainly show-
 ed, that the  great majority of die French
 were against  the Bourbons,—and several
 distinguished persons, who had been al-
 ways unwilling to rally round Napoleon,
 now joined him, either considering  his
 return indispensable, or at least the return
 ofthe BoCrrbonsas the greatest evil which
 could befall France.  The royalists now
 became liberals, and preached the cause
 of liberty against the tyrant!  The mon-
 archs assembled at  Vienna declared Na-
 poleon  out of the pale of national law, as
 the Bourbons had already given orders to
 hunt him down (courirsus), as the expres-
sion  was, by which Napoleon was put on
the same footing with the lowest criminal.
 Whilst he was exerting himself to collect
and organize an army, he caused the "addi-
tional act" to be added to the constitutions
 ofthe empire  In the preamble of this "ad- 
590
APPENDIX.   (NAPOLEON.)
ditional act," which is, in several respects,
more liberal than the charter ofthe Bour-
bons of 181-I, he declares that his object
had been to establish a federative system
over the continent of Europe, and that he
had, on this account, delayed the devel-
opement of individual liberty in  Frtuice ;
but that u henceforth he has  no other ob-
ject than to promote the welfare of France
by giving security to liberty." (See Peers.)
The battle of Waterloo (q. v.) defeated all
his plans and hopes.  IL- r ■turned n> Paris
June 21, whereat the requisition of die rep-
resentatives, he abdicated, on die 22d; but
this time not for himself and his heirs, but
iu favor of his son, Napoleon If, wiiich ab-
dication, of course, was not accepted by
the allied powers, who liad not ceased to
acknowledge the Bourbons as rulers of
France, though they were little disposed
to make any great effort to support the
elder branch of this line, if the French
should prove  unwilling to receive them.
Napoleon retired to Malmaison, and, after
some days, to Rochefort, where he found
the frigates, destined for him, ready, but
the  harbor closely  blockaded  by  the
English.  He wished to embark for the
U. States.  (See Joseph Napoleon.)  July
3,  the capital surrendered  to  the  en-
emy, and Napoleon was  exposed to be
given  up to the Bourbons by Fouche or
Talleyrand,  At the same time, being pre-
vented from sailing, he asked,  July 10,
the  commander of the British ship Bel-
Jerophon, which lay off the port of Roche-
fort, what he had to expect ii" he claimed
the  hospitality  of the English.  The an-
swer was,  that the command- of the ad-
miral should be obtained.   On the  14th,
Napoleon sent once more  to the British
commander, who answered, that  he  had
not  yet received orders, but that he was
authorized, if  Napoleon would  embark
immediately for England,  to carry  him
thither, and to show him every  respect
due to his rank.   Napoleon accepted the
offer,  and, despatching general Gourgaud
to the prince regent, with a letter, com-
paring his own fate to that of Themisto-
cles, he went on board, July 16;  and the
 vessel  immediately sailed  for  Torbay,
 where he was informed, on the  part of
 die English government, that he was to
be conveyed as a  prisoner to St. Helena.
 On that island he lived from October 18,
 1815,  to May 5, 1821, at Longwood, re-
 ceiving from the English the title of " gen-
eral Bonaparte," and watched by the com-
 missioners of the  allies, as a European
 prisoner of state,  Napoleon was volun-
 tarily accompanied  by  general Bertrand,
with his wife and child ; count Mondiolon,
with his wife and child; count Las Cases,
widi his son, who was obliged to leave
him hi 1817 : general Gourgaud, who re-
turned to Europe in 1818; and  by several
servants.  Napoleon's  life at St. Helena
has disarmed the hatred of many of his
contemporaries, while it lias increased the
respect of his adherents.  He maintained
his character in the miseries of exile as
in the palace  of the  Ttuleries.  All the
persons who  served him at St. Helena
treated him as emperor; and  he  appre-
ciated  and returned their fidelity  with
feelings of gratitude and friendship.  The
governor of the island,  sir Hudson Lowe,
watched him  with unsparing  rigor; but
Napoleon  still exhibited the immovable
firmue.s which  had  previously  distin-
guished him.   In no  respect  would he
concede to the English the right to dispose
of  his  person.   When  his  physician,
O'Meara, was ordered to leave him, by the
English governor, he remained for some
months without medical aid : the prayers
of his attendants, and the  daily declining
state of his health, could not induce him
to admit a physician sent  by the English
governor.   When  he was no longer per-
mitted to go abroad without military es-
cort, he never left his habitation.  His
principal employment  was the composi-
tion of his  memoirs.     For recreation,
he played  chess,  or  some  one read to
him, chiefly tragedies.   In the confiden-
tial circle, he spoke of  his childhood and
his fate with the calmuess with which he
would have spoken of the history of an-
tiquity. Of the French  at St, Helena,
Napoleon was the most serene.   He en-
tertained for hid son  the most  tender
affection;  of France he spoke only with
respect and love.   His sickness first as-
sumed a dangerous character  in the last
six weeks  of his fife.    According to the
English physicians,  who  opened his
body in the presence of the physician An-
tommarchi, sent to Napoleon  from Italy,
it was occasioned by a cancer  of the
stomach.  Napoleon was  aware that his
death  was approaching, and spoke of it
frequently  and with composure.   When
he heard from the physician that he had
but forty-eight hours  to  live,  he asked
general Bertrand to assist him in making
his will, which occupied them both about
fifteen hours.   His last dispositions con-
tain several proofs of gratitude and kind-
ness. At the hour of his death, no change
was visible in his countenance.  He ex-
pired—on  the field-bed  which he had
used at Austeriitz—with calmness, in the 
                         APPENDIX.

 arms of his faithful friends, Bertrand and
 Montholon, at Longwood, Mav 5, 1821,
 about six  o'clock in the  evening, aged
 fifty-one years and nine months.  May 9,
 he was buried in a valley  of his own se-
 lection, with the military'honors ofa gen-
 eral.   The voluntary companions of his
 exile, general Bertrand and Montholon,
 with  their families, returned, by way of
 England, to France and  Paris, with the
 permission  of the French goveniment,
 October,  182L—Napoleon's figure was
 short.  He measured  but  five feet  six
 inches. His head was rather large, in com-
 parison to his body, and  covered with
 chestnut-colored  hair.   His  broad and
 elevated forehead indicated a  firm  will.
 His eyes were light-blue, and susceptible
 of great variety of expression.  The eye-
 lashes were lighter than the  eyebrows,
 which were ofthe color of his hair.  His
 ncse  was fine, his mouth agreeably form-
 ed, and capable of very various expression.
 His chin  was rounded, and his  cheek
 approaching to square.    His  complex-
 ion was clear olive; otherwise, in gen-
 eral,  colorless.   His neck was  short;
 his shoulders  broad.  His hands  were
 small and white.  His feet also were small;
 but this particular was less observable, as
 he was averse to  tight shoes.  Before
 he became fat, his figure was,  on the
 Whole,  well proportioned.  When  past
 thirty, he began to be corpulent, which he
 disliked; before that time, he  was lean.
 Extreme cleanliness was natural to him: he
 was very fond of the warm bath, and not
 uiifrequently remained a whole hour in it.
 Ii i eating and drinking, he was extremely
 moderate,  never  having  been known to
 exceed  the bounds of temperance.  His
 sleep  was in proportion to his labors; but
 in this, too,he was moderate. His face, like
 that of Frederic the Great, was of such a
 character  as to be recognised, however
 rudely or slightly drawn.—In 1815, before
 his departure  from  Paris,  Napoleon in-
 formed his brother Joseph, that there was,
 among some papers  in a box  which he
 had sent bun, a copy of the letters which
 the different sovereigns had written to
 him.  This  copy he had  ordered to be
 made  by way of precaution, as  the origi-
 nals remained  in  the  archives.   Some
 years  later, doctor O'Meaia, after his re-
 turn from St.  Helena,  informed Joseph
 that Napoleon  wished to have  this cor-
 respondence published, as the best answer
to all the calumnies against  him; but the
copies could not  bo found.  The papers
in the box containing them had been dis-
tributed,  among a variety of tilings, in
(NAPOLEON.)                     591

 other boxes, with  a view of concealing
 them from the  eves of the police: and
 when these boxes reached the  U. States.
 the copy of the correspondence was not
 in either of them.   It must have been lost,
 in the confusion of packing, in  Paris.  It
 ought to be mentioned, too^ that, aboutth»
 period when O'Meara's  cemmunicatinn
 was  received, the mansion  of Joseph in
 the U. States was consumed by the flames
 The original letter*  were sold, for £30,000,
 in London, where they  had been deposit-
 ed with a bookseller.  Those who assert
 that Napoleon put this correspondence in"
 to the hands of Joseph,  at Rochefort, are
 under a mistake.  Joseph received noth-
 ing from Napoleon, either at Rochefort or
 at the isle of Aix. The total disappearance
 ofthe letters would be an irreparable loss
 to history, as they are the key to that por-
 tion of Napoleon's  life which can be un-
 derstood only by an  acquaintance with the
 secret springs of diplomacy, showing us
 where he acted  freely, and where under
 the compulsion of circumstances.—A con-
 siderable service would be rendered to the
 student and politician, if a catalogue  of
 all the works relating  to Napoleon and
 his times  were published.—The follow-
 ing chronological table  of the events of
 Napoleon's  life and reign will, perhaps,
 be acceptable to our readers :—

 1769.  Born at Ajaecio, Aug. 15.
 1779.  Sent  to the military school at Bri-
         enne.
 1784.  Selected to complete his education
         at  the military school in Paris.
 1786.  Commissioned as  second lieutenant
         of artillery, and  the same year
         promoted to a first lieutenancy.
 1792.  While on a  furlough  in  Corsica,
         commands  a  battalion against
         Ajaecio.
 1793.  Obliged to leave Corsica,  on ac-
         count of his opposition to the de-
         signs of Paoli.  Promoted (July)
         to  a captaincy.   Commandant
         of artillery at the siege of Tou-
         lon.  Dec.  19,  appointed briga-
         dier-general of artillery in Italy.
 1795.   13  Vendimiaire  (Oct. 5), defeats
         the attack  ofthe sections on the
         convention.  Appointed  com-
         mander-in-chief of the army of
        the interior.
 1796.  Appointed  commander-in-chief of
        the army of Italy (Feb. 23). Mar-
         ried (March 9).  Battle of Mon-
        tenotte (April 11); of Millesimo
         (14); of Mondovi (22); of Lodi
         (May 8).  Peace  with  Sardinia. 
592                     APPENDIX.

         Battle of Castiglione (Aug. 5);
         of Roveredo (Sept. 4); of Bas-
         sano (8); of Areola (Nov.15—17).
1797. Battle of Rivoli (Jan. 14); of Favo-
         rita  (16).   Peace of  Tolentino
         with  the  pope (Feb. 19).  Vic-
         tory over the archduke Charles,
         on the Tagliamento (March 16).
         Capture of Gradisca (19); of
         Trieste (21).  Preliminaries of
         Leoben (April 18).  Occupation
         of Venice (May 16).  Formation
         of the Ligurian  republic  (31).
         Proclamation  of the  Cisalpine
         republic  (July 8).    Peace of
         Campo-Formio  (Oct. 17)  with
         Austria.
1798, Bonaparte sails  for Earypt  from
         Toulon (May 19).  Battle of the
         Pyramids (July 21);  of the Nile
         (Aug. 1).
1799. Capture of Jaffa (March 10).  Siege
         of Acre raised (May 20).  Battle
         of Alioukir (July 25).  Bona-
         parte sails from Egypt (Aug. 17).
         Revolution  of  18th Brumaire
         (Nov.  9).  Bonaparte  named
         first consul (Dec. 13).
18Q0. Constitution of the year VIII (Feb.
         7). Victories of Montebeflo (June
         9) and Marengo (14), gained by
         general Bonaparte.   Armistice
         with  Austria.  Nomination  of
         the commission for drawing up
         a new code (Aug. 12).  Conspir-
         acy of Arena (Oct. 9) discovered.
         Explosion of the infernal ma-
         chine (Dec. 24).
1801. Peace of Luneville (Feb. 9)  with
         Austria ;   peace  with   Spain
         (March 21); with Naples  (28).
         Concordate with  the pope (July
         15).  Peace with Bavaria (Aug.
         24);  with Portugal (Sept. 29).
         Preliminaries  of peace   with
         England  (Oct.  1).  Peace  with
         Russia (8); with Turkey (9); with
         Algiers (Dec. 17).
 1802. Bonaparte named president of the
         Italian republic (Jan. 26).  Peace
         of Amiens (March 25).  Proc-
         lamation  of  amnesty to  emi-
         grants. The term of Bonaparte's
         consulship prolonged  ten years
         (May 1).  Creation ofthe legion
         of honor (19).   Bonaparte de-
         clared consul for life (Aug. 2).
 1803. Creation  of senatorships (Jan. 4).
         New organization of the  insti-
         tute.  Assumes the title of grand
         mediator of the Helvetic repub-
         lic.   Sale of Louisiana to the U.
(NAPOLEON.)

         States  (April 30).  Renewal of
         hostilities with  England  (May
         20).
 1804. Arrest of Pichegru (Feb. 28). Death
         of the duke  d'Enghien (March
         21).  The senate confers on Na-
         poleon the tide of emperor ofthe
         French (May 18).
 1805. The  emperor  accepts the crown
         of Italy (March 18).   Treaty of
         Presburg, between England and
         Russia (April 11).  Austria joins
         the coalition (Aug. 9).   Battle of
         Elchingen (Oct. 14);  of Trafal-
         gar (21); of Austeriitz (Dec. 2).
         Peace   of  Presburg,  between
         France and Austria.
 1806. Formation of the kingdoms of Ba-
         varia and Wurtemberg (Jan. 1).
         Joseph  Bonaparte  proclaimed
         king of the Two Sicilies (March
         30).  Prussia is allowed to occu-
         py Hanover.  Louis Bonaparte
         proclaimed  king  of  Holland
         (June  5).  Napoleon   declared
         protector of the confederation of
         the  Rhine (July 12).   Rupture
         with Prussia (Oct. 6).   Battle of
         Jena (14).  Capture  of Berlin
         (25).  Occupation  of Hanover.
         Capture of  Posen,  Hamburg,
         Bremen, Warsaw, Thorn, &c.
         (Oct. 28 to Dec. 6).   Berlin de-
         cree declares the British isles in
         a state of blockade (Nov. 21).
     '. Battle of Eylau (Feb. 8); of Fried-
         land (June 14).  Peace of Til-
         sit,  with Russia  and  Prussia
         (July 7).  Erection of the king-
         dom  of Westphalia  (Aug. 8).
         The English  bombard Copen-
         hagen.  Alliance between France
         and Denmark.   Treaty between
         France and Spain. Russia breaks
         off all communication with Eng-
         land (Oct. 31).   Treaty between
         Holland and France.   British
         order in council of November 11,
         in retaliation for the  Berlin de-
         cree.  Capture of Lisbon by Ju-
         not.  Prussia interdicts all inter-
         course  with England (Dec. 1).
         Jerome Bonaparte placed on the
         throne  of Westphalia.   Milan
         decree (Dec. 17).
     I. French troops occupy Rome (Feb.
         2); overrun Spain. Creation of
          majorats and hereditary titles of
         prince, duke, count, baron, and
          chevalier (March 11).  Treaty of
          Bayonne (May 5).   Joseph "Bo-
          naparte proclaimed king of Spain 
APPENDIX.   (NAPOLEON—PERRY.)
593
        (June  6).  The French  troops
        evacuate  Portugal  (Aug.  30).
        The English enter  Spain (Oct.
        29). War ofthe peninsula.  Na-
        poleon arrives in Spain (Nov. 4).
        Capture of Madrid (Dec.  4).
1809.  Capture of Saragossa (Feb. 21); of
        Oporto (March 29).  Austria re-
        news  hostilities (April 9).  Na-
        poleon leaves Palis (13).  Battle
        of Eckmiihl (22).  Napoleon en-
        ters Vienna (May 13).  Battle of
        Esslingen (20—22).   Napoleon
        excommunicated. Battle of Wa-
        gram (July 5).  Peace of Vienna
        with Austria (Oct.  14).  Battle
        of Talavera (July 28).  Divorce
        of Josephine (Dec. 16).
1810.  Sweden  accedes to the continental
        system (Jan. 6).  Marriage of
        Napoleon with  Maria  Louisa
        (March 11).  Holland incorpo-
        rated with France.   Capture of
        Ciudad Rodrigo.  Battle of Bu-
        saco.   Institution of the privotal
        courts.
1811.  Capture  of Oporto  and Olivenza
        (Jan.  22); and  Badajoz (March
        10), by the French.  Birth of the
        king of Rome (March 20).  Battle
        of Fuente de Onoro (May 4—6);
        of Saguntum (Oct. 20).
1812.  Capture of Ciudad Rodrigo, by Wel-
        lington (Jan. 19);  of Badajoz
        (April  7).  Battle of Tarragona
        (June 12). Treaty between Prus-
        sia and France (Feb. 24); of al-
        liance, between France and Aus-
        tria (March 14); between Russia
        and Sweden (24), to which Eng-
        land accedes (May 3).   Declara-
        tion of war against Russia I June
        22).  Battle of Smolensk (Aug.
        16); ofMoskwa(Sept7). Cap-
        ture of Moscow (14).   Evacua-
        tion of Moscow (Oct. 23).  Con-
        spiracy of Mallet.  The twenty-
        ninth  bulletin  announces  the
        disasters of the grand  army
        (Dec. 3).   Napoleon  quits  the
        army (5).
1813.  The French army arrives at Berlin
        (Jan.  21).    Alliance  between
        Russia and Prussia (March 1).
        Capture of Dresden by the Rus-
        sians  (21).  Napoleon declares
        war against  Prussia;  joins the
        army in Germany (April).   Bat-
        tle of Lutzen (May 2); of Baut-
        zen (20); of Vittoria (June 21).
        Austria joins the coalition against
        France (Aug.  12).    Battle of
                 50*
         Dresden (26).  Treaty of Top-
         litz (Sept. 9).  The English pass
         the Bidassoa (Oct. 3).  Napoleon
         arrives at St. Cloud (Nov. 13).
         Passage  of the Rhine  by the
         Prussians (Dec. 31).
1814. Napoleon fixes his head-quarters at
         Chalons  (Jan. 26).   Battles of
         Brieuiie (29), of Champ-Aubert
         (Feb. 10), of Montmii-dil (11),
         of Vauchair-p (14), of Naug'm
         (17), of Momereau (18), gained
         by Napoleon. Napoleon retires
         to Fontainebleau  (March  30)„
         Capitulation of Paris (31).  The
         conservative senate declares Na-
         poleon  to  have forfeited  the
         throne (April 2).  Abdication of
         Napoleon (11).  His  departure
         for Elba (20). Entrance of Louis
         XVIII into Paris (May 3).
1815. Napoleon lands near Cannes (March
         1); arrives at Paris (20).   Coali-
         tion  of the four great  powers
         against France (25).  Battle of
         Waterloo (June 18).  Abdication
         of Napoleon (22); embarks on
         board of the Bellerophon (July
         15); declared by the allies to be
         their prisoner; arrives in St Hel-
         ena (Oct. 131
1821. Death of Napoleon (May 5).

  Perrf, Oliver Hazard, a distinguished
American naval officer, was born at New-
port, Rhode Island, in August, 1785.  His
father  was an  officer  in the  U.  States
navy, and he was early destined to follow
his  father's profession.  In 1798, be en-
tered the service  as a midshipman  on
board the sloop of war General Greene,
then commanded by his father; and, when
that vessel went out of commission, he
was transferred to a squadron destined to
the  Mediterranean. He served during the
Tripolitan war, and, though debarred, by
his  extreme youth, from  an  opportunity
of distinguishing himself, he acquired, by
his  conduct, the regard and favor of his
superior officers,, and the friendship  and
esteem of his associates.  Continuing sed-
ulously attentive to his profession, he rose
with sure and regular steps.  In 1810, he
was attached,  as  lieutenant-comman-
dant, to  the  squadron  of commodore
Rodgers, at New London, and employed
in cruising in the sound, to enforce the
embargo act.  In the following spring, he
had the  misfortune to be wrecked  on
Watch  Hill reef,  opposite  Stonington,
in consequence  of having become envel-
oped in a thick mist, which prevented all 
594
APPENDIX.  (PERRY.)
 possibility of ascertaining his course. By
 his intrepidity and coolness, however, be
 succeeded, in a great measure,  in saving
 the guns and property, and got  off all his
 crew.  He was examined before a  court
 of inquiry, at his own request, in relation
 to this loss, and not merely acquitted of
 all blame, but highly applauded for his
 conduct.  He also  received a very com-
 plimentary letter, on the occasion,  from
 the secretary of the navy, Mr. Hamilton.
[ Soon after this event, he returned to New-
 port, where he married thedaughter of doc-
 tor Mason.  In the  beginning of 1812, he
 was  promoted to the rank of master and
 commander, and ordered to the  command
 of the flotilla of gun-boats stationed at the
 harbor of New York.  After remaining
 there a year, he grew tired of the irksome
 and inglorious nature of this service, and
 solicited to be removed  to  another  of a
 more active kind.   His request  was com-
 plied with; and, as he had mentioned the
 lakes, he was ordered to repair to Sack-
 et's Harbor, lake Ontario, with  a body of
 mariners, to reinforce commodore Chaun-
 cey.   Such was his popularity amongst
 the sailors  under his command, that, as
 soon as the order was known, almost all of
 them volunteered to accompany him. The
 rivers being completely frozen at the time,
 he was obliged, at the  head  of a large
 number of chosen seamen, to perform the
 journey by land, which he safely accom-
 plished.   Not long after  his  arrival  at
 Sacket's Harbor, commodore  Chauncey
 detached  him to take command of the
 squadron  on lake  Erie, and superintend
 the  building of additional vessels. He
 immediately applied himself to increase
 his armament, and, with extraordinary ex-
 ertions, two brigs, of twenty guns each,
 were soon launched at Erie, the Ameri-
 can  port on  die lake.  When he  found
 himself in a condition to  cope with the
 British force ou the same waters, although
 the  latter were still superior in men and
 guns, he sought the contest, and, on the
 morning of the 10th of September, 1813,
  he achieved  the victory which has given
  his name a permanent place in  the history
  of his country,  The details of this fa-
  mous action, the  manner in which  it
  was brought to a fortunate issue by the
  intrepidity  of the  commander, in ex-
  posing himself in  a small boat, for the
  purpose of shifting his flag from a vessel
  no  longer tenable  to one in  which  he
  could continue the fight, and in which he
  did continue it, until the enemy's pennant
  was lowered, are particularly described in
  the article Navy.   The merit  of Perry is
greatly enhanced by the reflection, that,
whilst no victory was ever more decidi-dly
the result of the skill and valor of the
commander, this was the first action of any
kind he had ever seen.   The  moderation
and courtesy which  he displayed  towards
the enemy, after the termination of the con-
test, were worthy ofthe gallantry by which
it was gained, and eaused the British com-
mander, who had lost the battle by no fault
of his, to say that "the conduct of Perry
towards the captive  officers and men, was
sufficient of itself to immortalize  him."
In testimony of his merit, Perry was pro-
moted to the rank of captain, received the
thanks of  congress and a medal,  and the
like  marks of honor from the senate of
Pennsylvania.   After the  evacuation of
Maiden by the  enemy, Perry acted as a
volunteer  aid to general Harrison,  in his
pursuit of the British, and was present at
the battle of Moraviantown, October 5. At
the time of the  invasion of Maryland
and Virginia, he commanded a body of
seamen and marines on the Potomac. He
was afterwards appointed to command the
Java frigate, built at Baltimore,  and, on
the conclusion  of peace with England,
sailed, in 1815, in the squadron under com-
modore Decatur, despatched to the Med-
iterranean to settle affairs between the U.
States and Algiers.   While in that sea,
some difference  arose between him and
Mr.  Heath, commandant of marines on
board his ship.  This produced a court-
martial, by which both were subjected to
a  private  reprimand  from  commodore
Chauncey; but the affair did not terminate
until a hostile meeting had taken place.
The duel was fought in New Jersey, op-
posite to New York, in the summer of
1818.  Neither  party was injured, Heath
having  missed  his aim, and  Perry  hav-
ing fired in the air.   In June, 1819, com-
modore Perry sailed from the Chesapeake
in the U. States ship John Adams, for the
West Indies and a cruise,  with sealed
orders,  and was subsequently joined by
other vessels, the whole under his com-
mand.  His term of  service, however,
was near its end.  In August, 1820, he
was attacked by the yellow fever, and,
after a  few days' illness, expired on the
twenty-third of" the same month, just as
the vessel in which  he  was, entered Port
Spain, Trinidad.  He was buried the next
day with due honor; and in his own coun-
try every tribute of respect  was paid to
his  memory.  Congress made  a  liberal
provision for the maintenance and educa-
tion of his family.
   Philosophy  (from  0fAo», friend,  and 
APPENDIX.  (PHILOSOPHY.)
5f/5
ao<f>ta, wisdom).  Philosophy owes its name
to the modesty of Pythagoras, who re-
fused the title <ro<po{ [wise), given to his pred-
ecessors, Thales, Pherecydes, &c, as too
assuming, and contented himself with the
simple appellation of 0iXo«ro^Oj (a friend or
lover of wisdom).   The tenn was after-
wards commonly applied to men eminent
for wisdom, as  Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
and  others.—I. Idea and  Object of  Phi-
losophy.  Various as the idea of philoso-
phy  may be,  since  it is the product of
independent thinking, which necessarily
leads to opposite views and  opinions, its
subjects are the same in the minds of all
reflecting men, and are the most  impor-
tant  which can occupy human thought—
God, the world, man, and  their relations
in general.  Its end is the highest knowl-
edge which can be attained of these  sub-
jects.  With  reference  to its  subjects,
Cicero called it the "science of things hu-
man and divine.4'  Many modern philoso-
phers have called it the " science  of the
fundamental truths of human knowledge,"
or the " science of the essence of things;"
others the " science of ideas," believing that
through them we come to the knowledge
of the essence of things, and, as all ideas
centre in the idea of the absolute, the " sci-
ence of die absolute" (thus it is called by
the  school  of  Schelling).   Considered
with regard to its end, namely, the attain-
ment ofthe knowledge of which we have
spoken,  and the  intellectual action by
which this end is to be effected, it has been
designated  as the  "science of reason."
To philosophize, therefore, means, to re-
flect intelligently  on the  most elevated
subjects of human knowledge, and  to rep-
resent  clearly and coherently  the ideas
thus attained.   The  latter  is required to
constitute  philosophy a science,  which
necessarily requires system.  The middle
ages called this science sapientia sozcidaris,
as contradistinguished to theology, or reve-
lation, that is,  the  Christian  religion,
whose origin  is referred immediately to
God.  The various views of the great aim
of philosophy—the relation of the infinite
to die finite, the absolute to the conditional,
of man to nature,  &c.—form the ground
of the   various  phdosophical  systems,
whose mutual connexion is shown by the
history  of philosophy.—II.  Division of
Philosophy.  Philosophy may be divided
feito pure plulosophy, or philosophy strict-
ly so called, winch forms general notions,
and investigates the laws ofthe mind, and
applied philosophy, which applies the re-
sults ofthe former to the subjects of expe-
rience.   To die latter belong, for exam-
ple,  psychology (q.  v.),  pedagogics (see
Pedagogue), politics  (q. v.).   Philosephy,
properlyso called, was generally divided by
the ancients into logic, or dialectics (as the
doctrine of the possibility, form and meth-
od of philosophy); physics (at a later period
metaphysics,  q. v.), the science of the ulti-
mate  causes of all being; and ethics, the
science of the moral nature  and destiny
of man.   In modem times, the division
of philosophy into theoretical  and practi-
cal has been the most general.  The the-
oretical or  speculative  philosophy  was
considered to have for its object the inves-
tigation of the highest truths respecting
God,  the  world,  nature  and  mind; the
practical,  their application.   But it was
soon  seen how little the latter idea was
adapted to  the  sciences  comprehended
under practical philosophy; and this was
then defined to be the science of action,
or of the moral nature of man in particular.
Some, therefore, call theoretical philoso-
phy the explanatory or illustrative plulos-
ophy, as it has for  its object that which
exists without our aid, and is  the subject
of our knowledge; while they term  prac-
tical  philosophy the imperative, or precept-
ive, as it  gives precepts for  the regula-
tion  of human action.  ^Esthetics (q. v.),
winch originated at a later  period, has
been considered, at times, as belonging to
the practical, at  times to the theoretical
philosophy.  Where philosophy confines
itself merely to the knowledge of the
action of the human  mind,  theoretical
philosophy is the science  of the laws of
conceiving and  knowing (aesthetics, in
this case, as  being the science of taste, or
radier the science of die rules forjudging
ofthe beautiful, has been added to it), and
practical plulosophy the science ofthe laws
of acting, or of lawful acting. But this view
very easily sinks into formalism, by letting
the objects of knowledge escape out of
sight, while  we  reflect on its laws.  At
least, it will be acknowledged, that the sci-
ence ofthe laws and criteria of knowledge
is radier  an introduction to  theoretical
philosophy than theoretical philosophy it-
self.   Those who define the latter in the
last-mentioned manner, consider logic and
metaphysics as belonging to theoretical
philosophy,  ethics and  natural  law to
practical.  Finally, philosophy may also
be divided,  with reference to die  three
highest ideas of man,—the ideas ofthe true,
ofthe good, and ofthe beautiful,—into the-
oretical, practical and aesthetical phdoso-
phy.—III. History  of Philosophy is the
relation ofthe most important attempts to
realize the ideas of plulosophy, or, accord- 
596
APPENDIX.   (PHILOSOPHY.)
ing to Tennemami.  the  pragmatical rep-
resentation of the gradual developement
of plulosophy as a science.   It is of great
value,  as  oue  of  the  most uiiportant
branches of the history of human civiliza-
tion, and from the aid which it affords to
philosophical genius, because it  presents
the most important  problems of philoso-
phy  in  their true  meaning, extent  and
connexion, illustrates the  various  philo-
sophical systems, and affords a survey of
the progress and aberrations ofthe human
mind, which teaches the  most instruct-
ive lessons.  The history of philosophy
is commonly  divided into  the  ancient,
middle  and modern.   Some divide it
into  the  Greek (including  the  Greek
philosophy in the Roman empire) and
the modern European.  In this division,
the philosophy of die middle ages forms,
as is obvious, the transition.  The first
period begins with  the  Greek, because,
though the disposition to philosophize is
confined to no  particular nation, but is
inherent in all, so that every tribe  forms
philosophical notions as  soon as  its reli-
gious conceptions pass  over into reflec-
tion, and  its  feelings  into doubt,  yet
philosophy was first studied  scientifically
by the Greeks.   The phUosophic notions
of the inhabitants  of the  East must  be
mentioned in  such  a history, principally
as introductory, and  with  reference  to
their connexion with the Greek philoso-
phy, in  which  many Oriental  notions
were incorporated.   Tennemann  char-
acterizes  the first  period  (that of  the
Greek and Roman plulosophy) as the pe-
riod  ofthe free striving of reason for  the
knowledge ofthe ultimate causes of na-
ture  and  liberty.  It forms a whole in
itself, which, to a certain degree, carries
in it the germs of all the subsequent
philosophies.  The Greek mind elevated
itself through poetry to philosophy.  The
theogonies, cosmogonies  and  gnomes
fonned  the introduction to philosophy,
and  connected it with  religion.  In  the
first  division of this period—the youth of
philosophy, in which reflection was  not
yet systematized nor separated from  po-
etry—inquirers strove to solve the  ques-
tion  respecting the  origin  of nature and
the  original matter of the world 5  a. in
the Ionian (q. v.) school  (beginning with
Thales, 610 B. C), by reflection on  na-
ture  and the origin  of natural things, or
the  first existence; further, b.  by  im-
aginary conceptions,  as in  the case  of
Pythagoras (q. v.)  and  his school (the
Italian); c. by the dialectical opposition of
reason  and experience  in  the  Eleatic
(q.  v.) school; and,  d. by  die  union of
both  in  the  atomic school.   Socrates
(about 422 B. C.) opposed the notions of
the Sophists, which threatened to destroy
moral principle, and turned his inquiries
to the moral nature and destiny of man,
in which many  of  his  pupils followed
him.   Philosophy thus  received  quite a
new direction, which was first made man-
ifest in a systematic form  by his pupils,
particularly  Plato and  Aristotle.   The
second division of the first period begins,
therefore, with  Socrates^ and his  pupils:
a. Plato (the  founder of  die academy,
q. v.), and, b. Aristotle (thefounder ofthe
peripatetic school, q. v.).  It is charac-
terized by a systematic striving to embrace
all the objects of philosophy. Plato laid
the foundation of a systematic philosophy;
Aristotle  developed the system.  The for-
mer was  distinguished  for  the  warmth
and vividness of his conceptions; the lat-
ter aimed at cool and patient reflection on
the nature of things.  By  the side of
the academic   and  peripatetic   schools,
c. the Stoic (q. v.) school, founded by
Zeno, and, d. the Epicurean (q. v.), placed
themselves  in   opposition.   All  these
systems  were  attacked   by the  sceptic
school, founded by Pyrrho.  (See Scepti-
cism.)  The other Socratic schools-^-e. the
Cyrenaic, Megarean, Cynian, Elian and
Eretrian—followed the practical  direction
of their master with more or less devia-
tion and  peculiarity.   "We see here,"
says  Schulze, speaking  of this  period,
" the   philosophic   spirit,   undertaking,
with  manly circumspection, the solution
of philosophical problems  and  the  phil-
osophical  investigation  of  all   subjects
important for mankind."  For  this rea-
son the inquiries of  this period into the
grounds of human knowledge, are of so
great importance.  In the third  division,
the philosophic spirit appears, like an- en-
feebled old man,  striving only to  unite the
conflicting parties (with the Eclectics,
q. v.), or, in order to  escape from scepti-
cism,  flying to  mysticism (with die Alex-
andrians, q.  v., and New Platonists, q-k v.,
whose founder was Ammonius Saccas, 193
B. C).  The Romans propagated and fos-
tered  only the philosophy which they had
received.  (For more information respect-
ing this period, see Greek Literature, and
the articles on the different philosophers
and sects.}  2.  The history ofthe philoso-
phy  of the  middle  ages,  from 800 to
1500,  A.  D., or of the scholastics (q. v.),
shows the struggle of reason for philosoph-
ical knowledge, under the influence of a
principle elevated above it,  and  given by 
APPENDIX.  (PHILOSOPHY—ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY.)     597
 the Christian revelation, or acting in the
 service of the  church.   (See Scholastic
 Philosophy.)   The Arabians, the flourish-
 ing period of whose literature falls in the
 middle age^, only  cultivated  the Greek
 philosophy  and some detached religious
 philosophemes.   3.  The third  period,
 which begins with the fifteenth century,
 is characterized, says  Tennemanu,  by  a
 freer, more independent spirit of inquiry,
 penetrating  deeper and deeper into ulti-
 mate causes, and striving  for a systematic
 union of knowledge.   First, the scholastic
 philosophy was attacked  by  those  who
 called to  mind the ancient Greek philos-
 ophy in  its  original  purity.   After this
 struggle,  new  views were  presented.
 Some built upon experience,  as  Bacon
 and Locke.   Opposed to them, Descartes,
 with  whom  some begin modern philoso-
 phy,  strove  to establish it upon its  own
 groutid, by  dialectic  reasoning;  passing
 over from doubt to dogmatism, and taking
 the consciousness of thought and existence
 (cogito, ergo sum) as the foundation of his
 philosophy,  whence modern philosophy
 first received its direction towards ideal-
 ism.  Spinoza and Leibnitz pursued the
 trodden path  of reflection; the latter in
 the way of idealism, the former in that of
 realism.—We intend now to give a brief
 sketch of the  philosophy of  England,
 Germany and France.  The celebrity of
 the German  philosophy would seem to
 entitle it  to  an extended notice.   But
 to give a satisfactory account  of it would
 far exceed the limits of this work.  The
 veiy explanation of the terminology ofthe
 German  philosophers, which would be
 necessary to qualify an English reader to
 understand their systems, would occupy
 much more space than we can give to the
 whole of this article, so that we can barely
 touch upon some of the most  prominent
 points ofthe subject.
  English Philosophy.  Modern philosophy
 in England  must be dated from Bacon.
 In his Novum Organum (1620), he takes a
 path directly opposite to that universally fol-
 lowed iu his time, and, instead of appeal-
 ing by dialectics to the  notions of the un-
 derstanding, he attempts to restore knowl-
 edge  by the  aid of observation, through
 induction.  He was not the founder of a
 sect;  he  did not  deliver opinions;  he
 taught modes of philosophizing ; he did
 not attempt  to  discover new  principles,
 but to render observation and experience
 the predominant character of philosophy.
 His services  consist in his  dethroning
scholastic  philosophy,  directing the atten-
 tion to nature and observation, and reject-
 ing final causes  from physical inquiries;
 yet he made some detached psychological
 remarks of great value.   Bacon is the
 father of experimental or empirical philos-
 ophy.   Hobbes,  the friend  of Bacon, a
 bold and profound thinker, was the foun-
 der of modern sensualism.  Philosophy,
 according to him, is such a knowledge of
 effects or  appearances as we acquire by
 true reasoning from the  knowledge we
 have of their causes or generation, or such
 causes  and generations as may be, from
 knowing first their effects.  The object
 of philosophy is any body  of which we
 can conceive  any generation, or which is
 susceptible of composition or decomposi-
 tion.  It io therefore either natural or civil.
 All knowledge is derived from the sense by
 modon; thoughts are representations of
 the qualities of bodies without us; the
 cause of sense is the pressure of the ex-
 ternal object on the  organ of sense;  what
 we call  sensible qualities  are nothing but
 motion, aud can produce nothing but mo-
 tion in us;  imagination is nothing  but de-
 caying sense,  and  understanding is im-
 agination raised by words or other volun-
 tary signs.   Besides sense and thought,
 and  train of thoughts, the mind  has no
 other motion.  Whatever we imagine is
 finite; therefore  diere is  no idea  of any
 thing infinite.  Reasoning is nothing but
 reckoning,  that is,  adding or subtracting.
 The passions are internal voluntary mo-
 tions ; when appetites and aversions, hopes
 and fears, arise alternately about the same
 thing, the whole  sum of these motions is
 deliberation, and the last appetite or aver-
 sion in deliberation, is will, not the faculty,
 but the act of willing.  (See Hobbes's Hu-
 man Nature,  1650, and Leviatlian, 1651.)
 From these principles  Hobbes  having
 concluded that right and wrong were un-
 real, because they are not perceived by the
 senses, Cudworth (Intellectual System of
 the Universe,  1678) endeavors to refute
 the doctrines of  the sensual theoiy.  He
 maintains that there are many objects of
 the mind which  are not derived from the
sense, and  could be formed only  by a
 faculty superior  to  sense; these are not
 fantastical (conceivable  by the  imagina-
tion), but only noematical.  Cudworth was,
 in most points, a follower  of  Plato; his
 plastic nature, a vital and  spiritual  but un-
intelligent and necessaiy agent, created by
the Deity  for  the execution of his  pur-
poses, is Plato's soul ofthe world; and he
 maintains the Platonic doctrine  of innate
ideas.  Locke introduced into the study of
the human mind  the method of investiga-
tion, which had been pointed out by Bacon, 
598
APPENDIX.  (ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY.)
 ind gave the first example of an ample enu-
 meration of facts, collected and arranged
 for the purpose of legitimate generalization.
 Without meddling with physiological hy-
 potheses or transcendental metaphysics, he
 seeks," in a plain, historical method, to give
 an account of the ways in which'the under-
 standing attains  the  notions it has, for
 which," says he, " I shall appeal to every
 one's own experience and  observation."
 This cautious empiricism has been little ob-
 served by those Who have called themselves
 his disciples in  England and France, and
 who, neglecting his method, have seized
 upon  some  unguarded  exnressions  to
 build up systems of idealism (Berkeley),
 scepticism  (Huroe), or sensualism  and
 materialism (the French philosophers and
 the  Hartleian  school).   The true  spir-
 it of the Lockian  philosophy  was firet
 revived in the  Scotch  school  (Reid and
 Stewart).  Rejecting innate  ideas, Locke
 teaches that sensation and reflection are
 the  only sources of knowledge, external
 objects furnishing the mind with the ideas
 of sensible qualities, and the mind furnish-
 ing the understanding with ideas of its own
 operations. Sensation  convinces us ofthe
 existence of solid extended substance, and
 reflection ofthe existence of thinking ones,
 of  the cause and  nature of which two
 kinds  of being we can know nothing.
 Perception is a communication between
 the mind and external objects carried on
 by means of images present  to the mind;
 these he calls ideas, which he defines to
 be the  immediate objects about which the
 mind is employed iu  thinking.   Having
 treated at length of the origin, nature and
 qualities of ideas, he proceeds to consider
 the instrument  by which men communi-
 cate their ideas to each other; and his re-
 marks  on this subject  (Book iii, of Lan-
 guage) form the most valuable  dogmatic
 part of his work.  Knowledge is the per-
 ception ofthe agreement or disagreement
 of ideas, which consists  in identity  or
 diversity, relation, coexistence,  and real
 existence.  Of  the existence of  ourselves
 and of God we have intuitive knowledge,
 which  is  the immediate  perception of the
 agreement  or  disagreement  of ideas:
 demonstrative knowledge is the discovery
 of it by the intermediation of other ideas:
 and  these two  soils of knowledge yield
 complete certainty.  Sensitive knowledge
 leads to the belief of the existence of other
 beings, and  carries  with it  a reasonable
 confidence.  Judgment  is a supposition
 or opinion of the agreement or disagree-
 ment of ideas, and supplies  the want of
knowledge.   Its conclusions  are  only
 probable.   The  ethical  consequences
 which had  been deduced  from the  sen-
 sualist school of Hobbes, anil from a par-
 tial view of the doctrines of Locke, led
 Berkeley, who  was not less remarkable
 for the virtues of his  cliaractcr than for
 the  acuteness  of his philosophy, lo  the
 adoption  of idealism (Thcorv of Vision,
 1709; Principles of Human Knowledge,
 1710; Alciphron, or the Minute Philoso-
 pher, 1732).  His Theory of Vision,which
 is the most valuable part of bis labors, and
 which is an important  addition to  the
 knowledge of mind, was the  first exposi-
 tion of the difference between the original
 and acquired perceptions of the eye, and
 now forms an essential part ofthe science
 of optics.  His  scheme of idealism  was
 founded  on the Lockian doctrine of ideas.
 Proceeding  from the  principle, that we
 are percipient  of nothing but our own
 perceptions and ideas, and that all the ob-
jects  of  human knowledge are ideas of
 sensation or reflection existing in the nifnd
 itself, he  comes to the conclusion that the
 existence of bodies out ofa mind perceiving
 them, is not only impossible, and a contra-
 diction in terms; but, were it possible, and
 even  real, it were impossible we should
 ever know it.  By thus " expelling matter
 out of nature," he thought we should get
 rid ofthe chief cause of all error in  phi-
 losophy,  and  all infidelity in  religion.
 Granting the premises of Berkeley, which
 were the commonly received philosophi-
 cal views, at  least in England, his  con-
 clusions could not be refuted ;  but it was
 reserved  for Hume to trace out, by a vig-
 orous and unshrinking logic, the legitimate
 consequences ofthe Cartesian and Lockian
 philosophy to their  ultimate results, and
 thus,  though unintentionally, by a sort of
 reduclio ad absurdum, to produce the great
 metaphysical revolution, of which  Reid
 and Kant were the firet movers.  This he
 did with  such power of logic, acuteness
 and  cogency of reasoning,  boldness, pre-
 cision, clearness, and elegance, that scep-
 ticism never appeared more formidable or
 more seducing than in  bis writings (Trea-
 tise of Human Nature,  173"?, cast anew in
 the Inquiry concerning Human  Under-
 standing, 1748).  After showing  that all
 attempted demonstrations ofthe necessity
 of a  cause to every  new  existeuce  are
 fallacious and  sophistical, Hume endeav-
 ors to prove that the proposition, whatever
 has a beginning has a cause, is not intui-
 tively certain, but is derived  only  from
 custom and belief, and is rather an act of
 the sensitive than ofthe cogitative part of
 our  nature.  In this argument,  he  pro- 
APPENDIX.   (ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY.)              599
ceeds  on the  ground that all certainty
arises  from a  comparison of ideas, and
the  discovery  of their unalterable rela-
tions, which are resemblance, proportions
in quantity and number, degrees of qual-
ity and contrariety,  and noue of which is
implied in the proposition above  stated.
All the objects  of knowledge are impres-
sions and  ideas: the former are our more
lively perceptions, wiien we hear  or see,
love or hate,  or desire or will; the latter
are the less lively perceptions of which
we are conscious when we reflect  on the
former, and  are copies  of impressions.
The existence of these perceptions as ob-
jects of consciousness cannot be denied;
but to admit the existence of a percipient
being,  the I, is to assume that of mind,
which is no more au object of knowledge
than matter.  There can, therefore, be no
objective knowledge; and we are reduced
to consciousness, the phenomena of which
it  takes cognizance, and  their subjective
relations.  Hume's system of scepticism is
not scepticism  antecedent to study and
philosophy, but consequent to science and
inquiry, holding the  absolute fallacious-
ness of the mental faculties, bringing the
senses themselves into dispute, and thus
sapping the foundations of all knowledge,
aud  rejecting the  existence  of God, a
providence, and a future state.  At about
the same time, Hartley (q. v.) attempted to
account for all the phenomena  of the
mind, by the single  principle of the asso-
ciation of ideas, and for this principle by
vibrations and vibratiuncles in  the medul-
lary substance of the  brain.   In connex-
ion with this plan of materialism,  he de-
fended the doctrine  of necessity,  repre-
senting God as the  only cause of all nat-
ural effects and all  human actions.  To
the Hartleian school belong Priestley (q.v.),
Darwin, and Home Tooke.   The scepti-
cal conclusions  which Hume had irresist-
ibly shown to be the result  of the ideal
system of philosophy, which had been re-
ceived since  the time of Descartes  and
Locke, led Reid (Inquiry  into the Human
Mind,  1764;  On the Intellectual Powers
1785) to  the examination and refutation
of that system itself.   The Scotch school
of philosophy, modest and perhaps timid
in its pretensions, has the  merit of having
first strongly  and largely  inculcated the
absolute  necessity  of admitting certain
principles  as the foundation of all reason-
ing, and as being the indispeusable condi-
tions of thought itself.  The Kantian phi-
losophy is only  a modification of it. Ac-
cording to the Scotch philosophers, certain
simple ideas are implied and  involved in
certain intuitive judgments of the mind ;
thus identity, cause, time,  number, truth,
certainty, probability, are ideas peculiar to
a rational mind, and  necessarily arise in
the human understanding, when employed
in the exercise of its different taculties.
Reid, therefore, while  he rejected  the
Cartesian theory of ideas or images in the
mind being the only objects  of thought,
directed  his  iuquiries to  an  analysis of
the various powers and principles of our
constitution,  in order to  discover  the
fundamental  laws  of belief, which form
the ground-work of human  knowledge.
Though  professing to build only on expe-
rience, he did not limit experience to the
relations  of sense and its objects.  With-
out  claiming for man more  than a rela-
tive knowledge of existence, and restrict-
ing the science of mind to an observation
of the fact of consciousness, he analyzed
that fact into a greater number of more
important elements than had been recog-
nised in the sensualist school.  He showed
that phenomena are  revealed in thought,
which cannot be resolved into any modifi-
cation of sense; that intelligence supposes
principles, which, as the conditions of its
activity, cannot be the result of its opera-
tions ; and that the mind contains notions,
which, as primitive, necessary and univer-
sal, are not to be explained as generaliza-
tions from the contingent  and particular,
about which alone our external experi-
ence is conversant.  His enumeration of
the faculties of the mind, which he  does
not, however, give as complete, comprises
perception, memory, conception, abstrac-
tion, judgment, reason, taste, moral percep-
tion, consciousness.   The representation
of consciousness as a special faculty, when,
in reality, it is the generic condition of all
mental activity, was  a pregnant enor in
Reid's philosophy;—while his doctrine of
the immediate or intuitive  knowledge of
mind and matter, which involved the over-
throw of die ideal system, and the scepti-
cism (or rather nihilism) deduced from it,
was an  important step in the progress
of philosophy.  Stewart, with some devi-
ations, followed in the track of his mas-
ter ; but  Brown, while he adopted many
of  the principles of  Reid, departed, in
many points of fundamental importance,
from his philosophy.  He assumes  the
existence of primary  intuitions  of direct
belief, which are  not only necessary to
reasoning, but  to thought itself: all  our
conceptions imply the idea of form, which
is derived from relation in space (coex-
istence), and  of power, which is derived
from relation in  time (successive exist- 
600
APPENDIX.   (GERMAN  PHILOSOPHY.)
ence); cause is only the  invariable ante-
cedent, effect the invariable consequent,
power the invariable antecedence, in  any
sequence of phenomena.  All feelings and
thoughts are the mind itself existing in
certain states ; consciousness is not a dis-
tinct faculty, but a general term for all the
states of  the  mind.  Mental  (personal)
identity is an intuitive law of thought,  it
being impossible to conceive of successive
states but  as modifications of the perma-
nent being—the I.  The different states
are divided by Brown into the  external
states (sensations), produced by the pres-
ence of external objects, and the internal
states, arising in consequence of preced-
ing affections of the mind itself.  The
latter  class is divided into  intellectual
states and emotions, which are all  referri-
ble to one generic susceptibility—sugges-
tion  (association of ideas).  The laws of
suggestion are resemblance, contrast, and
nearness in time or place, which are all
reducible to proximity.   That capacity of
suggestion  which  revives conceptions,
Brown terms simple suggestion, and that
which gives rise to feelings of  relation,
relative  suggestion.   To  the former are
reducible  those mental states commonly
called the faculties of conception, memo-
ry, imagination,  and habit \ to the latter,
those of judgment, reasoning, and abstrac-
tion.  But Brown's  philosophy involves
many radical inconsistencies, and would
hardly deserve to be mentioned in so gen-
eral a sketch, were it not remarkable as
an open revolt against the Scotch system,
at the moment the latter seemed to be de-
veloped with new power, and  to acquire
new authority on the European  continent;
and  for the temporary popularity it pos-
sessed in  Great Britain, and particularly
in this country.   While France and Ger-
many have in recent times imbibed a new
spirit of metaphysical inquiry, the science
of mind has heeii  entirely neglected in
Great Britain, and all interest in psycholo-
gical researches seems  to  he extinct in
that country.
   German Philosophy.  To the remark al-
ready made, ofthe impracticability of giv-
ing a satisfactory view of German philos-
ophy within the  limits to which  we are
confined,  we must add, that if any science
requires to be  studied in a spirit of can-
dor, and  with a sincere desire to under-
stand its real merits (and what science can
be properly studied without such a spirit ?),
it is intellectual  philosophy,  particularly
German philosophy. Nothing is easier than
to take a phrase or a passage relating  to
subjects beyond the reach of the senses
(whether of a philosophical, religious, or
poetical character), and turn it into ridi-
cule.   We would also remark, that, since
German philosophy has of late yeare di-
verged with unprecedented rapidity in all
directions,  and system  after system has
been raised  and overthrown, it has been
often asked, What has been gained by it ?
Have the philosophers  settled  any of the
mysteries  which  have  always perplexed
the mind of man ; or have they acquired
any clearer and  deeper  knowledge  re-
specting the most important interests of
human society, government, law, and the
civil ties in  general,  on which they write
so much ?  We answer, that the Germans
have acquired, by their philosophy, a spirit
of scientific liberty, unknown in other na-
tions.   Every nation  and age has its task
and condition.  As yet  it has not been the
lot  of Germany to enjoy the blessings of
civil freedom, and the manly spirit which
it generates; but the spirit which pervades
the best German works on religion,  on
literature, on natural philosophy, may well
challenge comparison.  The spirit of sys-
tem and independent thought, which Ger-
man philosophy has infused into German
literature, sometimes leads,  indeed, to pro-
lixity of exposition, and sometimes to ex-
travagance of speculation; but these are
small  disadvantages  compared with the
benefit which it has conferred;.and  the
whole tone of the literature proves, what
we have had occasion to remark more
than once already, that civil liberty alone
is wanting to hold the Germans up to the
world as a noble and manly nation.  While
we dwell  on  the   good  consequences
which German philosophy has  had on the
spirit of inquiry, we are far from pretend-
ing that it  has been productive  of un-
mixed good, or that eveiy system of Ger-
man philosophy which has acquired dis-
tinction in its time, deserves its reputation.
How  often  has a figurative  expression
been taken for a profound  truth,  and
served as the basis of arguments and  sys-
tems, which sink into  nothing before a
critical investigation, and  to which noth-
ing but the imagination of Germans could
have given a short-lived existence !  This
unsoundness,  which is found in many
German systems, is owing, in a great de-
gree, to the predominance of the specula-
tive over the active  life in that country.
Free institutions would  soon enable them
to shake off the dreaminess of the closet,
by rousing  them to vigorous action on
practical  subjects.   The  ill  repute  in 
APPENDIX.  (GERMAN PHILOSOPHY.)
601
 which  German  philosophy long  stood
 with  foreigners, is  owing, partly, to  the
 reckless independence with which most
 of the German philosophers have created
 and  shaped their language  according to
 their  systems, so as  to render its  study
 particularly difficult for strangers; partly
 to the premature and  partial applications
 which inferior talents have made of those
 systems  to other branches  of literature,
 and  which  fiave  mostly been  known
 sooner than the  original  system ; partly
 to real  extravagances; but greatly, also,
 to the  difficulty of justly estimating so
 large  and  so new  a department  of  lit-
 erature.  A German philosophy, properly
 so called, could not appear until German
 prose had  received a certain  degree of
 cultivation.  As long as the  German phi-
 losophers wrote chiefly in Latin, they con-
 fined themselves principally to the defence
 of the predominating philosophy of  the
 time—e. g. the scholastic  philosophy—or
 else attacked it (after the fifteenth cen-
 tury), but without establishing new sys-
 tems.  The  proper German philosophy
 is distinguished  by an  incessant  striv-
 ing for a  systematic  character, and  the
 deduction of scientific conclusions from
 the  simplest  and  most  comprehensive
 principles.   It   must  be  considered   to
 begin with Leibnitz (q. v.),  towards  the
 end of  the seventeenth century.  Leib-
 nitz (q. v.) endeavored to deduce philo-
 sophical truth from necessary and innate
 ideas  of reason, by the way  of mathe-
 matical  demonstration.  This  system he
 opposed to the sensualism  of Locke.  His
 doctrine  of innate ideas, of the monads,
 of the  preestablished harmony  of  the
 universe, his  theodicea,  furnished  sub-
jects of thought to the.most thinking men
of his time.   His followers,  in particular
 Wolf and Baumgarten, extended his sys-
 tem, about the time of Frederic the Great;
 and, by their endeavors to reduce philoso-
 phy to one principle,  and  by the  precise
 formulas in which  they carried on their
 demonstrations, the  formal side of philo-
sophical science gained very  much.  The
fault of this system was,  that it  sought
 truth  merely  by  the  way of definitions
 and demonstrations, as in mathematics.
 Wolf's disciples carried this system almost
 to absurdity.   Lambert, Ploucquet, Rei-
 marus, and others, his followere, cultivated
 logic  with  great  success.   This school
 was followed  by a period  of eclectic phi-
 losophy,  in which,  however, the scepti-
 cism  of Hume,  the examination  of  the
 underetanding by Locke, the psychological
 ovestigations  of  Feder,  Garve,  M en-
  voi., x.          51
delssohn, the works of Platner and Abbt,
together with the revived interest for  art
and criticism, and not less  the sentimen-
tality which reigned in poetry as well as
in religion, excited and directed the atten-
tion  of the  whole thinking world to the
nature of their  own souls,  and  prepared
the way for the system  of Imir.anuel
Kant. (q. v.)  With him begins the s :cond
period of German philosophy. He showed
that, instead of  inquiring  what the world
was in itself, we ought first to inquire how
we perceive it.   Thus he began to exam-
ine all  the  means which  man  possesses
for the perception of the external world,
and  determined the laws  according  to
which  every  organ operates,  and  the
sphere to  which it is limited.  His criti-
cism denied to reason the possibility  of
finding and proving any truth, without
the sphere of consciousness and of physi-
cal phenomena.   The  theory  of Kant
was  extended by his  followers  in many
directions, yet not with the harmony and
comprehensive  judiciousness with which
he united  and  arranged all the different
kinds and objects of mental activity. The
human mind, however, was not satisfied
with learning only its own limits.  The
relation between its own notions and real-
ities, was again  endeavored to be deter-
mined in different ways.  Fichte rejected
ihe idea of any such relation, by admitting
the absolute existence only ofthe thinking
individual, by which  he considered even
the objects  of thought to be produced;
he denied the reality of an exterior world.
This system atoned for its exclusive char-
acter by the high standard to which this
vigorous spirit  raised the  moral  dignity
of man.  Between him and Kant stands
Fries, in his Neue Kritic der Vernunft; he
likewise was distinguished for the moral
tendency of his plulosophy.  In  opposi-
tion  to  Fichte,  Schelling  proceeds from
the idea of the objective  absolute (see
Objective), and arrives at length at the idea
of individual existence (the I), from which
Fichte sets out.   He begins a third period
in the  German  philosophy with lis doc-
trine of identity, in which he determines
the relation  between subject  and object.
To him, mind and nature are only mani-
festations  of the  Divine principle, and
the knowledge  of this identity between
thought and outward existence rests  on
intellectual intuition.   Oken has founded
a  natural  philosophy  on this  system.
Hegel* (q.  v.)  has sought  to establish a

  * He  died in Berlin, in the winter of 1831—2,
of the cholera. 
602
APPENDIX.   (FRENCH PHILOSOPHY.)
strict  idealism, on  Schilling's  principles,
by considering the absolute as the under-
standing conceiving  of itself, and makes
three  divisions in his philosophy,—logic,
the philosophy of nature, and  the phi-
losophy of mind.   Each of these systems
has, at different periods, found many fol-
lowers, who, with more  or less success,
have labored to extend them  in  different
directions.   Krug has united all the prin-
cipal .doctrines of Kant systematically in
his Transcendental Synthetics.   Bardili
considered all philosophy as  resting  on
the idea of the absolute, which he found
in the act  of thinking;  he, therefore,
treated logic as a  source of real  knowl-
edge.    Wagner  and  Eschenmayer en-
deavored to  correct or to extend  the doc-
trine of Schelling.  Jacobi's doctrine  on
feeling and faith is of an original charac-
ter.  Schulze distinguished himself as an
opponent of Reinhold by a limited scep-
ticism,  Platner by bis, aphorisms, and
Herbart by  his metaphysical  fragments.
In considering the many changes German
philosophy has undergone in  so  short a
time, we shall naturally feel  inclined to
reproach this mania for new systems ; but
the truth or error  of any comprehensive
view.cannot be appreciated justly, until it
is developed in a consistent form, and the
more different systems can be compared,
the more comprehensive and impartial
will be our knowledge.
  French Philosophy.  Totally opposite to
German philosophy is the modern French
philosophy.   While the former strives to
explore the  abysses  of existence, and to
comprehend the   mysteries  of  human
nature, and thus often loses itself in flights
of imagination, the French, of late,  have
understood by philosophy little more than
the critical investigation of those  subjects
which are  comprehensible at first view,
and have banished from  philosophy  air
that  cannot be grasped by  the  plainest
common sense; and so far have they car-
ried this system, that at one time it proved
most  daugerotis to  morality,  the original
principles of which are by no means sus-
ceptible of such plain and simple demon-
stration as was required  by  the  French
school; and we have little doubt that, to
this day, sensualism, or the  French phi-
losophy, founded on Condillac's system,
produces fatal effects.  So much, indeed,
do the French and  Germans  differ, that
what  the former call philosophy and meta-
physics is, in fact, totally different  from
that which  the  latter designate  by the
same  terms.  It.is also very characteristic
of the French  people, that their modem
philosophy may be said to have unfolded
itself in fashionable society.   Towards the
end  of the  seventeenth  century, a tone
of light  philosophy was introduced  into
polite circles, in opposition to the affected
morality then in  vogue, which, however,
had some connexion with the old roman-
tic spirit.  Both systems had adherents in
the world of fashion, under the patronage
of ladies : at the head  of one  party  was
the spirituel Ninon de l'Enclos, with her
philosophizing friend St. Evremond; at the
head of the other, the amiable marchioness
de Sevigne.  Both the circles acquired
literary celebrity;  language attained the
highest refinement, and  conversation its
greatest perfection; but the consequence
was, that a conversational tone was given to
literature. Descartes (q. v.), Arnauld (q. v.L
(to whom is ascribed  the Art de Penser),
Nicole, De la Forge, and the deep-think-
ing Malebranche (q.v.), belong to another
time.   Tin!  direction  which  modern
French philosophy has taken originated
from the English philosopher Locke, (q.v.)
On the doctrines of this acute  reasoner a
system of sensualism was founded by  Eti-
enne  Bonnot  de Condillac (born 1715,
died  1780).  He taught that the basis, the
principle of all that is developed in our
mind, is sensation (lafaculte de sentir).  All
ideas, knowledge, faculties, even reflection,
actions and customs, are successive trans-
formations of this principle.  " The  sen-
sation  only  changes  its  form, as the
ice when it is  dissolved into water,  and
evaporated in vapor."   (See  Condillac.)
The  simplicity of his method,  and the
clearness of his exposition, awakened the
greatest interest.  He  became  the  leader
of a  school still predominating in Fiance.
The  Encyclopaedists  (see  Encyclopidie,
the French) contributed most to its propa-
gation, particularly  Diderot, D'Alembert
and Helvetius.  The effect was  striking:
the most  difficult of all  sciences,  which
requires  the deepest study  and the most
persevering reflection, was brought within
the reach of the  multitude;  every  one
could talk about metaphysics.  But it was
overlooked that this system did not lead
men a step nearer to the solution of the
highest and  most  important problems..
The  system was carried farther and far-
ther, not always in accordance with the
views of the author, but according to the
direction given by  him.  Sensation  (the
lowest degree of intellectual action, and
that in which we are most dependent upon
the external world) being now considered 
APPENDIX. (FRENCH PHILOSOPHY.)              603
 the essential principle in all the operations
 of the  mind, the  distinction  between
 sensation and perception  which  Locke
 had made being rejected, and man being
 regarded only as an animal of a somewhat
 finer organization than  the others,  but
 moved only by sensual impulses (as in the
 system  of  Helvetius), the consequence
 was, that the material world  was consid-
 ered as the  only form of existence, mind
 as only a connexion of atoms, the basis of
 its actions egotism, and the end of these
 actions a refined  sensuality; thence  the
 belief in moral freedom,  virtne, God,
 providence  and immortality, was  looked
 upon as  a folly unworthy of a reflecting
 mind, and a complete materialism became
 predominant.   We have said that Condil-
 lac's system continues to predominate in
 France;   still,  however,  several  distin-
 guished philosophers follow another path,
 and  we  are far from asserting that  the
 consequences  which we have ascribed to
 the system  still exist in their full  extent.
 It may be safely said, fhat there prevails in
 France, at  present, a deep-felt  want of
 the belief in a God, which not being able
 to find satisfaction in the dogmas of the
 Catholic  church, the religion of the over-
 whelming majority is in an unsettled state.
 Of this want, even the propagation of the
 extravagant doctrines of the St. Simonians,
 which would be otherwise  inconceivable,
 is a strong proof.   But there are still more
 persons in France  whose  minds are  un-
 illumined by a belief in immortality, than
 in any other civilized nation.   The acute
 understanding and inexhaustible wit of
 Voltaire,  the clear intellect of D'Alembert,
 at the head ofthe Encyclopaedists, spread
 through  society the  dangerous doctrines
just mentioned. Rousseau's enthusiasm
 stands alone in  the French  literature of
 that  time.   The revolution,  which pro-
duced so great a change in the character
 of the French, and made  them  more
 acquainted with foreign nations than their
national pride had allowed, especially with
 the Germans, had also considerable influ-
ence upon their philosophy.  The want
 of a deeper, more earnest philosophy, is
apparent even  in Rousseau's works; still
 more  in  those of St.  Pierre,  Chateaubri-
and, Claude St. Martin, and the marquis
Bonald; also Prosper de Barante, in  his
work on the literature of France  in  the
eighteenth century, was actuated by this
idea;  and De Gerando,  VUlers, and  the
baroness de  Stael-Holstein,from the same
feeling, have directed attention to German
philosophy.  Among those who  have  at-
tempted to give philosophy a bettercharac-
ter, Laromiguiere is distinguished.   His
Lecons de Philosophic, on Essai sur les Fa-
cultisde VAme (2d ed., Paris, 1820, 2 vols.),
is valuable.   He opposes the  doctrine
of Condillac, as to the first and sole prin-
ciple.  He stands nearer to Locke than to
Condillac.  Count Destutt de Tracy has
become well known by bis Idiologie (3d
edit., Paris, 1817).  Locke and Condillac
are his idols.  He extends somewhat the
principle of Condillac, and considers sen-
sations as predicable not only  of the ob-
jects ofthe external  world, but also of
those of the inner.  Ch. Vict, de  Bonstet-
ten*s Etudes deV Homme (Geneva,  1821,
2 Vols.) is a valuable work, written in the
spirit ofthe higher psychology, but  more
in the shape of sketches and hints thairof
a methodical system.  Bonstetten strives
particularly to defend the emotions of the
heart, the feelings, against the coldness of
logicians, who derive all the operations of
the mind from ideas only.   We  must
mention  also  Dogerando, whose  Hist.
comparee  des  Systemes  de la  Philoso-
phic (Paris, 1804, 3 vols.) lately appeared
in a new  edition.    Victor Cousin h<j
opened a  new  path.  He  approaches
the German philosophy.   (See his article.)
His  introductory Cours de  Philosophic
has lately been  very well translate--.}  into
English by  Mr. Linberg  (Boston,  183:},
1 vol).  We ought  to mention, also, the
works of St. Simon, as among the modern
works which have attracted most attention.
(See St. Simon.) We shall conclude our
remarks with a passage of the article Phi-
losophic, from the Encyclopidie Moderne:
"France cannot be said, at present, to
have any system of intellectual philosophy
properly  its own.   Fluctuating  between
the spiritualism of Germany, which rejects
empiricism, and  the views of the Scotch
school, which admits the authority of ex-
perience, it adopts some views from each,
whence results a sort of eclecticism,  fa-
vorable at least to investigation, even if it
is not, in all its parts, conformable to truth."
  For  the  Italian  philosophers  of the
middle ages, see Italy, division Italian Lit-
erature.  There  is no school of modern
Italian  philosophy.  For a complete his-
toiy  of philosophy,  we refer  to Tenne-
mann's History of Philosophy (in German;
Leipsic, 1798—1810, 18  vols., in large oc-
tavo), of which  a synopsis has been also
published, and a translation of the latter,
by Vict. Cousin (Paris, 1829, 2 vols., 8vo.);
also to  Ritter's History of Philosophy (in
German), uot.yet finished. 
604            APPENDIX.  (PERGOLESI-PORTO  RICO.)
  Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, one of
the most distinguished musicians, whose
proper name was  Giambattista Jesi, was
born at Pergola (hence his name, Pergo-
lesi), in the  March, according to some in
1707, according to others in  1704.  In
1717, he entered the Conservatorio dei po-
veri di Gesii Crislo at  Naples, then under
the direction of Gaetano Grecco.  This
great master initiated  his pupil in all the
secrets ofthe art.  At the age of fourteen
years, Pergolesi had distinguished himself
by various compositions, in which melody
was sacrificed to artifices of counterpoint;
but no sooner had he left the  Conserva-
torio, and studied the  vocal compositions
of Vinci and Hasse, than  he changed his
manner entirely.  In his first opera, how-
ever, only some ariette were well receiv-
ed ; but prince Stigliano judged favorably
of Pcrgolesi's  talents,  and procured him
employment  (1730—34)  at the Teatro
nuovo.  During this time, he  also  com-
posed La serva Padrona, for the theatre
San-Bartolomeo.  But his genius was not
satisfied with ordinary subjects: he seized
an opportunity to make himself known at
Rome by a more important composition,
and wrote, in 1735, his Olimpiade, for the
theatre Tordinone. Yet this opera, though
of  great  merit,  did not please much.
Peigolesfi now returned  to  Naples, and
composed his Dixit and Laudate, the suc-
cess of which  afforded a compensation
for  the former coldness  of the public.
His health  declined, and his friends in-
duced him to go to Tone del Greco,  at
the foot of mount Vesuvius, which is con-
sidered salutary for pulmonary patients.
Here  he  composed his far-famed Stabat
Mater dolorosa, his cantate Orfeo, and the
Salve, Regina, his last work.   He died  in
1739, at Puzzuoli,  when his  fame had
just begun to spread over Europe.   The
theatres and the churches resounded with
his productions.  In Rome, his Olimpiade
was represented anew, with  the greatest
magnificence, and  its beauties were en-
thusiastically applauded.   According  to
the universal opinion of the Italians, no
one ever excelled him in musical expres-
sion.  Some call  him the Dominichino,
odiers even the Raphael, of music; but
he is censured for repetitions, an  abrupt
style, and transpositions which injure die
text.  Pergolesi inclines more to the soft
than to the powerful ; even his  Stabat,
according to the judgment of modern mu-
sicians, is somewhat weak.   His manner
is  tinged with  melancholy, originating,
perhaps, from his feeble state of health.
  Porto Rico, or Puerto Rico, an island
belonging to Spain, one of the Great An-
tilles (of which group it is  the smallest
and most easterly), lies between  lat. 17°
507 and 18° 32' N., and between lon. 65°
43' and 67° W W., having the Atlantic on
the north  and the Caribbean sea  on the
south.  It  is separated from Hayti, on
the west, by a channel twenty-five leagues
broad.   One hundred  and  ten  miles  in
length, bv thirty-six in breadth.  Popula-
tion, 130,000, of which 25,000 are slaves.
Until 1815, Porto Rico was an expense  to
Spain ; but since that time foreigners have
been allowed to settle there; and it is now
in a very flourishing condition.   It has a
fine climate,  a fertile soil, and  produces
coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, fruits.  The
exports of the year 1830 were estimated
at $2,500,000; i i nports at $2,000,000.  The
sugar crop of 1831 was estimated tit 45,000
hogsheads, that of coffee at 125,000 quin-
tals.   Porto  Rico, which was called by
the natives (Arrowauks) Boriqua, was dis-
covered  by  Columbus in 1493, and is said
to have contained at that time 600,000 in-
habitants, who were soon exterminated by
the Spaniards. 
CONTENTS.
                           PPage.
   en.................  3
Penal   Law  (see  Criminal
  Law)...............
Penance .............
Penates...............  4
Pencil................  "
  Lead Pencils (see Plumba-
    go) ...............
  Pencil of Rays.........
Pendant...............
------, or Pennant......
Pendulum..............
Penelope (see Ulysses)  ....  5
Penguin (see Pinguin).....
Penitentiaries (6ee Prisons).
Penn (William)..........
Pennalism..............  8
Pennant (Thomas)........  "
Pennsylvania (state)......  "
-----------University (see
               Philadelphia) 11
Penn Township.........."
Penny (see Sterling Money)  . "
-----Post (see Posts) .... "
Pennyroyal............."
Penobscot (river)........."
--------Bay.........."
Pensacola............."
Pensioner..............12
Pentaglot (see Pentapla) ..."
Pentameter............"
Pentapla, Pentaglot......."
Pentateuch (see Hebrew Lan-
  guage, and Moses)......"
Pentecost.............."
Pentelic Marble  (see  Mar-
  ble) ................."
Penthesilea (see Amazons).  . "
Pentheus.............."
Penumbra (see Eclipse) .... "
Peon................."
Peony (see Pseony)......."
Pepe (see  Naples and Sicily,
  Revolution of)......... 13
Peplum (see Panathenseum). "
Pepper ................
Pepperell (sir William) .... "
Peppermint (see Mint)....."
Pepys (Samuel)........."
PeTa.......'..........14
Perceval (Spencer)......."
            51*
 Percussion Locks........
 Percy (Thomas).........
 Perdiccas..............
 Pere Lachaise (see Lachaise)
 Percgrinus Proteus.......
 Perennial.............
 Perfectibility............
 Peri . .................
 Pericardium............
 Pericarpium............
 Pericles...............
 Perier (Casimir).........
 Perigee (see  Apogee).....
 Perihelion..............
 Perillus (see  Phalaris).....
 Perimeter..............
 Period................
 Periodicals.............
 Periosteum (see Bone).....
 Peripatetic Philosophy.....
 Peripetia..............
 Periphery (see Circle).....
 Peripneumony (see Pneumo-
  ny).................-
 Peripteral Temple (see Archi-
  tecture, p.  311) ........
 Peristyle (see Architecture, p.
  341)................
 Perizonius (James).......
 Perjury...............
 Perkin  Warbeck (see War-
  beck) ...............
 Perkins (doctor Elisha) ....
Permutations (see Combina-
  tions)...............
 Pernambuco............
 Peron (Francois).........
 Perouse, La  (sec Laperouse)
 Perpendicular...........
 Perpetual Motion........
 Perpetuity.............
 Perpignan..............
 Perrault (family of).......
 Perron, Anauetil du (see  An-
  quetil du Perron, and Zen-
  davesta)...........
 Perry, Oliver (see Appendix
        to this  vol.)......
 ----- (see Pear)........
 Persecution of Christians  . . .
 Persephone (see Proserpine).
 Persepolis.............
16
24
25
Perseus...............29
Persia................30
  History of Persia.......31
  Persian Language, Litera-
    ture,  and  Ancient  Reli-
    gion ...............36
Persian ^Era (see Epoch)  . . 39
----- Gulf........____"
----- Wheel (see Hydrau-
         lics, vol. vi. p. 506) "
Persimon.............."
Persius..............."
Personification..........40
Perspective............"
Perspiration............42
Perth...............43
Perturbations..........."
Peru................."
Perugia (province).......46
------(city)..........."
------, Lake (see Thrasy-
          mene)........"
Perugino.............."*
Peruke (see  Wig)........
Peruvian Bark (see Bark, Pe-
  ruvian) ..............'•
Pervigilia........•......"
Pestalozzi (John Henry) ..."
Pesth, or Pest...........48
Pestilence (see Plague, and
  Spasmodic Cholera)....."
Pestum, or Pesto (see  Pac-
  tum) ................"
Petal................."
Petalite..............."
Petard................"
Petecchiae (see Plague) ....  "
Peter I (emperor ofRussia) . 49
----II (emperor of Russia) .  55
----Ill (emperor  of  Rus-
     sia).............   "
----,  St.,  Church  of  (see
       Rome)..........."
----(the apostle)  . -......  "
----the Hermit.........56
Peterborough  (the earl of) .  "
---------■—, Bishop of (see
               Marsh, Her-
               bert) ....."
Peterere..............."
Peters (Hugh).........."
  — (Richard)  . ........." 
6C6
CONTENTS.
Peter's, St. (riverJ-----....
Petersburg (town in Virginia)
---------, St. (capital   of
            Russia)......
Peter's Pence...........
Peterwardem...........
Pethion, or Petion de Ville-
  neuve (Jerome)........
Petion (president of Hayti). .
Petition...............
------of Right.........
Pctitio Principii..........
Petit Jury (see Jury)......
Petit Treason (see Treason).
Petrarca (Francesco)  .....
Petrel................
Petrifactions   (see  Organic
  Remains)  ............
Petrobrusians (see Sects). . .
Petroleum (see Bitumen)  . . .
Petronius (Titus).........
Petty (see Lansdowne) ....
Petty Bag . . ./.........
Peutinger Table.........
Pewter................
Peyronnet (Pierre Denis)  . . .
Peyrouse, La (see Laperouse)
Pfeffel (Christian Frederic). .
----- (Gottlieb Conrad)  . . .
Pfyfer (Loute)...........
Phanlon...............
Phafdra...............
Phaedrus...............
Phaeton...............
Phalanx...............
Phalaris................
Phalarope..............
Phamcnophis (see Memnon) .
Phanar  (seeFanariots).....
Phantasm (see Spectre)....
Phantasmagoria (see Lantern)
Phantasos (see Morpheus) . .
Phaon (see Sappho)......
Pharaoh (see Egypt)......
Pharisees..............
Pharmacolite (see Lime, vol.
  vii. p. 558)............
Pharmacopoeia..........
Pharmacy, Pharmaceutics . .
Pharo, a game (see Faro)  . .
------of Messina (see Faro
         of Messina)......
Pharos................
Pharsalia..............
Phases................
Pheasant..............
Phelloplastics...........
Pherecydes............
Phidias of Athens........
Philadelphia............
Philadelphists (see the end of
  the article Boehme).....
Philse.................
Philanthropinism (see Schools)
Philemon and Baucis......
-------of Athens.......
Philidor (Andrew)........
Philip (king of Macedon)  . ..
—— II (king of Spain)....
-----HI   of  Spain  (see
        Spain)
-----IV   of
        Spain)
-----V   of
        Spain)
57
59
66
67
68
75
76
Spain

Spain
78
(see
(see
Philip II (king of France) .  78
-----IV  of France  (see
       France).........   "
-----VI  of  France  (see
       France).........   "
-----the Bold (see Burgun-
       dians)  ..........   "
-----the Good (see Burgun-
       dians)..........   "
-----, King...........   "
Philippi...............  79
Philippics............    "
Philippines............   "
Philippones............   "
Philips (Ambrose).......   "
------(John)..........   "
Philistines.............  80
Philo (a Jewish author) ...   "
---- of Biblos..........   "
---- of Byzantium......   "
Philoctetcs............   "
Philology.............  81
  Phonology...........  84
Philology  (History of) . . .  93
Philomela.............  99
Philopcemen...........   "
Philosopher's Stone (see Al-
  chemy)  .............100
Philosophy, Intellectual (see
           Appendix,  end
           of   this   vol-
           ume) .......  ';
--------, Natural, or Phys-
           ics .........  "
--------, Peripatetic  (see
           Peripatetic Phi-
           losophy)  .....101
Philtre...............  "
Phipps (see Mulgrave)....  102
Phips (sir William)......  "
Phlebotomy...........  "
Phlcgethon...........103
Phlegrean Fields........  "
Phlogisticated  Air (see Ni-
  trogen)  .............  "
Phlogiston  ............  "
Pliocas's Column (see Col-
  umn) ...............  "
Phocion .  . . ■...........  "
Phocis...............105
Phoenicia.............  "
Phoenix (Greek coin).....107
-------(a bird)........  "
Phonetic..............  "
Phonology   (see  Philolo-
  gy) ................  "
Phorcus, or Phorcys.....  "
Phosphorescence........108
Phosphorus...........109
Photius...............110
Photometer............Ill
Phrat (see Euphrates) ....  "
Phrenology............  "
Phrygians.............114
Phryne...............  "
Phryxus   (see   Argonauts,
  A thamas, and Hefle) ...  115
Phtha  (see  Hieroglyphics,
  p. 318)_______.......  "
Phthiotis (sec  Thessaly)...  "
Phthisis   (see   Pulmonary
  Consumption)........  "
Physical   Astronomy   (see
           Astronomy)  . .  "
-------• Geography......  "
Physics  (see  Natural  Phi-
  losophy) ............115
Phvsiocratic or Agricultural
  System............. "
Physiognomy..........HG
Physiography (see Mineralo-
  gy, vol. viii. p. 509) .... 117
Physiology............ "
Phytology............119
Pia Mater............. "
Piano................ "
Piano-Forte........... "
Piarists...............120
Piaster............... "
Piazza............... "
Piazzi (Giuseppe)....... "
Pib-Corn, or Hornpipe .... "
Picard (Louis Benoit) .... "
Picards (see Adamites) ... "
Picardy.............. "
Piccini (Niccolo)........121
Piccolomini (family  of  this
  name).............. "
Pichegru (Charles)...... "
Pichiucha (the Battle of)  .  . 123
Pichler,  or- Pickler (family
  of)................124
Pick-Axe............. "
Pickens (Andrew)....... "
Pickering (Timothy).....125
Pickets............... "
Pickle-Herring (see  Harle-
  quin) ............... "
Pico................. "
Pico  della Mirandola  (see
  Mirandola).......... "
Picquet (see Piquet)..... "
Picromel.............. "
Picrotoxia.............126
Pictet (Marcus Augustus). . "
Pictou............... "
Picts (see Scots)........ "
Picts' Wall............ "
Pictures, Living........ "
Picturesque............ "
Picus................127
Piedmont............. "
Piedmontese Revolution... "
Pieno................129
Piepowder   Court    (see
  Courts of England)____ "
Pierian............... "
  Pierides............ "
Pierre  (Jacques  Bernardin
         Henri de St.) ... "
—----, St. (island)...... "
Pierrot  ............... "
Piete, Mont de (see Lom-
  bard-House)  .........130
Pietism  .............. "
Pietola............... "
Pietro di Cortona (see Cor-
  tona) ............... "
Pigafetta (Antonio)...... "
Pigalle (Jean Baptiste)  ... "
Pigeon............... "
Pig Iron (see Iron, vol.  vii.
  p. 72)..............131
Pig of Ballast.......... «
Pig of Lead........... "
Pigments............. "
Pigmy (see Pygmy)......132
Pike (a fish)............ «
----(a weapon)........ "
----(Zebulon Montgomery) " 
CONTENTS.
607
Pilasters (see Architecture.
  vol. i. p. 338).........134
Pilate (Pontius).........  "
Pilatre de Rozier (see Aero-
  nautics) .............  "
Pilchard..............  "
Piles (see Hemorrhoids)  . .  "
Pilgrimages...........  "
Pillau . . ..............135
Pilluitz...............  "
Pillory...............  "
Pillow...............13fi
Pilot Mountain (see Ararat)  "
Pilpay, or Bilpai........  "
Pimefite..............  "
Pimento..............  "
Pin.................  "
Pinang   (see    Prince  of
  Wales's Island).......  "
Pinchbeck............  "
Pinckney   (Charles  Cotes-
            worth) ......  "
--------(Thomas)......137
Pindar, Peter (see Wolcot) 138
------ (a Greek poet)....  "
Pindarees.............139
Pindemonte (cavaliere Ip-
  polito).............  "
Pindus..............  "
Pine  ................  "
Pine-Apple............144
Pinel  (Philip)..........  "
PingT'> (Alexandre Gui) . . . 145
Pinguin...............  "
Pinion...............  "
Pinite................  "
Pink (a plant)..........  "
   ■■ (a vessel).........14^5
Pinkerton (John)........  "
Pinkney (William)......<  "
Piukueya  Pubescens,  or
  Georgia Bark........148
Pinnace..............
f int (see Measures)......
Pinto, Mcndez (see Mendez-
  Pi.ito)..........----
Pinturicchio (Bernardino) . .
Piom'iino.............
Piom!>o (Sebastiano del)
Pioneers..............149
Piozzi (Hester Lynch) ....
P'P.................
Pipe (in law)...........
----(a wine measure)....
----(a tube)...........
Pipe-Clay (see Clay).....150
Pipe (smoking).........  "
Piperine..............  "
Pipowders Court (see Courts,
  vol. iii. p. 588)........151
Piquet................  "
Piracy...............  "
Piracy, Literary (see  Copy-
  right, and Literary Prop-
  erty)  ...............152
Pirieus (see Athens).....
Piranesi...............
Pirithous..............
Piron (Alexis)..........
Pirouette.............153
Pisa.................
Piscataqua............u«
Pisidia (see Natolia).....155
Pisistratus.............
Piso.................I6°
Pistachia Tree.........156
Pistoia...............   "
Pistol................   "
Pistole...............   "
Pitcairn's Island........   "
Pitch (sec Pine)........   "
---- (in music).........157
Pitcher  Plant (see Nepen-
  thes)...............   "
Pitch Ore (see Uranium)  . .   "
Pitch-Pipe............   "
Pitchstone, Pearlstone,Pum-
  ice, and Obsidian......   "
Pith (see Medulla).......158
Pitt (Christopher).......   "
—, William   (see   Chat-
      ham) ............   "
— (William)..........   "
Pittacus  of  Mitylene (see
  Seven Wise Men).....160
Pittsburg.............   "
Pittsfield..............161
Piu.................   "
Pius II (see Piccolomini)  . .   "
----VI..............   "
----VII  (Gregory  Barna-
      bas Chiaramonti) . . .  162
----VIII (Francis Xaviero
      Castiglione)......
Pizarro (Francisco)......
Pizzicato.............163
Place, La (see Laplace)
Plagiarism  (see Plagium
Plagium...........
Plague............
Plain-Song............166
Plane, Inclined (see Mechan
  ics) ................167
Planetarium (see Orrery) . .   "
Plane Tree  ...........   "
Planets..............   "
Planimetry............169
Planisphere............   "
Plant................   "
Plantagenet,  Family of (see
  Great Britain, History of) 174
Plaintain
        Tree
Plaster  of Paris (see Gyp-
  sum) ...............175

Plata (Rio de la) ........176
-----(United  Provinces of
       the)............  "
Platiecr...............178
Plate Glass (see Glass)  ... 179
Platina...............  "
Plato................181
Platoff, or Platow.......184
Platonic Love (sec Plato).  .  "
Platonists, New' (see  New
  Platonists)..........  "
Plato's Republic (see Plato)  "
Platte, or La Platte River .  "
Plattsburg.............  "
Platypus...........
Plautus (Marcus Accius)
Playfair (John).........  •
Plebeians.............  "
Plebis-scita (see Civil Law) 186
Pledge, or Pawn........  "
Pleiades..............  "
Pleonasm.............  "
Plcsiosaurus  (sec   Organic
  Remains)   ...........  "
185
Plessis...............18G
Pleurisy..............   "
Plica Polonica..........   "
Plinth (see Architecture, vol.
    p. 338)............188
Pliny (Caius Plinius Sccun-
       dus)...........   "
   - (Caius Plinius Caacilius
       Secundus).......   "
Plolinus..............189
Plough Monday.........   "
Plover...............   "
Plum................   "
Plumbago............ .  190
Plumber's Solder (see Bis-
  muth, vol. ii. p. 116)  ....   "
Plum Island...........   "
Plunkett (lord).........   "
Plurality..............191
Plus.................   "
Plutarch..............   "
Pluto...............   "
Plutus...............192
Pluviose (see Calendar, vol.
  ii. p. 403)...........   "'
Plymouth (town in England)   "
--------(town  in  Massa-
           chusetts) ......193
--------, Colony   of (see
           New England) .   "
Pneumatics............   "
Pneumony............   "
Po..................194
Pocahontas............   "
Pocock (Edward).......195
Pococke (Richard)......   "
Podagra..............   "
Podanrius  (see JEsculapius) 196
Podolia...............   «
Pcecile...............   "
Poelenburg (Cornelius) ...   "
Poetics (see Poetry).....  "
Poet Laureate..........  "
Poetry...............   "
Poggio Bracciolini......198
Poictiers (see  Poitiers)....  199
Point (in music)........  "
-----tin geometry)......  "
-----(in engraving)  .....  "
-----(in manufactures) ...  "
-----(among sailors).....  "
-----Blanc...........  "
-----Comfort (Old).....  "
Pointer...............  "
Point of Sight (see Perspec-
   tive)  ...............  "
Poison  ...............  "
Poitiers..............201
------, Diana of (see Diana
         of Poitiers).....  "
Poitou, or Poictou.......  "
Pola.................  "
Polacca,  Alia  (see   Polo-
   naise) ..............  "
Poland...............  "
   Constitution..........202
   History.............  "
   Polish Language......208
   Polish Literature......209
Polar Bear (see Bear)____212
-----Expeditions      (see
       North  Polar  Expe-
       ditions) .........  "
Polarity  (see  Electricity,
   and Magnetism).......  " 
608
CONTENTS.
Polarization of Light.....212
Pole (Reginald)........213
—— (in magnetism).....  "
----, or Polar Star......  "
----, Perch, or Rod (in sur-
      veying) ..........  "
Pole-Axe.............  "
Poles of the Ecliptic.....  " :
Polemburg (see Poelenburg)  "
Polenda, or Polenta.....  "
Police...............214
Policinello (see Punchinello) 215
Policy of Insurance (see In-
  surance)  ............  "
Polignac (abbe)........  "
-------(prince de)......  "
Polis................216
Polish  History,  Language
  and Literature (see Poland)  "
Polish Legions..........  "
Politianus  (Angelus).....217
Political Economy......  "
------Institutions......224
Politics  ..............225
Politz (Charles Henry Louis) 227
Poll-Tax (see Tax).....  "
Pollux (see Castor)......  "
------(Julius).........  "
Polnitz (Charles Louis) ...  "
Polo (Giles)...........  "
----(Marco)..........  "
Polonaise  ............228
Poltava..............  "
Polysenus.............  "
Polyandria............  "
Polyarchy............  "
Polybius  ...........,.  "
Polycarp  .............229
Polycletus of Sicyon.....  "
Polycrates............  "
Polydectes (see Perseus) . .  "
Polygamy  ............  "
Polyglot..............230
Polygnotusof Thasus.....231
Polyhalite.............  "
Polyhedron............  "
Polyhistor  ............232
Polyhymnia, or Polymnia  .
Polymignite...........
Polynesia.............
Polynices (see Eteocles, and
  Thebes)............
Polyphemus...........
Polypi................
Polypus..............233
Polytechnics...........234
Polytechnic School.....
Polytheism..........
Polyxena  ............235
Pombal  (Sebastian  Joseph
  Carvalho)...........
Pomegranate..........23T
Pomerania............  "
Pomfret (John).........238
Pomology.............  "
Pompadour (Jeanne Antoi-
  nette Poisson)........  "
 Pompeii..............  "
 Pompey..............239
 Pompey'sPillar(seeColumn) 243
 Pomponius Mela (see Mela)  "
 Ponce de Leon (Juan) ....  "
 Pondicherry...........  "
 Pongo (see Ape)........  "
 Poniatowski (family  of) . ..  "
Ponta  Delgada  (see  Mi-
  chael's, St.).........
Pontchartrain..........
Ponte-Corvo (town)  .....
           , Prince of, (see
            Charles XIV)
Pontifex .
Pontifical.............
Pontificalibus (see In Pontifi-
  calibus).............
Pontificate............
Pontine Marshes........
Ponton, or Pontoon......
Pontoppidan (Eric)......
Pontus (country of Asia Mi-
        nor)...........
   ---(in mythology)  . . ,.
   ---Euxinus........
244
245
246
247
Pooh................
Poolo................
Poor, Poora..........
Poor's Rate...........
Pootra...............
Popayan..............
Pope (Alexander).......
— (head  of the  Roman
     church) ...........
Popish Plot............
Poplar................
Popocatapetl...........
Poppy .
     latic
Population (Policy of) . .
Porcelain...........
        Clay (see Clay)
261
262
Pore i a
Porcupine............
Pordenone  ..........
Porosity............
Porphyry (in mineralogy)
         (a philosopher)
264
265
Porpoise
Porpora (Nicol6)........
Porsenna.............
Porson (Richard)........
Port (wine)  ...........
----(a harbor).........
----(larboard side) .  i. . . .
----, or Port Hole......
Port-au-Prince (see Port Re-
  publicain)..........
Port Jackson   (see   New
      South  Wales,  and
      Sydney) ........
----Mahon (see Mahon) . .
----Republicain........
----Royal  ...........
          des Champs . ..
268
Portage
Portamento di Voce  .....
Portcullis.............
Porte, Ottoman, or Sublime
  Porte..............
Porter (sir Robert Ker) . . .
      (a malt liquor)
Porto Cabello, or Puerto Ca-
        bello ..........270*
      Rico  (see Appendix,
        end of this vol.) . .  "
      Santo (see Madeira)   "
Ports Cinque  (see  Cinque
  Ports)..............  "
Portsmouth  (town  in Eng-
            land).......  "
           (town  in  New
             Hampshire)  . 271
Portugal  .............  "
-------, History of.....274
Portuguese  Language  and
  Literature...........282
Portumnus............288
Poseidon (see Neptune) ...  "
Posen, or Posnania......  "
Posidonius............  "
Posilippo (see Pausilippo).  . 2891
Position (see Prosody)....  "
Posse Comilatus........  "
Posselt (Ernest Louis) ....  "
Possessed.....>...._...  "
Pest-Captain (see Captain)  .  "
Postern  ..............  "
Posts................  "
Postulate.............298
Potash...............  "
Potato...............-302
Potemkin (Gregory Alexan-
  drowitsch) . ..........303
Pothier (Robert Joseph) ... 305
Potocki (Polish family)....  "
Potomac.............306
Potosi...............  "
Pot-pourri.............307
Potsdam..............  '*■
Potter, de (see Netherlands.
  in the Appendix at the end
  ofthe work)..........  "
Potter (John)..........  "
-----Robert).........  "
       Paul)
308
Portici (see Naples, and Her-
  culaneum)...........
Portico...............
Portiuncula  (see   Francis-
  cans)  ..............
Portland (duke of)......
        (town in Maine) .  .
-------Stone.........
         Vase
269
270
Potter's Clay (see Clay). .
Pottery .............
Potwallopers (see Preston)
Poudre de Succession  ....  "
Pougens (Marie Charles Jo-
  seph de)............309
Poughkeepsie..........  "
Poultices (see Cataplasms).  "
Pounce.............,  "
Pound...............  "
Poursuivant...........  "
Poussin (Nicholas).......310
-—--(Gaspar) .......  "
Powder of Succession (see
  Poudre de Succession) .  . 311
Power (in arithmetic).....  "
       (in law).........  "
       (in mechanics).....  '*
       Looms.........  .  "
       of a Glass .......  "
Porto (see Oporto),
----- Bello.....
Powers, Great (of Europe).
Powhatan.............  "
Pownall (Thomas)......  "
Poyais...............  "
Pozzo di Borgo (count) . .. 312
Pozzolana............  "
Pozzuoli..............  "
Prado (see Madrid)......  "■
Pradon (Jean Nicolas). ...  "
Pradt  (Dominique  Dufour
  de)................  " 
CONTENTS.
609
Praetor, Praetorians (see Pre-
  tor, Pretorians).......313
Praga...............  "
Pragmatic  Sanction  (see
  Sanction, Pragmatic)  ... 314
Prague...............  "
Prairial (see  Calendar,  vol.
  ii. page 403).........  "
Prairie...............  "
Prase (sec Quartz)......315
Prater...............  "
Praxiteles.............  "
Prayer (Attitudes of).....  "
Preadamites...........  "
Prebend..............  "
Preble (Edward)....'....  "
Precession of  the Equinoxes 316
Precious Stones (see Gems) 317
Precipitation  (see Cohesion)  "
Predestination  (see  Grace,
  and Calvin)..........  "
Prefectures............  "
Pregnancy............319
Prehnite..............320
Prelate   ..............  "
Premises (see Syllogism) . .  "
Premium (see Bounty)  ...  "
Premonstratenses.......  "
Preposition............321
Prerogative   Court   (see
  Court, division Ecclesias-
  tical Courts) ■.........  "
Prerogatives  of the King of
  Engiand(see Great Britain)  "
Presburg   ............  "
Presbyterians  ..........  "
Prescott (Oliver)........322
-------(William).......  "
Prescription............324
President.............  "
Press, Correction of the (see
        Correction of  the
        Press).........325
-----, Laws  of (see Press,
        Liberty of the)  ...  "
-----(Liberty ofthe) ....  "
Press of Sail...........326
Press-Gang ...........  "
Press, Printing (see Printing)  "
Prester John...........  "
Presto...............327
Preston (town in England) .  "
-------(Thomas).......  "
-------, Captain (see the ar-
  ticle Adams, John).....  "
Preston-Pans..........  "
Pretender  (see  Edward,
  Charles;   and   Stuart,
  James Edward Francis) .  "
Pretor...............  "
Pretorians  ............328
PrCtres   Insermentcs  (see
  Priests, Non-juring) ....  "
Prevesa..............
Preville (Pierre Louis Dubus
  de) ...............  "
Prevost  d'Exiles  (Antoine
  Francois) ...........
Prevdt,  Cours Prev6tales .  . 329
Priam...............
Priapus..............  "
Price (Richard).........330
---- (see Value).......  "
Prickly Pear...........
Prideaux (Humphrey) ....
Priestley (Joseph).......331,
Priests...............332
------, Non-juring, or Pre"-
  tres Insermentes.......  "
Primage..............334
Primary (see Ornithology)  .  "
    ■  ■  Rocks (see Geolo-
  gy) ................  "
Primate..............  "
Primaticcio (Francesco)  . .  "
Prime  Minister, or Premier
        (see Minister)  ...  "
------ Numbers........  "
------Vertical .. .......  "
------Verticals (in dialling)  "
Primer...............  "
Primogeniture..........  "
Primrose  .............335
Primum Mobile.........336
Prince Edward's Island (see
  John's, St.)..........  "
Prince of Wales's Island . .  "
Prince  Regent's Inlet (see
  North Polar Expeditions)  "
Prince's Metal  .........  "
Princes of the Blood.....  "
Princeton.............  "
Principal (in criminal law)  .  "
Printer's Ink (see Ink) ....  "
Printing (Art of)........  "
Prior (in monasteries)  .... 340
---- (Matthew) ........  "
Priscian (see Philology) . . . 341
Prism (in geometry).....  "
  Prism (in optics).......342
Prismatic  Spectrum   (see
  Colors).............  "
Prison Discipline........  "
Privateer.............350
Privet...............351
Privilege.............  "
Privy Council in Great Brit-
  ain  ................  "
Prize................  "
Probabilists............366
Probability............  "
Probate Courts (see Courts,
  vol. iii. p.  601).......  "
Process (tonus of the civil)  "
Procession............368
Procession of the Holy Ghost
  (see Creed,  and Ghost,
  Holy)..........----  "
Procida, Giovanni  di  (see
  Sicilian Vespers)......  "
Proconsul and  Propretor  . .  "
Procopius.............369
Procris...............  "
Procrustes............  "
Proctor..............  "
Procurator...........  "
Procureur General, Procu-
  reur du Roi (see Advo-
  cate of the Crown).....  "
Prodicus (see Sophists) ...  "
Production  (see  Political
  Economy)..........  "
Proetus...............  "
Profane..............  "
Professed (see Jesuits) ....  "
Profession.............  "
Profile...............  "
Progne, Procne (see Philo-
  mela)  ..............370
Prognosis.............  "
Progression...........370
Prohibitive System (see Po-
  litical Economy).......371
Projectile.............  "
Projection............  "
Projection of the  Sphere .  .  "
Prolegomena..........  "
Prologue.............  "
Prometheus...........  "
Promissory Note (see Bill of
  Exchange)...........372
Pronoun..............  "
Pronuba (see Juno)......  "
Prony (Gaspard Clair Fran-
  cois Marie Riche de)  ...  "
Proof (see Evidence).....  "
-----Impression  (see Im-
  pression,  and  Avant  la
  Lettre).............  "
Propaedeutics..........  "
Propaganda...........373
Proper Names  (see Names)  "
Propertius   (Sextus Aure-
  lius) ...............  "
Property, Literary (see Lite-
  rary Property, and Copy-
  right) ..........-. . . .  "
Prophets.............  "
Propolis (see Bee, vol. ii. p.
  30)................374
Propontis.............  "
Proportion............  "
Propretor (see Proconsul)  . 375,
Propylaea.............  "
Prorogation............  "
Proscenium............  "
Prose................  "
Proselyte.............376
Proserpine............  "
Prosody..............377
Prosopopoeia (see Personifi-
  cation)  .............378
Protagoras............  "
Protector (Cardinal).....  "
---------, Lord (see Crom-
             well) .......  "
--------- of Slaves.....  "
----■----- of the Confeder-
  ation ofthe Rhine  (see Na-
  poleon, and Confederation
  ofthe Rhine).........  "
Protesilaus............  "
Protest...............  "
Protestantism..........379
Proteus..............  "
Protheeite  ............  "
Protocol..............  "
Protogenes............380
Protractor   ............  "
Provencal Poets........  "
Provence  .............381
Proverbs  .............  "
--------, Book of (see Solo-
  mon) ...............382
Providence  (city  in Rhode
             Island).....  "
----------, or  New Provi-
             dence  (one of
             the Bahamas). 385
—^——— Plantations (see
  New England and Provi-
  dence) .............  "
Province..............  "
Provost...............  "
  Provost Marshal  ......  " 
610
CONTENTS.
Prudhon (Pierre Paul)____385
Prunes (see Plums)......386
Prussia..............  "
  Administration of Justice
    in Prussia..........391
  Prussian Code........393
  Prussia Proper........  "
Prussian  Blue  (see  Blue,
  Prussian,   and  Prussic
  Acid) ..............  "
Prussic Acid...........  "
Pruth  ................396
Prynne (William).......  "
Prytaneum............397
Psalm................  "
Psalmanazar (George) .... 398
Psalmody.............399
Psalter...............  "
Psaltery..............  "
Psammeticus (see Egypt)  .  "
Psara, or Ipsara........  "
Pseudo...............  "
Pseudo-Demetrius (see Rus-
  sia) ................  "
Pseudo-Isidore (see Isidore,
  Decretals, and Popes). . .  "
Psyche..............  "
Psychology............400
Ptolemaic System (see Sys-
   tem ofthe Universe) .... 401
Ptolemais (see Acre).....  "
Ptolemy (the name of thir-
         teen Greco-Egyp-
         tian kings)......  "
——^— (or     Ptolemaeus,
        Claudius).......  "
 Puberty ..............  "
 Public Debt............402
-----Lands..........  "
-----Stock  ..........408
   English Stocks........409
   French Rentes and Pub-
     lic Certificates   .....410
   Austrian Stocks.......411
   Prussian Stocks.......413
   Russian Stocks........414
   Dutch Stocks.........415
   Neapolitan Stocks.....416
   Spanish Stocks  .......   "
   Danish Stocks........417
   Norwegian Stocks.....   "
   Stocks of the German Con-
     federation  .........   "
   United States Stocks  ...   "
   South American Stocks .. 419
 Puck (see Mab).........420
 Pudding  Stone (see Sand-
   stone) ..............   "
 Puddling Furnaces (see Iron,
   vol. vii. p. 72)........   "
 Puebla La, or La Puebla de
   los Angeles......■. . . .   "
 Pufendorf (Samuel) ..----   "
 Puffin................421
 Pugatscheff<Jameljan) .... 422
 Puget (Pierre).........   "
 Pugilism (see Gymnastics) .  "
 Puglia (see Apulia)......   "
 Pulawski (count-Joseph) ..  "
 Pulci (Luigi)...........   "
 Pulcinella (see Punchinello)  423
 Pulley (see Mechanics)  ...   "
 Pulmonary Consumption ..   "
 Pulo Pinang (see Prince  of
   Wales's Island).......424
Pulque, or Oclli........424
Pulse................  "
Pultawa, or Poltawa.....425
Pulteney (William)......  "
Puma  ...............426
Pumice (see Pitchstone) ...  "
Pump................  "
Pumpernickel  ..........427
Pumpkin..............  "
Pun.................  "
Punch (see  Punchinello, and
  Puppet Shows).......  "
Puncheon........-.....  "
Punchinello, or Punch  ....  "
Punctuation,  or  Interpunc-
  tion................  "
Pundit (see Pandit)......428
Punic................  "
Pupa (see  Papilio, and  In-
  sects)  ..............  "
Pupil (see Eye).........  "'
Puppet Shows..........  "
Puranas (see  Indian Litera-
  ture, vol. vi. p. 563) ....
Purcell (Henry)  ........  "
Purchas (Samuel).......429
Purchase.............
Purgatory............
Puritans.............430
             ...........431
Purple
Grackle (see Black-
 bird) ..........432
of Cassius (see Tin)
Pyroxene (see Augite) .... 439
Pyroxylic Spirit  ........   "
Pyrrha (see Deucalion)  . . . 440
Pyrrhichius (see Rhythm). .   "
Pyrrho...............   "
Pyrrhus..............   "
Pyrrhus II............441
Pythagoras............   "
Pythagorean Lvre    ~)
   —-----Table   £• (see
   --------Theorem S
Purse
Purslane..............  "
Pursuivant (see Poursuivant)  "
Puteoli...............  "
Putnam (Israel).........  "
Putrefaction (see  Decompo-
  sition, Fermentation, and
  Adipocire)...........434
Potter (John Stephen) ....  "
Putty (in the arts).......  "
-----(paste)..........  "
Puy de Dome (see Cevennes,
  and Barometer).......  "
Puzzolana (see  Pozzolana,
  and Cement).........  "
Pygmalion............  "
Pygmy.
Pvlade
Pylades..............  "
Pylos................  "
Pym (John)  ...........  "
Pyrallolite............  "
Pyramid (in geometry)  ...
Pyramids (in architecture) .
        , Battle of the (see
  Pythagoras)..........445
Pythia. and Pythonissa (see
  Delphi)............. "
Pythian Games........ "
Pythias (see Damon)..... "
Python.............. "


             a

Q (letter).............446
Qnadi................ "
Quadra,  and  Vancouver's
  Isle............... "
Quadragesima (see Lent).  . "
Quadrans............ "
Quadrant............. "
-------, Gunter's (see Gun-
  ter's Quadrant)........447
Quadrat..............  "
Quadratic  Equations   (see
  Equations)  ..........  "
Quadratrix............  "
Quadrature ...........  "
Quadrivium (see Schools)  .  "
Quadrupeds...........  "
Quadruple and  Quintuple
  Alliance............  "
Quaestor (see Questor) . . . 443
Quagga...............  "
QuaH................  "
Quakers..............449
Quand meme..........452
Quantity and Quality.....  "
  -----, in verse(see Pros-
  ody) ...............  "
Qoantz (John Joachim) ...  "
Quarantine............  "
Quarles (Francis).......  "
Quartan Ague (see Fever) . 453
Quarter..............  "
        (in heraldry).....  "
435
437
  Egypt, Campaign in)
Pyramus (see Thisbe) ....  "
Pyrenees .............  "
-------, Lower ;   Upper
          Pyrenees; East-
          ern Pyrenees (see
          Department) ...  "
         (Peace of the)
Pyrites
438
Quarter ofa Point.......  "
Quarter (of a ship).......  "
        Master.........  "
Quartering
Quarters..............  "
Quarter    Sessions    (see
  Courts, vol. iii. p. 589) . .  u
Quartering of Soldiers ....  "
Quarteroons...........  "
Quartetto.............  "
Quartz ..............  "
Quassia  ..............457
Quatrain  .............458
Quatre-Bras and Ligny (Bat-
  tles of) .............  "
Quatremere-de-Quincy (An-
  toine Chrysostome).....460
Quatuordecimians.......  "
Quebec...............  "
Quedlinburg...........461
I Queen
Pyrmont..............   "
Pyrochlore............   "
Pyroligneous Acid (see Vine-
  gar)...............   "
Pyrometer............   "
Pyrophorus............   "
Pyrophysalite (see Topaz) .4391
Pyrosmalite............   «  Queen's  College  (see New
Pyrotechny............   "I   Brunswicfc,in New Jersey) 461 
CONTENTS.
611
Quercitron.............462
Queretaro.............  "
Quesnay (Francis)......  "
Questors  .............  "
Quevedo-Villegas (don Fran-
  cisco de) ...........  "
Qui vive..............463
Quiberon.............  "
Quick or Quickset Hedge .  "
Quicklime (see Lime, vol.vii.
  page 554J...........  "
Quickset Hedge (see Quick-
  Hedge) .............  "
Quicksilver (see Mercury)    "
Quietism............,  "
Quills................464
Quilting..............  "
Quin (James)..........  "
Quina, or Quinina ......465
Quinault (Philippe)......  "
Quince...............466
Quinctilianus (see Quintilia-
  nus)...............  "
Quincunx.............  "
Quincy  (town)..........  "
-----(Josiah, junior)....  "
———,  Quatremere de (see
  Quatremere).........467
Quindecagon..........  "
Quinine  (see  Quina, and
  Bark, Peruvian).......  "
Quinipiack(see New Haven)  "
Quinquagesima.........  "
Quinquets.............  "
Quinsy...............  "
Quintane.............  "
Quintessence..........  "
Quintetto, or Quintett ....  "
Quintilianus,  or  Quinctilia-
  nus (Marcus Fabius) ....  "
Quintuple  Alliance   (see
  Quadruple Alliance) .... 468
Quintus Calaber, or  Smyr-
  naeus...............  "
Quipos...............  "
Quirinus...............  "
Quiroga .(Antonio).......  "
Quit-Claim............469
—— Rent.............  "
Quito...............  "
----(city of Colombia)  ..  "
Quixote,don (see Cervantes)  "
Quodlibet.............  "
Quorum..............  "
Quotient.............  "

            R.

R (letter).............470
Raab................471
Rabanus Maurus Magnentius  ''
Rabaut  de St. Etienne (John
  Paul)  ..............  "
Rabbanists, or  Rabbinists,
  also Talmudists (see Jews,
  and Talmud)  ........  "
Rabbeting.............  "
Rabbi...............  "
Rabbinical Language and
  Literature...........  "
Rabbit...............472
Rabelais (Francois)......  "
Rabener (Gottlieb William)  473
Raccoon..............  "
Raceme...........     474
Races...............474
----of Men (see Man)  . . 475
Racine (Jean)......... "
Rack (see Arack, and Tor-
  ture) ............... "
Radcliffe (Ann)......... "
-------(John).........476
Radical Reformers (see Re-
  form, Parliamentary).... "
Radish............... "
Radius (see Diameter).... "
Raffle................ "
Raffaello (see Raphael) ... "
Raffles (sir Thomas Stam-
  ford)................ "
Rafflesia..............477
Raft................ "
RaRers.............. "
Ragotski (Francis)...... "
Rags................. "
Ragusa............... "
------, Duke  of (see Ma/-
  mont).............. "
Raik (see Caliph, vol. ii* p.
  411)...............478
Raikes (Robert)......... "
Rail-Ways............ "
Rain  ................503
Raingauge, or  Pluviometer 505
Rajah................506
Rajasthan............. "
Rajpootana (see Rajasthan)  "
Rake................ "
Raking..............  "
Raleigh, or Ralegh (sir Wal-
         ter)  .......... "
------(city)..........508
Rallentando, also Ritardan-
  do, or Lentando  ......  "
Ralph (James)........ "
Ram, Battering (see Batter-
  ing Ram)............ "
Ramberg (John Henry) ... "
Rambouillet  ........... "
Rameau (Jean  Philippe) . . ■'
Ramillies............509
Ramler (Charles  William) . "
Rammelsberg (see Hartz)  . "
Rammer.............. "
Rammohun Roy........ "
Rampant.............510
Ramsay (David, M. D.) . . . "
------(Allan)........511
Ramsden (Jesse)........512
Ramsgate............ "
Ramus (Peter)......... "
Rana................ "
Ranee (see Trappe,La) . . . 513
Randolph (Peyton)...... "
Randolph Macon  College . . 514
Ranelagfh Rotunda and Gar-
  dens.............. "
Range..............._"
Ranger...............515
Rangoon.............. "
Rank............... "
----(in war)  .......... "
Ranunculus........... "
Ranz des Vaches....... "
Raoul-Rochette (Desire)... 516
Rape............... "
Rape Cake (see  Rape, and
  Manure)............ "
Raphael, or Raffaello San-
  zio, or de' Santi)....... "
Rapin de Thoyras(Paul)  . . 520
Rapp (John, count of) ... .  "
----(George and Frederic) 521
Rappahannock .........  "
Raritan...............  "
Ras..................  "
Rascians, orRaitzcn.....  "
Rash____:...........  "
Rask (Erasmus Christian) ..  "
Raspberry............  "
Rastadt  ..............623
Rat..................  »
Ratafia (see Liqueur).....524
Ratan................  "
Rate................  "
Ratel................  "
Ration............... 525
Rationalism............  "
Ratisbon..............  "
Ratlines..............  "
Rattan (see Ratan)  .....  "
Rattany, or Ratanhia Root   "
Rattlesnake...........  "
Rauch (Christian).......526
Raucourt (Sophia)  ......  "
Raumer  (Frederic   Louis
  George von).........  "
Raupach (Ernest Benjamin
  Solomon)............527
Ravaillac (Francis)......  "
Ravelin..............  "
Raven (see Crow).......  "
Ravenna .............  "
Rawdon, Lord (see Hastings,
  Francis)............  "
Ray  (a fish)...........  "
---(see Optics)........528
---  (John) ...........  "
Raynal (Guillaume Thomas
  trancois)............  "
Raynouard  (Francois Juste
  Marie)..............  "
Razee...............  "
Razors (sec Cutlery).....  "
Re, or Ri.............529
Reaction (see Mechanics) ..  "
Read (George).........  "
Real (Pierre Francois) ....  "
Real.................530
----(see Rial)  ........  "
Real Injuria (see Injuria)  . .  "
Realgar (see Arsenic) ....  "
Realism.(see Real)......  "
Realist...............  "
Realists..............  "
Rearguard............  "
Reaumur   (Rene  Antome
  Ferchault de) ........  "
Recife................  "
Recitative............  "
Reckoning,  in  navigation
  (see Navigation).......531
Recognizance..........  "
Recoil, or Rebound.....  "
Reconnoitre  ..........  "
Recorder.............532
Rectangular Figures  and
  Solids..............  "
Red  Bay (see Laurel) ....  "
Red  Book of the Exchequer  "
Red  Bud..............  "
Red-Breast (see Redbreast,
  page 533) ..........  "
Red  Cedar (see Juniper)  ..  "
Red  River............  " 
612
CONTENTS.
Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf.  533
Redbreast.............  "
Redemption, Equity of (see
  Equity of Redemption) . .  "
Redemptorists..........  "
Rcdondillas............  "
Redoubt..............  "
Redtop..............  "
Reed (a plant)  .........534
----(Joseph)..........  "
Reed-Bird  (see Rice-Bunt-
  ing) ................535
Reef.................  "
Reefing..............  "
Reel.................  "
Reeling (see Silk Manufac-
  ture!  ...............  "
Rees (Abraham)........  "
Reeve (Clara)  ........  "
Reeving..............  "
Reference (see Arbitration)   "
Reflection (see Optics) ....  "
Reflectors (see Burning Mir-
  rors) ...............536
Reform, Parliamentary (see
  the end of the concluding
  volume).............  "
Reformation...........  "
Reformed Church.......547
--------, Dutch........549
Refraction (Double).....  "
Refractor, or Refracting Tel-
  escope (see Telescope) . . 550
Refuge (Cities of).......  "
Refugees.............  "
Regalia..............   "
Regardant............551
Regatta..............   "
Regensburg (see Ratisbon) .  "
Regent  ......  .......  "
Reggio (see Modena)  ....   "
-----,  Duke of (see Oudi-
  not)  ...............  "
Regiment.............  "
Regiomontanus.........  "
Regius Professors.......552
Regnard (John Francis)...   "
Regnier (Mathurin)......   "
------Desmarais  (Fran-
          9ois Seraphim). .   "
Regular..............   "
Regulator of a Watch  ....   "
Regulus (Marcus Attilius)..   "
Regulus (in Chemistry)  .  . . 553
Reichardt (John Frederic)  .
Reichenbach   (George of).
----------,  Congress and
             Convention  of
             (see Congress) 554
Reichenberg...........
Reichenhall............
Reichstadt (Duke of).....
Reid (Thomas).........
Reil (John Christian).....555
Reindeer (see Deer)  .....
Reinecke (see Renard)....
Reinhard (Francis Volkmar)
Reinhold (Charles Leonard)
Reinsurance...........
Reis Effendi (see Effendi).  .
Reiske (John James).....
Reka  ...............556
Relation..............
Relegatio ............
Relics...............
Relief (see Relievo)  .....
-----(in law)..........
Relievo  ..............
Religion..............557
------(Established, or Re-
  ligion ofthe State)  .....558
Religious..............  "
-------Liberty, or Liberty
          of Conscience . .  "
-------Peace (see Peace,
  Religious)............  "
Remainder............  "
Remains, Organic (see  Or-
  ganic Remains, and Geol-
  ogy) ...............  "
Rembrandt van Rhyn(Paul)  "
Remonstrants (see Armini-
  ans, and Arminius)  .... 559
Rcmschid ............  "
Remus (see Romulus)  ....  "
Remusat  (Jean Pierre Abel)  "
Renard the Fox.........560
Rendezvous...........  "
Reni, Guido (see Guido Re-
  ni)...............  "
Rennel (John)..........  "
Rennes...............  "
Rennie (John)..........  "
Rente................561
Repnin (prince).........  "
Representative Governments  "
Representatives, House of
  (see Congress of the Unit-
  ed States).......... 561
Reproduction  (sec  Micro-
  scopical Animals)......  "
Reptiles..............  "
Republics (see Political In-
  stitutions, and Politics)..  . 563
Repulse Bay (see North Po-
  lar Expeditions) .......  "
Requeues (see Maitre) ....  "
Requiem.............  "
Reservation (mental).....  "
Reserve..............  "
Residence (see Domicil, Ap-
  pendix to vol. iv.)......  "
Resin................  "
Respiration............564
Restitutio in Integrum ....  "
Restorateur...........  "
Restoration............  "
Resurrection...........565
Resuscitation (see  Drown-
  ing) ...............  "
Reticulated  Walls (see Ar-
  chitecture, vol. i. p. 335) .  "
Retina...............  "
Retort...............  "
Retrenchment..........  "
Retrocession ofthe Equinox-
  es (see Precession of the
  Equinoxes)..........  "
Retz (Jean Francois Paul de
  Gondi)..............  "
Retzsch (Maurice).......566
Reuchlin (John).........  "
Reuss................567
Revel, or Reval........568
Revelliere-Lepaux   (Louis
  Marie la)............  "



Appendix  ............569
  Napoleon............  "
  Perry (Oliver Hazard) . . 593
  Philosophy...........595
            English......597
            German......600
            French____.. 602
  Pergolesi (Giovanni Battis-
    ta)................604
  Porto Rico...........  <' 
 
 

. •
+ * 1
**v
« *>


*&£•*








 


fyf


'jfr.'Sf^S
r'fi* Safe*:;
■ :  ;'r^rS-.-.'  ■"
:.-.x: u™:- '^
im
1   ^m
'^%.
..$&■■■