y. ^ I i^ & >? ** &? '■> .4"%. ^ %4" 'A I s EXAMINATIONS ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY; BEING A COMPLETE SERIES OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS; DESIGNED AND INTENDED AS PREPARATORY TO EXAMINATIONS AT THE DIFFERENT MEDICAL SCHOOLS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES; AND FOR THOSE WHO ARE ABOUT TO PRESENT THEMSELVES BEFORE THE ARMY AND NAVAL BOARDS : TO WHICtt A»E ANNEXED, Stables of ttje JSoncs, Jttusclies, ant> grterfes. By THOMAS SYDENHAM BRYANT, M. D., SURGEON V. S. ARMY. PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR: AND SOLD BY JOHN Y. BRYANT, \\<2 CHESTNUT ST., AND OTHER BOOKSELLERS. 1835. <■ • lailtereTi according to &rt of ©onflress, in the year 1835, by Thomas Sydenham Bryant, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. HASWELL AND HARRINGTON, PRINTERS. DEDICATION. TO WILLIAM E. HORNER, M. D., PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 'ear Sir : To whom can I better dedicate this Volume than you, whose talents, industry, and untiring devotion the science of Anatomy have raised you to the high d honourable situation you now fill ? Your kind and affectionate deportment towards myself requires this at my hands. That you may continue for many years to occupy and adorn the station to which you have been called; and that prosperity and happiness may ever attend you, is the sincere prayer of Your devoted friend, and most obedient servant, Thomas Sydenham Bryant. TO MEDICAL STUDENTS. As a Preface is seldom read, and very often of no utility whatever, I shall not in the present work trou- ble you with one : I will only say, that it has been compiled from the best authors, and that I have be- stowed much time and labour on it. It is a work that has long been wanted by students, as the most intricate subjects are illustrated in the familiar style of question and answer. It is also an excellent book of reference for the practitioner. That it may meet your approbation, and be of essential ser- vice to you in the prosecution of your studies, is the sincere wish of Your most obedient servant, Thomas Sydenham Bryant. 1* ANATOMICAL EXAMINATIONS. SECTION I. OF ANATOMY IN GENERAL. Ques. 1. What is Anatomy? Ans. Anatomy is that science which teaches the struc- ture of the human body. Ques. 2. What is morbid anatomy ? Ans. Morbid anatomy explains the alterations in the structure of the body which are induced by disease. Ques. 3. What is Physiology? Ans. Physiology is that science which teaches us the functions of the body, or the uses of its parts. Ques. 4. What is the general division of the compo- nent parts of the human body ? Ans. They are divided into solids and fluids. Ques. 5. Enumerate the solids of the body. Ans. The solids are the bones, cartilages, ligaments, muscles, cellular substance, membranes, vessels, nerves, glands, viscera, adipose substance, &c. Ques. 6. What are bones ? Ans. Bones are the most hard and inflexible parts of the body ; affording support and protection to all the rest. Ques. 7. What are cartilages ? 8 Ans. Cartilages are the polished, elastic substances covering the ends of bones ; and, excepting these, harder than any other parts. Ques. 8. What are ligaments ? Ans. Ligaments, though fine and inelastic, are flexible bodies connecting bones. Ques. 9. What are muscles ? Ans. Muscles are bundles of red, soft, and contractile fibres; the white, hard, and inelastic terminations of which are called tendons ; when in the form of cords, aponeuroses, or fascia, or when expanded as membranes. Ques. 10. What is the cellular membrane ? Ans. Cellular membrane is a tissue of interwoven membranes. Ques. 11. What are membranes ? Ans. Membranes are sheets of interwoven fibres. Ques. 12. What are vessels ? Ans. Vessels are long, cylindrical, and flexible tubes, dividing and subdividing into smaller branches. They are of three kinds ; 1st, arteries ; 2d, veins ; 3d, lym- phatics. Ques. 13. What are nerves ? Ans. Nerves are bundles of small white cords, pro- ceeding to or from the brain and spinal marrow. Ques. 14. What are glands ? Ans. Glands are distinct bodies formed by a peculiar arrangement of arteries, veins, lymphatics, and nerves, in a cellular parenchyma. There are two kinds of glands : —conglomerate and conglobate. The conglobate are for a peculiar secretion, as the salival glands. The conglo- merate are appendages of the absorbent system. Ques. 15. What are the viscera ? Ans. The viscera are complicated organs, somewhat loosely contained in the cavities of the body ; such as the stomach, liver, &c. Quest. 16. What is the adipose substance ? 9 Ans. The adipose substance consists of a cellular sub- stance, within whose interstices an oleaginous fluid is deposited. Ques. 17. Enumerate the fluids of the human body. Ans. The fluids of the body are the blood, perspirable matter, urine, sebaceous matter, animal oil, ceruminous matter, saliva, tears, mucus, bile, gastric juice, semen, synovia, pancreatic juice, milk, chyle, &c. Ques. 18. What is blood ? Ans. The blood is a fluid which circulates through the veins and arteries, which supplies the body with nutri- ment, and from which all its other fluids are secreted. Ques. 19. What is the urine ? Ans. The urine is a fluid which is secreted by the kidneys. Ques. 20. What is perspirable matter ? Ans. The perspirable matter is a fluid exhaled from the minute vessels of the skin. Ques. 21. What is ceruminous matter? Ans. The cerumen is a fluid secreted by the cerumin- ous glands of the meatus auditorius externus. Ques. 22. What is sebaceous matter? Ans. The sebaceous matter is a soapy fluid secreted by the sebaceous glands of the skin. Ques. 22. What is animal oil ? Ans. Animal oil is the oleaginous fluid which,occupies the cells of the adipose substance and the internal cavities of the bones, where it is called the medullary substance or marrow. Ques. 23. What is saliva? Ans. Saliva is a fluid secreted by the salival glands of the mouth. Ques. 24. What are the tears ? Ans. The tears are a fluid secreted by the lachrymal gland in each orbit. Ques. 25. What is the bile ? 10 Ans. Bile is a fluid secreted by the liver. Ques. 26. What is mucus ? Ans. Mucus is a fluid secreted by the mucous glands of the mouth and nose, &c. Ques. 27. What is the gastric juice ? Ans. The gastric juice is a fluid secreted by the sto- mach. Ques. 28. What is the semen? Ans. Semen is a fluid secreted by the testes, vesiculse, seminales, and prostate gland. Ques. 29. What is the synovia? Ans. Synovia is a fluid which lubricates the surfaces of joints Ques. 30. What is the pancreatic juice ? Ans. Pancreatic juice is a salival fluid secreted by the pancreas. Ques. 31. By what is milk secreted? Ans. Milk is a fluid secreted by the glands of the fe- male breasts. Ques. 32. What is chyle? Ans. Chyle is a milky fluid obtained by digestion from our food, and passing into the blood vessels is there con- verted into blood. Ques. 33. What divisions does the science of anatomy derive from the individual subjects which it considers. Ans. Each kind of solid substance is considered apart; this occasions the division of anatomy into osteology, osteogeny, syndesmology, chondrology, myology, ade- nology, bursalogy, angiology, neurology. Ques. 34. Give the explanation of these terms ? Ans. Osteology treats of the form of perfect bones; osteogeny, of the ossific process or of the growth of bones • syndesmology, of the ligaments; chondrology, 0f the cartilages ; myology, of the muscles, and their appendages —the tendons and aponeuroses ; adenology, of the glands; splanchnology, of the viscera and organs of sense ; bur- 11 salogy, of the bursae mucosa?; angiology, of the vessels ; and neurology, of the nerves. SECTION II. OF THE BONES IN GENERAL. Ques. I. What is the periosteum ? Ans. The periosteum is a membrane which covers the bones every where, and from which they derive their nourishment. Ques. 2. What is the perichondrium ? Ans. The perichondrium is the name given to the pe- riosteum where it passes over cartilages. Ques. 3. What are the uses of the periosteum ? Ans. The periosteum strengthens the union of bones with their epiphyses, affords attachments for ligaments and muscles, permits the muscles to glide smoothly over the bones, and conducts and supports vessels in their pas- sage to the bones. Ques. 4. What is the periosteum internus ? Ans. A delicate membrane which lines the internal cavities of bones. Ques. 5. What is the use of the periosteum internus ? Ans. It forms little sacs to contain the marrow. Ques. 6. What are the general classes of bones ? Ans. Bones are divided into three classes; viz., the 12 long or cylindrical; the broad or flat; and the mixed bones. Ques. 7. What are the epiphyses of bones ? Ans. The name of epiphyses has been given to the extremities and great projections of the bones in the foetus, which at this time are united to the body of the bones by cartilages. Ques. 8. What is the general structure of epiphyses ? Ans. Their internal structure is spongy. Ques. 9. What are the diaphyses of bones ? Ans. The middle portions of the long bones placed between the epiphyses are called diaphyses. Ques. 10. What is the general structure of diaphyses internally ? Ans. Their interior is reticular. Ques. 11. What is the general structure of diaphyses externally ? Ans. Their exterior is compact. Ques. 12. What are the apophyses of bones ? Ans. Apophyses are great projections, or distinct por- tions of bones. Ques. 13. How do apophyses differ from epiphyses ? Ans. They are distinguished from epiphyses in being less easily separable from the bone to which they belong —no layer of cartilages being interposed between them. The epiphyses of the foetus become apophyses in the adult. Ques. 14. What is the intimate structure of all bones ? Ans. Bones consist of a cellular, reticular, and vascular parenchyma ; and of osseous matter deposited in it: their base, therefore, being the same with that of the muscles, nerves, and soft parts of the body. Ques. 15. Are bones formed in fibres, plates, or la- mella? ? Ans. They are not. Ques. 16. Are bones vascular? 13 Ans. They are at all times vascular; but they are more especially so during the ossific process. Ques. 17. Where do their vessels enter ? Ans. By numerous small foramina all over their exter- nal surface. Ques. 18. What is the best demonstration of the vas- cularity of bones ? Ans. Their vascularity is proved by the tinge which they receive in animals with whose food the rubia tinc- torum or madder has been mixed. Some very fine spe- cimens of injection, prepared by Professor Horner, are to be found in the Wistar Museum attached to the University of Pennsylvania. Ques. 19. What is the medulla of bones ? Ans. The medulla is an oleaginous fluid deposited in their internal cells. Ques. 20. How is it secreted ? Ans. It is secreted by minute arteries which ramify upon the sacs of the internal periosteum. Ques. 21. Where do the medullary arteries of bones penetrate them ? Ans. They generally penetrate the bones about their middle by oblique canals. Ques. 22. What is the use of the medulla? Ans. The use of the medulla is not accurately ascer- tained. In Soemmering's opinion it tends to render the bones comparatively lighter. Ques. 23. What names are given to the different parts of bones ? Ans. The external parts of bones are the following: foramina, canals, sinuses, sinuosities, furrows, notches, fossae, pits, glenoid cavities, cotyloid cavities, tubercles, tuberosities, spines, heads, necks, processes, &c. Ques. 24. What are foramina ? Ans. Foramina are holes perforating the substance of 2 14 boness, without leaving any long track within their sub- stance. Ques. 25. What are canals? Ans. Canals are foramina contained within the sub- stance of bones ? Ques. 26. What are sinuses? Ans. Sinuses are great cavities in bones with small openings. Ques. 27. What are sinuosities ? Ans, Sinuosities are superficial, but broad irregular depressions. Ques. 28. What are furrows ? Ans. Furrows are long, narrow, and superficial canals. Ques. 29. What are notches ? Ans. Notches are cavities in the margin of bones. Ques. 30. What are fossae ? Ans. Fossae are deep and large cavities upon their surface. Ques. 31. What are pits ? Ans. Pits are small though deep depressions. Ques. 32. What are glenoid cavities ? Ans. Glenoid cavities are smooth shallow cavities for articulation. Ques. 33. What are cotyloid cavities ? Ans. Cotyloid cavities are deep and smooth for articu- lation. Ques. 34. What are tubercles ? Ans. Tubercles are small eminences. Ques. 35. What are tuberosities ? Ans. Tuberosities are greater, rough elevations. Ques. 36. What are spines 1 Ans. Spines are long projections. Ques. 37. What are heads ? Ans. Heads are the round tops of bones. Ques, 38. What are necks ? 15 Ans. Necks are the narrow portions of bones beneath their heads. Ques. 39. What are processes ? Ans. Processes are projecting portions of bones. SECTION III. OF ARTICULATION IN GENERAL. Ques. 1. What is the articulation of bones ? Ans. The connexion of bones with each other is called articulation : which is divided into three classes. Ques. 2. What are the general classes of articulation? Ans. The general classes of articulations are symphy- sis, synarthrosis, and diarthrosis. Ques. 3. What is symphysis ? Ans. Symphysis expresses the substance connecting bones. Ques. 4. What is synarthrosis ? Ans. Synarthrosis expresses the immoveable connexion of bones. Ques. 5. What is diarthrosis ? Ans. Diarthrosis means the moveable connexion of bones. Ques. 6. What are the subdivisions of symphysis ? Ans. Symphysis is subdivided into synostosis, syndes- mosis, synchondrosis, and syssarcosis. 16 Ques. 7. What are the genera of synarthrosis 1 Ans. Synarthrosis is subdivided into suture, harmonis, schindylesis and gomphosis. Ques. 8. What are the genera of diarthrosis ? Ans. Diarthrosis is subdivided into enarthrosis, arthro- dia, amphiarthrosis, and ginglymus. Ques. 9. What is synostosis ? Ans. Synostosis means the conjunction of bones by osseous matter; as that of the sphenoid and occipital. Ques. 10. What is syndesmosis ? Ans. It expresses conjunction by ligaments as in all moveable joints. Ques. 11. What is synchondrosis? Ans. Synchrondrosis expresses conjunction by carti- lage ; as that of the ribs and sternum. Ques. 12. What is syssarcosis ? Ans. Syssarcosis expresses conjunction by muscles; as in all moveable joints. Ques. 13. What is syneurosis ? Ans. Syneurosis expresses conjunction by membranes ; as that of the radius and ulna. Ques. 14. What is meant by suture ? Ans. Suture expresses conjunction by indented mar- gins ; as that of the two parietal bones. Ques. 15. What is meant by harmonia? Ans. It expresses conjunction by straighter margins ; as that of the ossa nasi. Ques. 16. What is meant by schindylesis ? Ans. It is that articulation where the spine of one bone is received into the furrow of another ; as the vomer re- ceives the azygos process of the sphenoid bone. Ques. 17. What is gomphosis ? Ans. It is that conjunction by which the teeth are placed in the sockets. Ques. 18. What is enarthrosis ? Ans. It expresses the reception of the head of one bone 17 by a deep cavity in another; as the acetabulum receives the head of the femur. Ques. 19. What is arthrodia? Ans. Arthrodia expresses the reception of the head of one bone by a superficial cavity of another; as the gle- noid cavity of the scapula receives the head of the hu- merus. Ques. 20. What is amphiarthrosis ? Ans. It expresses conjunction of bones by plain sur- faces ; as those of the cuneiform and metatarsal bones. Ques. 21. What is meant by ginglymus articulation? Ans. Ginglymus expresses the hinge-like articulation ; as that of the elbow joint, of which there are three kinds ; namely, ginglymus simplex, ginglymus compositus; and ginglymus trochoides. Ques. 22. What is ginglymus simplex ? Ans. Ginglymus simplex is that species where corre- sponding, elevated, and depressed surfaces constitute one joint; as that of the elbow. Ques. 23. What is ginglymus compositus ? Ans. It is that species where two different hinge-like joints serve one purpose; as in the articulation of the radius and ulna. Ques. 24. What is ginglymus trochoides ? Ans. It is that species where one bone turns round the point of another; as the atlas moves upon the process of the dentata. 2*' 18 SECTION IV. OF OSTEOGENY. Ques. 1. What is the name of that division of anatomy which treats of the growth of bones ? Ans. Osteogeny. Ques. 2. How are bones formed ? Ans. They are formed by the deposition of ossific matter, either in membranes or cartilage. Ques. 3. What are the constituent parts of bones ? Ans. Their constituent parts are a cellular and vascular parenchyma, and a phosphate of lime with other saline combinations. Ques. 4. What are the phenomena of ossification ? Ans. Ossification is thus effected: the arteries of the part about to undergo this process become dilated ; though formerly transparent they now assume a red colour; the cartilage itself is not transmuted into bone, but becomes gradually absorbed whilst the ossific matter is deposited in its place. Ques. 5. How does ossification take place in the dia- physis of long bones ? Ans. In the diaphysis of long bones this process begins in the middle, forming flat rings between the external and internal periosteum. Ques. 6. How does ossification take place in the epi- physis of long bones ? Ans. At their epiphyses in distinct points, which gra- dually unite. Ques. 7. How does ossification take place in the bones of the cranium ? 19 Ans. It assumes the appearance of radii diverging from a centre. Ques. 8. What bones are perfectly formed at birth ? Ans. The small bones of the ear. Ques. 9. What bones are the latest ossified ? Ans. The epiphyses. Ques. 10. When does ossification in the epiphyses terminate ? Ans. About seven or eight years of age. Ques. 11. At what period are the epiphyses united to the diaphyses ? Ans. About twenty years of age they are converted into apophyses by bony union with the diaphyses. SECTION V. OF THE HEAD AND ITS SUTURES. Ques. 1. How are the bones of the head divided 1 Ans. The bones of the head are divided into those be- longing to the cranium and those belonging to the face. Ques. 2. What is the general structure of the bones of the cranium ? Ans. The bones of the cranium consist of two tables or bony plates, and an intermediate diploe. Ques. 3. Which of its tables is thickest ? 20 Ans. The external table is thickest. Ques. 4. What is the diploe of the bones of the cra- nium ? Ans. It is of a cellular structure, like the epiphyses of the long bones. Ques. 5. What is the name of the membrane covering the cranium ? Ans. Pericranium is the name given to the periosteum of these bones. Ques. 6. What is the structure of the bones of the face ? Ans. The bones of the face are of an irregular struc- ture. Ques. 7. Enumerate the bones of the cranium. Ans. They are eight in number: the os frontis, two ossa parietalia, two ossa temporum, os occipitis, os sphe- noides, and os aethmoides. Ques. 8. What bones are proper to the cranium ? Ans. Five : two parietal, two temporal, and the occi- pital. Ques. 9. What bones are common to the cranium and face ? Ans. Three ; os frontis, sphenoid, and aethmoid. Ques. 10. What bones are proper to the face? Ans. There are fourteen : two ossa nasi, two ossa la- chrymalia, two ossa malarum, two ossa maxillaria supe- riora, two ossa palati, two ossa turbinata inferiora, vomer, and os maxillare inferius. Ques. 11. What is the situation of the os frontis ? Ans. The os frontis is situated in the anterior part of the cranium. Ques. 12. Where are the parietal bones ? Ans. In the upper and lateral parts of the cranium. Ques. 13. Where are the temporal bones ? Ans. In the lower and lateral parts, and partly in the base of the cranium. 21 Ques. 14. Where is the os occipitis ? Ans. In the base and back of the cranium. Ques. 15. In what part of the cranium is the os sphe- noides ? Ans. In the middle of the base, and partly on the sides. Ques. 16. Where is the os aethmoides? Ans. In the middle of the forepart of the base of the cranium. Ques. 17. Where are the ossa nasi ? Ans. In the arch of the nose. Ques. 18. Where are the ossa lachrymalia, or ossa unguis ? v Ans. In the anterior part of the nasal sides of the orbits ? Ques. 19. Where are the ossa malarum? Ans. In the upper part of the face. Ques. 20. Where are the ossa maxillaria superiora 1 Ans. In the middle of the face, constituting the upper jaw. Ques. 21. Where are the ossa palati situated? Ans. In the back of the orbits, nares, and palate. Ques. 22. Where are the ossa turbinata inferiora ? Ans. In the lower part of the sides of the nares. Ques. 23. Where is the vomer situated ? Ans. In the middle of the nares. Ques. 24. What are the sutures of the cranium ? Ans. The sutures formed by the union of the bones of the cranium, are five in number : the coronal, the sagittal, the lambdoidal, and the two squamous. Ques. 25. What sutures connect the bones of the cranium and face ? Ans. The sphenoidal, aethmoidal, transverse, and the two zygomatic sutures. Ques. 26. What are the harmonia of the face 1 Ans. They are sixteen in number: one perpendicular nasal, two lateral nasal, two lachrymal, two transverse 22 nasal, two external orbital, one mystachial, one trans- verse palatine, one longitudinal palatine, two maxillo palatine. Ques. 27. Describe the coronal suture. Ans. The coronal suture stretches from above an inch behind the temporal side of one orbit, above the superior part of the cranium, to the same place on the other, con- necting the two parietal bones to the frontal bone. Ques. 28. Describe the sagittal suture. Ans. The sagittal suture extends alongjthe top of the head, from the middle of the coronal to considerably be- hind the vertex, connecting the parietal bones. -, Ques. 29. Describe the lambdoidal suture. Ans. It begins at the termination of the sagittal, and passes, in the form of the Greek letter a, forward and downward on each side, connecting the occipital bone to the parietal bones. Ques. 30. Describe the squamous sutures. Ans. The squamous sutures are of a semicircular form, situated higher upon the cranium than the top of the ex- ternal ear, connecting on each side the upper edge of the os squamosum, to the lower edge of the os parietale, which it overlaps. Ques. 31. What are the additamenta suturae lambdoi- dalis ? Ans. The continuations on each side of the lambdoidal suture into the base of the cranium, are called the addita- menta suturae lambdoidalis. Ques. 32. What are the additamenta suturae squa- mosa? ? Ans. The posterior seriated portions of the squamous sutures are called its additamenta. Ques. 33. Describe the sphenoidal suture. Ans. The sphenoidal suture surrounds all the edges of the sphenoid bone. Ques. 34. Describe the aethmoidal suture. 23 Ans. The aethmoidal suture surrounds all the edges of the bone of the same name. Ques. 35. Describe the transverse suture. Ans. The transverse suture extends through the orbits, between the cranium and face, and joins the cranial and facial bones. Ques. 36. Describe the zygomatic suture. Ans. The zygomatic suture is situated rather towards the anterior part of the zygoma ; it runs from above downward and backward, connecting the zygomatic pro- cesses of the temporal and cheek bones. Ques. 37. Describe the perpendicular nasal harmonia. Ans. The perpendicular nasal harmonia is situated in the middle of the nasal arch, connecting the two ossa nasi. Ques. 38. Describe the lateral nasal harmonia. Ans. The lateral nasal harmonia are situated on each side of the nasal arch, connecting the ossa nasi to the ossa maxillaria. Ques. 39. Describe the lachrymal harmonia. Ans. The lachrymal harmonia surrounds the forepart of the ossa lachrymalia, connecting them to the ossa max- illaria. Ques. 40. Describe the transverse nasal harmonia. Ans. The transverse nasal harmonia are situated at the lower part of the nares, internally connecting the ossa turbinata inferiora to the ossa maxillaria. Ques. 41. Describe the external orbital harmoniae. Ans. The external orbital harmoniae extend from the middle of the lower side of each orbit downward and out- ward, to the lower part of each os malae, connecting these bones to the ossa maxillaria. Ques. 42. Describe the internal orbital harmoniae. Ans. The internal orbital harmoniae extend from the middle of the inferior edge of each orbit to the lower an- 24 terior part of the spheno-maxillary fissure, connecting the ossa malarum to the ossa maxillaria. Ques. 43. Describe the mystachial harmonia. Ans. They connect the maxillary bones immediately beneath the anterior aperture of the nostrils. Ques. 44. Describe the transverse palatine harmonia. Ans. It stretches across the back of the palate, connect- ing the palatine processes of the palate bones to those of the superior maxillary bones. Ques. 45. Describe the longitudinal palatine harmonia. Ans. They extend from the middle of the anterior to the middle of the posterior part of the palate, connecting the palatine processes of the maxillary and palaife bones of the one side to those of the other. Ques. 46. Describe the maxillo palatine harmoniae. Ans. They are situated at the back of the sides of the nares, connecting the palate bones to the bulbous prc*- cesses of the superior maxillary bones. Ques. 47. What bones of the face does schyndylesis connect ? Ans. The vomer is connected with the os sphenoides above, and with the palatine and superior maxillary bones below, by schyndylesis. Ques. 48. What bones of the face does gomphosis eonnect ? Ans. The connexion betwixt the teeth and their sockets is an instance of gomphosis. 25 SECTION VI. OF THE BONES OF THE HEAD. Os Frontis. Ques. 1. What is the situation of the os frontis ? Ans. ^he os frontis is situated in the anterior part of the cranium, and superior part of the face. Ques. 2. How is the os frontis divided ? Ans. It is divided into a frontal and facial portion. Ques. 3. What is the situation and general form of its frontal portion ? Ans. It is situated superiorly, being concave internally and convex externally, its upper edge being semicircular, and possessing a double row of small serrae. Ques. 4. What is the situation and general form of its facial portion ? Ans. It is situated inferiorly, and is of a very irregular form. Ques. 5. What are the elevations of the os frontis ? Ans. The following, two internal angular processes at the insides of the orbits ; a nasal process between these ; two superciliary ridges forming arches, the inner ends of which rest on the internal angular processes, and the outer ends upon the two external angular processes at the outer edge of each orbit; a temporal process and ridge immediately behind the external angular process ; two orbitar plates, or processes, which run back from the su- perciliary ridges ; two bumps of the frontal sinuses, which are placed immediately above the internal angular pro- cesses and eminences, some way above the middle of 3 26 the superciliary ridges, which were the points of its ossi- fication:—all these elevations are situated externally, except the orbital plates, which project internally, where also the spine, ascending from the root of the nose to the middle of the semicircular edge of the bone, may be seen. Ques. 6. What muscles are attached to its internal angular processes ? Ans. The trochlearis, internally by means of its pulley, and externally the corrugator supercilii are attached to the internal angular process. Ques. 7. What are attached to its temporal ridges ? Ans. The origin of the temporalis, and its tendinous aponeurosis. Ques. 8. What is attached to its spine ? Ans. The falx cerebri; a duplicature of the dura mater. Ques. 9. What are situated above its orbital plates ? Ans. The anterior lobec of the brain rest on the orbital plates. Ques. 10. What are the depressions of the os frontis? Ans. They are its orbital depressions in the orbital plates ; its lachrymal depressions situated on the same plates, and behind its external angular processes; its de- pressions for the pulleys of the trochleares on the inside of its internal angular processes; its aethmoidal fissure between its orbital plates ; its temporal depressions behind its processes of the same name; the great concavity of the internal side of the bone; and a furrow along its spine. Ques. 11. What are situated in its lachrymal depres- sions ? Ans. The lachrymal glands. Ques. 12. What is situated in its aethmoidal fissure ? Ans. The cribriform plate of the aethmoid bone. Ques. 13. What are situated in its temporal depres- sions ? Ans. The temporal muscles. 27 Ques. 14. What is situated in the furrow of its spine ? Ans. The anterior part of the longitudinal sinus: a great vein of the dura mater. Ques. 15. What are the foramina of the os frontis ? Ans. Externally two, called superciliary from their being situated about one-third from the inner end of the superciliary ridges; and internally one, called coecum, situated at the root of the spine. Ques. 16. What is transmitted through its superciliary foramen ? Ans. They transmit to the forehead twigs of the oph- thalmic nerve, artery, and vein. Ques. 17. What is transmitted occasionally through the foramen called coecum ? Ans. An artery and vein occasionally pass to the nose. Ques. 18. What is fixed in the foramen coecum ? . Ans. A small process of the dura mater. Ques. 19. What is the foetal state of this bone 1 Ans. In the foetus it is divided down its middle ; it contains no sinuses; and neither the orbital plates, nor the superciliary ridges, are complete in it. Ques. 20. What are the connexions of this bone ? Ans. It is connected superiorly to the parietal bones by the coronal suture; posteriorly and inferiorly to the sphenoid bone by the sphenoidal suture; and inferiorly to the bones of the face by the transverse suture. Ques. 21. What are the uses of this bone ? Ans. It constitutes the forehead and upper part of the face; it supports and defends the anterior lobes of the brain ; and forms a great part of the orbits. Os Parietale. Ques. 22. What is the situation of the os parietale ? Ans. It is situated at the superior and lateral part of the skull ? 28 Ques. 23. What is its general form ? Ans. It is of a quadrangular form ; convex externally, and concave internally. Ques. 24. What are the names of its sides ? Ans. Its edges are one superior, one inferior, one ante- rior, and one posterior. Ques. 25. What are the names of its angles? Ans. One anterior superior, one anterior inferior, one posterior superior, and one posterior inferior. Ques. 26. What are the elevations of the os parietale? Ans. Two externally, viz.: a semicircular ridge, some- what less than half way up the bone, and in the middle of the bone just above that ridge, an eminence which was its foetal point of ossification. Ques. 27. What is attached to its temporal ridge ? Ans. The temporal muscle. Ques. 28. How do you distinguish the bone of one side from that of the other ? Ans. When the convexity of the right parietal bone is turned outward, and its longest and most pointed angle is turned forward and downwards, the bone will be placed in the situation it holds in the body, and thus the side to which it belongs may be ascertained. Ques. 29. What are the depressions of the os parie- tale? Ans. They are the great concavity of its inner side, a furrow on the inside of its upper edge, a furrow on the inside of its inferior posterior angle, a furrow on the inside of its anterior inferior angle, and frequently pits on its ex- ternal surface. Ques. 30. What is situated in the furrow on the inside of its upper edge ? Ans. The middle portion of the longitudinal sinus. Ques. 31. What is situated in the furrow on the inside of its inferior posterior angle ? Ans. The middle portion of the lateral sinus. 29 Ques. 32. What is situated in the furrow on the inside of its anterior inferior angle ? Ans. The anterior branch of the arteria meningea me- dia, or spinous artery. Ques. 33. What is contained in the pits frequently seen on its internal surface ? Ans. Vessels passing to or from the bone, and the con- volutions of the brain. Ques. 34. What are the foramina of the os paiietale ? Ans. There is only one foramen in this bone, which is placed towards the posterior part of its upper edge, and transmits an artery to the dura mater, and a vein to the longitudinal sinus. Ques. 35. What is the foetal state of this bone ? Ans. Its angles are unformed, its sides are incomplete, nor does its foramen exist in the foetal state. Ques. 36. What are the connexions of this bone ? Ans. It is connected to its fellow by the sagittal suture, to the os frontis by the coronal suture, to the os temporis by the squamous suture, to the os occipitis by the lamb- doidal suture, and by its anterior inferior angle, with the os sphenoides. Ques. 37. What are the uses of this bone ? Ans. It constitutes the upper and lateral part of the skull, and protects the middle lobes of the brain. Os Temporis. Ques. 38. What is the situation of the os temporis ? Ans. It is situated at the lower part of the side and base of the cranium. Ques. 39. How is it divided? Ans. Into three portions, the squamous, the petrous, and the mamillary. Ques. 40. What is the situation and general form of its squamous portion 1 3* 30 Ans. It is placed uppermost, is smooth externally, and has a semicircular edge. Ques. 41. What is the situation and general form of its mamillary portion ? Ans. It is situated posteriorly, and is less regular and thin than the squamous. Ques. 42. What is the situation and general form of its petrous portion ? Ans. It is placed inferiorly and internally, and is the least regular of all. Ques. 43. What are the elevations of the os tem- porum ? Ans. They are its mamillary process, projecting down- ward from the portion of that name ; its zygomatic pro- cess standing outwards and forwards from the squamous portion, and haying a smooth tubercle placed at the anterior inferior part of its base ; its styloid process projecting downwards and forwards from the petrous portion; its vaginal process placed between the mastoid, styloid, and zygomatic; and the ridge internally on the upper part of its petrous portion. Ques. 44. What is the internal structure of its ma- millary process ? Ans. It is cellular. Ques. 45. What muscles are attached to it? Ans. The sterno-cleido-mastoideus, and the trachelo- mastoideus. Ques. 46. What is attached to the upper edge of the zygomatic process ? Ans. The aponeurosis of the temporal muscle. Ques. 47. What is attached to the lower edge of that process ? Ans. A part of the masseter muscle. Ques. 48. What passes under that process ? Ans. The temporal muscle. 31 Ques. 49. What is the use of the tubercle situated at its base ? Ans. It constitutes a part of the joint of the lower jaw. Ques. 50. What is attached to the styloid process ? Ans. The stylo-hyoideus, the stylo-glossus, and the stylo-pharyngeus muscles : a ligament to the os hyoides ; and the lateral ligament of the lower jaw; are also attached to the styloid process. Ques. 51. What is attached to the auditory process? Ans. The cartilage of the meatus auditorius externus. Ques. 52. What is attached to the edge of its petrous portion ? Ans. Part of the tentorium ; a duplicature of the dura mater. Ques. 53. What are the depressions of the os tem- poris ? Ans. They are the glenoid cavity, for the articulation of the lower jaw ; the fissuia glasseri, traversing the mid- dle of that depression; a fossa, behind the mastoid pro- cess ; a thimble-like cavity, internal to its styloid process, constituting part of the jugular foramen; a depression before its zygomatic process, called the temporal; a fur- row on the inside of its .mamillary portion; a furrow above, and another below the posterior surface of its petrous portion. Ques. 54. What is situated in the articular cavity of the bone ? Ans. Anteriorly the condyle of the jaw, and posteriorly a part of the parotid gland. Ques. 55. What passes through the fissura glasseri ? Ans. The laxator tympani major, and chorda tympani. Ques. 56. To what does the groove behind the mas- toid process give attachment ? Ans. The origin of the digastricus muscle. Ques. 57. What does the jugular foramen transmit ? Ans. Posteriorly the jugular vein, and anteriorly the 32 par vagum or pneumo-gastric nerve, the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, and the accessary nerve of Willis. Ques. 58. What is lodged in the temporal depression ? Ans. The temporal muscle. Ques. 59. What is situated in the furrow on the inside of its mamillary portion ? Ans. Part of the lateral sinus. Ques. 60. What is situated in the furrows at the upper and lower edges of the posterior surface of its petrous portion 1 Ans. The superior and inferior petrosal sinuses. . Ques. 61. What are the foramina of the os temporis? Ans. They are externally, the meatus auditorius ex- ternus, the foramen stylo-mastoideum, or opening of the Fallopian aqueduct, the foramen carotideum, the bony ca- nal of the eustachian tube, the canal which contains the tensor tympani, the foramen mastoideum; internally, the meatus auditorius internus, which divides into the Fallo- pian aqueduct superiorly and the tractus cochlea infe- riorly ; a small foramen is situated on the superior surface of the posterior surface of the petrous portion. The fora- men common to this bone and the sphenoid is placed at the anterior part of its petrous portion. Ques. 62. How are these foramina situated? Ans. The meatus auditorius externus is placed between its mastoid and zygomatic processes ; the foramen stylo- mastoideum between the styloid and mastoid processes ; the foramen carotideum at the base of the petrous portion; the bony canal of the eustachian tube, at the external side of the petrous portion; the canal which contains the tensor tympani, immediately before the last mentioned ; the fora- men mastoideum, behind the mastoid process; the meatus auditorius internus, on the posterior surface of the petrous portion; the opening of the aqueductus cochlea behind the edge of the posterior surface of the petrous portion, immediately below the meatus ; the opening of the aque- 33 ductus vestibuli, on the posterior surface of the petrous portion, about five lines behind. Ques. 63. What passes through the stylo-mastoid fo- ramen ? Ans. The portio dura or facial nerve passes outward, and an artery enters to the ear. Ques. 64. What does the canalis carotideus transmit? Ans. It transmits the carotid artery, and. the beginning of the intercostal nerve. Ques. 65. What does the foramen mastoideum trans- mit? Ans. It transmits an artery to the dura mater, and a vein to the lateral sinus. Ques. 66. What does the meatus auditorius internus transmit ? Ans. It transmits the portio dura and mollis, or the fa- cial and auditory nerve. Ques. 67. What is transmitted by the Fallopian aque- duct? Ans. It transmits the continuation of the facial nerve. Ques. 68. What does the small foramen on the su- perrior surface of the petrous portion transmit ? Ans. Its tiansmits the Vidian nerve to join the portio dura. Ques. 69. What is the foetal state of this bone ? Ans. In the foetal state there exists in this bone no meatus auditorius externus, but merely a bony ring, nor are the styloid processes formed. Ques. 70. What are the connexions of this bone ? Ans. It is connected anteriorly to the sphenoid bone by the sphenoidal suture, superiorly to the parietal by the squamous suture and its additamentum, posteriorly to the occipital by the lambdoidal suture and its additamen- tum, and to the lower jaw by ginglymus. Ques. 71. What are the uses of this bone? Ans. It constitutes the inferior lateral parts of the era- 34 nium, supports on each side the middle lobes of the brain, transmits several vessels and nerves, and contains the organ of hearing. Os Occipitis. Ques. 72. What is the situation of the os occipitis ? Ans. It is situated in the inferior and posterior part of the cranium. Ques. 73. What is its general form ? Ans. It is irregularly rhomboidal, its inferior angle projecting forwards, which part is called the cuneiform process—its superior angle is rounded, and its lateral angles obtuse; it is concave internally, and convex ex- ternally. Ques. 74. What are the elevations of the os occipitis ? Ans. They are its condyles—projections situated on each side, and somewhat anteriorly to the great foramen in the middle of the bone—a rough protuberance external to each of them ; the elevated edges of the great foramen; a longitudinal ridge on the posterior part of the bone ; a superior and an inferior transverse ridge crossing the lon- gitudinal one ; a spine in the middle of the superior transverse ridge : internally it has a longitudinal and a transverse ridge, which cross each other, and are deno- minated its internal crucial spine. Ques. 75. With what are its condyles connected ? Ans. With the oblique processes of the atlas. Ques. 76. What muscles are fixed to the protuberances external to the condyles ? Ans. The recti laterales. Ques. 77. What is fixed to the anterior edge of the great foramen ? Ans. The perpendicular ligament of the second ver- tebra, and that of the anterior arch of the atlas. Ques. 78. What is fixed to its posterior ridge I 35 Ans. The ligament of the posterior arch of the atlas. Ques. 79. What is fixed to its superior transverse ridge and spine ? Ans. The occipito frontales and the trapezii muscles. Ques. 80. What is fixed to its inferior transverse ridge ? Ans. The recti majores postici, and externally to them the obliqui superiores. Ques. 81. What is fixed to the upper portion of its internal crucial ridge ? Ans. The posterior part of the falx cerebri. Ques. 82. What is fixed to the lateral portions of its internal crucial ridge ? Ans. The tentorium ; a duplicature of the dura mater. Ques. 83. What is fixed to its inferior portion ? Ans. The falx cerebelli; a duplicature also of the dura mater. Ques. 84. What are the depressions of the os occi- pitis ? Ans. They are one below each superior transverse ridge; one below each side of its superior transverse ridge ; one on the outside of each condyle which contri- bute to form the jugular foramina; a small depression anterior to each of these; a furrow in the upper portion of the internal crucial spine; a furrow in the inferior portion ; a furrow in each lateral portion of the same spine ; a depression on each side of the superior portion; one on each side of the inferior portion of the same spine ; a furrow immediately anterior to each of these ; a great depression on the superior surface of the cuneiform process ; and a small furrow on each side of that de- pression. Ques. 85. What is fixed to the hollow between the two external transverse ridges ? Ans. Internally the complexi, and externally the sple- nii muscles. 36 Ques. 86. What is fixed to the depression below its inferior external transverse ridge. Ans. The recti minores postici muscles. Ques. 87. What do the semilunar depressions external to the condyles contribute to form ? Ans. The jugular foramina are in part formed by them. Ques. 88. What is fixed to the small depressions be- fore the condyles ? Ans. The recti minores antici muscles. Ques. 89. What are fixed to the small depressions an- terior to the last? Ans. The recti majores antici muscles. Ques. 90. What is situated in the furrow of the upper portion of its internal crucial ridge ? Ans. The posterior part of the longitudinal sinus. Ques. 91. What are situated in the furrows of the lateral portions of its crucial internal ridge ? Ans. The first parts of the lateral sinuses. Ques. 92. What is situated in the furrow of the infe- rior portion of its internal crucial ridge ? Ans. The occipital sinus. Ques. 93. What are situated in the great depressions above the lateral portions of its internal crucial ridge ? Ans. The posterior lobes of the cerebrum. Ques. 94. What are situated in the great depressions below the lateral portions of its internal crucia! ridge? Ans. The lobes of the cerebellum. Ques. 95. What are situated in the furrows immedi- ately before these inferior depressions ? Ans. The terminations of the lateral sinuses. Ques. 96. What is situated in the great depression of the superior surface of the cuneiform process. Ans. The medulla oblongata. Ques. 97. What are situated in the small furrows on each side of that great depression ? Ans. The inferior petrosal sinuses. 37 Ques. 98. What are the foramina of the os occipitis ? Ans. They are the foramen magnum, immediately be- hind the cuneiform process; the foramina condyloidea posteriora, immediately behind the condyles ; and the fo- ramina condyloidea anteriora, immediately before the con- dyles. Ques. 99. What does the foramen magnum transmit ? Ans. The medulla spinalis, the nervi accessorii, the vertebral arteries, and sometimes the vertebral veins. Ques. 100. What does the foramen condyloideum posterius transmit? Ans. They transmit the cervical nerves and the lateral sinus. Ques. 101. What does the foramen condyloideum anterius transmit ? Ans. The ninth pair of nerves to the tongue. Ques. 102. What is the foetal state of this bone ? Ans. The cuneiform process, the two sides of the great foramen, and all the bone posterior to it, are easily in the foetal state separable into four portions. Ques. 103. What are the connexions of this bone ? Ans. It is connected anteriorly to the sphenoid bone by synostosis; inferiorly to the atlas by ginglymus com- positus; laterally to the temporal bones by the addita- menta of the lambdoidal sutures; and superiorly to the parietal bones by the lambdoidal suture itself. Ques. 104. What are the uses of this bone ? Ans. It forms the posterior, and a part of the inferior portion of the cranium; it contains and defends the pos- terior lobes of the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and medulla oblongata ; and gives exit to the spinal marrow. Os Sphenoides. Ques. 105. What is the situation of the os sphe- noides ? 4 N' 38 Ans. It passes from one temple to another, across the middle of the base of the cranium. Ques. 106. What are its general divisions? Ans. It is divided into a body situated in the middle, an ala on each side of it; and two pterygoid portions at its inferior part. Ques. 107. What are the elevations of this bone ? Ans. They are the processes azygos, standing forward and downward from its body; the posterior clinoid pro- cesses, one on each side placed anterior to these ; the transverse spinous processes, which are lateral continu- ations of the anterior clinoid; the aethmoidal process, projecting anteriorly between the two last; the orbital process, portions of the ala turned towards the orbits ; the temporal processes, portions of the ala turned towards the temples ; the spinous processes, which are posterior parts of the ala ; the styliform processes, which project down- ward from the points of the spinous ; the external ptery- goid plate, which is the outer part of the pterygoid portions ; and the internal pterygoid plate, surmounted by a hook- like process, forming the inner part of the pterygoid portions. Ques. 108. What is attached to its processus azygos l Ans. The vomer. Ques. 109. What is attached to the internal side of its external pterygoid plate ? Ans. The pterygoideus externus, Ques. 110. What passes over the hook-like process of its internal pterygoid plate ? Ans. The tendon of the tensor palati. Ques. 111. What are the depressions of the os sphe- noides ? Ans. They are one on each side of its processus azygos; one between its clynoid process, called the sella turcica; a furrow on each side of that; depressions on •its otbitar processes j depressions on its temporal pro- 39 cesses ; a furrow on the anterior edge of the last; a depression between the temporal process and the pterygoid portion of the bone; the great superior concavities of the alae ; a furrow internal to the base of the pterygoid por- tions ; a small cavity behind the base of the internal pterygoid process ; and the fossa pterygoidea between the pterygoid processes. Ques. 112. What are the depressions on each side of the processus azygos ? Ans. They constitute a portion of the nares. Ques. 113. What is situated in the sella turcica? Ans. The pituitary gland. Ques. 114. What are situated in the furrows at its sides ? Ans. The carotid arteries. Ques. 115. What is situated in its temporal depres- sion? Ans. The temporal muscle. Ques. 116. What passes in the furrow on the anterior edge of its temporal depression ? Ans. A nerve from the superior maxillary to the tem- poral muscle. Ques. 117. What is placed in the depression between the temporal and the pterygoid processes of the bone ? Ans. The pterygoideus externus muscle. Ques. 118. What rests upon the internal cavity of each ala ? Ans. A middle lobe of the brain on each ala. Ques. 119. What passes in the furrow internal to the base of the pterygoid portion of the bone ? Ans. An artery, vein, and nerve pass to the nares. Ques. 120. What is situated in the cavity behind the base of the internal pterygoid process ? Ans. Part of the eustachian tube. Ques. 121. What is situated in the fossa pterygoidea ? Ans. The pterygoideus internus muscle. 40 Ques. 122. What are the foramina of this bone ? Ans. They are anteriorly the openings of its sinuses on each side of the processus azygos ; the foramina optica internal to its anterior clinoid processes ; the foramina lacera, placed between the transverse spinous processes and the roots of its ala ; the foramina rotunda, placed im- mediately below the former; the foramina ovalia, placed somewhat externally and posteriorly to the last; the foramina spinosa, placed posteriorly to these ; and the foramina vidia, which perforate the base of each pterygoid portion from before backward. Ques. 123. What are the uses of the sphenoidal si- nuses ? Ans. They serve to increase the tone of the voice. Ques. 124. What passes through the foramina op- tica? Ans. The optic nerves and the ophthalmic arteries. Ques. 125. What do the foramina lacera transmit ? Ans. The third, fourth, first branch of the fifth, and the sixth pair of nerves, except a reflected twig, which is supposed to form the commencement of the great sympa- thetic nerve. Ques. 126. What passes through the foramina ro- tunda ? Ans. The second branches of the fifth pair, or the su- perior maxillary nerves. Ques. 127. What does the foramina ovalia transmit? Ans. The third branch of the fifth pair, or the inferior maxillary. Ques. 128. What passes through the foramen spino- sum? Ans. The spinous artery, or arteria meningea media to the dura mater. Ques. 129. What passes through the Vidian foramen? Ans. An artery and vein pass to the nares, and through this foramen the Vidian nerve enters the cranium. 41 Ques. 130. What is the condition of this bone in the foetal state ? Ans. In the foetus this bone has no sinuses, and is se- parable from its ala. Ques. 131. What are the connexions of this bone ? Ans. It is connected to the os frontis, os aethmoides, ossa malarum, ossa palati, ossa maxillaria, by the sphe- noidal suture„ and to the vomer, by schindylesis ; poste- riorly to the os occipitis, by synostosis ; and laterally to the ossa parietalia, by its own suture. Ques. 132. What are the uses of this bone ? Ans. It forms some of the sides, and a considerable portion of the base of the cranium ; it supports the middle lobes of the brain; it forms a part of the orbits ; it transmits numerous vessels and nerves, cular ridge immediately above the acetabulum ? Ans. The gluteus minimus. Ques. 141. What muscle is situated in the hollow of the inner side of the ileum ? 76 Ans. The iliacus internus. Ques. 142. What is the appearance of the posterior part of the inner side of this bone ? Ans. There are found two articular surfaces correspond- ing to those of the sacrum. Ques. 143. What part of the ilium distinguishes the cavity of the pelvis from that of the abdomen ? Ans. A smooth ridge which traverses the inner side of the base of this bone. Os Ischium. Ques. 144. What is the situation of the os ischium? Ans. It is situated at the lowest part of the os innomi- natum. Ques. 145. Into what parts is it divided ? Ans. Into a body, a tuberosity, and a ramus. Ques. 146. Where is the spine of the ischium ? Ans. Upon the posterior part of its body is found its spinous process. Ques. 147. What is attached to its spinous process ? Ans. The lesser sacro-ischiatic ligament, and the coc- cygeus internally. Ques. 148. Where is the tuberosity of the ischium? Ans. It is situated at the lower and posterior part of its body, where the ramus joins it; it is that part of the bone upon which we rest in sitting. Ques. 149. What muscles arise from the tuberosity of the ischium ? Ans. The quadratus femoris externally; the semi- membranosis, semitendinosus, and biceps, about its mid- dle part; the great head of the triceps from its inferior part; the great sacro-ischiatic ligament is also attached to its inner part. Ques. 150. What is the situation of its ramus ? 77 Ans. It ascends forwards from the tuberosity. Ques. 151. What are the notches of the os ischium I Ans. By a very considerable notch anteriorly it con- tributes to form the obturator foramen ; a notch posteriorly between the tuberosity and the spine for the obturator muscle; one laterally between the tuberosity and aceta- bulum for the obturator externus; and one anteriorly at the edge of the acetabulum for ligaments; vessels and fat are also noticed. Os Pubis. Ques. 152. What is the situation of the os pubis ? Ans. It is situated at the anterior part of the pelvis. Ques. 153. Into what parts is the os pubis divided ? Ans. It is divided into a body, angle, and branch. Ques. 154. What is the situation of the body of the os pubis ? Ans. It forms its upper part; situated before the base of the os ilium. Ques. 155. How much does the os pubis contribute to form the acetabulum ? Ans. One-fifth. Ques. 156. Where does the os pubis mark the limits of the pelvis ? Ans. A line on the inner side of its body forms part of the brim of the pelvis. Ques. 157. Where is the spine of the os pubis ? Ans. It is situated about an inch from the angle. Ques. 158. What does its spine give attachment to ? Ans. It gives attachment to Poupart's ligament, and in part to the rectus and pyramidalis abdominis. Ques. 159. To what foramen does the os pubis con- tribute ? Ans. The obturator foramen. 7* 78 Ques. 160. Where is the angle of the os pubis ? Ans. It is situated anteriorly; formed by the junction of the body and ramus. Ques. 161. Where is its ramus ? Ans. It descends from its angle. Acetabulum. Ques. 162. How is the acetabulum formed ? Ans. One-fifth of the acetabulum is formed by the os pubis, rather more than two-fifths by the os ischium, and less than two-fifths by the os ilium. Ques. 163. What part of the edge of the acetabulum is most prominent ? Ans. The upper part of its brim. Ques. 164. What portion of the acetabulum is with- out cartilage ? Ans. Between its middle and its inferior notch. Ques. 165. What is situated in that portion of the acetabulum which is uncovered by cartilage ? Ans. A ligament and synovial glands. Ques. 166. Where is the notch of the acetabulum si- tuated ? Ans. Towards its lower part. Ques. 167. What is the use of this notch ? Ans. It transmits certain vessels, &c. Ques. 168. What are the connexions of the os inno- minatum ? Ans. It is connected posteriorly to the os sacrum ; anteriorly to its fellow, forming the symphisis pubis ; and laterally and inferiorly to the thigh bone. 79 SECTION VIII. OF THE BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. Ques. 1. How are the bones of the upper extremity divided ? Ans. The bones of the upper extremity are divided into four classes ; namely, those of the shoulder, the arm, the fore arm, and the hand. Bones of the Shoulder. Ques. 2. Of how many bones does the shoulder con- sist ? Ans. Of two ; the scapula and clavicle. Scapula. Ques. 3. What is the situation of the scapula? Ans. It is placed laterally at the upper and posterior part of the thorax from about the first to the seventh rib. Ques. 4. What is its general form ? Ans. It is somewhat triangular. Ques. 5. What parts of the scapula are generally enumerated ? Ans. Its regions are an external or posterior and con- vex side ; an internal or anterior concave side, three edges of which one is named the basis and two costa; a supe- rior and an inferior; three angles, one anterior called the neck, one superior, and one inferior. 80 Ques. 6. What is the situation of the base of the sca- pula? Ans. The base is the longest and thinnest edge turned towards the spine ; its upper part being nearer the ver- tebrae than the lower. Ques. 7. What is the situation of the superior costa ? Ans. It is situated almost transversely between the superior point of the base and the neck of the scapula; being most raised toward the base. Ques. 8. Where is the notch of the scapula? Ans. At the anterior part of the superior costa. Ques. 9. What passes through this notch ? Ans. The supra scapular vessels and nerves. Ques. 10. What is the situation of the inferior costa? Ans. It is situated obliquely between the inferior point of the base and the neck of the scapula. Ques. 11. Which edge of the scapula is the thickest? Ans. Its inferior edge or costa. Ques. 12. Where is the neck of the scapula ? Ans. It forms the anterior angle. Ques. 13. How is the neck of the scapula terminated 1 Ans. By a glenoid cavity. Ques. 14. What process proceeds from the neck of the scapula ? Ans. The coracoid process. Ques. 15. What is attached to the tuberosity of the coracoid process ? Ans. The coraco-clavicular and coraco-acromial liga- ments. Ques. 16. What muscles arise from the tip of the coracoid process ? Ans. Three; namely, the pectoralis minor internally; the coraeo-brachialis ; and the short head of the biceps. Ques. 17. What muscle arises from above the glenoid cavity ? Ans. The long head of the biceps. 81 Ques. 18. What is the appearance of the dorsum of the scapula ? Ans. It is unequally convex. Ques. 19. What process arises from the dorsum of the scapula ? Ans. The spine of the scapula, which divides the dor- sum of the scapula into two portions. Ques. 20. What muscle is attached to the superior . side of the spine of the scapula ? Ans. The trapezius. Ques. 21. What muscle arises from the inferior edge of its spine ? Ans. The deltoid. Ques. 22. In what process does the spine of the sca- pula terminate ? Ans. The acromion process. Ques. 23. What is the form of the acromion? Ans. It is broad and flat. Ques. 24. What is attached to the upper edge of the acromion near its apex ? Ans. The scapular end of the clavicle. Ques. 25. What muscle arises from the inferior and anterior edges of the acromion ? Ans. The deltoid. Ques. 26. Into what cavities does the spine divide the dorsum of the scapula ? Ans. Into the supra-spinal and infra-spinal fossae. Ques. 27. Whether is the supra-spinal or infra-spinal largest ? Ans. The infra-spinal is the largest. Ques. 28. What is situated in the supra-spinal fossa? Ans. The supra-spinatus muscle. Ques. 29. What is situated in the infra-spinal fossa ? Ans. The infra-spinatus muscle. Ques. 30. What arises from the groove, below the infra-spinal fossa, on the inferior costa of the scapula ? 82 Ans. The teres minor. Ques. 31. What muscle arises from the flat surface on the outside of the inferior angle of the scapula ? Ans. The teres major. Ques. 32. What muscle passes over the inferior angle of this bone ? Ans. The latissimus dorsi. Ques. 33. What is the appearance of the inner side of the scapula ? Ans. It is irregularly concave. Ques. 34. What muscle is situated on the inner side of the scapula ? Ans. The subscapularis. Ques. 35. What is the general structure of the sca- pula? Ans. The thicker parts of the bone possess a diploe ; the thin parts have none, and are transparent. Ques. 36. What are the connexions of the scapula ? Ans. It is connected to the clavicle by the acromion, and to the os humeri by its glenoid cavity. Clavicle. Ques. 37. What is the situation of the clavicle ? Ans. It is placed transversely and somewhat obliquely at the upper and anterior part of the thorax, between the scapula and sternum. Ques. 38. What is its general form ? Ans. It has a considerable resemblance to an italic/. Ques. 39. Into what parts is it divided ? Ans. It is divided into a body, and an internal or sternal and an external or scapular extremity. Ques. 40. What is the form of the sternal end of the clavicle ? Ans. It is somewhat triangular. 83 Ques. 41. What is attached to the posterior angle of the sternal end ? Ans. The inter-clavicular ligament. Ques. 42. With what is the tubercle at the posterior part near the humeral end connected ? Ans. It is connected by a strong ligament to the cora- coid process of the scapula. Ques. 43. What is the form of the scapular end of the clavicle ? Ans. It is flat and broad. Ques. 44. What muscle arises from the anterior edge of the scapular end of this bone ? Ans. The deltoid. Ques. 45. What muscle is inserted into the posterior edge of the scapular end ? Ans. The trapezius. Ques. 46. What muscle arises from the anterior edge of the inner half of the clavicle ? Ans. The pectoralis major. Ques. 47. What muscle is inserted into the inferior side of the clavicle ? Ans. The subclavius. Ques. 48. What is the structure of the clavicle ? Ans. The extremities are cellular; while its middle, having thick sides, possesses a narrow cavity, filled with bony filaments. Ques. 49. What are the connexions of the clavicle ? Ans. It is connected internally to the first bone of the sternum, and externally to the acromion. Os Humeri. Ques. 50. What is the situation of the os humeri '. Ans. It is placed under the acromion, along the side of the thorax. 84 Ques. 51. What is its general form ? Ans. It is irregularly cylindrical. Ques. 52. Into what parts is it divided ? Ans. Into a body, and a superior and inferior extremity. Ques. 53. What is the form and direction of the head of the os humeri ? Ans. It is formed by a round, smooth head, and inclines obliquely inward. Ques. 54. Where are the tuberosities of the humerus situated ? Ans. Externally, and somewhat inferiorly, to the head of the bone. Ques. 55. How are these tuberosities distinguished ? Ans. One is called the internal or small, the other the external or great tuberosity. Ques. 56. What muscle is inserted into the internal tuberosity ? Ans. The subscapularis. Ques. 57. What muscles are inserted into the great tuberosity ? Ans. The supra-spinatus, infra-spinatus, and teres minor. Ques. 58. What is situated between these tuberosities ? Ans. A very considerable groove. Ques. 59. What passes through this groove ? Ans. The tendon of the long head of the biceps. Ques. 60. What is called the neck of the humerus 1 Ans. The slight circular depression immediately below its head. Ques. 61. What arises from the posterior part of the neck ? Ans. The internal head of the triceps. Ques. 62. What is inserted into the ridge external to the groove ? Ans. The pectoralis major muscle. 85 Ques. 63. What is inserted into the ridge internal to the groove ? Ans. The latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles ? Ques. 64. What is inserted into the great muscular depression on the outer side of the middle of the os hu- meri? Ans. The deltoid muscle. Ques. 65. What is inserted into the ridge on the inner side of the middle of the os humeri ? Ans. The coraco-brachialis. Ques. 66. At what part, and in what direction, does the medullary artery of this bone enter ? Ans. It enters about the middle of the anterior side of the bone, and slants downward. Ques. 67. What is the form of the lower part of the os humeri ? Ans. The lower extremity becomes gradually flatter and broader than the rest of this bone ; having an outer and an inner edge which terminate in two processes. Ques. 68. What are the names of these two processes ? Ans. The outer and inner condyles. Ques. 69. Which of the condyles is the largest ? Ans. The inner one is the largest and most projecting. Ques. 70. What muscles generally arise from the ex- ternal condyle ? Ans. The two extensors and supinators of the hands. Ques. 71. What muscles arise from the internal con- dyle ? Ans. The flexors and pronators of the hands. Ques. 72. Where is the trochlea of the os humeri situated ? Ans. Between and somewhat below the two condyles. Ques. 73. What is the form of the trochlea ? Ans. It is an oblique, pulley-like articular surface ; its inner edge is the most prominent; a small round articular head is placed between it and the outer condyle. 8 86 Ques. 74. What is the form of the os humeri imme- diately above the trochlea ? Ans. Above these parts there are two slight depressions anteriorly, and a very considerable one posteriorly. Ques.* 75. To what are the depressions above the trochlea adapted ? Ans. The posterior one receives the olecranon when the arm is extended ; the inner anterior one receives the coronoid process of the ulna ; and the outer anterior one receives the round head of the radius in the flexions of the forearm. Ques. 76. What is the particular situation of the os humeri ? Ans. In its natural situation the hemispherical head of this bone is turned inwards and backwards ; the great tu- berosity outward and forward; the groove between the two tuberosities directly forward ; the external condyle forward and outward ; and the internal condyle backward and inward. Ques. 77. What is the structure of the os humeri ? Ans. The extremities are cellular; but the middle has a tubular cavity, and several bony filaments passing across it. Ques. 78. What are the connexions of the os humeri ? Ans. It is connected superiorly with the glenoid cavity of the scapula; and inferiorly with the ulna by its troch- lea ; and with the radius by its little round head. Bones of the Forearm. Ques. 79. Of how many bones does the forearm con- sist? Ans. The forearm consists of two bones ; namely, the ulna and radius. Ques. 80. What is the situation of the ulna ? 87 Ans. It is situated on the inner side of the forearm. Ques. 81. What is its form ? Ans. It is a cylindrical bone, and in its circumference irregularly triangular. Ques. 82. How is it divided ? Ans. Into a body and two extremities. Ques. 83. What are its chief eminences ? Ans. The olecranon and coronoid processes. Ques. 84. What is the situation of the olecranon? Ans. It forms the upper extremity of this bone. Ques. 85. What muscle is inserted into it ? Ans. The triceps extensor cubiti. Ques. 86. Where is the coronoid process ? Ans. It is situated on the anterior part of the bone somewhat lower than the olecranon. Ques. 87. What muscle is inserted into it ? Ans. The brachialis internus. Ques. 88. Where is the olecranon lodged when the forearm is extended ? Ans. It is lodged in the posterior depression of the inferior end of the humerus. Ques. 89. Where is the coronoid process lodged during the flexion of the forearm ? Ans. It is lodged in the anterior and inner depression of the lower end of the humerus. Ques. 90. What is the use of the triangular surface on the posterior part of the olecranon ? Ans. It forms the part of the elbow on which we rest. Ques. 91. What is lodged in the fossa external to the triangular surface ? Ans. The anconeus muscle. Ques. 92. Where is the greater sigmoid cavity of the ulna ? Ans. It is in the articular surface formed between the olecranon and coronoid processes. Ques, 93. What is its use ? 88 Ans. It articulates with the trochlea of the os humeri. Ques. 94. Where is the lesser sigmoid cavity ? Ans. It is situated on the outside of the root of the coronoid process. Ques. 95. What is its use ? Ans. It receives the round head of the radius. Ques. 96. What is the form of the body of the ulna ? Ans. It is triangular. Ques. 97. What is attached to the outer sharp edge of the ulna ? Ans. The interosseous ligament. Ques. 98. What is the situation of the canal for the medullary artery of the ulna ? Ans. It is placed about the middle of the anterior part of the bone, and slants upward. Ques. 99. What is the form of the inferior extremity of the ulna ? Ans. It has a small head externally, and a styloid pro- cess internally. Ques. 100. What is attached to the styloid process ? Ans. A ligament from the os pisiforme. Ques. 101. What passes in the groove on the anterior side of the termination of the ulna ? Ans. The ulna artery and nerve. Ques. 102. What passes in the groove on the posterior side of its termination ? Ans. The tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris. Ques. 103. What is the structure of the ulna? Ans. Its structure resembles that of the os humeri. Ques. 104. What are the connexions of the ulna? Ans. It is connected superiorly with the pulley of the os humeri ; laterally with the two extremities of the radius, and with the hand inferiorly. 89 Radius. Ques. 105. What is the situation of the radius I Ans. It is placed on the outer side of the forearm. Ques. 106. What is its form ? Ans. It is a cylindrical bone irregularly triangular. Ques. 107. What are the relative lengths of the radius and ulna ? Ans. The radius is the shortest. Ques. 108. How is the radius divided ? Ans. Into a head, body, and basis. Ques. 109. What is the form of the head ? Ans. The upper part of the head is concave for con- nexion with the small round head of the humerus; and its circumference is cylindrical. Ques. 110. With what is the head of the radius arti- culated laterally ? Ans. With the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna. Ques. 111. What is the situation and direction of the neck of the radius ? Ans. It is situated immediately below the head, and its direction is somewhat oblique. Ques. 112. Where is the tuberosity of the radius situated ? Ans. On the inner and anterior side, immediately be- low the neck. Ques. 113. What is attached to the tuberosity of the radius ? Ans. The biceps flexor cubiti. Ques. 114. What is the form of the body of the radius ? Ans. It is somewhat triangular. Ques. 115. What is attached to the inner sharp edge of the radius ? 8* 90 Ans. The interosseous ligament. Ques. 116. What is the situation and direction of the canal of the medullary artery of the radius ? Ans. It enters about the middle of the anterior side of the bone, and slants upward. Ques. 117. What is the relative size of the two ends of the radius ? Ans. The inferior extremity is the largest. Ques. 118. What is the form of its inferior extremity ? Ans. Its greatest diameter is from side to side. Ques. 119. For what purpose is the anterior side of the inferior end of the radius hollowed ? Ans. It is hollowed for the passage of the flexor ten- dons. Ques. 120. What is received into the depression on the inner side of the radius ? Ans. The inferior head of the ulna. Ques. 121. What pass in the grooves on the posterior side ? Ans. The extensor tendons. Ques. 122. What is the situation of the styloid pro- cess of the radius. Ans. It is placed on the inferior end of its outer side. Ques. 123. What is attached to the styloid process ? Ans. A ligament connecting it to the trapezium. Ques. 124. What is the structure of the radius ? Ans. It resembles that of the other long bones. Ques. 125. What are its connexions ? Ans. It is joined superiorly to the os humeri, laterally to both ends of the ulna, and inferiorly to the bones of the carpus. 91 Bones of the Hand. Ques. 126. How are the bones of the hand classed ? Ans. They are divided into the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges. Carpus. Ques. 127. What is the situation of the carpus ? Ans. It forms the wrist and the base of the hand. Ques. 128. Of how many bones is it composed ? Ans. It consists of eight bones. Ques. 129. What is its general form ? Ans. It is convex externally and concave internally, and is of an irregular quadrangular form. Ques. 130. How are the bones of the carpus arranged ? Ans. They are arranged in two rows ; an upper and a lower row ; four bones in each row. Ques. 131. What are the names of the carpal bones ? Ans. Those of the upper row are the os scaphoides, os lunare, os cuneiform, os pisiforme : those of the lower row are the os trapezium, os trapezoides, os magnum, and os unciforme. Ques. 132. What is the situation of the os scaphoides ? Ans. It is the first or most external bone of the first row. Ques. 133. What is the general form of the os sca- phoides ? Ans. Its superior side is convex; its inferior side con- cave ; and the whole bone is oblong, bearing, as its name implies, some resemblance to a boat. Ques. 134. What is the situation of the os lunare ? Ans. The os lunare is the second bone of the first row. 92 Ques. 135. What is its form ? Ans. It is convex superiorly ; concave inferiorly. Its anterior and posterior surfaces are rough for the attach- ment of ligaments. Ques. 136. What is the situation of the os cunei- forme ? Ans. It is the third bone of the first row. Ques. 137. What is its general form ? Ans. Its upper surface is convex; its anterior surface has upon it an orbicular plane for the os pisiforme; it has also articular surfaces towards the os lunare and the os unciforme. Ques. 138. What is the situation of the os pisiforme ? Ans. It is the fourth bone of the first row placed upon the anterior side of the cuneiforme. Ques. 139. What is its form ? Ans. It is irregularly round. Ques. 140. What is the situation of the os trapezium? Ans. It is the first or external bone of the second row. Ques. 141. What is the form of it ? Ans. It is irregularly square ; its inner surface has upon it an oblong eminence for the carpal ligament, and a groove for the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis; its upper side is hollow for articulation with the os scaphoi- des ; its lower side is connected with the first bone of the thumb ; its outer surface is rough; and its inner side is connected superiorly with the os trapezoides ; and infe- riorly with the first bone of the metacarpus. Ques. 142. What is the situation and form of the os trapezoides ? Ans. It is the second bone of the second row; it is joined superiorly to the os scaphoides ; inferioily to the base of the first metacarpal bone ; on its radial side to the os trapezium; and on its ulna side to the os magnum. Ques. 143. What is the situation and form of the os magnum ? 93 Ans. It is the third bone of the second row ; its supe- rior side is round for connexion with the os scaphoides and os lunare ; inferiorly it is joined to the second meta- carpal bone ; on its radial side to the os trapezoides ; and on its ulna side to the os unciforme. Ques. 144. What is the situation of the os unciforme ? Ans. It is the fourth bone of the second row. Ques. 145. What is its general form ? Ans. Its anterior surface has upon it a hook-like pro- cess, from which the carpal ligament and some muscles of the little finger arise ; its posterior surface is rough for the attachment of ligaments; its radial side is double, corresponding to the ulnar side of the os magnum; its superior side corresponds to the inferior one of the os cuneiforme ; its inferior side is double for the last bones of the metacarpus. Ques. 146. What is the structure of the carpal bones ? Ans. The structure of these bones are spongy. Metacarpus. Ques. 147. What is the situation of the metacarpus ? Ans. The metacarpus is placed immediately below the carpus. Ques. 148. Of how many bones does the metacarpus consist ? Ans. It consists of four bones, one supporting each finger; some anatomists reckon five, considering the first bone of the thumb as a metacarpal bone. Ques. 149. What is the general form of the metacar- pal bones ? Ans. They are long bones ; thicker at the extremities than at the middle. Ques. 150. Into what parts are they divided? Ans. They may be divided into a basis, body, and head. 94 Ques. 151. What is the form of the basis of the meta- carpal bones ? Ans. They are narrow toward the palm, broader towards the back of the hand, and broadest on each side. Ques. 152. What is the form of their bodies ? Ans. They are contracted, of a triangular figure ; poste- riorly somewhat convex for the back of the hand, and anteriorly each has a sharp ridge. Ques. 153. What is the form of their heads? Ans. They are round eminences flattened on each side; their greatest convexity is turned towards the palm. Ques. 154. Which is the largest of the metacarpal bones ? Ans. The first, which supports the forefinger, is the longest. Ques. 155. What is their structure ? Ans. They resemble the long bones. Ques. 156. What are their connexions ? Ans. They are connected superiorly to the bones of the carpus ; laterally to each other by their bases ; and inferiorly to the first bones of the fingers. Bones of the Fingers. Ques. 157. How many bones compose the fingers? Ans. Each finger is composed of three bones ; there are fifteen in the whole, including those of the thumb. Ques. 158. How are the bones of the fingers named? Ans. They are called phalanges ; those nearest the metacarpal bones are called the first, and those which form the ends of the fingers the third or last. Ques. 159. What is the form of the first bone of the thumb ? Ans. The first bone of the thumb considerably resem- bles the bones of the metacarpus ; its convex side is much 95 flattened, and is broadest towards the head, which re- sembles the metacarpal bones ; the articular surface of its base is a double ginglymus, allowing flexion and exten- sion, adduction and abduction, and corresponds to the lower side of the os trapezium. Ques. 160. What is the form of the second bone of the thumb ? Ans. It is shorter than the first, convex on one side, flat on the other, and contracted between the edges. Ques. 161. What is the form of the third bone of the thumb ? Ans. The base of the third bone of the thumb forms a ginglymus with the head of the second bone; and has very near it, on each side, a small tuberosity: its head is small and flat, and ending in a rough semicircular edge. Ques. 162. What is the form of the first phalanges of the fingers ? Ans. They somewhat resemble the second bone of the thumb: but they are longer, flatter anteriorly, and rounder posteriorly. Ques. 163. What is the form of the second phalanges of the fingers ? Ans. They are shorter, narrower, and thinner than those of the first: their bases have a double cavity for a ginglymoid articulation. Ques. 164. What is the form of the third phalanges ? Ans. They exactly resemble that of the thumb, except that their size is proportioned to their respective fingers. 96 SECTION IX. OF THE BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. Ques. 1. How are the bones of the lower extremitie divided ? Ans. Each lower extremity is divided into the thigh leg, and foot. Os Femoris. Ques. 2. What is the situation of the os femoris ? Ans. It is placed nearly in the same direction with the trunk, only bends somewhat inward. Ques. 3. Into what parts is it divided ? Ans. Into a body, a superior and inferior extremity. Ques. 4. What is the form of the head of the os fe- moris ? Ans. It resembles a large portion of a ball, supported by its long neck. Ques. 5. In what direction is the head of the os fe- moris placed ? Ans. It is turned obliquely inward and a little forward; forming an angle with the body. Ques. 6. Where is the fossa of the head of this bone ? Ans. A little below its centre. Ques. 7. What is attached to the edge of this fossa? Ans. A strong ligament, called the ligamentum teres. Ques. 8. What is the situation of the neck of this bone ? 97 Ans. It is placed at the upper part of the bone. Ques. 9. What is the direction of its neck ? Ans. It is inclined upward and slightly forward, sup- porting the head. Ques. 10. Where is the capsular ligament inserted ? Ans. Around the root of the neck. Ques. 11. What is the name of the great tuberosities situated at the root of the neck of the os femoris ? Ans. The trochanter major is the name given to the greater tuberosity. Ques. 12. At what particular part of the base of the neck is the trochanter major situated? Ans. It is situated at its outer side. Ques. 13. What covers the external convex surface of the trochanter major ? Ans. It is covered by the tendon of the gluteus max- imus. Ques. 14. What muscle is attached to the rough broad anterior muscular mark on the great trochanter ? Ans. The gluteus minimus ? Ques. 15. What is fixed to the posterior edge of the great trochanter ? Ans. The quadratus femoris. Ques. 16. What is attached to the sharp superior edge of the great trochanter ? Ans. The gluteus medius posteriorly; and the pyri- formis, obturator internus, and gemini, anteriorly. Ques. 17. What is attached to its deep fossa? Ans. The tendon of the obturator externus. Ques. 18. What is the form of the body of the os femoris ? Ans. It is cylindrical. Ques. 19. Where is the trochanter minor situated ? Ans. At the inner and posterior part of the root of the neck. Ques. 20. What is attached to the trochanter minor ? 9 98 Ans. The iliacus internus and psoas muscles. Ques. 21. Where is the linea aspera ? Ans. It is the rough prominent line passing along the posterior part of the os femoris. Ques. 22. What muscle is fixed to the commence- ment of the linea aspera ? Ans. The gluteus maximus. Ques. 23. What muscles are attached to its middle ? Ans. The triceps is inserted into its middle, and the short head of the biceps arises from it. Ques. 24. How does the linea aspera terminate in- feriorly ? Ans. It divides into two ridges; one of which passes externally and the other internally. Ques. 25. What is attached to the outer ridge ? Ans. The vastus externus. Ques. 26. What is attached to the inner ridge ? Ans. The vastus internus, and the aponeurosis of the great head of the triceps. Ques. 27. Over which of the ridges do the femoral vessels pass ? Ans. Over the internal one. Ques. 28. What is inserted into the tuberosity which terminates the inner ridge of the linea aspera ? Ans. The tendon of the great head of the triceps. Ques. 29. What is the situation and direction of the canal of the medullary artery ? Ans. It is placed about the middle of the linea aspera, and slants upwards. Ques. 30. What is the form of the lower extremity of the os femoris ? Ans. It is broad and thick; formed by two large pro- tuberances projecting downward and backward. Ques. 31. What is the name of these protuber- ances ? Ans. The condyles of the os femoris. 99 Ques. 32. Which of the condyles projects most infe- riorly and posteriorly ? Ans. The inner condyle. Ques. 33. Which of the condyles projects most ante- riorly ? Ans. The outer condyle. Ques. 34. What is situated between the two condyles posteriorly ? Ans. A deep notch which separates them. Ques. 35. What is transmitted through this notch ? Ans. The vessels pass from the thigh through this notch. Ques. 36. What ligaments are attached to the inner side of this notch ? Ans. The crucial ligaments. Ques. 37. Where is the pulley of the os femoris si- tuated ? Ans. The junction of the condyles anteriorly forms a pulley-like surface on which the patella rests. Ques. 38. What are attached to the small tuberosities immediately above the back of the condyles ? Ans. The heads of the gastrocnemius. Ques. 39. What is the structure of the os femoris ? Ans. Its structure resembles that of the other long bones. Ques. 40. What are the connexions of the os femoris ? Ans. It is connected to the os innominatum superiorly, and to the tibia inferiorly. Bones of the Leg. Ques. 41. Of what bones does the leg consist ? Ans. It consists of three bones; namely, the tibia, fibula, and patella. 100 Tibia. Ques. 42. How is the tibia situated ? Ans. It is placed on the inner side of the leg. Ques. 43. What is its general form ? Ans. Its circumference is irregularly triangular; it is larger above than below. Ques. 44. How is it divided ? Ans. Into a body; an upper and a lower extremity. Ques. 45. What is the form of the superior articular surfaces of this bone ? Ans. Its thick expanded superior extremity, which has been called its head, presents two broad articular surfaces; one placed externally, the other internally, nearly hori- zontal and slightly hollowed. Ques. 46. What difference is there in the form of the superior articular surfaces of the tibia ? Ans. The internal one is somewhat oblong and de- pressed ; the external one is rounder. Ques. 47. What is attached to the tuberosity between the superior articular surfaces ? Ans. The crucial ligaments. Ques. 48. What is inserted into the tuberosity behind the inner part of the head of the tibia ? Ans. The semimembranosus muscle. Ques. 49. What is fixed to the tuberosity behind the outer part of the head of the tibia ? Ans. The head of the fibula. Ques. 50. What is attached to the tuberosity on the fore part of this bone ? Ans. The ligament of the patella. Ques. 51. What is the form of the body of the tibia? Ans. It presents three distinct surfaces and edges ? 101 Ques. 52. What is attached to the inner edge of the tibia ? Ans. The interosseous ligament. Ques. 53. What is the situation and direction of the canal of the medullary artery ? Ans. It is situated somewhat above the middle of the posterior side of the bone, and slants downward. Ques. 54. What is the form of the lower part of the tibia ? Ans. It is much smaller than the upper part. Ques. 55. What is the use of the notch on the outside of the lower end of the tibia ? Ans. It is a longitudinal depression for the end of the fibula. Ques. 56. What is the name and use of the process on the inside of the lower end of the tibia ? Ans. It is called its malleolus internus, and gives attachment to a strong ligament. Ques. 57. How is the trochlea which receives the astragalus formed ? Ans. The lower end of the tibia and its malleolus in- ternus, together with the lower end of the fibula or mal- leolus externus, form a trochlea or pulley-like cavity, in which plays the first bone of the foot. Ques. 58. What are the connexions of the tibia? Ans. It is joined superiorly to the os femoris and pa- tella ; laterally to the fibula, both above and below; and inferiorly to the astragalus. Patella. Ques. 59. What is the situation of the patella ? Ans. It is situated directly above the anterior tuberosity of the tibia. Ques. 60. What is its general form ? 9* 102 Ans. It is about half as thick as it is long; but its length and breadth are nearly equal. Ques. 61. How is it divided ? Ans. Into a basis, an apex, and two sides. Ques. 62. What is inserted into the base of the pa- tella ? Ans. The base, which is turned upwards, gives attach- ment to the union of the vasti, rectus femoris, and cruralis. Ques. 63. What is fixed to its apex? Ans. The ligament of the patella. Ques. 64. What is the appearance of its inner or posterior side ? Ans. It is somewhat concave, and divided into two by a middle ridge. Ques. 65. Which of its depressions is the deepest ? Ans. The most external one. Ques. 66. What is the structure of this bone ? Ans. It is of a spongy structure. Ques. 67. What are its connexions ? Ans. It is connected to the anterior tuberosity of the tibia by a strong ligament, and is articulated with the pulley and condyles of the femur. Fibula. Ques. 68. What is the situation of the fibula? Ans. It is placed on the outside of the leg. Ques. 69. What is its general form ? Ans. It is a long slender bone, having three surfaces and edges, which are contorted in their course. Ques. 70. How is it divided ? Ans. Into a body ; an upper and a lower extremity. Ques. 71. What is the form of the head of the fibula ? Ans. It is obliquely flattened by a small articular plane 103 internally, and has upon its outer side a small tuber- osity. Ques. 72. What is fixed to this tuberosity ? Ans. The tendon of the biceps and the external lateral ligament. Ques. 73. With what is the articular surface of the head of the fibula articulated ? Ans. With a similar one on the tibia. Ques. 74. What is the form of the body of this bone ? Ans. The circumference of its body is irregularly tri- angular. Ques. 75. To what part of the body of the fibula is the interosseous ligament fixed ? Ans. To the inner side. Ques. 76. What is the situation and direction of the canal of the medullary artery of this bone ? Ans. It is placed about the middle of the posterior side of the bone, and slants downwards. Ques. 77. AVhat is the form of the lower end of the fibula ? Ans. It is broader, flatter, and more oblong than the upper. Ques. 78. What is attached to the inferior articular surface of the fibula ? Ans. The outer articular surface of the astragalus. Ques. 79. What is attached to the tuberosity of the lower end of the fibula ? Ans. A strong ligament. Ques. 80. What are the connexions of this bone ? Ans. It is connected laterally to the tibia both above and below, and inferiorly to the astragalus. 104 Bones of the Foot. Ques. 81. How are the bones of the foot divided ? Ans. They are arranged under three classes ; namely, those of the tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. Tarsus. Ques. 82. What is the situation of the tarsus ? Ans. They form-the posterior part of the foot. Ques. 83. Of what bones does the tarsus consist ? Ans. It consists of seven bones ; namely, the astraga- lus ; os calcis; os scaphoides; os caboides ; and the three ossa cuneiformia—the internum, medium, and ex- ternum. Ques. 84. Which is the superior bone of the tarsus ? Ans. The astragalus, which, with the bones of the leg, forms the ankle joint. Ques. 85. What is the general form of the astragalus ? Ans. It is extremely irregular ; but may be divided into a body or posterior portion, and an apophysis or anterior portion. Ques. 86. What is the form of the superior articular surface of the astragalus ? Ans. It resembles a half pulley. Ques. 87. What is the appearance of its inferior sur- face ? Ans. It is divided into two articular facettes by a deep transverse groove. Ques. 88. With what do these articular surfaces connect ? Ans. They are united to corresponding ones on the os calcis. 105 Ques. 89. What is united to the anterior articular surface of this bone ? Ans. The os naviculare. Ques. 90. What is the situation of the os calcis ? Ans. It is placed at the posterior and inferior part of the tarsus, and forms the heel. Ques. 91. What is its shape ? Ans. It is of an irregular oblong form. Ques. 92. What is the appearance of its superior sur- face ? Ans. It is divided by a groove, which separates two articular surfaces for its union with the astragalus. Ques. 93. What is its appearance posteriorly ? Ans*. 'It is broad, unequally convex, and rough poste- riorly. Ques. 94. What is attached to its rough portion at its posterior end ? Ans. The tendo-Achilles. Ques. 95. What is its appearance on its lower sur- face ? Ans. It is narrow and rough. Ques. 96. What is the appearance of its anterior side ? Ans. It has a concave articular surface anteriorly. Ques. 97. What is attached to its anterior side ? Ans. The os cuboides. Ques. 98. What is the appearance of the outer side of the os calcis ? Ans. It is very rough and broad. Ques. 99. What is the appearance of its inner side ? Ans. It is concave. Ques. 100. What is lodged in this concavity? Ans. Several muscles and tendons, as well as many vessels and nerves going to the foot. Ques. 101. What is the situation of the os sca- phoides ? Ans. It is placed immediately before the astragalus ? 106 Ques. 102. What is its form ? Ans. As its name implies, it somewhat resembles a small boat; and has an anterior and a posterior cartilagi- nous surface ; an oval circumference ; and an inferior tuberosity. Ques. 103. What is attached to its inferior concave side ? Ans. The head of the astragalus. Ques. 104. What is attached to its anterior convex side? Ans. The three ossa cuneiformia. Ques. 105. What is fixed to its tuberosity ? Ans. It gives attachment to a portion of the abductor pollicis and tibialis anticus. Ques. 106. What is the situation of the os cuboides ? Ans. It is situated before the os calcis on the outside of the os naviculare. Ques. 107. What is its form ? Ans. It has six irregular sides. Ques. 108. What is the appearance of its lower side? Ans. Its inferior surface is rough, and before an oblique eminence there is a well marked groove. Ques. 109. What passes in this groove ? Ans. The tendons of the peroneus longus. Ques. 110. What is the appearance of its posterior side ? Ans. It is articular. Ques. 111. What is it united to on its anterior side? Ans. The os calcis. Ques. 112. What is the appearance of its anterior side ? Ans. It is also articular, flat, and divided into two portions by a narrow faint line. Ques. 113. What is united to its anterior side ? Ans. The fourth and fifth bones of the metatarsus. Ques. 114. What is the appearance of its inner side ? 107 Ans. It has upon it a round cartilaginous surface, and the rest of it is rough. Ques. 115. What is attached to this cartilaginous surface ? Ans. The os cuneiforme externum. Ques. 116. What is the appearance of the outside of the os cuboides ? Ans. It is irregular, short, and narrow. Ques. 117. What is the appearance of its upper side ? Ans. It is flat and rough for the attachment of liga- ments. Ques. 118. What is the situation of the ossa cunei- formia ? Ans. They are situated before the os scaphoides, and internal to the os cuboides. Ques. 119. What is the relative size of the ossa cu- neiformia ? Ans. The internal is the largest, and the external is the least. Ques. 120. Into what parts are they divided? Ans. Each cuneiforme bone has a base superiorly ; an apex inferiorly; and a posterior, an anterior, an external, and an internal side. Ques. 121. What is the form of the os cuneiforme internus ? Ans. It somewhat resembles a wedge contorted and bent, and has its base turned downward. Ques. 122. What is the form of the os cuneiforme medium ? Ans. It more resembles a wedge, and has its base turned upward. Ques. 123. What is the form of the os cuneiforme externum ? Ans. It also resembles a wedge, and has its base turned upward. 108 Metatarsus. Ques. 124. What is the situation of the metatarsus ? Ans. The metatarsus forms the middle part of the foot. Ques. 125. Of how many bones does the metatarsus consist ? Ans. Of five bones ; one supporting each toe. Ques. 126. What is the general form of the bones of the metatarsus ? Ans. They are longer and more slender than the meta- carpal bones. Ques. 127. Into what parts are they divided ? Ans. They may be divided into a body, basis, and head. Ques. 128. What is the form of their bases ? Ans. They resemble a wedge whose edges are turned downward. Ques. 129. What is the form of their bodies ? Ans. Their bodies are long and slender and flattened on each side. Ques. 130. What is the form of their heads ? Ans. Their heads or anterior extremities are convex and smooth, much flattened laterally, and are joined to the toes. Ques. 131. Which is the largest of the metatarsal bones ? Ans. The first one. Ques. 132. What is peculiar to the fifth metatarsal bone? Ans. It is distinguished by a rough projection from its base, to which is attached the peroneus brevis. Ques. 133. What are the connexions of the metatarsal bones ? Ans. They are joined to the tarsus, and to each other 109 posteriorly, and to the first phalanges of the toes ante- riorly. Bones of the Toes. Ques. 134. What is the number of the bones of the toes? Ans. The five toes are formed by fourteen bones ; three belonging to each of the four lesser toes, and two to the great toe. Ques. 135. How are they arranged? Ans. They are arranged precisely as the fingers. Ques. 136. What is the form of the first bone of the great toe ? Ans. It somewhat resembles the second bone of the thumb; its base is considerably hollow, and its head re- sembles a pulley. Ques. 137. What is the form of the second bone of the great toe ? Ans. It resembles the last of the thumb, but is much larger, and its anterior edges more unequal. Ques. 138. What is the form of the first bones of the other toes ? Ans. The first bones of the other toes are the largest, but are shorter, narrower, and more convex than those of the fingers. Ques. 139. What is the form of the second bones of the toes ? Ans. They are very short, and almost of the same ob- long form. Ques. 140. What is the form of the third bones of the toes ? Ans. They nearly resemble those of the fingers. Ques. 141. What is the form and situation of the ses- amoid bones ? 10 110 Ans. They are small oval bones, chiefly found under the first joint of the great toe. SECTION X. FEMALE SKELETON. Ques. 1. How do the bones of the female differ from those of the male ? Ans. They are smaller and less strongly marked than those of the male. All muscular attachments, depres- sions, and protuberances are smaller. Ques. 2. Whether is the skull of the female, or that of the male proportionally largest ? Ans. The skull of the female is said to be larger, though more delicate. Ques. 3. How does the os frontis differ from that of the male ? Ans. The sinuses are less capacious, and it is more frequently divided by a suture down the middle. Ques. 4. How do the clavicles differ from those of the male ? Ans. They are straighter. Ques. 5. How does the sternum differ ? Ans. It is shorter, and more elevated below. Ques. 6. How do the cartilages of the true ribs differ ? Ill Ans. They are larger, broader, and flatter, to support the mammae. Ques. 7. What is the difference in the vertebrae ? Ans. The bodies of the vertebrae are deeper. Ques. 8. What is the difference in the os sacrum ? Ans. It is broader and set more backward. Ques. 9. What is the difference in the os coccygis ? Ans. It is more moveable. Ques. 10. How do the ossa ilii differ from those of the male ? Ans. They are broader, and turned outwards. Ques. 11. How does the arch of the pubis and the ischiatic notch differ from these parts in the male sub- ject? Ans. They are larger. Ques. 12. What is the difference in the tuberosities of the ischia of the female ? Ans. They are more distant and flatter. Ques. 13. How do the ossa femorum differ? Ans. They are more distant, and the angle of the neck with the body of the bone is greater. Ques. 14. What parts of the female skeleton offer the most striking differences from that of the male ? Ans. The pelvis shows the most distinct characters of difference between the male and female skeleton. In the female, though the bones of the pelvis are less massy and rough, the cavity they form is more capacious; the ilia more expanded; the brim more rough, and of an oval form, its greatest diameter being from side to side; the outlet more expanded; the arch of the pubis greater; and the tuberosities of the ischia more distant from each other. 112 CHONDROLOGY. SECTION XL OF CARTILAGES. Ques. 1. What are cartilages ? Ans. They are white, elastic, smooth, and very com- pact substances; in density next to bone. Ques. 2. How many kinds of cartilages are there ? Ans. There are four kinds: 1st, diarthrodial; 2d, sy- narthrodial; 3d, interarticular ; and, 4th, cartilages which through life supply the place of bone. Ques. 3. What are diarthrodial cartilages ? Ans. They cover the ends of bones forming moveable joints. Ques. 4. What are their use ? Ans. They afford a highly polished surface, favourable to the motions of the joint; and their elasticity renders violent movements less dangerous. Ques. 5. What are synarthrodial cartilages ? Ans. They are placed between several bones, having no perceptible motions on each other, as the bones of the pubis, &c. Ques. 6. What are their use ? Ans. They answer the purpose of a bond of union, and also prevent the ill effects of shocks from sudden and violent motions. 113 Ques. 7. What are inter articular cartilages ? Ans. They are placed in some joints between bones ; as in the joint of the lower jaw, the clavicle with the sternum, and the knee joint. Ques. 8. What is their use ? Ans. They prevent the ill effects of friction, enlarge the articular cavity, and extend the mobility of the joint. Ques. 9. In what parts does cartilage supply the place of bone ? Ans. In the nose, the larynx, trachea, and part of the chest. 10* 114 SYNDESMOLOGY. SECTION XII. OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE HEAD AND TRUNK. Ques. 1. What are ligaments ? Ans. They are strong, flexible substances, usually connecting those bones together, which form moveable joints. Ques. 2. How many kinds of ligaments are there ? Ans. There are two kinds; 1st, the capsular; 2d, the connecting ligaments. Ques. 3. What are capsular ligaments ? Ans. They surround the joints on all sides. Ques. 4. What is the use of capsular ligaments ? Ans. They form bags which retain, and probably se- crete the synovia, whilst they contribute to the union of the bones. Ques. 5. What are connecting ligaments ? Ans. They are usually of a firmer and more fibrous texture than the capsular. Ques. 6. What are their use ? Ans. They strengthen considerably the union of bones ? Ques. 7. What names are usually given to the connect- ing ligaments ? Ans. They are called lateral, crucial, round, &c, ac- cording to their situations or form. 115 Ques. 8. What other kinds of ligamentous substances are there ? Ans. There are some answering the purposes of bones, others strengthening the union of bones, not moving on each other; these two kinds may be found about the pelvis. A third kind are the elastic ligaments ; they exist about the vertebrae, in some animals they are very common; of this nature is the ligamentum nuchae in the neck of grazing animals. Ques. 9. What are the ligaments of the lower jaw ? Ans. There are two on each side; a capsular and a lateral ligament. Ques. 10. What is the situation of the capsular liga- ment of the lower jaw ? Ans. It arises around the articular surface of the squa- mous portion of the temporal bone ; and, inclosing in its passage downward an inarticular cartilage, it is fixed round the condyloid process of the lower jaw. Ques. 11. What is the situation of the lateral liga- ment of the lower jaw ? Ans. It arises from the root of the styloid process of the temporal bone, and is inserted into the inside of the angle of the lower jaw. Ques. 12. What are the ligaments of the vertebrae in general ? Ans. For the union of the vertebrae there are seven kinds of ligaments ; namely, the common anterior liga- ment, common posterior, crucial or intervertebral, the capsules of the oblique processes, intertransverse, sub- flava, and interspinous. Ques. 13. What is the situation of the common ante- rior ligament of the vertebrae ? Ans. It arises from the forepart of the first vertebrae, and covers the anterior part of the whole spinal column as far down as the os sacrum. 116 Ques. 14. What is the situation of the common pos- terior ligament ? Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the foramen magnum, and covers the posterior part of the bodies of the vertebrae to the termination of the os sacrum. Ques. 15. Where are the crucial or intervertebral ligaments ? Ans. They cross each other obliquely from the edge of one vertebrae to that of another. Ques. 16. Where are the capsules of the oblique pro- cesses ? Ans. They arise from the edge of one oblique process, and surround that of another. Ques. 17. What is the situation of the intertransverse ligaments ? Ans. They pass between the transverse processes of the vertebrae. Ques. 18. Where is the ligamenta subflava ? Ans. It connects the bony arches of the vertebrae. Ques. 19. Where is the interspinous ligaments? Ans. They connect the spinous processes of the ver- tebrae. Ques. 20. What are the ligaments peculiar to the cer- vical vertebrae ? Ans. They are the ligamentum nuchae common to all the vertebrae of the neck, and the transverse ligament belonging to the two first. Ques. 21. What is the situation of the ligamentum nuchae ? Ans. It arises from the spine of the occiput, and is attached to the spinous processes of all the cervical ver- tebrae. Ques. 22. What is the situation of the transverse ligament of the atlas ? Ans. It is attached to a small tuberosity, on each side of the articular depression behind the anterior arch of the 117 atlas, and encloses the tooth-like process of the dentatus. It sends one process up to the occiput and another down to the inferior vertebrae. Ques. 23. What are the ligaments from the first verte- brae to the occiput? Ans. They are four in number; being those of the ante- rior and posterior arches of the atlas and the capsular liga- ments for the condyles. Ques. 24. What are the ligaments from the second vertebrae to the occiput? Ans. They are three in number; namely, one perpen- dicular, and two lateral. Ques. 25. What is the situation of the perpendicular ligament ? Ans. It arises from the tip of the tooth-like process of the second vertebra, and is inserted into the edge of the foramen magnum between the condyles. Ques. 26. What is the situation of the lateral liga- ments ? Ans. They arise from each side of the processus den- tatus, and are inserted into the occiput before the condyles, and also into the inside of the atlas. Ques. 27. What are the ligaments connecting the ribs and vertebrae ? Ans. They are of six kinds ; viz., the capsular of the heads of the ribs ; the capsular of the tubercles of the ribs ; the external ligaments of the necks of the ribs; the inter- nal ligaments of the necks of the ribs; the external transverse ligaments; and the internal transverse liga- ments. Ques. 28. Where are the capsules of the heads of the ribs ? Ans. They surround the junction of the ribs with the bodies of the vertebrae. Ques. 29. What is the situation of the capsules of the tubercles of the ribs ? 118 Ans. They surround the junction of the ribs with the transverse processes of the vertebrae. Ques. 30. Where are the external ligaments of the neck of the ribs ? Ans. They arise from the roots of the oblique processes, and are inserted into the necks of the ribs. Ques. 31. What is the situation of the internal liga- ments ? . Ans. They arise from the lower edges of the transverse processes, and are inserted into the internal part of the necks of the ribs. Ques. 32. Where is the external transverse ligament? Ans. It arises from the transverse process, and is in- serted into the angle of each rib. Ques. 33. Where is the internal transverse ligament? Ans. It arises from the body of each vertebra, and is inserted anteriorly a little beyond the head of each rib. Ques. 34. What are the ligaments connecting the ribs to each other? Ans. They are called coruscating ligaments, and pass between their cartilages. Ques. 35. What are the ligaments connecting the ribs and sternum ? Ans. They are of two kinds; capsular and transverse. Ques. 36. What is the situation of the capsules of the anterior ends of the ribs ? Ans. They connect the ribs to the depressions of the sternum. Ques. 37. What is the situation of the external and internal transverse ligaments ? Ans. They externally and internally connect the carti- lages of the ribs to the sternum. Ques. 38. What are the proper ligaments of the ster- num ? Ans. There are two; viz., the common membrane of the sternum, and the ligaments of the Xiphoid cartilage. 119 Ques. 39. What are the ligaments of the pelvis ? Ans. Anteriorly there are three, viz., Poupart's liga- ment, the annular ligament, and the obturator ligament; posteriorly there are five, viz., transverse, the ilio-sacral, the ligamentum vaga, the short ischiatic, and the long ischiatic ligament. Ques. 40. What is the situation of Poupart's liga- ment ? Ans. It arises from the anterior superior spinous pro- cess of the ilium, and is inserted into the angle of the pu- bis. Some of its fibres are inserted into the pubis before it reaches the angle; and it is these which are to be divided in Gimbernat's operation for female hernia. Ques. 41. What is the situation of the annular liga- ment? Ans. It surrounds the articulation of the ossa pubis. Ques. 42. Where is the obturator ligament ? Ans. It closes up the foramen thyroideum, leaving only a small notch at its superior part. Ques. 43. What is the situation of the transverse liga- ment? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae, and is inserted into the poste- rior superior spinous process of the ilium. Ques. 44. What is the situation of the ilio-sacral liga- ment? Ans. It arises from the superior posterior spine of the s ilium, and is inserted into the back of the sacrum. Ques. 45. Where is the ligamenta vaga ? Ans. The ligamenta vaga are numerous small ligaments which pass from the ilium to the sacrum anteriorly and posteriorly. Ques. 46. What is the situation of the short sacro- ischiatic ligament ? Ans. It arises from the spine of the ischium, and is in- 120 serted into the posterior part of the transverse process of the sacrum. Ques. 47. What is the situation of the long sacro- ischiatic ligament ? Ans. It arises from the internal edge of the tuberosity of the ischium, and is inserted along with the short one. Ques. 48. What are the ligaments of the os coccygis ? Ans. They are four in number; viz., a capsular, an anterior, a posterior, and a lateral ligament. SECTION XIII. OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. Ques. 1. What are the ligaments of the sternal extre- mity of the clavicle ? Ans. There are three connecting the clavicle to the sternum; namely, the capsular, the interclavicular, and the rhomboid ligaments. Ques. 2. What is the situation of the capsular liga- ment ? Ans. It arises around the depression of the sternum, and involving an interarticular cartilage is inserted around the end of the clavicle. Ques. 3. Where is the interclavicular ligament ? 121 Ans. It passes behind the sternum, from the end of one clavicle to that of the other. Ques. 4. Where is the rhomboid ligament? Ans. The rhomboid, or, as it has sometimes been called, the costo-clavicular ligament, connects the first rib and clavicle near the sternum. Ques. 5. What are the ligaments connecting the cla- vicle and scapula ? Ans. They are three in number, viz., the capsular, the conoid, and the trapezoid. Ques. 6. What is the situation of the capsular liga- ment ? Ans. It arises around the sternal end of the clavicle, and is fixed round the articular surface of the acromion. Ques. 7. Where is the conoid ligament ? Ans. The conoid or coraco-clavicular ligament arises pointed from the root of the coracoid process, and is in- serted into the inferior side of this end of the clavicle. Ques. 8. Describe the situation of the trapezoid liga- ment. Ans. It differs in form from the last, but has nearly the same origin and insertion. Ques. 9. What are the ligaments proper to the scapula I Ans. There are two ; the anterior and posterior. Ques. 10. Describe the anterior. Ans. It arises from the upper edge of the acromion, and is inserted into that of the coracoid process ; it is also called coraco-acromial ligament. Ques. 11. What is the situation of the proper poste- rior ligament ? Ans. It arises from the root of the coracoid process, and passes over the notch to the superior costa of the bone. Ques. 12. What are the ligaments connecting the sca- pula and humerus ? 11 122 Ans. They are two in number, viz.: the capsular and the upper part of the tendon of the biceps. Ques. 13. Describe the capsular ligament. Ans. It arises from the margin of the glenoid cavity, and is inserted round the neck of the humerus. Ques. 14. What is the situation of the tendon of the biceps muscle ? Ans. It arises from the upper edge of the glenoid ca- vity, passes through the joint, and being fixed in its groove by a strong sheath, it contributes to strenghten the shoulder joint. Ques. 15. What are the ligaments proper to the hu- merus ? Ans. They are two in number, viz.: the external and internal intermuscular. Ques. 16. Describe the external intermuscular liga- ment. Ans. It arises from the external condyle, and is in- serted into the middle of the outside of the bone. Ques. 17. What is the situation of the internal inter- muscular ? Ans. It arises from the internal condyle, and is inserted into the middle of the inside of the bone. Ques. 18. What are the ligaments connecting the hu- merus to the radius and ulna ? Ans. There are three, viz.: the capsular, and the ex- ternal and internal lateral. Ques. 19. What is the situation of the capsular liga- ment ? Ans. It arises round the trochlea of the humerus, and is inserted around the heads of the radius and ulna. Ques. 20. Describe the external lateral ligament. Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- rus, and is inserted into the outside of the neck of the radius. Ques. 21. Where is the internal lateral ligament ? 123 Ans. It arises from the internal condyle, and is inserted into the inner side of the coronoid process of the ulna ? Ques. 22. What are the ligaments connecting the ra- dius and ulna ? Ans. They are four in number, namely, the coronary, the oblique, the interosseous, and the sacciforme. Ques. 23. Describe the coronary ligament. Ans. It arises from the ulna, and surrounds the head of the radius. Ques. 24. Where is the oblique ligament ? Ans. It arises from the base of the coronoid process of the ulna, and is inserted into the tubercles of the radius. Ques. 25. What is the situation of the interosseous ligament ? Ans. It is attached to the acute edges of these bones, turned towards each other. Ques. 26. Describe the situation of the sacciforme li- gament ? Ans. It unites in a distinct articulation the lower ends of the radius and ulna. Ques. 27. What are the ligaments from the radius and ulna to the carpus ? Ans. They are three in number, viz., the capsular, the external, and the internal lateral; between the end of the ulna and the os naviculare, a triangular, interarticular car- tilage is placed. Ques. 28. Describe the capsular ligament. Ans. It arises around the lower articular surfaces of the radius and ulna, and is inserted round the three first bones of the carpus. Ques. 29. Where is the external lateral ligament? Ans. It arises from the styloid process of the radius, and is inserted into the outside of the os scaphoides. Ques. 30. What is the situation of the internal lateral ligament ? Ans. It arises from the styloid process of the ulna, and 124 is inserted into the outside of the os cuneiforme and os unciforme. Ques. 31. What are the ligaments of the carpus? Ans. They are of five kinds, viz., the capsular, the transverse, the posterior annular, and the vaginal. Ques. 32. Describe the capsular ligament. Ans. It surrounds and connects all the carpal bones. Ques. 33. What is the situation of the transverse ? Ans. It passes from bone to bone, and ties them to- gether. Ques. 34. Describe the posterior annular ligament. Ans. It binds down the tendons of the extensor muscles to the back of the carpus. Ques. 35. Where is the anterior annular ? Ans. It arises from the os pisiforme, and os unciforme, and is inserted into the trapezium, under which pass the flexor tendons. Ques. 36. Describe the vaginal ligaments. Ans. They proceed from within the anterior annular and sheathe the flexor tendons. Ques. 37. What are the ligaments of the bases of the metacarpal bones ? Ans. They are of four kinds, viz. the capsular, the late- ral, the dorsal, and the palmar. Ques. 38. Describe the capsular ligaments. Ans. They are derived from that of the carpus, which includes the bases of these bones. Ques. 39. Where are the lateral ligaments ? Ans. They are situaled on each side of the articula- tions. Ques. 40. Describe the dorsal ligaments. Ans. They are transverse ligaments, connecting the bases of these bones, on the back of the hands. Ques. 41. What is the situation of the palmar liga- ments ? 125 Ans. They connect the bases of the metacarpal bones in the palm. Ques. 42. What are the ligaments of the heads of the metacarpal bones ? Ans. They are of three kinds, viz., the capsular, late- ral, and transverse. Ques. 43. What are the ligaments of the joints of the fingers ? Ans. They are at each joint capsular and lateral. SECTION XIV. OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. Ques. 1. What are the ligaments connecting the os innominatum and the femur ? Ans. There are two, viz., a capsular and a round liga- ment. Ques. 2. What is the situation of the capsular liga- ment ? Ans. It arises from the margin of the acetabulum, and is inserted around the root of the neck of the femur, a reflected layer of this ligament passes up the neck to the edges of the head of the bone, and transverse ligaments connect the one layer with the other. Ques. 3. Describe the round ligament. 11* 126 Ans. It arises from the small depression of the head of the femur, and is inserted into the middle of the acetabu- lum. Ques. 4. What are the ligaments which connect the femur with the tibia and fibula ? Ans. There are six ligaments connecting these bones, viz., the capsular, popliteal, internal lateral, external late- ral, anterior crucial, and posterior crucial. Ques. 5. Describe the capsular ligament. Ans. It passes from the edges of the articular surface of the femur to those of the tibia, being attached also to the patella. Ques. 6. Where is the popliteal ligament? Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the femur, and, passing in the posterior part of the capsule, is ex- panded upon the internal side of the joint. Ques. 7. What is the situation of the external lateral ligament ? Ans. It arises from the external condyle, and is inserted into the head of the fibula. It generally divides itself into two portions. Ques. 8. Describe the internal lateral ligament. Ans. It arises from the internal condyle, and is inserted into the inside of the head of the tibia. Ques. 9. Where is the posterior crucial ? Ans. It arises from the inside of the notch, between the condyles of the femur, and is inserted into the posterior part of the rough ridge on the top of tibia. Ques. 10. Describe the anterior crucial. Ans. It arises from the outside of the notch, between the condyles of the femur, and is inserted into the middle of the ridge on the top of the tibia. Ques. 11. What are the ligaments of the patella ? Ans. They are of two kinds; the anterior ligament and the alar ligament. Ques. 12. Describe the anterior ligament. 127 Ans. It arises from the inferior point of the patella, and is inserted into the anterior tuberosity of the tibia. Ques. 13. Where are the alar ligaments? Ans. They proceed on each side from the inner side of the capsular, and are inserted into the sides of the pa- tella. Ques. 14. What are the ligaments connecting the tibia and fibula? Ans. There are three, namely, the capsular, the inter- osseous, and the transverse. Ques. 15. What is the situation of the capsular liga- ment ? Ans. It connects the upper extremities of the tibia and fibula. Ques. 16. Describe the interosseous ligament. Ans. It connects the outer edge of the tibia to a ridge on the inner side of the fibula. Ques. 17. Where are the transverse ligaments ? Ans. They connect the lower end of the fibula to that of the tibia, anteriorly and posteriorly. Ques. 18. What are the ligaments connecting the tibia and fibula to the tarsus ? Ans. They are five in number, viz., the capsular, the deltoid, and the anterior, middle, and posterior ligaments of the fibula. Ques. 19. Describe the capsular ligament. Ans. It surrounds the junction of the tibia and fibula with the astragalus. Ques. 20. Where is the deltoid ligament? Ans. It arises from the internal malleolus, and is in- serted into the astragalus and naviculare. Ques. 21. What is the situation of the anterior liga- ment? Ans. It arises from the external malleolus, and is in- serted into the outside of the astragalus. Ques. 22. Where is the middle ligament ? 128 Ans. It arises from the tip of the external malleolus, and is inserted into the outside of the os calcis. Ques. 23. Describe the posterior ligament. Ans. It arises from the back part of the external malle- olus, and is inserted into the back part of the astragalus. Ques. 24. What are the ligaments of the tarsus? Ans. They are of three kinds, namely, the capsular, the transverse, the plantar, and a ligament at the intersal side of the foot. Ques. 25. What is the office of the capsular ligament ? Ans. It includes all the tarsal and the heads of the me- tatarsal bones. Ques. 26. What is the use of the transverse ligaments 1 Ans. They pass from one to another, and tie the indi- vidual bones together. Ques. 27. Where is the plantar ligament situated? Ans. On the outside of the sole of the foot. Ques. 28. Where is the internal ligament? Ans. It passes from the lower part of the os calcis to the lower part of the os naviculare, supporting the astra- galus. Ques. 29. What are the ligaments of the bases of the metatarsal bones. Ans. They are of four kinds, namely, the capsular, the lateral, the dorsal, and the plantar. Ques. 30. What are the capsular ligaments derived from ? Ans. From that of the tarsus, which includes the bases of these bones. Ques. 31. Where are the lateral ligaments situated ? Ans. On each side of the articulations. Ques. 32. Where are the dorsal ligaments ? Ans. They are transverse ligaments connecting these bones on the back of the foot. Ques. 33. What is the situation of the plantar liga- ment? 129 Ans. It connects the metatarsal bones in the sole of the foot. Ques. 34. What are the ligaments of the head of the metatarsal bones ? Ans. They of three kinds, namely, the capsular, the lateral, and the transverse. Ques. 35. What are the ligaments of the joints of the toes ? Ans. They are capsular and lateral. Ques. 36. How are the tendons of the foot and toes kept in their situations ? Ans. The tendons passing over the instep and' behind the ancles are confined in their situations by ligamentous bands. 130 MYOLOGY. Ques. 1. What are the muscles? Ans. They are fleshy bodies, composed of bundles of parallel contractile fibres, with tendinous extremities. Ques. 2. What is their general appearance ? Ans. The middle portion of them is generally their principal part. It is of a red colour, softer and thicker than the other parts, and is alone capable of contraction. Ques. 3. What general names do muscles derive from the arrangement of their fibres ? Ans. If the fibres run longitudinally the muscle is termed simple; if they diverge from a tendinous centre they are named radiated; and when they have a feathery arrangement upon their tendons, they are called penni- form; several of these united, are called complex penni- form, &c. Ques. 4. Whence are the particular names of the mus- cles in general derived ? Ans. They generally derive their names, either from their use as levators or depressors ; from their form, as tra- pezius, rhomboideus, &c; from their situation, as occi- pito-frontalis, pectoralis, &c; or from their points of attachment, as sterno-costalis, sterno-cleido, mastoideus, &c. Ques. 5. What are the tendons ? Ans. They are generally placed at the extremities of muscles, and are of a silvery hue, firm, compact, and in- capable of contraction. 131 Ques. 6. What is called the origin of a muscle ? Ans. The least movable point of attachment is called the origin. Ques. 7. What is called the insertion of a muscle ? Ans. Its most movable point of attachment. SECTION XV. OF THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. Ques. 1. What muscles arise from the trunk, and are inserted into it and the linea alba. Ans. Five muscles arise from the trunk, and are in- serted into it and the linea alba; viz., the obliquus exter- nus abdominis descendens, the obliquus internus abdomi- nis ascendens, the transversalis abdominis, the rectus abdominis, and the pyramidalis. Ques. 2. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the obliquus externus abdominis descendens ? Ans. It arises from the inferior edges of the eight lower ribs, near their sternal ends, by an equal number of ser- rated digitations, which intermix with the digitations of the serratus anticus; posteriorly it is covered where it passes from the last rib to the crista ilii by the latissimus dorsi, to which it adheres; and superiorly it is connected 132 to the pectoralis majoi and intercostals; running down- ward and forward, it is inserted by a thin and broad ten- don into a white line composed of tendons of the abdomi- nal muscles called linea alba, extending from the last bone of the sternum to the pubis ; but before this tendon reaches the rectus abdominis, it unites with the tendons of the obliquus internus and transversalis, and forms another white line called linea semi-lunaris; this muscle is also inserted into the middle of the crista ilii, and into Pou- part's ligament, extending from its anterior spine to the angle of the pubis, and transmits over this ligament a fascia to the thigh; the lower part of its tendon, near the pubis, divides to form the abdominal ring for the sperma- tic cord in males; its use is to bend the body, or to raise the pelvis, and by compressing the abdomen to assist in respiration, in evacuating the feces, urine, and foetus, &c. Ques. 3. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the obliquus internus abdominis ascendens ? Ans. It arises from Poupart's ligament, about the mid- dle of which it sends off the cremaster ; from all the crista ilii, and by a common tendon, with the serratus posticus inferior, from the spines of the three lower lumbar verte- brae, and from the os sacrum ; it is inserted into the last bone of the sternum, into the cartilage of the last true and those of all the false ribs, into all the linea alba, and into the anterior part of the pubis ; it divides into two layers, the anterior passing before the posterior, except at its lower part, behind the rectus abdominis to the linea alba; its use is to assist the external oblique, and to bend the body in an opposite diiection. Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the transversalis abdominis ? Ans. It arises internally from the cartilages of the seven lower ribs, being there connected with the intercostals and diaphragm; also from the transverse process of the last vertebra of the back, from those of the four upper ver- 133 tebrae of the loins, from the inner edge of the crista ilii, and from part of Poupart's ligament; it is inserted into the inferior bone of the sternum, and almost all the length of the linea alba; its use is to compress the abdomen. Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the rectus abdominis ? Ans. It arises from each side of the symphysis pubis; as it passes up, it has four tendinous intersections, and is sheathed by the tendons of the oblique and transverse muscles, joining fibres of the pectoral; it is inserted into the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs; its use is to depress the trunk, or to elevate the pelvis, and to compress the abdomen. Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the pyramidalis ? Ans. It arises between the origin of the recti from the symphysis pubis ; it is inserted about one-fourth up the linea alba, into it and the inner edge of the recti; its use is to assist the recti. Ques. 7. What muscles arise from the ribs and verte- brae and terminate in a central tendon. Ans. The greater and lesser muscles of the diaphragm. Ques. 8. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the greater muscle of the diaphragm ? Ans. It arises from the cartilages of all the false and of the last true rib, also from the last bone of the sternum; it forms a septum between the thorax and abdomen, which is concave inferiorly; it is inserted into a central tendon, towards the right side of which is a triangular foramen for the vena cava inferior; to its upper part the pericardium and mediastinum are attached; its use is to act in respiration, and to expel the feces and urine, and the foetus in partu- rition. Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the lesser muscle of the diaphragm ? 12 134 Ans. It arises by eight slips from the second, third, and fourth lumbar vertebrae, which unite to form its crura; and between these pass the aorta and thoracic duct, on their outside the great sympathetic nerve, and some branches of the vena azygos; and about the middle of the fleshy belly of this muscle the oesophagus and eighth pair of nerves pass through a considerable foramen, called the left one, to distinguish it from that situated toward the right of its tendinous centre ; it is inserted into the middle tendon posteriorly : its use is to assist the greater muscle. Ques. 10. What muscle arises from the pelvis and vertebrae and is inserted into the ribs and vertebrae ? Ans. The longissimus dorsi. Ques. 11. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the longissimus dorsi ? Ans. It arises from the spinous and transverse pro- cesses of the three upper false vertebrae, from the spinous and transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, and from the posterior spine of the os ilium ; it is inserted into the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae, and into the lower edge of the ten upper ribs : its use is to extend the trunk. Ques. 12. What muscle arises from the pelvis and vertebrae and is inserted into the ribs ? Ans. The sacro lumbalis. Ques. 13. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. Its origin is the same as that of the longissimus dorsi; it is inserted into the curvature of the ribs : its use is to pull down the ribs, and to elevate the trunk. Ques. 14. What muscle arises from the pelvis and vertebrae and is inserted into the vertebrae ? Ans. The multifidus spinae. Ques. 15. Where is the origin, insertion, and use of this muscle ? Ans. It arises from the posterior spine of the ilium, rom the spinous and transverse processes of the upper 135 false vertebrae, from the transverse and oblique processes of the lumbar vertebrae, from the transverse processes of the dorsal, and from those of the four inferior cervical vertebrae; it is inserted into the spinous processes of all the true vertebrae, except the first; its use is to extend the vertebrae. Ques. 16. What muscle arises from the pelvis, and is inserted into the ribs ? Ans. The quadratus lumborum. Ques. 17. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the crista ilii; it is inserted into the last rib, the side of the last dorsal vertebra, and the transverse processes of all the lumbar; its use is to bend the trunk to one side, and where both act to bend the trunk forward. Ques. 18. What muscles arise from the vertebrae, and are inserted into the ribs ? Ans. There are six; namely, the scalenus anticus, the scalenus medius, the scalenus posticus, the cervicalis de- scendens, the serratus "superior posticus, and serratus inferior posticus. Ques. 19. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the scalenus anticus ? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae ; it is inserted into the upper side of the first rib near its cartilage; its use is to bend the neck, or to elevate the ribs on one side. Ques. 20. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the scalenus medius ? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the cer- vical vertebrae ; it is inserted into the outer edge of the first rib till within an inch of its cartilage ; its use is to assist the scalenus anticus. Ques. 21. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the scalenus posticus ? 136 Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae ; it is inserted into the posterior part of the upper edge of the second rib ; its use it to assist the scalenus anticus. Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the cervicalis descendens ? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five inferior cervical vertebrae ; it is inserted into the six su- perior ribs ; its use is to turn the neck obliquely back- ward, and to one side. Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the serratus superior posticus ? Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the three last cervical, and two uppermost dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the second, third, fourth, and fifth ribs ; its use is to elevate the ribs. Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the serratus inferior posticus ? Ans. It arises in common with the latissimus dorsi from the spinous processes of the two inferior dorsal and three superior lumbar vertebrae ; it is inserted into the upper edges of the four lower ribs, near their cartilages; its use is to depress these ribs. Ques. 25. What muscles arise from the vertebrae and are inserted into them ? Ans. There are twelve sets; namely, the longus colli, the splenius cervicis, the obliquus capitis inferior, the transversalis colli, the semispinalis colli, the spinalis dorsi, the semispinalis dorsi, the interspinalis colli, the interspinales dorsi et lumborum, the intertransversales colli et lumborum, and the intertransversales dorsi. Ques. 26. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the longus colli ? Ans. It arises from the sides of the bodies of the three superior dorsal vertebrae, and from the roots of the trans- verse processes of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cer- 137 vical; it is inserted anteriorly into the bodies of all the cervical vertebrae; its use is to bend the neck forward and somewhat laterally. Ques. 27. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the splenius cervicis ? Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the third and fourth dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the trans- verse processes of the five superior cervical vertebrae ; its use is to extend the neck. Ques, 28. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the obliquus capitis inferior ? Ans. It arises from the spinous process of the second dorsal vertebrae; it is inserted into the transverse process of the first; its use is to rotate the head. Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the transversalis colli ? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five upper dorsal vertebrae, being situated between the trachelo mastoideus and the splenius cervicis and cervicalis de- scendens ; it is inserted into the transverse processes of the five middle cervical vertebrae; its use is to turn the neck backward and somewhat laterally. Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the semispinalis colli ? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the six upper dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the spinous processes of the five middle cervical vertebrae ; its use is to extend the neck obliquely backward. Ques. 31. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the spinalis dorsi ? Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the two upper lumbar and three lower dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the spinous processes of the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth dorsal vertebrae ; its use is to extend the spine. 12* 138 Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the semispinalis dorsi ? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the spinous processes of the two inferior cer- vical and the seven upper dorsal vertebrae ; its use is to extend the spine obliquely. Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the interspinales colli ? Ans. They arise from the spinous process of one cer- vical vertebrae, and are inserted into the spinous process of that next it; their use is to extend the neck. Ques. 34. What are the interspinales dorsi et lum- borum ? Ans. They appear to partake more of the nature of ligaments than muscles. Ques. 35. What is tffe origin, insertion, and use of the intertransversales colli et lumborum ? Ans. They arise from the transverse process of one cervical or lumbar vertebrae, and are inserted into the transverse process of that next it; their use is to approx- imate their processes. Ques.*1 36. What are the intertransversales dorsi ? Ans. They also seem to be ligamentous. Ques. 37. What muscles arise from one rib and are inserted into another ? Ans. The intercostales externi and intercostales in- terni. Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the intercostales externi ? Ans. They arise from the inferior edge of one rib between the spine and its cartilage, and are inserted into the upper edge of another ; their fibres running from behind forward: their use is to elevate the ribs in in- spiration. 139 Ques. 39. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the intercostales interni ? Ans. They arise from the inferior edge of one rib be- tween the sternum and its angle, and are inserted like that of the external; they run from before backward; their use is to elevate the ribs in inspiration. Ques. 40. What muscle arises from the sternum and is inserted into the ribs ? Ans. The sterno-costalis, or triangularis sterni. Ques. 41. What is its origin, insertion, and use? Ans. It arises from the edge of the intercostales interni, and from the anterior half of the middle bone of the ster- num ; it is inserted into the inferior edge of the cartilages of the third, fourth, and fifth ribs. Ques. 42. What muscle arises from the vertebrae and is inserted into the pelvis ? Ans. The psoas parvus. Ques. 43. What is its origin, insertion, and use? Ans. It arises laterally from the bodies of the two upper lumbar vertebrae ; it is inserted into the brim of the pelvis, opposite the acetabulum internally; its use is to aid in bending the loins. Ques. 44. What muscles arise from one part of the pelvis and are inserted into another ? Ans. There are two, viz., the coccygeus and curvato- coccygis. Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the coccygeus ? Ans. It arises from the spine of the ischium, and the inside of the lesser sacro-ischiatic ligament; it is inserted into the edge of the os coccygis ; its use is to pull that bone forward. Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the curvator coccygis ? Ans. It arises internally from the last bone of the os sacrum, and the first bone of the os coccygis; it is in- 140 serted, after having joined its fellow, into the second and third, but principally into the fourth bone of the os coccy- gis; its use is to curve the os coccygis. SECTION XVI. OF THE MUSCLES OF THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION AND ANUS. Ques. 1. What muscle arises from the obliquus inter- nus abdominis, and is inserted into the testis ? Ans. The cremaster. Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the internal oblique about the abdo- minal ring, through which it passes, and descends upon the spermatic cord; it is inserted into the tunica vaginalis testis; its use is to draw up the testis. Ques. 3. What is the dartos ? Ans. It is supposed to be a muscle of the scrotum ; but is, in fact, nothing more than condense cellular mem- brane. Ques. 4. What muscles arise from the tuber ischii and are inserted about the penis ? Ans. There are three, viz., the erector penis, the trans- versa perinei, and transversus perinei alter. 141 Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the erector penis ? Ans. It arises from the tuber ischii, and in its ascent surrounds the whole crus penis. It is inserted near the union of the crura penis. Its use is to direct, if not to erect the penis. Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the transversus perinei ? Ans. It arises from the tuber ischii, passing trans- versely inward and forward ; it is inserted into the accelerator urinae and the sphincter ani, where the above mentioned muscles cover the bulb ; its use is to dilate the bulb while it draws up the verge of the anus. Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the transversus perinei alter ? Ans. It arises behind the transversus perinei, but runs more forward; it is inserted into the accelerator, where it covers the bulb anteriorly ; its use is to assist the trans- versus perinei. This muscle is sometimes not to be found in some subjects. Ques. 8. What muscle is that which arises from one part of the penis and is inserted into another ? Ans. The accelerator urinae, or ejaculator seminis. Ques. 9. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the sphincter ani, the membranous part of the urethra and crus penis ; it is inserted into the middle of the bulb, and completely encloses it; its use is to compress the bulb. Ques. 10. What muscle arises from the pubis and is inserted about the prostate gland ? Ans. The compressor prostatae. Ques. 11. What is its origin, insertion, and use? Ans. It arises above the levator ani from the internal part of the os pubis, between the lower part of the sym- physis and the upper part of the foramen ovale ; it is in- serted between the prostate and rectum, having surrounded 142 the former; its use is to compress the inferior part of the prostate. Ques. 12. What muscles arise from the pelvis and are inserted about the anus ? Ans. There are three ; viz., the levator ani, the sphincter ani externus, and the sphincter ani internus. Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the levator ani ? Ans. It arises from the spine of the ischium, from the membrane covering the coccygeus and obturator internus, from the junction of the pubis and ischium, and from the pubis above the foramen thyroideum ; it is inserted, after surrounding the neck of the bladder, prostate, vesiculae seminales, and the termination of the rectum, into the sphincter ani, acceleratores urinae and tip of the os coccy- gis ; its use is to elevate the anus. Ques. 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the sphincter ani externus ? Ans. It arises from the tip of the os coccygis, and sur- rounds the anus ; it is inserted into the perineum, trans- versi perinei, and acceleratores urinae; its use is to shut the anus, and to pull down the bulb of the urethra. Ques. 15. What is the sphincter ani internus ? Ans. It may be considered to be that part of the fibres of the rectum which surrounds its extremity 143 SECTION XVII. OF THE MUSCLES OF THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION AND ANUS. Ques. 1. What muscle is that which arises from the ischium and is inserted into the clitoris ? Ans. The erector clitoridis. Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the inner side of the branch of the ischium, and embraces the crus of the clitoris as far up as the os pubis ; it is inserted into the upper part of the crus and body of the. clitoris ; its use is to draw the clitoris downward and backward. Ques. 3. What muscle arises from the clitoris, and is inserted into the vagina ? Ans. The sphincter vaginae. Ques. 4. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the union of the crura clitoridis. It is inserted into the sphincter ani and sides of the va- gina, which it surrounds. Its use is to contract the mouth of the vagina. Ques. 5. What muscle is that which arises from the tuber ischii, and is inserted into the perineum ? Ans. The transversus perinei. Ques. 6. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the cellular membrane, and the tu- berosity of the ischium. It is inserted into the peri- neum, between the pudendum and anus, and into the phincter ani. Its use is to sustain the perineum. 144 Ques. 7. What muscle arises from the tuber ischii, and is inserted into the vagina ? Ans. The transversus perinei alter. Ques. 8. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. Its origin resembles that of the transversus peri- nei ; it is inserted into the side of the vagina; its use is to assist the transversus perinei. Ques. 9. What muscle arises from one crus clitoridis and is inserted into the other ? Ans. The depressor urethrae. Ques. 10. What is its origin, insertion, and use? Ans. It arises from one crus of the clitoris, and involves the urethrae; it is inserted into the other crus of the clito- ris ; its use is to depress the urethra. Ques. 11. What muscles arise from the pubis, and are inserted about the anus ? Ans. There are three, viz., the levator ani, the sphinc- ter ani externus, and sphincter ani internus. Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the levator ani ? Ans. It arises as in the male, and descends along the inferior part of the vagina and rectum ; it is inserted into the perineum, sphincter ani, and extremities of the rectum and vagina; its use is to elevate the rectum and vagina. Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the sphincter ani externus ? Ans. It arises, as in the male, from the tip of the os coc- cygis, and surrounds the anus ; it is inserted into the peri- neum ; its use is to shut the rectum, and by pulling down the perineum to contract the vagina. Ques. 14. Describe the sphincter ani internus ? Ans. It exactly resembles that of the male. 145 SECTION XVIII. OF THE MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, FACE, ETC. Ques. 1. What muscle is that which arises from the integuments of the head and shoulder, and is inserted into those of the face ? Ans. The platysma myoides. Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the cellular substance covering the deltoid and pectoral muscles superiorly, and passes up- ward in a very thin layer almost immediately under the cutis of the neck ; it is inserted into the skin, covering the lower jaw between its angle and the chin; also into that covering the masseter and parotid gland; its use is to ap- proximate the portions of integument into which it is in- serted. Ques. 3. How many muscles arise from the sternum, ribs, and vertebrae to be inserted into the head ? Ans. There are ten, viz., the sterno-cleido mastoideus, the rectus capitis anticus major, the rectus capitis anticus minor, the rectus capitis lateralis, the splenius capitis, the complexus, the trachelo mastoideus, the rectus capitis pos- ticus major, the obliquus capitis superior, and the rectus capitis posticus minor. Ques. 4. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the sterno-cleido mastoideus. Ans. It arises from the upper surface of the sternum laterally, and from the upper and anterior part of the cla- vicle ; it is inserted into the mastoid process, and as far 13 146 back as the lambdoidal suture; its use is to turn the head on one side, and bend it forward. Ques. 5. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the rectus capitis anticus major. Ans. It arises from the anterior parts of the transverse processes of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical ver- tebrae, by distinct commencements; it is inserted into the basilary process of the occipital bone, just before the con- dyles ; its use is to bend the head forward. Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the rectus capitis anticus minor? Ans. It arises anteriorly from the first vertebra of the neck, opposite its superior oblique processes ; it is in- serted near the root of the condyles of the os occipitis further out than the former muscle ; its use is to nod the head. Ques. 7. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the rectus capitis lateralis. Ans. It arises anteriorly from the point of the transverse process of the first vertebra of the neck; it is inserted into the ridge of the os occipitis external to the condyles; its use is to bend the head to one or the other side. Ques. 8. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the splenius capitis ? Ans. It arises from the five inferior cervical spines and the ligamentum nuchae ; they recede from each other at the third vertebra of the neck, and show between them the complexus ; it is inserted into the hollow of the os occi- pitis below its transverse ridge, and externally to the com- plexus, also into the mastoid process posteriorly; its use is to pull the head backward and to one side. Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the complexus muscle ? Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the four inferior cervical and seven superior dorsal vertebrae, also from the spinous process of the first dorsal; it is inserted 147 into the hollow of the os occipitis below its transverse ridge; its use is to pull the head laterally backward. Ques. 10. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the trachelo-mastoideus. Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five inferior cervical, and three superior dorsal vertebrae ; it is inserted into the middle of the posterior part of the mas- toid process ; its use is to pull the head backward, but more laterally than the complexus. Ques. 11. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the rectus capitis posticus major. Ans. It arises from the external part of the spine of the second cervical vertebra; it is inserted into the os occipi- tis about an inch behind the foramen magnum; its use is to pull the head backward and a little laterally. Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the obliquus capitis superior ? Ans. It arises from the transverse process of the first cervical vertebra; it is inserted into the os occipitis ex- ternally to the rectus capitis posticus major, and below the complexus; its use is to pull the head backward. Ques. 13. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the rectus capitis posticus minor. Ans. It arises from the middle of the posterior arch of the atlas ; it is inserted into a depression immediately behind the foramen magnum ; its use is to pull the head backward. Ques. 14. What muscles arise from the skull and are inserted into the integuments ? Ans. The occipito frontalis and corrugator supercilii. Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the corrugator supercilii ? Ans. It arises from the internal angular process of the os frontis, thence running outward and upward; it is in- serted internally into the inferior part of the occipito fron- 148 talis; its use is to draw the eye-brows together, and to wrinkle the skin of the forehead longitudinally. Ques. 16. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the occipito frontalis. Ans. It arises posteriorly from the transverse ridge of the os occipitis, becoming tendinous as it passes upward over the cranium ; it is connected to the temporalis, the attollens aurem, and the zygoma, and advancing to the brow it becomes again muscular; it is inserted into the orbicularis and the skin of the eye-brows; its use is to raise the eye-brows and to pull backward, or to wrinkle the skin of the head. Ques. 17. What muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the eye-lids ? Ans. The levator palpebrae superioris and orbicularis palpebrarum. Ques. 18. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the levator palpebrae superioris. Ans. It arises from the upper part of the foramen opti- cum of the os sphenoides, above the levator oculi ; it is inserted into the upper eye-lid ; its use is to pull the eye- lid upward. Ques. 19. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the orbicularis palpebrarum ? Ans. It arises at the inner angle of the eye, from the outside of the nasal process of the superior maxillary bone. and surrounding the eye externally; it is inserted, after having passed over the lachrymal sac, where it arose; its use is to shut the eye, press the eye-ball, squeeze the lachrymal gland, and convey the tears towards the puncta lachrymalia. Ques. 20. How many muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the eye-ball, and what are their names ? Ans. There are six ; viz., the levator oculi, depressor 149 oculi, adductor oculi, abductor oculi, trochlearis or obli- quus superior, and obliquus inferior oculi. Ques. 21. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the levator oculi. Ans. It arises from the upper part of the foramen opti- cum of the sphenoid bone, beneath the levator palpebrae superioris ; it is inserted into the superior and anterior part of the sclerotic coat; its use is to elevate the ball of the eye. Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the depressor oculi ? Ans. It arises from the inferior part of the foramen opticum ; it is inserted opposite to the levator oculi; its use is to depress the ball of the eye. Ques. 23. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor oculi. Ans. It arises from the edge of the foramen opticum between the obliquus superior and the depressor; it is inserted opposite to the inner angle; its use is to adduct or turn the eye towards the nose. Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor oculi ? Ans. It arises from the outward edge of the foramen opticum; it is inserted opposite to the outer angle ;' its use is to turn the eye towards the temple. Ques. 25. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the trochlearis or obliquus superior ? Ans. It arises from the edge of the foramen opticum, between the levator and adductor oculi, thence turning to the cartilaginous trochlea on the inside of the internal angular process of the os frontis it passes through it, and turns its course downwards, outward, and backward ; it is inserted into the sclerotic coat, half way between the insertion of the levator and the optic nerve ; its use is to roll the ball of the eye from above inwardly, to pull it 13* 150 forward, inward, and upward, and to turn the pupil downward and outward. Ques. 26. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the obliquus inferior oculi ? Ans. It arises from the outer edge of the orbitar pro- cess of the superior maxillary bone near the depression for the lachrymal duct, running outward and backward ; it is inserted into the sclerotic coat between the abductor and the optic nerve ; its use is to roll the ball of the eye from above outwardly, to pull it forward, inward, and and downward, to turn the pupil upward and inward. Ques. 27. How many muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the external ear ? Ans. There are three ; namely, the attollens aurem, anterior auris, and retrahens aurem. Ques. 28. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the attollens aurem. Ans. It arises from the tendon of the occipito frontalis, where it covers the temporal aponeurosis ; it is inserted superiorly into the back of the concha; its use is to elevate the ear. Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the anterior auris ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the zygoma ; it is inserted anteriorly into the back of the helix; its use is to pull the ear forward. Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the retrahens aurem ? Ans. It arises often by three origins from the external parts of the root of the mastoid process ; it is inserted posteriorly into the back edge of the concha; its use is to pull the ear backward. Ques. 31. What muscles are attached wholly to the external ear ? Ans. The helicis major, helicis minor, tragicus, anti- tragicus, and transversus auris. 151 Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the helicis major ? Ans. It arises from the acute process of the helix; it is inserted into the helix a little higher up ; its use is to contract that part of the helix. Ques. 33. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the helicis minor. Ans. It arises from the inferior and anterior part of the helix, nearer its edge than the former ; it is inserted into the helix a little higher up ; its use is to bring together the edges of a fissure over which it passes. Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the tragi cus ? Ans. It arises anteriorly from the middle of the ante- rior edge of the concha ; it is inserted into the tip of the tragus ; its use is to pull the point of the tragus forward. Ques. 35. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the antitragus. Ans. It arises from the termination of the antihelix; it is inserted into the tip of the antitragus ; its use is to approximate these points by shutting the fissure be- tween them. Ques. 36. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the transversus auris ? Ans. It arises from the superior and posterior edge of the back of the concha; it is inserted superiorly into the back of the fossa navicularis, and posteriorly into the back of the fossa innominata; its use is to approximate these cavities. Ques. 37. What muscles arise from the cranium, and are inserted into the ossicular auditus ? Ans. There are four; viz., the laxator tympani major, laxator tympani minor, tensor tympani, and the sta- pedius. Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the laxator tympani major ? 152 Ans. It arises from the styliform process of the sphe- noid bone, running backward it passes through the fissura glasseri; it is inserted into the long process of the mal- leus, wheie it rests upon the same fissure ; its use is to pull the malleus and membrana tympani obliquely forward. Ques. 39. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the laxator tympani minor. Ans. It arises from the superior posterior margin of the meatus auditorius, where the" membrana tympani adheres to it, and descends inward and forward ; it is inserted into the neck of the malleus near its short process; its use is to pull the malleus and membranae tympani forward and upward. Ques. 40. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the tensor tympani. Ans. It arises from the cartilaginous end of the eusta- chian tube and styliform process of the sphenoid bone, thence running back above the osseous part of the eusta- chian tube, within a thin osseous plate, it makes a turn forward into the tympanum ; it is inserted posteriorly into the handle of the malleus below its long process ; its use is to pull the malleus and membrana tympani inward. Ques. 41. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the stapedius. Ans. It arises from a hollow pyramid on the posterior side of the tympanum, before the lower end of the fallo- pian aqueduct; it is inserted into the posterior part of the head of the stapes; its use is to pull the stapes up- ward and backward. Ques. 42. What muscle arises from one part of the nasal cartilage, and is inserted into another ? Ans. The compressor naris. Ques. 43. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the compresor naris ? Ans. It arises from the superior part of the catrilage of 153 the nose ; it is inserted into its inferior part; its use is to compress the alae. Ques. 44. How many muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the nose and lips ? Ans. There are two ; the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, and depressor labii superioris alaeque nasi. Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi ? Ans. It arises by two commencements; one from the external edge of the orbital process of the superior max- illary bone, the other from the upper part of its nasal process ; it is inserted first into the upper lip and orbi- cularis labiorum, and secondly into the upper lip and outer part of the ala nasi; its use is to elevate the upper lip and ala nasi. Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the depressor labii superioris alaeque nasi ? Ans. It arises from the depression of the os maxillare superius, above the dentes incisivi and canini, thence run- ning up under the levator; it is inserted into the upper lip and root of the ala nasi; its use is to draw the upper lip and ala nasi downward and backward. Ques. 47. What muscle arises from the nose and is inserted into the upper lip ? Ans. The nasalis labii superioris. Ques. 48. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the tip and septum of the nose, en- larging and descending obliquely outward ; it is inserted into the orbicularis oris; its use is to bring closer the angles of the mouth, or to depress the tip of the nose. Ques. 49. What muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the lips ? Ans. There are six ; viz., the depressor labii inferioris, levator labii inferioris, depressor anguli oris, buccinator, zygomaticus major, and zygomaticus minor. 154 Ques. 50. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the depressor labii inferioris ? Ans. It arises anteriorly from the inferior part of the lower jaw; it is inserted into the edge of the under lip; its use is to depress the under lip. Ques. 51. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the levator labii inferioris ? Ans. It arises from the depression of the os maxillare inferius, below the dentes incisivi and caninus ; it is in- serted into the under lip and skin of the chin; its use is to pull the parts upward. Ques. 52. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the depressor anguli oris ? Ans. It arises from the inferior edge of the maxilla in- ferior, by the side of the chin ; it is connected externally to the integuments and to the platysma myoides, and in- ternally to the depressor labii inferioris, becoming gradu- ally narrower ; it is inserted into the angle of the mouth; its use lis to pull down the angle of the mouth. Ques. 53. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the buccinator ? Ans. It arises from the upper jaw behind the dens sa- pientiae, where it is connected with the constrictor pha- ryngeus superior, and from the lower jaw as far back as its dens sapientiae and the root of its coronoid process; it is inserted into the angle of the mouth, within the orbi- cularis oris; its use is to pull the angle of the mouth backward, and to press the chin inward. Ques. 54. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the zygomaticus major? Ans. It arises from the zygomatic process of the os malae ; it is inserted into the angle of the mouth; its use is to draw upward and outward the corner of the mouth. Ques. 55. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the zygomaticus minor ? Ans. It arises from above the origin of the zygoma- 155 ticus major; it is inserted into the upper lip, near the cor- ner of the mouth; its use is to draw upward and outward the corner of the mouth. Ques. 56. What muscle arises at one part of the lips and is inserted at another? Ans. The orbicularis oris. Ques. 57. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the other muscles of the lips, the superior fibres descending, the inferior ascending, and decussating each other about the angle of the mouth; it is inserted into fibres from the opposite side; its use is to shut the mouth and compress the lips. Ques. 58. What muscle arises from one part of the upper jaw and is inserted into another? Ans. The anomalus maxillae superioris. Ques. 59. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the upper part of the fossa of the cuspidates of the upper jaw; it is inserted below the ori- gin of the first portion of the levator labii superioris,'alae- que nasi; its use is to act only on the vessels and nerves from the attachment of both its ends to one bone. Ques. 60. What muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the lower jaw ? Ans. There are five, viz., the temporalis, masseter, pterygoideus externus, pterygoideus internus, and digas- tricus. Ques. 61. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the temporalis. Ans. It arises from the temporal ridge and depression of the os frontis and os parietale, from the temporal process of the sphcenoid bone, and from the aponeurosis which covers it; it is inserted around the coronoid process of the lower jaw; its use is to pull the lower jaw upward and backward. Ques. 62. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the masseter. 156 Ans. It arises from the superior maxillary bone where it joins the os malae, and from the inferior and interior part of the zygoma throughout its length, the external fibres starting backward, the internal forward; it is in- serted into the outside of the angle and ramus of the lower jaw; its use is to elevate the lower jaw and to pull it a little forward or backward. Ques. 63. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the pterygoideus externus. Ans. It arises from the outside of the external ptery- goid process of the sphcenoid bone, from part of the tube- rosity of the os maxillare, and from the root of the tempo- ral process of the os sphoenoides; it is inserted into a cavity on the anterior part of the neck of the condyloid process of the lower jaw, and into the capsular ligament of the joint; its use is to pull the jaw forward and to the opposite side, and to pull the ligament from the joint. Ques. 64. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the pterygoideus internus ? Ans. It arises from the pterygoid fossa of the sphamoid and palate bones ; it is inserted into the angle of the lower jaw internally; its use is to pull the jaw upward, and towards the other side. Ques. 65. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the digastricus ? Ans. It arises from the deep fossa at the root of the mastoid process of the temporal bone; becoming tendinous in the middle, it perforates the stylo-hyoideus and is fixed by a ligament to the os hyoides, and again ascends ; it is inserted into a rough sinuosity at the inferior edge of the chin; its use is to depress the lower jaw,,and open the mouth, and when the jaw is fixed to raise the larynx and pharynx in deglutition. 157 SECTION XIX. OF THE LARYNX AND PHARYNX. Larynx. Ques. 1. What is the larynx? Ans. It is the organ of voice. Ques. 2. Where is it situated ? Ans. At the upper and fore part of the neck, at the root of the tongue, just below the os hyoides. Ques. 3. Of what is it composed ? Ans. Chiefly of cartilages and ligaments, which when united, form a hollow body permanently open. Ques. 4. Of how many cartilages does it consist? Ans. Five ; namely, the thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytaenoid, and epiglottis. Ques. 5. Where is the thyroid cartilage ? Ans. It is placed at the anterior part of the larynx. Ques. 6. What is its form ? Ans. It consists of two alae, which form a projecting angle forward, and then slope backward; its superior edge has a notch in the middle that may be easily felt, and elevations on each side, and terminates in two cornua posteriorly, which ascend; its inferior edge is straight, and terminates also in two shorter cornua, which bend downward; its posterior edges are entirely straight, and on the outer side of each ala a line runs from a small knob near its upper cornu, forward and downward, to terminate in another. Ques. 7. What is the situation of the cricoid car- tilage ? 14 158 Ans. It is placed at the lower part of the larynx, its broadest side being backward. Ques. 8. What is its form ? Ans. The outer surface of its posterior side has upon it a longitudinal line, and depressions on each side of it, for the attachment of muscles ; the top of the same side slopes downward and outward, terminating in angles, which are smooth for connexion with the arytaenoid car- tilages, and from these angles elevated lines descend to terminate in smooth surfaces for the lower cornua of the thyroid cartilage. Ques. 9. What is the situation of the arytaenoid cartilages ? Ans. They are placed posteriorly upon the greater side of the cricoid cartilages. Ques. 10. What is their form ? Ans. They are somewhat of a pyramidal form, but their posterior side is concave, their anterior convex, their external edge oblique, and their internal one straight; their bases rest on the cricoid cartilage, with which they have a moveable connexion. Ques. 11. What is the situation of the epiglottis ? Ans. It is placed anteriorly above the other cartilages. Ques. 12. What is its form ? Ans. It is narrower, but somewhat thick at its base, and its superior part is thin, flat, and flexible, with convex edges, and it is also convex posteriorly, and concave an- teriorly. Ques. 13. What ligaments docs the larynx possess .' Ans. A short ligament connects the body of the os hyoides to the notch of the thyroid cartilage, from which a ligament proceeds to the epiglottis, and another from the epiglottis to the body of the os hyoides, thus leaving behind them a triangular space ; ligaments also connect the cornua of the os hyoides to those of the thyroid car- tilage, and the lateral ligaments of the epiglottis are 159 attached to the tops of the arytaenoid cartilages. The inferior cornua of the thyroid cartilage are likewise con- nected to the lower articular surfaces of the cricoid by short ligaments, and the inferior edge of the one is also connected to the superior part of the other ; the cricoid cartilage is connected by ligaments to the bases of the arytaenoid cartilages above, and to the first ring of the trachea below. Ques. 14. What is the glottis? Ans. It is an opening formed between two small liga- ments which proceed from the middle of the posterior side of the thyroid cartilage to the bases of the arytaenoid cartilages, and immediately beneath these two other liga- ments are placed, the superior and inferior ligaments on each side leave a narrow fissure between them, which is the opening of a small sac. Ques. 15. What is the use of the larynx? Ans. It forms the chief part of the organ of voice, and affords a passage permanently open for respiration; it also gives attachment to numerous muscles. Pharynx. Ques. 16. What is the pharynx? Ans. It is a membranous and muscular bag expanded above, contracted below, and terminating in the gullett or aesophagus. Ques. 17. What is its situation? Ans. It is placed behind the mouth, nares, and larynx, below the cuneiforme process of the os occipitis, before the cervical vertebrae, and above the oesophagus. Ques. 18. How is it composed? Ans. It is composed of circular muscular fibres, and of a membrane copiously supplied with mucous glands. Ques. 19. Into what portions is it divided? 160 Ans. It is divided into three portions—a superior, which is called its arch ; a middle, which is its body ; and an inferior, which is its sphincter. Ques. 20. AVhat is its form ? Ans. Its upper part is extremely wide, extending almost all the way between the styloid processes ; it then con- tracts on each side and behind the upper part of the la- rynx ; again expanding behind the larynx and before the atlas it forms considerable folds. Ques. 21. What is its use ? Ans. It is chiefly useful in deglutition, receives the food, and transmits it to the oesophagus. SECTION XX. OF THE MUSCLES OF THE ORGANS OF VOICE AND DEGLU- TITION. Ques. 1. How many muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the larynx ? Ans. There are four; the digastricus, the stylo-hyoideus, mylo-hyoideus, and genio-hyoideus. [The origin, insertion, and use of the digastricus hav- ing already been noticed, it will therefore be passed.] 161 Ques. 2. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the stylo-hyoideus ? Ans. It arises from the middle and inferior part of the styloid process; it is inserted into the lateral and inferior part of the body of the os hyoides, below its middle its fibres separate to allow the passage of the tendon of the digastricus ; its use is to pull-the os hyoides upward and to one side. Ques. 3. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the mylo-hyoideus ? Ans. It arises from a line on the inside of the lower jaw, between the last dens molaris, and the middle of the chin, where it joins its fellow; it is inserted into the mid- dle of the base of the os hyoides and its fellow ; its use is to pull the os hyoides forward, upward, and laterally. Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the genio-hyoideus ? Ans. It arises from a rough protuberance in the middle of the inside of the chin ; it is inserted into the middle of the upper part of the os hyoides ; its use is to pull the os hyoides forward and upward, and assist in depressing the lower jaw. Ques. 5. How many muscles arise from the trunk and are inserted into the larynx ? Ans. Two ; viz., the sterao-hyoideus and sterno-thy- roideus. Ques. 6. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the sterno-hyoideus ? Ans. It arises from the junction of the sternum and clavicle, and from the cartilage of the first rib ; it is in- serted into the middle of the lower part of the basis of the os hyoides; its use is to pull the os hyoides down- ward. Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the sterno-thyroideus ? 14* 162 Ans. It arises from the edge of the upper bone of the sternum, opposite the cartilage of the first rib internally; it is inserted into the rough line, at the external part of the lower edge of the thyroid cartilage; its use is to pull the thyroid cartilage downward. Ques. 8. What muscle arises from the shoulder and is inserted into the larynx? Ans. The omo-hyoideus. Ques. 9. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the semilunar notch of the supe- rior costa of the scapula, ascending upward and forward behind the sterno cleido mastoideus; it becomes tendi- nous, and again grows fleshy ; it is inserted into the sides of the lower part of the basis of the os hyoides; its use is to pull the os hyoides obliquely downward. Ques. 10. What muscles have both origin and inser- tion on the larynx ? Ans. There are nine ; viz., the thyro-hyoideus, mus- culus glandulae thyroideae, crico-thyroideus, cryco-arytae- noideus posticus, crico-arytaenoideus lateralis, thyro-ary- taenoideus major, thyro-arytaenoideus minor, arytaenoideus obliquus, and arytaenoideus transversus. Ques. 11. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the thyro-hyoideus ? Ans. It arises from a rough line upon the external part of the thyroid cartilage ; it is inserted into part of the basis,and all the cornu of the os hyoides externally; its use is to pull the os hyoides downward, or the thyroid cartilage upward. Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the musculus glandulae thyroideae ? Ans. It arises from the lower edge of the basis of the os hyoides, and crosses the thyroid cartilage; it is in- serted into the middle of the thyroid gland; its use is to pull the gland toward the os hyoides. 163 Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the crico-thyroideus ? Ans. It arises from the anterior and lateral parts of the cricoid cartilage, and runs obliquely upward and outward ; it is inserted by two terminations, one into the base of the thyroid cartilage the other into its inferior cornu ; its use is to pull downward and forward the thyroid, or upward and backward the cricoid. Ques. 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use.of the crico-arytaenoideus posticus ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the cricoid cartilage ; it is inserted posteriorly into the base of the arytaenoid ; its use is to pull back the arytaenoid cartilages, and to open the rima glottidis. Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the crico-arytaenoideus lateralis ? Ans. It arises from the side of the cricoid cartilage, where it is covered by the thyroid; it is inserted into the side of the base of the arytaenoid ; its use is to open the rima glottidis. Ques. 16. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the thyro-arytaenoideus major ? Ans. It arises from the inferior and posterior part of the body of the thyroid cartilage, running upward and backward, along the side of the glottis. It is inserted into the arytaenoid cartilage above and before the crico-ary- taenoideus laterales ; its use is to pull forward the arytaenoid towards the middle of the thyroid, and to relax the glottis. Ques. 17. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the thyro-arytaenoideus minor ? Ans. It arises from the thyroid cartilage, near its inci- sura cordiformis ; it is inserted into the arytaenoid cartilage ; its use is the same as that of the thyro-arytaenoideus major. Ques. 18. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the arytaenoideus obliquus ? 164 Ans. It arises from the base of one arytaenoid cartilage, and crosses its fellow ; it is inserted into the tip of the other arytaenoid cartilage; its use is to approximate the arytaenoid cartilages. Ques. 19. What muscle arises from one arytaenoid cartilage, and is inserted into the other ? Ans. The arytaenoideus transversus. Ques. 20. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the side of one arytaenoid cartilage, and is inserted into the other side of the other arytaenoid cartilage; its use is to shut the rima glottidis. Ques. 21. What muscles arise from the cranium, and are inserted into the tongue ? Ans. There are two, viz., the genio-glossus and stylo- glossus. Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the genio-glossus ? Ans. It arises from a rough point on the inside of the middle of the chin, and its fibres run forward, upward, and backward; it is inserted into the tip, middle, and root of the tongue, slightly also into the base of the os hyoides, laterally; its use is to draw the tip of the tongue back, its middle down, or to make its dorsum concave ; to draw also the os hyoides forward, and to thrust the tongue out of the mouth. Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the stylo-glossus ? Ans. It arises from the styloid process, and the lateral ligaments of the lower jaw ; it is inserted into the root and sides of the tongue ; its use is to pull it aside, and backward. Ques. 24. What muscle arises from the os hyoides, and is inserted into the tongue ? Ans. The hyo-glossus. Ques. 25. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the base, cornu, and appendix of 165 the os hyoides ; it is inserted into the side of the tongue ; its use is to pull the tongue inward and downward. Ques. 26. What muscle is wholly situated in the tongue ? Ans. The lingualis. Ques. 27. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the side of the root of the tongue, and runs forward between the hyo and genio-glossus ; it is inserted into the tip of the tongue ; its use is to contract the tongue in its length. Ques. 28. How many muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the palate ? Ans. There are two, viz., the circumflexus or tensor palati, and levator palati. Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the circumflexus or tensor palati ? Ans. It arises from the styliform process of the sphoe- noid bone and from the osseous part of the eustachian tube, it runs down along the pterygoideus internus, passes over the hook of the internal pterygoid process, and spreads into a broad membrane; it is insested into the velum pendulum palati, and the semilunar edge of the palate bone ; its posterior fibres sometimes join the con- strictor pharyngeus superior and palato pharyngeus ; its use is to draw the velum downward, and to stretch it laterally. Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the levator palati ? Ans. It arises from the extremity of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and from the membranous part of the eustachian tube; it is inserted into the velum pendulum palati as far as the uvula; its use is to draw the velum upward and backward, and so shut the passage from the fauces to the nose. Ques. 31. How many muscles arise from the larynx and are inserted into the epiglottis ? 166 Ans. Three; viz., the thyro-epiglottideus major, thy- ro-epiglottideus minor, and arytaeno-epiglottideus. Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the thyro-epiglottideus major? Ans. It arises by a few fibres from the thyroid carti- lage ; it is inserted into the epiglottis laterally; its use is to draw downward and to expand the epiglottis. Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the thyro-epiglottideus minor ? Ans. It arises just above the thyro-epiglottideus ma- jor; it is inserted into the side of the epiglottis above its root; its use is to draw downward, and to expand the epiglottis. Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the arytaeno-epiglottideus ? Ans. It arises from the lateral and upper part of the arytaenoid cartilage; it runs along the outside of the ex- ternal rima; it is inserted into the epiglottis along with the thyro-epiglottideus minor; its use is to pull the epi- glottis upon the rima. Ques. 35. What muscle arises from the cranium and is inserted into the uvula ? Ans. The azygos uvulae. Ques. 36. What is its origin, insertion, and use? Ans. It arises from the extremity of the suture of the palate bones, and runs down the velum and uvula; it is inserted into the tip of the uvula ; its use is to elevate the uvula. Ques. 37. What muscle arises from the tongue, and is inserted into the fauces ? Ans. The constrictor isthmi faucium. Ques. 38. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the side of the tongue near its root, and runs upwards within the anterior arch, before the amygdala; it is inserted anteriorly into the middle of the velum at the root of the uvula, being there connected with 167 its fellow and with the palato-pharyngeus ; its use is to pull the velum and the root of the tongue toward each other, so contracting the passage between the two arches and shutting the opening into the fauces. Ques. 39. How many muscles arise from the cranium and are inserted into the pharynx ? Ans. There are two ; the stylo-pharyngeus and constric- tor pharyngis superior. Ques. 40. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the stylo-pharyngeus ? Ans. It arises from the root of the styloid process ; it is inserted into the side of the pharynx, and back of the thyroid cartilage ; its use is to dilate and to elevate the pharynx and thyroid cartilage. Ques. 41. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the constrictor pharyngis superior ? Ans. It arises from the cuneiforme process of the os occipitis, near the anterior condyloid foramina; from the pterygoid process of the sphcenoid bones ; from the upper and under jaw, near the dentes sapientitae, being connected at this point with the buccinator, and with fibres from the tongue and palate ; it is inserted into a white line in the middle of the posterior part of the pharynx, being covered by the constrictor medius; its use is to compress the upper part of the pharynx and to draw it upward and for- ward. Ques. 42. How many muscles arise from the larynx and are inserted into the pharynx ? Ans. There are two ; the constrictor pharyngis medius, and constrictor pharyngis inferior. Ques. 43. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the constrictor pharyngis medius ? Ans. It arises from the appendix and cornu of the os hyoides, and from the ligament connecting it to the thyroid cartilage; it is inserted into the white line on the back of the pharynx, its upper fibres being connected to the cu- 168 neiforme process of the occipital bone ; its use is to com- press the pharynx, and to draw it and the os hyoides upward. Ques. 44. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the constrictor pharyngis inferior ? Ans. It arises laterally from the thyroid cartilage near the attachment of the sterno, and thyro-hyoidei; also from the cricoid cartilage, near the crico-thyroideus, being the largest of the three constrictors ; it is inserted into the white line on the back of the pharynx ; its superior fibres covering half the constrictor medius, and its inferior the commencement of the oesophagus ; its use is to compress the pharynx, and to raise it and the larynx upward. Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the palato-pharyngeus ? Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the velum pendulum palati at the root of the uvula, and also from the tendinous expansion of the tensor palati, passing be- hind the amydala and within the posterior arch, its fibres run back to the sides and upper part of the pharynx; it is inserted into the posterior and upper edge of the thyroid cartilage, and between the inferior constrictors and the pharynx; its use is powerfully to contract the fauces. 169 SECTION XXI. MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. Ques. 1. How many muscles arise from the trunk and are inserted into the shoulder ? Ans. Six; viz., the pectoralis minor, angularis scapulae, trapezius, rhomboideus, serratus magnus, and subclavius. Ques. 2. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the pectoralis minor. Ans. It arises tendinous and fleshy from the upper edge of the third, fourth, and fifth ribs, near their cartilages ; it is inserted by a short tendon into the coracoid process of the scapula; its use is to pull the scapula forward and downward. Ques. 3. Describe the origin, insertion, and use of the augularis scapulae. Ans. It arises from the transverse processes of the five superior vertebrae of the neck; it is inserted into the su- perior angle of the scapula; its use is to elevate the base of the scapula. Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the trapezius ? Ans. It arises from the spine and transverse ridge of the occiput, the ligamentum nuchae, the spinous processes of the two inferior vertebrae of the neck, and from all those of the back; it is inserted into the posterior half of the clavicle, the acromion, and almost all the spina scapulae ; its use is to pull the scapula upward and backward, or backward and downward. Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the rhomboideus ? 15 170 Ans. It arises from the spinous processes of the three inferior vertebrae of the neck, the ligamentum nuchae, and the five superior of the back; it is inserted into all the base of the scapula; its use is to draw the scapula inward and upward. Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the serratus magnus ? Ans. It arises from the nine superior ribs, by as many digitations ; it is inserted into all the inner edge of the base and angles of the scapula; its use is to pull the scapula forward. Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the subclavius ? Ans. It arises from the cartilage of the first rib; it is inserted into almost all the inferior side of the clavicle; its use is to pull pie clavicle downward. Ques. 8. How many muscles arise from the trunk, and are inserted into the humerus ? Ans. There are two, viz., the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi. Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the pectoralis major. Ans. It arises from the cartilages of the fifth and sixth ribs, where its fibres mix with those of the obliquus ex- ternus abdominis, from almost all the length of the sternum, and from more than half the anterior edge of the clavicle ; it is inserted by two broad tendons, which cross each other into the outer ridge of the bicipital groove ; its use is to move the arm upward and inward. Ques. 10. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the latissimus dorsi ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the crista ilii, from all the sacral and lumbar vertebral spines, and from the seven inferior dorsal, and by digitations from three or four of the inferior ribs ; passing over the inferior angle of the scapula, it turns before the teres major; it is in- 171 serted into the inner edge of the bicipital groove ; its use is to pull the arm backward and downward, and to rotate the humerus. Ques. 11. How many muscles arise from the scapula, and are inserted into the humerus ? Ans. Seven, viz., the deltoides, coraco-brachialis, supra-spinatus, infra-spinatus, teres minor, teres major, and subscapularis. Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the deltoid muscle ? Ans. It arises from that anterior portion of the clavicle which is unoccupied by the pectoralis major, from the acromion, and inferior edge of the spina scapulae; it is inserted into an extensive roughness on the middle of the outside of the humerus ; its use is to pull the arm upward and forward, directly upward, or upward and backward. Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the coraco-brachialis ? Ans. It arises from the tip of the processus coracoides, adhering to the short head of the biceps ; it is inserted into the middle of the internal part of the humerus; its use is to raise the arm, and move it forward. Ques. 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the supra-spinatus ? Ans. It arises from all the supra-spinal fossa of the sca- pula,—passing under the acromion, it adheres to the capsular ligament of the shoulder ; it is inserted into the superior depression of the tuberosity on the outside of the bicipital groove; its use is to raise the arm and the cap- sular ligaments. Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the infra-spinatus ? Ans. It arises from all the infra-spinal, fossa scapulae, and adheres to the capsular ligament; it is inserted into the middle depression of the same tuberosity ; its use is to raise the humerus, and to rotate it outward. 172 Ques. 16. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the teres minor ? Ans. It arises from the costa inferior scapulae, and adheres to the capsular ligament; it is inserted into the inferior depression of the same tuberosity ; its use is to draw the humerus backward, and to rotate it outward. Ques. 17. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the teres major ? Ans. It arises from the outside of the inferior angle of the scapula, and adheres to the capsular ligament; it is inserted into the inner edge of the bicipital groove; its use is to draw the humerus backward, and to rotate it inward. Ques. 18. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the sub-scapularis ? Ans. It arises from all the inside of the scapula, and adheres to the capsular ligament; it is inserted into the internal tuberosity, at the head of the humerus ; its use is to rotate the humerus inwards, and to bring it to the side of the body. Ques. 19. How many muscles arise from the shoulder, and are inserted into the forearm ? Ans. There are two, viz., the biceps cubiti, and the long head of the triceps. Ques. 20. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the biceps cubiti ? Ans. It arises by two heads, one from the superior margin of the glenoid cavity; it passes through the cap- sular ligament of the shoulder, over the head of the humerus, and through the groove between the tuberosities; the other or short head arises conjoined with the coraco- brachialis, from the coracoides scapulae ; both heads unite at the middle of the humerus : it is inserted into the tube- rosity on the inner side of the upper end of the radius; its use is to supinate the hand, to bend the forearm, and to raise the arm. 173 Ques. 21. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the long head of the triceps ? Ans. It arises from the inferior costa scapulae, near its cervix ; it is inserted into the olecranon of the ulna; its use is to extend the fore arm, and to carry the arm backward. Ques. 22. How many muscles arise from the humerus, and are inserted into the forearm ? Ans. There are six, viz., the shorter heads of the triceps, the anconeus, brachialis internus, supinator radii longus, supinator radii brevis, and pronator radii teres. Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the shorter heads of the triceps ? Ans. The second or most external arises from the back of the humerus, near its upper end,—and the third, which is the shortest, from the back of the humerus lower down, and from the intermuscular ligament; they form one muscle with the long head, and their common insertion is into the olecranon ulnae ; the use of the triceps is to extend the forearm. Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the anconeus ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the external condyle of the humerus ; it is inserted into a ridge on the outer and posterior part of the upper end of the ulna; its use is to extend the forearm. Ques. 25. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the brachialis internus ? Ans. It arises from the middle of the os humeri, around the insertion of the deltoid, and from the intermuscular ligament, passing over the capsular ligament of the elbow joint; it is inserted into the coronoid process of the ulna ; its use is to bend the forearm, and to pull upward the capsular ligament. Ques. 26. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the supinator radii longus ? 15* 174 Ans. It arises from the ridge above the external con- dyle of the os humeri, as far up as the middle of the bone; it is inserted into the outer side of the inferior end of the radius ; its use is to bend the elbow joint, and to supinate the hand. Ques. 27. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the supinator radii brevis ? Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the os humeri, and from the external upper part of the ulna, ad- hering to the capsular ligament; it is inserted into the neck and tubercle of the radius, and into the ridge running from that downward and outward ; its use is to supinate the hand. Ques. 28. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the pronator radii teres ? Ans. It arises from the internal condyle of the humerus, and likewise from the coronoid process of the ulna; it is inserted into the middle of the outside of the radius ; its use is to pronate the hand. Ques. 29. How many muscles arise from the humerus, and are inserted into the hand ? Ans. Six ; viz., the flexor carpi ulnaris, palmaris longus, flexor carpi radialis, extensor carpi radialis longior, ex- tensor carpi radialis brevior, and extensor carpi ulnaris. Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor carpi ulnaris ? Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humerus, the outer side of the olecranon, and the fascia of the fore- arm ; it is inserted into the os pisiforme, and metacarpal bone of the little finger ; its use is to bend the arm and wrist joints. Ques. 31. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the palmaris longus ? Ans. Itarisesfrom the inner condyle of the humerus; it is inserted into the carpal ligament, and aponeurosis palmaris ; its use is to bend the wrist, and to stretch the aponeurosis. 175 Ques. 32. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor carpi radialis ? Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humerus, and from the upper end of the ulna anteriorly; adhering to the capsular ligament, it is inserted anteriorly into the upper end of the metacarpal bone of the fore finger, having passed through a groove of the trapezium; its use is to bend the wrist and elbow joints. Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor carpi radialis longior ? Ans. It arises from the lower part of the external ridge of the humerus, above its external condyle; it is inserted posteriorly into the upper end of the metacarpal bone of the fore finger; its use is to extend the wrist joint and occasionally to bend the elbow joint. Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor carpi radialis brevior? Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- rus, and from the external lateral ligament of the elbow joint; it is inserted posteriorly into the upper part of the metacarpal bones of the fore and middle fingers ; its use is to extend the wrist joint. Ques. 35. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor carpi ulnaris ? Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- rus, and from the middle of the ulna through the groove, at the extremity of which it passes; it is inserted poste- riorly into the upper end of the metacarpal bone of the little finger; its use is to extend the wrist joint. Ques. 36. How many muscles arise from the humerus and are inserted into the fingers ? Ans. There are three, viz., the flexor digitorum subli- mis perforatus, flexor longus pollicis, and extensor digi- torum communis. Ques. 37. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor digitorum sublimis perforatus ? 176 Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humerus, the coronoid process of the ulna, the tuberosity of the radius, and the middle of the fore part of the radius; it sends off four tendons ; it is inserted anteriorly into the upper end of all the bones of the second phalanx, dividing near the ends of the first for the passage of the tendons of the perforans; its use is to bend the first and second joints of the fingers, the wrist and elbow joint. Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor longus pollicis ? Ans. It arises from the inner condyle of the humeris, and from the anterior side of the radius below the tube- rosity ; it is inserted into the last bone of the thumb; its use is to bend the last bone of the thumb, and also the wrist joint. Ques. 39. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor digitorum communis ? Ans. It arises from the external condyle of the hume- rus, adhering to the supinator brevis; it divides into four tendons, which are connected by small transverse ones upon the back of the hand ; it is inserted into the poste- rior part of all the bones of the fingers; its use is to extend all the joints of the fingers, the wrist and the elbow joint. Ques. 40. What muscle arises from the ulna and inter- osseous ligament and is inserted into the phalanges of the fingers ? Ans. The flexor digitorum profundus perforans. Ques. 41. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the upper, anterior, and outer part of the ulna, and from part of the interosseous ligament; it is inserted, after passing behind the flexor sublimis and annular ligament (its tendons perforating those of the above named muscles), anteriorly into the root of the last bone of each finger ; its use is to bend the joints of the fingers and the wrist joint. 177 Ques. 42. What muscles arise from the tendons of the flexor profundus and are inserted into the phalanges of the fingers ? Ans. The lumbricales ; they are four in number. Ques. 43. What is their origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. They arise from the outside of the tendons of the flexor profundus ; they are inserted into the inside of the first joint of the finger, and into the back of each of the other joints ; their use is to adduct these fingers, to bend their first joint, and to extend the rest. Ques. 44. How many muscles arise from the forearm, and are inserted into the fingers ? Ans. There are five ; viz., the extensor ossis meta- carpi pollicis, extensor primi internodii pollicis, extensor secundi internodii pollicis, flexor longus pollicis, and in- dicator. Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis ? Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the ulna, from the middle of the radius, and from the interosseous ligament; it is inserted into the trapezium and metacarpal bone of the thumb; its use is to ex'tend the wrist joint and the metacarpal bone of the thumb. Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor primi internodii pollicis ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the ulna and the interosseous ligament; it is inserted into the back of the first and second bones of the thumb ; its use is to extend the wrist, the metacarpal and first bone of the thumb. Ques. 47. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor secundi internodii pollicis ? Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the ulna and from the interosseous ligament, and its tendon passes through a groove at the lower end of the radius ; it is inserted into the last bone of the thumb ; its use is to extend the wrist and the last joint of the thumb, 178 [The flexor longus pollicis has already been noticed in Question and Answer No. 38.] Ques. 48. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the indicator ? Ans. It arises posteriorly from the middle of the ulna; it is inserted into the posterior part of the fore-finger; its use is to extend the fore-finger. Ques. 49. What muscle arises from the ulna and is inserted into the radius ? Ans. The pronator quadratus. Ques. 50. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the lower and inner part of the ulna : it is inserted into the lower and anterior part of the radius; its use is to pronate the hand. Ques. 51. What muscle arises from the wrist and is inserted into the integuments of the hand ? Ans. The palmaris brevis. Ques. 52. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the aponeurosis palmaris and liga- mentum annulare; it is inserted into the os pisiforme, and into the integuments covering the abductor minimi digiti; its use is to aid in contracting the palm. Ques. 53. How many muscles arise from the wrist and are inserted into the thumb ? Ans. There are three; viz., the abductor pollicis,flexor ossis metacarpi pollicis, and flexor brevis pollicis. Ques. 54. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor pollicis ? Ans. It arises from the annular ligament and os trape- zium ; it is inserted into the outside of the root of the first bone of the thumb; its use is to draw the thumb toward the finger. Ques. 55. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor ossis metacarpi pollicis ? Ans. It arises from the trapezium and annular ligament lying under the abductor; it is inserted anteriorly into the 179 lower end of the metacarpal bone of the thumb ; its use is to draw the thumb toward the finger. Ques. 56. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor brevis pollicis ? Ans. It arises from the trapezoides magnum and unci- forme of the carpus, being divided by the flexor longus ; it is inserted into the ossa sessamoidea and first bone of the thumb; its use is to bend the first joint of the thumb. Ques. 57. What muscle arises from the wrist and is inserted into the fore finger ? Ans. The abductor indicis. Ques. 58. Wliat is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the trapezium, and from the inside of the metacarpal bone of the thumb ; it is inserted into the outward and back part of the first bone of the index ; its use is to approximate the thumb and fore finger ? Ques. 59. How many muscles arise from the wrist, and are inserted into the little finger ? Ans. There are three, viz.* the abductor minimi digiti manus, abducti metacarpi minimi digiti, and flexor parvus minimi digiti. Ques. 60. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor minimi digiti manus ? Ans. It arises from the os pisiforme and annular liga- ment ; it is inserted into the outer side of the upper end of the first bone of the little finger ; its use is to draw this finger from the rest. Ques. 61. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor metacarpi minimi digiti ? Ans. It arises from the process of the unciforme, and from the annular ligament; it is inserted into the inside and anterior part of the metacarpal bone of the little finger; its use is to draw the metacarpal bone of this finger toward the rest. Ques. 62. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor parvus minimi digiti ? 180 Ans. It arises from the outside of the os unciforme and annular ligament; it is inserted into the inner and anterior part of the upper end of the first bone of the little finger; its use is to bend the first joint and assist the abductor. Ques. 63. What muscle arises from the metacarpus, and is inserted into the thumb ? Ans. The adductor pollicis. Ques. 64. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from all the length of the metacarpal bone of the middle finger; it is inserted into the inner part of the root of the first bone of the thumb ; its use is to draw the thumb toward the fingers. Ques. 65. How many muscles arise from the meta- carpus, and are inserted into the fingers ? Ans. Seven, viz., the prior indicis, posterior indicis, prior medii, posterior medii, prior annularius, posterior annularius, and interosseous auricularis. Ques. 66. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the prior indicis ? Ans. It arises from the upper anterior part of the meta- carpal bone of the fore finger; it is inserted into all the posterior part of the fore finger; its use is to abduct the fore finger, to bend the first joint, and to extend the rest. Ques. 67. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the posterior indices ? Ans. It arises from the root and inner part of the meta- carpal bone of the fore finger; it is inserted into all the posterior part of the fore finger; its use is to abduct the fore finger, to bend the first joint, and to extend the rest. Ques. 68. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the prior medii ? Ans. It arises from the roots of the metacarpal bones of the forehand middle fingers; it is inserted into all the posterior part of the middle finger; its use is to draw the middle finger towards the thumb, to bend the first, and to extend its other joints. 181 SQues. 69. What is the origin, insertion, and use of %he posterior medii ? Ans. It arises from the roots of the metacarpal bones that sustain the middle and ring fingers ; it is inserted into all the posterior part of the middle finger; its use is to draw the middle finger outward, to bend its first and extend its other joints. Ques. 70. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the prior annularis ? Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the root of the metacarpal bone of the ring finger; it is inserted into all the posterior part of the ring finger; its use is to abduct the ring finger, to bend its first, and to extend its other joints. Ques. 71. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the posterior annularis ? Ans. It arises from the roots of the metacarpal bones of the ring and little fingers; it is inserted into all the posterior part of the ring finger; its use is to' abduct the ring finger, to bend its first, and to extend its other joints. Ques. 72. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the interosseous auricularis ? Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the root of the metacarpal bone of the little finger; it is inserted into all the posterior part of the little finger; its use is to abduct the little finger, to bend its first, and to extend its other joints. 16 182 SECTION XXII. MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. Ques. 1. What muscle arises from the trunk, and is inserted into the femur ? Ans. The psoas magnus. Ques. 2. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises from the side of the body and transverse process of the last vertebra of the back, and from the same parts of all the lumbar vertebrae ; it is inserted into all the trochanter minor of the femur, and some way below it; its use is to bend the thigh, or the lumbar vertebrae upon the pelvis. Ques. 3. How many muscles arise from the pelvis, and are inserted into the femur ? Ans. Thirteen, viz., the gluteus maximus, gluteus me- dius, gluteus minimus, pyriformis, obturator internus, ge- mini, quadratus femoris, iliacus internus, pectinalis, obtu- rator externus, adductor longus femoris, adductor brevis femoris, and adductor magnus femoris. Ques. 4. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the gluteus maximus ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the crista ilii, from the side of the sacrum below its junction with the ilium, from the posterior sacro-ischiatic ligament, and from the os coccygis: it passes over the posterior part of the trochanter major, and is connected to the fascia of the thigh ; it is inserted into the upper and outer part of the linea aspera; its use is to extend the thigh. 183 Ques. 5. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the gluteus medius ? Ans. It arises from the anterior superior spinous pro- cess of the ilium, anteriorly from the outer edge of the spine of the ilium, and posteriorly from the dorsum of that bone ; it is inserted into the middle great depression of the trochanter major; its use is to pull the femur out- ward and backward, and when bended, to rotate it outward. Ques. 6. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the gluteus minimus ? Ans. It arises from a ridge extending from below the superior anterior spinous process of the ilium to its great notch; it is inserted into the anterior great depression of the trochanter major ; its use is to pull the femur outward and backward, and to rotate it outward. Ques. 7. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the pyriformis ? Ans. It arises internally from the second, third, and fourth false vertebrae,—passing out of the pelvis it receives some fibres from the posterior inferior spine of the ilium; it is inserted into the anterior small depression on the top of the trochanter major; its use is to aid in moving the thigh upward, and rolling it outwards. Ques. 8. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the obturator internus ? Ans. It arises from almost all the internal circumference of the obturator foramen,—it passes out of the pelvis be- tween the tuber ischii, and the posterior sacro-ischiatic ligament,—passing also over the capsular ligament of the hip joint, it is sheathed by the gemini; it is inserted into the posterior small depression on the top of the trochanter major; its use is to roll the femur obliquely outward. Ques. 9. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the gemini ? Ans. They arise, the superior from the spine, and the inferior from the tuberosity of the ischium, and in their 184 course they form a sheath for the obturator internus ; they are inserted into the posterior part of the top of the tro- chanter major on each side of the obturator internus ; their use is to roll the thigh outward, and to retain the tendon of the obturator. Ques. 10. What is ,the origin, insertion, and use of the quadratus femoris ? Ans. It arises from the outer edge of the tuber ischii; it is inserted posteriorly into a ridge between the great and small trochanters ; its use is to roll the thigh outward. Ques. 11. What is the origin, insertion, and use of iliacus internus ? Ans. It arises from all the inner lip of the spine of the os ilium, from most of the hollow part of the ilium, and also from the transverse process oS the last lumbar ver- tebra ; it is inserted into the trochanter minor; its use is to bend the thigh ? Ques. 12. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the pectinalis ? Ans. It arises from all the upper and anterior part of the os pubis ; it is inserted into the anterior upper part of the linea aspera; its use is to bring the thigh upward and in- ward, and to rotate it in some degree outward. Ques. 13. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the obturator externus ? Ans. It arises from the inferior anterior part of the pu- bis, from the forepart of the crus of the ischium, and from the external margin of the obturator foramen ; it is inserted into the cavity behind the trochanter major, adhering to the capsula ligament; its use is to roll the femur outward, and to prevent the capsular ligament from being pinched. Ques. 14. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor longus femoris ? Ails'. It arises from the superior anterior part of the os pubis, and from its symphysis internally to the pectina- lis ; it is inserted near the middle of the linea aspera; its 185 use is to pull the femur inward and upward, and in some degree to rotate it outward. Ques. 15. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor brevis femoris ? Ans. It arises from the pubis near its symphysis, below and behind the adductor longus femoris ; it is inserted into the upper part of the linea aspera, above the insertion of the adductor longus femoris ; its use is similar to that of the adductor longus femoris. Ques. 16. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor magnus femoris ? Ans. It arises near the symphysis, more inferiorly than the adductor brevis, and from the tuber ischii; it is inserted into almost all the length of the linea aspera, into the ridge leading from that to the internal condyle, and into the condyle itself; its use is to pull the femur inward and upward, and in some degree to rotate it outward. Ques. 17. What muscle arises from the pelvis and is inserted into the fascia of the thigh ? Ans. The tensor vaginae femoris. Ques. 18. What is its origin, insertion, and use? Ans. It arises externally from the anterior superior spi- nous process of the ilium ; it is inserted a little below the trochanter major into the inside of the fascia of the thigh; its utee is to stretch the fascia, to abduct the thigh, and rotate it outward. Ques. 19. How many muscles arise from the pelvis and are inserted into the leg? Ans. There are six, viz., the rectus cruris, sartorius, gra- cilis, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, and the long head of the biceps. Ques. 20. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the rectus cruris ? Ans. It arises from the inferior anterior spine of the ilium, and from the dorsum of the same bone ; it is inserted 186 info the patella, and subsequently into the anterior tuber- osity of the tibia; its use is to bend the thigh and to ex- tend the leg. Ques. 21. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the sartorius ? Ans. It arises from the anterior superior spine of the ilium, and passes inwardly; it is inserted into the inner anterior side of the upper end of the tibia; its use is to elevate the thigh and to turn it outward, and to bend the leg inwardly. Ques. 22. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the gracilis ? Ans. It arises from the symphysis pubis ; it is inserted into the tibia, behind the sartorius; its use is to adduct the femur and to bend the knee. Ques. 23. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the semitendinosus ? Ans. It arises, conjoined with the long head of the biceps, from the upper part of the tuber ischii; it is in- serted into the tibia, behind the sartorius ; its use is to extend the thigh and bend the leg. Ques. 24. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the semimembranosus ? Ans. It arises from the upper part of the tuber ischii; it is inserted into the inner and back part of the head of the tibia; its use is to extend the thigh and to bend the leg. Ques. 25. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the long head of the biceps ? Ans. It arises conjointly with the semitendinosus from the upper part of the tuber ischii; it is inserted into the top of the head of the fibula; its use is to extend the thigh and bend the leg. Ques. 26. How many muscles arise from the femur, and are inserted into the leg ? Ans. There are five, viz., the cruralis, vastus externus, vastus internus, the short head of the biceps, andpopliteus. 187 Ques. 27. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the cruralis ? Ans. It arises from between the two trochanters of the femur, and is connected to the femur downward, and to both vasti; it is inserted into the upper part of the pa- tella, and by means of its ligament into the tuberosity of the tibia ; its use is to extend the leg. Ques. 28. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the vastus externus ? Ans. It arises from the root of the trochanter major and whole length of the linea aspera; it is inserted similarly to the cruralis, but more externally; its use is to extend the leg. Ques. 29. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the vastus internus ? Ans. It arises from between the root of the trochanter minor and anterior part of the femur, and from all the length of the linea aspera; it is inserted like the cruralis, but more internally; its use is to extend the leg. Ques. 30. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the short head of the biceps ? Ans. It arises from the linea aspera, below the insertion of the gluteus maximus; it is inserted into the top of the head of the fibula ; its use is to bend the leg. Ques. 31. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the popliteus ? Ans. It arises from the inferior and posterior part of the external condyle of the femur, adhering to the cap- sular ligament; it is inserted into a ridge at the upper and internal part of the tibia; its use is to bend the leg, and prevent the capsular ligament from being pinched. Ques. 32. How many muscles arise from the femur, and are inserted into the foot ? Ans. There are two : the gastrocnemius, and plantaris. Ques. 33. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the gastrocnemius ? 188 Ans. It arises by two heads, one from the superior and posterior part of the internal condyle of the femur, the other from the same part of the external; it is inserted into the tendon of the soleus ; its use is to bend the knee and to aid the soleus. Ques. 34. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the plantaris ? Ans. It arises from the upper and back part of the root of the external condyle of the femur, adhering to the cap- sular ligament of the knee joint in its descent; it is inserted into the inside of the posterior part of the os calcis, below the tendo-Achillis ; its use is to aid in bendirfg the knee and in extending the foot, and to prevent the capsular liga- ment from being pinched. Ques. 35. How many muscles arise from the leg and are inserted into the foot? Ans. Six; viz., the soleus, tibialis posticus, peroneus \ longus, peroneus brevis, tibialis anticus, and peroneus ter- tius or nonus vesalii. Ques. 36. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the soleus ? Ans. It arises from the posterior part of the head of the fibula, from that bone somewhat downward, and also from the posterior and middle part of the upper end of the tibia, and from the same bone more internally; it is inserted by its tendon (the tendo-Achillis) into the posterior part of the os calcis; its use is to extend the foot. Ques. 37. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the tibialis posticus ? Ans. It arises from the anterior and upper part of the tibia, and (passing through the interosseous ligament) from the back of the fibula, from a great portion of the back of the tibia superiorly, and from the interosseous ligament; its tendon passes in a groove behind the malle- olus internus; it is inserted into the upper and inner part of the os naviculare, thence into the cuneiforme internum 189 and medium; its use is to extend the foot, and to turn the toes inward. Ques. 38. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the peroneuslongus ? Ans. It arises anteriorly from the head, and externally from the body of the fibula, almost as far down as the ankle, its tendon passing through a groove in the posterior part of the lower end of the fibula on the outside of the os calcis, and on the inferior part of the os cuboides; it is inserted into the os cuneiforme internum, and into the outside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe ; its use is to extend and to move the foot outward. Ques. 39. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the peroneus brevis ? Ans. It arises from above the middle of the external part of the fibula; it is inserted externally into the root of the metatarsal bone of the little toe; its use is to assist the peroneus longus. Ques. 40. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the tibialis anticus ? Ans. It arises from the outside of the anterior tuber- osity of the tibia, from the outside of the bone itself, and from the interosseous ligament, its tendon passing under the annular ligament of the tarsus ; it is inserted into the inner part of the os cuneiforme internum and root of the me- tatarsal bone of the great toe; its use is to bend the foot and turn the toes inward. Ques. 41. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the peroneus tertius or nonus vesalii ? Ans. It arises from the middle of the fibula, almost to its inferior extremity; it is inserted into the root of the metatarsal bone of the little toe; its use is to assist in bending the foot. Ques. 42. How many muscles arise from the leg and are inserted into the toes ? Ans. There are four; viz., the extensor longus digito- 190 rum pedis, extensor proprius pollicis pedis, flexor longus digitorum pedis profundus perforans, and flexor longus pollicis pedis. Ques. 43. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor longus digitorum pedis ? Ans. It arises from the anterior inner part of the head of the fibula, from the anterior outer part of the head of the tibia, from the interosseous ligament, and from the fascia of the leg, also from the anterior spine of the fibula; it is inserted into all the phalanges of the four lesser toes; its use is to bend the ankle joint, and to extend all the joints of the toes into which it is inserted. Ques. 44. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor proprius pollicis pedis ? Ans. It arises from the anterior part of the fibula, some way below its head, to nearly its lower extremity; it is inserted into the posterior part of both the bones of the great toe; its use is to bend the ankle joint, and to extend the great toe. Ques. 45. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor longus digitorum pedis profundus perforans ? Ans. It arises from the oblique ridge on the upper back part of the tibia, and from the inner and outer edges of this bone; enclosing the tibialis posticus by its fibres, and afterwards passing through a groove of the os calcis, it divides into four tendons which run through those of the perforatus; it receives a slip of tendon from the flexor pollicis longus; it is inserted into the extremity of the last joint of the four lesser toes ; its use is to extend the ankle joint, to turn the foot inward, and to bend the toes. Ques. 46. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor longus pollicis pedis ? Ans. It arises posteriorly from below the head of the fibula, being continued almost to its inferior extremity; it is inserted into the posterior part of both bones of the 191 great toe ; its use is to extend the ankle joint and to bend the great toe. Ques. 47. How many muscles arise from the tarsus and metatarsus, and are inserted into the toes generally ? Ans. There are three; viz., the extensor brevis digito- rum pedis, flexor brevis digitorum pedis, and flexor digi- torum accessorius, or massa carnea Jacobi Sylvii. Ques. 48. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the extensor brevis digitorum pedis ? Ans. It arises from the anterior and upper part of the calcaneum, lying under the tendons of the extensor lon- gus ; it is inserted into the posterior part of all the toes, except the ltttle one; its use is to extend the toes. Ques. 49. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor brevis digitorum pedis ? Ans. It arises between the abductors of the little and great toes, from protuberances upon the inferior posterior part of the calcaneum; it is inserted by four tendons into the second phalanx of the four lesser toes, that of the little toe is sometimes wanting; its use is to bend the first and second joints of the four lesser toes. Ques. 50. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor digitorum accessorius or massa carnea Jacobi Syl- vii? Ans. It arises from the external tuberosity of the cal- caneum, and from a great part of its internal concavity ; it is inserted by means of the tendons of the flexor longus, which it joins at its division ; its use is to assist the flexor longus. Ques. 51. What muscles arise from the tendons of the flexor longus, and are inserted into the toes ? Ans. The lumbricales pedis. Ques. 52. What is their origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. They arise by four commencements from the ten- don of the flexor profundus, near the insertion of the massa carnea, and just before its division; they are in- 192 serted, by four tendons, into the internal posterior part of the four lesser toes ; their use is to draw the toes inward, and to bend their first joint and to extend the rest. Ques. 53. How many muscles arise from the tarsus and metatarsus, and are inserted into the toes ? Ans. There are twelve ; viz., the adductor pollicis pe- dis flexor, brevis pollicis, abductor pollicis pedis, adduc- tor minimi digiti pedis, flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis, abductor minimi digiti pedis, adductor indicis pedis, ab- ductor indicis pedis, adductor medii digiti pedis, abductor medii digiti pedis, adductor tertii digiti pedis, and abduc- tor tertii digiti pedis. Ques. 54. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor pollicis pedis ? Ans. It arises from the inner protuberance of the calca- neum, and from the same bone where it joins the navicu- lare ; it is inserted into the os sessamoideum internum, and the base of the first bone of the great toe; its use is to ad- duct the great toe. Ques. 55. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor brevis pollicis ? Ans. It arises from the inferior anterior part of the cal- caneum where it joins the cuboides, and from the cunei- forme externum, being internally connected with the abductor and adductor; it is inserted into the os sessa- moideum externum, and base of the first bone of the great toe; its use is to bend the first joint of the great toe. Ques. 56. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor pollicis pedis ? Ans. It arises from the calcaneum, cuboides, cuneiforme externum, and the base of the metatarsal bone of the second toe; it is inserted into the os sessamoideum externum, and the base of the metatarsal bone of the great toe ; its use is to abduct the great toe. Ques. 57. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor minimi digiti pedis? 193 Ans. It arises from the inside of the root of the meta- tarsal bone of the little toe; it is inserted into the inside of the base of the first bone of the little toe ; its use is to adduct the little toe. Ques. 58. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis ? Ans. It arises from the cuboides near the groove of the perorfeus longus, and from the outside of its own metatarsal bone; it is inserted into the top of the metatarsal bone, and base of the first bone of the little toe ; its use is to bend the first joint of the little toe. Ques. 59. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor minimi digiti pedis ? Ans. It arises from before the external protuberance of the calcaneum, and from the root of the metatarsal bone of the little toe ; it is inserted into the base of the first bone of the little toe; its use is to abduct the little toe. Ques. 60. AVhat is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor indicis pedis ? Ans. It arises from the inside of the base of the meta- tarsal bone of the second toe, from the outside of the base of the metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from the cunei- forme internum; it is inserted into the inside of the base of the first bone of the second toe; its use is to adduct the second toe. Ques. 61. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor indicis pedis ? Ans. It arises from the base of the metatarsal bones of the second and third toes ; it is inserted into the outside of the second toe; its use is to abduct the second toe. Ques. 62. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor medii digiti pedis ? Ans. It arises from the inside of the base of the meta- tarsal bone of the middle toe; it is inserted into the inside 17 194 of the base of the first bone of the middle toe; its use is to adduct the middle toe. Ques. 63. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor medii digiti pedis ? Ans. It arises from the bases of the metatarsal bones of the second and third toes; it is inserted into the outside of the base of the first bone of the second toe ; its use is to abduct the second toe. Ques. 64. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the adductor tertii digiti pedis ? Ans. It arises from the inner and under part of the base of the metatarsal bone of the third toe ; it is inserted into the inside of the base of the first bone of the third toe; its use is to adduct the third toe. Ques. 65. What is the origin, insertion, and use of the abductor tertii digiti pedis ? Ans. It arises from the roots of the metatarsal bones of the third and little toes; it is inserted into the outside of the base of the first bone of the third toe; its use is to ab- duct the third toe. Ques. 66. AVhat muscle arises from one bone of the metatarsus and is inserted into another ? Ans. The transversalis pedis. Ques. 67. What is its origin, insertion, and use ? Ans. It arises inferiorly from the anterior end of the metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from its os sesamoi- deum internum ; it is inserted inferiorly and externally into the anterior end of the metatarsal bone of the little toe, and the ligament of the next one : its use is to con- tract the foot from side to side. 195 SECTION XXIII. BURS.E MUCOSAE. Ques. 1. What are the bursae mucosae ? Ans. They are mucous bags of a delicate transparent texture, and whose internal surfaces are lubricated by a synovial fluid. Ques. 2. What are their use ? Ans. They answer the purpose of friction bags, allow- ing the ready play of tendons over bone, &c. Ques. 3. Where are they generally situated? Ans. They are chiefly situated in the extremities be- tween tendons which rub against each other; or where they play on the surface of bones or joints, and between the integuments and certain prominent points of bone, viz., at the knee, elbow, and knuckles. Ques. 4. What is their structure ? Ans. The structure of the membrane which forms them is similar to that of the synovial membranes of joints. Ques. 5. How are they connected with the surround- ing parts ? Ans. They adhere with great firmness to the parts be- twixt which they lie. Ques. 6. What is their internal arrangement? Ans. Their internal surfaces are in contact, and are only lubricated by the synovial fluid which is formed in them. 196 SECTION XXIV. FASCIA. Ques. 1. What are the fascia? Ans. They are tendinous expansions which brace and protect the muscles whilst in action, and support the form of parts ; they are sometimes called aponeuroses. Ques. 2. Enumerate the most important fascia. Ans. The temporal fascia, the fascia of the arm, the fascia of the forearm, the palmar fascia, the femoral fascia, the fascia of the leg, and the plantar fascia. Ques. 3. What are the attachments of the temporal fascia ? Ans. It is attached to the temporal ridges of the os frontis and os parietalia, and the upper edge of the zygoma and posterior edge of the os malae, and temporal process of the os frontis. Ques. 4. What is the texture of the fascia of the arm ? Ans. It is much thinner than that of the forearm, from which it receives a considerable addition. Ques. 5. From what is the fascia of the forearm prin- cipally derived ? Ans. The tendon of the biceps. Ques. 6. Whence is the palmar fascia derived ? Ans. From the internal annular ligament, and the ten- don of the palmaris longus. Ques. 7. Whence is the femoral fascia derived ? Ans. From the tensor vaginae femoris, and glutaeus maximus ; it is also called the fascia lata of the thigh. Ques. 8. Where are the fasciae of the extremities strongest ? Ans. On the inner and anterior part of the forearm ; and the fascia lata exceeds all others in density at the outer part of the thigh. 197 SPLANCHNOLOGY- Ques. 1. What is splanchnology? Ans. Splanchnology treats of the structure of the vis- cera and organs of the senses. Ques. 2. Where are the viscera chiefly situated ? Ans. In the great cavities of the body. Ques. 3. What are the names of the great cavities of the body ? Ans. The cranium, the thorax, and the abdomen. SECTION XXV. THORACIC VISCERA. Ques. 1. What is the situation of the thorax? Ans. It is placed between the neck and the abdomen. Ques. 2. How is it formed ? Ans. The hard parts composing it are the dorsal verte- brae, the ribs, and the sternum ; the soft parts are the pleura, the intercostal muscles, and the diaphragm. 17* 198 Ques. 3. What is its general form 1 Ans. It is of a conical figure. Ques. 4. What are the viscera of the thorax ? Ans. The pleura, the thymus gland, the heart and great vessels, the pericardium, the lungs, and the oeso- phagus. Pleura. Ques. 5. What is the situation of the pleura ? Ans. It lines the cavity of the thorax, and closely in- vests the lungs. Ques. 6. What is its structure ? Ans. It is a thin, transparent membrane; its outer surface is adherent to the thoiax and lungs ; its inner surface is smooth and lubricated. Ques. 7. What is the use of this membrane ? Ans. Its use is to afford a smooth and firm covering to the lungs, and a lining to the cavity of the thorax, and to subdivide this into two cavities. Ques. 8. What is the name of the duplicature of the pleura ? Ans. The mediastinum. Ques. 9. How is the mediastinum formed ? Ans. The portions of the pleura which line the pari- eties of the thorax on each side meet behind the sternum, unite, and forming a double membrane are reflected directly backwards ; they then separate to invest the heart, pericardium, and great vessels ; they give off the covering to the lungs; and then behind the heart they again approach each other and pass to the bodies of the vertebrae, so that in fact there are two pleurae, one for each side. Ques. 10. What cavities are situated between the duplicatures of the pleurae ? 199 Ans. There are three, viz., the anterior, posterior, and middle cavities of the mediastinum. Ques. 11. What is contained in the anterior cavity ? Ans. The thymus gland in the foetus. Ques. 12. What does the middle cavity contain ? Ans. The heart and pericardium. Ques. 13. What does the posterior cavity contain? Ans. The bronchia, oesophagus, descending aorta and beginning of the intercostal arteries, the descending cava, the vena azygos, the thoracic duct, the par vagum, and great sympathetic nerve. Ques. 14. To what part of the sternum is the medi- astinum attached ? Ans. To the posterior part, a little to the left side. Ques. 15. What names have been given to other parts of the pleura ? Ans. That part of the pleura which covers the lungs has been called pleura pulmonalis; where it lines the thorax, pleura costalis ; and its outer surface, its cellular ' portion. Ques. 16. How is the inner surface moistened ? Ans. It is lubricated by a serous fluid, which transudes from its pores. Ques. 17. From whence are the arteries of the pleura derived ? Ans. Chiefly from the intercostals and bronchial. Ques. 18. Whither do the veins of the pleura pass ? Ans. They pass to those which correspond with the arteries in name and distribution. Ques. 19. From whence are its nerves derived ? Ans. From the intercostals. Thymus Gland. Ques. 20. What is the situation of the thymus gland ? 200 Ans. It is situated in the superior part of the anterior cavity of the mediastinum. Ques. 21. What is its form ? Ans. It is of an oblong figure, having two processes above and two below. Ques. 22. What is its structure ? Ans. It has the appearance of a glandular structure. Ques. 23. Is the thymus gland largest in the foetus or in the adult ? Ans. In the foetus it is of considerable size; in the adult there hardly remains a vestige of it. Ques. 24. What is its use ? Ans. Its use, (which is unknown,) appears to be con- fined to the foetal state. Pericardium. Ques. 25. What is the pericardium ? Ans. It is a firm membranous bag. Ques. 26. What is its situation ? Ans. It surrounds the heart. Ques. 27. What is its form ? Ans. It is somewhat conical, corresponding to the figure of the heart. Ques. 28. What is its structure ? Ans. It consists of three laminae, of which the middle one is composed of dense tendinous filaments ; the inner one is a continuation of the outer coat of the heart; and the outer one is derived from the pleura. Ques. 29. What are its connections ? Ans. It adheres firmly to the tendinous part of the diaphragm, and to the great vessels at the base of the heart, the beginning of which it includes within its cavity. Ques. 30. How is the inner surface of the pericardium moistened ? 201 Ans. It is lubricated by a serous fluid, transuding from the exhalents. Ques. 31. What is this fluid called? Ans. It is called the liquor pericardii; the condensation and accumulation of this fluid, which takes place after death, affords a sensible quantity of it. Heart. Ques. 32. What is the heart? Ans. It is a hollow muscular organ, which receives the blood from, and transmits it to, all the parts of the body. Ques. 33. What is its situation ? Ans. It is invested by the pericardium, and is situated between the lungs, and rests on the superior part of the diaphragm. Ques. 34. What is its form ? Ans. It is somewhat of a conical form, flattened^ how- ever on its inferior surface and rounded at its upper part. Ques. 35. How is the heart divided externally ? Ans. It is divided into a basis, turned backwards and upwards ; an apex, pointing forward and to the left side ; a rounded edge to the right, a more acute edge to the left; a superior convex surface, and an inferior flat sur- face. Ques. 36. What are its divisions internally ? Ans. It is divided internally into four cavities, viz., two auricles at its base, and two ventricles forming its body. Ques. 37. What communications exist between the cavities of the heart ? Ans. There is no communication betwixt the two auricles, n