ife: /'. ARMY MEDICAL LIBRARY WASHINGTON Founded 1836 Section. sr .\J-.aJ--./--°<--Q---/-- b to 3—10543 Fobm 113c, W. D., S. G. O. (Revised June 13, 1936) ELEMENTS OP BOTAH7: OR OUTLINES OF THE NATURAIs HISTORY OF ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY PLATES. BY BENJAMIN SMITH *»At»f ON, M. D. # • # President of the Philadelphia Linnean and Medical Societies; one of tke Vice-Presidents of the American Philosophical Society; Member of the Imperial Society of Naturalists at Moscow in Russia; and Professor of Materia Medica, Natural History and Botany, in the University of Pennsylvania. THE THIRD EDITION, CORRECTED AND GREATLY ENLARGED. /V '.v*t ^ ^ ^J\ IN TWO VOLUMES. 33J^Sy J vol.i. :czo /"■"Gi'ON.'O PUBLISHED BY ROBERT DESILVER, No. 110 Walnut Street, • 1827. 3 a, 4 3* ' /1 a 7 if. I DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, TO WIT: Be it Remembered, That on the thirteenth day of Febru- ary, in the thirty-sixth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1812, Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. of the said district, hath deposited in this office, the title of a. book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words fol- lowing, to wit: "Elements of Botany: or Outlines of the Natural History of Vegetables. Illustrated by forty plates. By Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. President of the Philadelphia Linnean and Medical Societies; one of the yice- Presidents of the American Philosophical Society; Member of the Im- perial Society of Naturalists at Moscow in Russia; and Professor of Ma- teria Medica, Natural History and Botany, in the University of Penn- sylvania. The third edition, corrected and greatly enlarged. In two volumes. Vol. I." " In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, intituled, " an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned." And also to the Act, entitled, "An Act supplementary to an Act, entitled, " an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the' authors and proprietors of such copies during the time therein mentioned," and extending the benefits thereof to*the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." • D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania. TO THE STUDENTS OF MEDICINE, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA? AND TO THE LOVERS AND CULTIVATORS OF NATURAL HISTORY, IN EVERY PART OF THE UNITED-STATES, THESE ELEMENTS of BOTANY ARE VERY RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, BY BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON. Philadelphia, February 28th, 1803. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The Lectures on Materia Medica, and those on Natural History*, commence, annu- ally, in the first week of November, and terminate in the first week of March, * These are two distinct Courses of Lectures, S55" PREFACE. IN the year 1789, the Trustees of the College of Philadelphia instituted a Professorship of Natu- ral History and Botany. I was honoured with the appointment of teaching these branches of science, the first of which had never before been taught in the Institution*. Upon the union of the College with the University oi^fennsylvania, in the year 1791, my for- mer appointment was confirmed by the trustees of the united institution; and in the year 1796, I received a new mark of the attention of the trustees, by their ap- pointing me to fill the chair of Materia Medica, which was rendered vacant by the resignation of the professor of that branch of medical science. The different branches of Natural History, parti- cularly Zoology and Botany, have been my favourite studies, from a very early period of my life. The hap- piest hours of near sixteen years of cares, of difficulties, or of sickness, have been devoted to the cultivation of these interesting sciences. During this long period, I have never ceased to look forward, as I still look for- ward, with an ardent satisfaction, to the time, when Natural History shall be taught as an indispensible branch of science, in our university: when it shall * Several courses of lectures on Botany had formerly been delivered, in the College of Philadelphia, by Dr. Adam Kuhn, one of the pupils of the great Linmeus. vi PREFACE. cease to "yield its laurels to languages which are wither- ed or dead, and to studies, that are useless or ignoble*.'' That period has not yet arrived. I have, however, the satisfaction of observing, that these sciences are making some, nay even great, advances among us; and I still flatter myself, that the directors of our principal American universities, or other seminaries of learning, but, in particular, the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania (in which all the branches of me- dical science are taught much more exten- sively than in any other part of the United- States), will see the propriety, and even necessity, of giving more substantial encouragement for the exten- sion of Natural History among us. lT„was with the view of contributing something to this desirable end, that I undertook the arduous task pf composing these Elements of Botany: a task certainly arduous for one who is engaged in the prac- tice of an anxious and difficult profession; occupied for near seven months of the year in the duties of teaching in the University, and, withal, subject to repeated aU tacks pf a violent and dangerous disease. The work is now presented to the public. I cannot but be some- what solicitous abput it: I cannot " dismiss it with frigid tranquillity!;" but I will not tremble for its fate. Should the work confer no reputation upon me, I am still young enough to hope, that reputation may be ob- tained by future efforts. * See Fragments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania. Part I. Int. p. viii. t Dr. Johnson. PREFACE. vii I have divided this work into three parts. In the First Part, I have given a pretty extensive delinea- tion of the tlant, beginning with the root, and ending with the various organs of the fructificationj The terminology, or nomenclature, of all these parts is amply detailed; indeed, I fear much more amply than may seem agreeable to some of my readers. But as one of the great objects of the botanist is the correct or discriminative description of plants, and as such a de- scription cannot be given without the use of an appro- priate language (such as the modern botanical language* unquestionably, is), I shall offer no apology for my hav- ing taken up so much time in the mere description of the various parts of the vegetable. If those, whose ob- ject is a more superficial acquaintance with the study of plan£9, should feel somewhat fatigued, in pursuing me through such a laboured range of words, I am per- suaded, on the other hand, that some of my readers will feel a regret, that thjs terminology is not still more extensive. But, in this first part of the w ork> I have not con^ fined myself entirely to the technical portion of my sub- ject. Various circumstances relative to the physiology, the economy, the uses, &x., of vegetables, are, like- wise, introduced. And although some of these circum- stances might, perhaps, with more propriety, have been reserved for the second part, I flatter myself they will not appear entirely out of place, where I have introdu- ced them. lam, at least, persuaded, that they will serve to amuse and relieve the reader, in the midst of that fatigue, and, possibly, disgust, which the learning of a viii PREFACE. new language is too well calculated to excite. The classical reader will not, I think, be displeased at my frequent references to passages in the works of the Ro- man writers, particularly their poets. I have introdu- ced these passages*, because they often serve to illus- trate my subject, and because they cannot fail to enliven it. Although I am of opinion, that, in many of the American seminaries of learning, the study of the lan- guages of ancient Greece and Rome, has occupied too large a share of the time and attention of youth, to the exclusion of more important studies, I am far from co- inciding in sentiment with certain American writers, who have laboured to effect the complete banishment of these languages from our schools. An entire neglect of the Latin language, in particular, will emphatically mark the era of the decline of genuine taste, among a people. The study of Vegetable Physiology has long been one of my most favourite pursuits. I have always considered it as the richest portion of Botany. I be- lieve its practical tendency, is highly important. It was originally my intention to have given, in the Second Part of these Elements, a general view of the principal subjects in the physiology of vegetables. But I soon found, that this scheme must be deserted, as I had gra- dually drawn myself into an extent of discussion (with respect to the subjects that are involved in the first and third parts of the work), which I had but little contem- plated!. This must serve as my apology for the deficien- * Not only in the First but also in the Third Part. f My original proposals were to furnish a volume of, at least, two hundred and eighty pages, with eighteen plates. It is unnecessary to say, how much the work PREFACE. ix cies and imperfections of the second part of the work. To supply, in some measure, these deficiencies and imperfec- tions, I design to publish a Supplement to these Elements, in which the physiology of vegetables will be principally considered. I cannot pretend to fix upon the precise time at which this supplement shall appear. But, should the state of my health permit me to devote the necessary atten- tion to the subject, I may hope to publish it in the course of the ensuing summer or autumn. It will consist of about one hundred and sixty pages, and will be illustrated by a few necessary plates. In the Third, and last, part of this work, I have prin- cipally confined myself to an exposition of the Sexual Method of Linnaeus; to the natural orders (as they are called) of the same author, and have given notices con- cerning the natural and artificial methods of other botanists, from the time of Caesalpinus to the present day*. Much of originality, or even of innovation, will hardly be expect- ed in this part of the work. It will readily be observed, however, diat I have taken some liberties with the Lin- nean arrangement of certain genera, particularly in the class Gynandria, where I have followed the disposition of the learned Mr. Swartz, one of the most distinguished botanists of Europe. If in the discussion of the subjects which are involv- ed in the third part of the work, the reader meet with any thing strictly new, it is principally in what regards the has been extended beyond the limits of this plan. For particular reasons, I think it proper to add, that the whole of the first, and the greater portion of the third, part of the work were printed off, before any of the pages of the second part were committed to the press. * See Appendix. A x PREFACE. Character of the different classes. Under this head, 1 have not only endeavoured to show the natural relation of the different genera to each other, but I have also intro- duced a number of notices concerning the dietetica}, the medical, and other properties of the plants of the class which I have been treating of. It will be readily obvious, however, that the limits of my work would not admit of my entering extensively into an investigation of these va- rious subjects. I have been able to do little more than touch upon them. Nevertheless, I will flatter myself, that this part of the work involves many facts, which will be new to some of my readers. For a more particular account of the medical properties of many of the North-American vegetables, I beg leave to refer the reader to my Collec- tions for an Essay towards a MateriaMedica of the United- States. Th e greater number of the Plates, by which the work is illustrated, have been engraved from the original draw- ings* of Mr. William Bartram, of Kingsessing, in the vicinity of Philadelphia. While I thus publicly return my thanks to this ingenious naturalist, for his kind liberal- ity in enriching my work, I sincerely rejoice to have an opportunity of declaring, how much of my happiness, in the study of natural history, has been owing to my acquain- * The seventh and the thirtieth are the only Plates in the whole collection, which have no claim whatever to originality. The sixth plate lias been formed, with alterations, however, from Mr. Bonnet's work On the Uses of the leaves of Plants In every other instance, the plate is either completely original, or along with original figures, I have introduced some figures from different authors, but particularly from Miller's Illustration of the Sexual System of JAnnxus- London: 1777. I'latc xii (engraved from one of Mr. Bartram's drawings) was kindly pre- sented to me by my friend and colleague, Dr. James Woodhouse, Professor of Chemistry, in the University of Pennsylvania. PREFACE. xi tance with him; how often I have availed myself of his knowledge in the investigation of the natural productions of our native country; how, sincerely I have loved him for the happiest union of moral integrity, with original genius, and unaspiring science, for which he is eminently distin- guished. " Sero in coelum redeat." Th e difficulty of composing an elementary work on Botany, or any other Science which, like Botany, is fre- quently changing its aspect, from the discovery of new species, and the researches and experiments of ingenious men, will be readily conceived, and acknowledged. This difficulty is peculiarly experienced by Americans, who, notwithstanding the rapid growth of science in their coun- try, are (with respect to the science of the European na- tions) the inhabitants, as it were, of an Ultima Thule. I have to regret, that in the composition of this work, I often stood in need of that assistance, which it would have been easy to have obtained in Europe. I have never yet seen Willdenow's edition of the Philosophia Botanica, and I had not even an opportunity of consulting, except in a very few instances, this industrious author's edition of the Species Plantar um. After I had made considerable pro- gress in my work, Dr. Hull's Elements of Botany* fell into my hands. Of Senebier's large work, on the Physi- * Elements of Botany. (Illustrated by sixteen engravings. By John Hull, M. D. &c. &.c. In two volumes. Manchester: 1800. Xll PREFACE. °l°gy of Vegetables*, I had not an opportunity of seeing any part, until I had printed off a great part of my work. Many other worjcs, as well nomenclatural as physiological, which would have been of great service to me, have never reached me. However, in the Supplement which I propose to publish, I shall endeavour to avail myself extensively of these various helps. For some of the imperfections of this work, I may, perhaps, claim the indulgence of the public, on a ground, which, to me at least, is interesting. A very infirm state of health, which would, perhaps, rob any one (however ardent in the pursuit of science) of a portion of his zeal; and would, necessarily, abridge the hours of his intellec- tual labours, has long been, and continues to be, my com- panion. With respect to this very work, I may complain, almost without a metaphor, in the words of Linnaeus (there is even no necessity to change the name of the disease): " At dira arthritis, vix incepto opere, ita una cum corpo- " ris viribus mentem et animum fregit, ut in ipsa herba " fere suffocatum fuissetf." * Physiologie Vegetale; contenant une description des organes des plantes, et une exposition des phenomenes produits par leur organization. Par Jean Se- nebier. A GeneVe. f Philosophia Botanica, &c. Praefatio—Viennae: 1783. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE former edition of this work, though written under many disadvantages, has, upon the whole, been fa- vourably received by the public. It has been republished in Britain, and has met with some flattering marks of at- tention on the continent of Europe. Among my own coun- trymen, for whom it was especially composed, it has not been neglected. It has, indeed, if I mistake not, been the principal Elementary work on Botany that has been in the hands of my pupils, and the students of this interesting and amiable branch of natural history, in almost every part of the United-States, since the year 1803. Anew edition of the work is now presented to the public. This edition is much more extensive than the former; and though still very imperfect, and deformed, I fear, by many errors, I may venture to assert, that it is greatly amended, in many respects; and in all respects more worthy of the attention of the students and lovers of Botany, and especially of the young botanists of my own country. It may not be improper to mention, in this place, the principal points of difference between the present and the former edition. xiv PREFACE. The first part of the work, which forms the great mass of the first volume*, remains pretty much in the same state in which it originally came from the press. Several additions, however, have been made to the body of this part: some errors have been corrected. Some notes, chiefly illustrative of the text, are added; and these, from their mis- cellaneous nature, will, I hope, be deemed acceptable to the curious reader. They may serve to enliven the subject, and convey to him some idea of the manner in which I treat the science of botany, in my public lectures. The two platesf representing the principal forms of Leaves, both simple and compound, and also plates xxxiv and xxxv, which are attached to this volume, are entirely new additions. They are accompanied by a copious ex- planation: and the explanations of the other plates, though not wholly new, are more full than in the former edition. But the most important addition to the first volume, the plates of the leaves perhaps excepted, is the copious Index, which terminates the volume. This index will, I am persuaded, be deemed a valuable supplement to my work: for the want of it was much complained of by the purchasers of the first edition. It is principally intended as an index, or catalogue, of the terminology, or technical terms, that are made use of in every part of the work. In this respect, if I do not mistake, it is so extensive and complete, that it may supply the want of some of those mere botanical dictionaries, which I have referred to, in the body of the work. * The first edition of the work, was generally comprized in one volume, but was sometimes formed into two. The present, from its increased size, is neces- sarily distributed into two volumes. f Plates xxxii, xxxiii. PREFACE. xv This index also contains a list of all the Natural Orders, or assortments, of plants that are mentioned, either inciden- tally or more particularly, in the two volumes: but it con- tains no references to individual plants. It embraces, also, references to many of the principal miscellaneous subjects of my work. But, I repeat it, I wish it to be considered chiefly as an index of technical terms. The second part, though still small in comparison of either the first or the third parts, is somewhat corrected, and considerably enlarged. In particular, it contains a sec- tion, of some length, on the Generative functions of the stamens and the pistils; including observations on the irri- table movements of these sexual organs, &c, &c. I have, also, added a short section on the chief Principles contain- ed in vegetables; and, at the end of the part, a small body of notes.—I should have greatly enlarged this portion of the work, had I not been unwilling to increase, beyond certain limits, the size of the volume; and were it not still my intention to publish, at some future period, a small volume on the Physiology of vegetables, somewhat upon the plan which I have mentioned in the Preface to the first edition*. Bu t it is in the third and last part of this work, that the reader will find the most important corrections and addi- tions. Indeed, throughout the whole of this portion of the volume, additions and corrections have been made. Many of the genera are now disposed of very differently from what they were in the former edition. In many instances, I have, also, added remarks on the anomalies of the sta- mens, in regard to number, insertion, &c: and these re- * S<^e page is. xvi PREFACE. marks, especially when I speak of the North-American plants, will, perhaps, be considered as a morceau of some value to systematic botanists. All the observations on the Algae, Fungi, Palmae,8tc., &c, after page 168, and between this and the Appendix, are new additions. To the appendix itself, I have made some additions: as well as to the explanations of some of the thirty plates, which were included in the first edition of the Elements. The new plates, of which mention in presently to be made, are of course accompanied by new explana- tory matter. Th e volume is terminated by an Index of the princi- pal vegetables which are mentioned in the work, and espe- cially in the third part. In this index, both the scientific and English and provincial names of the plants are given: and although this catalogue is less extensive than I could wish it were, it cannot fail to be of essential use to the student in aiding him in his investigations into the posi- tion or arrangement of many of the plants, concerning which he may wish to obtain information. Th e first edition of this work contained thirty plates: the present is enriched by ten additional plates. Some of these will, I flatter myself, be found valuable and impor- tant; or at least of great use to the young student of bota- ny. They are all original plates, and some of them after drawings done by artists of the first character. Such, in particular, are plates xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxvi. Besides the addition of these ten new plates, impor- tant additions have been made to some of those which ac- companied the first edition of the work. Such additions will PREFACE. xvii be found in plates v,xiv, xx, xxi,xxvi, and xxx: and others of the plates, to which no additions, properly so called, have been made, have been, in some measure, improved by the hand of the engraver. Plate i, in particular, is materially improved. ****** It now only remains for me to request a candid ex- amination of this work by the public; and especially by those to whom the number and variety of my professional engagements, and of my literary pursuits, may not be known. It is a fact, that the work, originally begun and written in sickness, has been carried on to its present im- proved and enlarged state, in the intervals between my laborious attentions to the duties of my profession as a physician, and those as a lecturer on three great branches of science in the University; on Materia Medica, Bo- tany, and Zoology; and while I have been occupied in attending to the printing of several other works, much more original in their nature, and from which I venture to pro- mise myself a more solid reputation: viz. two distinct Flora, one of six of the states of the American Union*; one of the state of Virginiaf: a work on the Geography of the North-American trees and shrubs; an elementary work on Zoology; and, lastly, a volume on the original, the migra- tions, the religious and political institutions, the languages, 8cc., of the Indians of North-America; besides some me- moirs on minor or more individual subjects. All these works are actually, at this time, in the press: and some of them are nearly finished. * Prodromus of a Flora of the states of New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia: illustrated by plates. f Flora Virginica, &c xviii PREFACE. To my Pupils, whether those who have been under my immediate direction, or those with whom I have had merely intercourse in my capacity of a public professor, I offer no formal apologies for the imperfections of this work. Most of my ElSves have manifested a disposition to view my literary labours with tenderness and candour: and from many,-—very many,—of them I have received acts of kindness, of friendship, and almost filial affection, which have constituted not a little of my happiness; and the re- membrance of which,—if memory remain,—will not fail to cheer and solace me in the most gloomy walks to which I may be destined, in the remainder of my life. March 27th, 1811. ELEMENTS of BOTANY. PART FIRST. " But not alike to every mortal eye " Is this great scene unveil'd. For since the claims " Of social life, to different labours urge " The active powers of man; with wise intent " The hand of Nature on peculiar minds " Imprints a different bias, and to each " Decrees its province in the common toil. " To some she taught the fabric of the sphere, " The changeful moon, the circuit of the stars, " The golden zones of heaven: to some she gave " To weigh the moment of eternal things, " Of time, and space, and fate's unbroken chain, " And will's quick impulse: others by the hand " She led o'er vales and mountains, to explore " What healing virtue swells the tender veins " Of herbs and flowers; or what the beams of morn u Draw forth, distilling from the clifted rind " In balmy tears. But some to higher hopes " Were destin'd."--- THE PLEASURES OF IMAGINATION. Book 1.1. 79—97. ELEMENTS of BOTANY. «« Nee dubitamus, multa esse, quae & nos prarterierint. Homines enim •' sumus Sc occupati officiis." C. PLINI1 SECUNDI Naturalis Historic Lib. I. LlNN^EUS has made a general division of the plant, or vegetable, into three parts, viz. the Radix, theHERBA,andtheFitucTiFicATio. Of each of these parts, and of their various subordinate divisions, I shall speak in the order in which I have mentioned them. I prefer this order in treating my subject, as being more jiatural, or at least more facile and more simple, than that of those writers who begin their delineation of ve- getables with an account of the fructification. In the very commencement of my subject, at least, I follow the "Swedish Sage"*. Section I. OF THE ROOT. The Radix, or Root, is the lower part of the vege- table, which is generally attached to the earth, from which it derives various nutritious principles, which it • See his Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 37. 4 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. conveys to every part of the plant. It supports the Herb a and the Fructificatio. The root consists of two parts, which are denomi- nated Caudex* and Radicular By the term caudex, Linnaeus means the stock, or main body of the root; and by the term radicula, the stringy or fibrous part of the root, which, in the greater number of vegetables, terminates the main root, and is supposed to be that part of the root which is especially concerned in ab- sorbing nourishment from the earth. In the language of Linnaeus, the caudex is either descending or ascending. The caudex descendens, or descending caudex, strikes gradually downward into the ground, and puts forth radicles, or small fibres, which are generally regarded as the principal and really essen- tial part of every root. The caudex ascendens, or as- cending caudex, is that part of the root which gradually raises itself above the ground, serving frequently the place of a trunk or stem, and produces the herb. It is the descending caudex only which entirely corresponds to the term radix, or root, as it is employed by other bo- tanists. The term caudex ascendens corresponds, in some measure, to the caudex of Malpighi, and other naturalists, who, following the authority of classical wri- ters, designate by this name, the stem, trunk, or bole of a tree. The distinction of Linnaeus is, at least, ingenious. It is founded upon this fact, that trees and shrubs, when * Caudex, from cetdo, to cut down. J Radicula, strictly speaking, a little root. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 5 they are inverted, put forth leaves from the descending caudex, or proper root; and radicles, or roots, from the ascending caudex, or stem. Accordingly, the Swedish naturalist considers trees and shrubs " as roots above ground*." In a philosophical analysis of the vegetable, this may, perhaps, be a just view of the subject: but it is not probable, that the distinction of the great naturalist will ever be generally admitted by the bulk of mankind; not even by those who are somewhat accustomed to specu- late upon the nature of plants. We have so long been in the habit of regarding as the root, only that part of the vegetable which is buried under, or is immediately in connection with, the earthf, that it will be a difficult mat- ter to bring ourselves to think, that the stem or bole of a tree can, with strict propriety, be considered as a part of its root. The botanists have described various species of roots. I shall treat of the principal of them, under the following heads: viz. 1. of Roots, in respect to form, or shape: 2. of Roots, in respect to their direction, or man- ner of growth: 3. of Roots, in respect to their duration: and, lastly, I shall add some miscellaneous circumstan- ces, concerning the natural history of roots, reserving, however, the completion of the subject for the second and third parts of these Elements. * " Arbores Fruticesque omnes itaque sunt Radices supra terrara. Ergo Arbor " verticaliter inverse, e caudice descendente, fert Folia, ex adsendente Radiculas." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 39. f To this idea, however, there are exceptions, which I shall not omit to notice 6 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ». I. Of Roots, in respect to their form, or shape. Roots, with respect to their form or shape, may principally be referred to the following species, or per- haps more properly varieties: viz. 1. Radix fibrosa'. 2. Radix fusifor mis : 3. Radix tuberosa: 4. Radix pramorsa: 5. Radix granulata; and, 6. Radix bul- bosa. 1. The radix fibrosa, or fibrous root, consists entire- ly, or principally, of a number of fibrous radicles, each of which is more slender than the base of the trunk or stem, to which it is attached. The greater number of the Gramina, or Grasses, such as the Wheat, the Rye, the Oat, the Barley, the Rice, &c. furnish us with the best examples of this form of root. In the grasses, the fibres proceed from a small knot at the base of the stem. This kind of root, consisting of very slender fibres, is some- times denominated Radix capillacea*; or the hairy root. The term fibrous root comprehends a very great number of roots, which, as being more slender than the base of the stem or bole, may, with propriety, be arrang- ed under this head. Such are the roots of the greater number of trees and shrubs. 2. The radix fusiformis, called in English fusiform or spindle-shaped rootf, is a species of root, which ta- * From Capillus, a hair. f The fusiform-root is best known, in many parts of the United-States, by the name of" tap-root." /There can, I believe, be little doubt, that the earlier settlers ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. pers from above downwards to a point, more or less slender. The radicles, strings, or fibres, are commonly disposed over the whole surface of the stock, or principal root. We have examples of this species of root in the Carrot, the Parsnip, the Hemlock, the Radish, Horse- radish, and many others. Cultivation frequently changes the spindle-shaped root into a round, knobbed, or tuber- ous root. This has been particularly observed in some of the umbelliferous plants. 3. The radix tuberosa, tuberous or knobbed root,is a hard, solid and fleshy root, which, in general, is thicker than the base of the stem to which it is attached. It con- sists either of one knob, as in the common Turnip, or of many such knobs collected, by means of a number of slen- der strings or filaments, into a bunch, as in the Pasony, Sun-flower, Drop-wort, Potatoe, and many others. The radicles, or fibrous strings, are dispersed over every part of the tuberous root; whereas in the bulbous roots, afterwards to be mentioned, the radicles are entirely con- fined to the bottom of the root. Some of the tuberous roots, such as those of the Arum, Orchis, Moschatelline, and others, emit their ra- dicles at the top, from a knot formed between the stem and the thicker part of the root. Such roots have been called Radices comosce*, from a fancied resemblance of the fibres, which I have mentioned, to a bunch of hair. 4. The radix praemorsa, for which there is no very appropriate English name, is a species of root, which of the then British colonies introduced this word from England. It is, howevei, curious, and may not be improper to observe, that tap-pee is the name for the root ot tn\ vegetable in the language of several of our Indian tribes. * From Coma, a bush or head of hair 8 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. does not taper, but ends (abruptly) blunt, and thus ap- pears as though it were bitten off short at the end. Hence, perhaps, it might, not improperly, be called the bitten root. The Scabiosa, or Scabious, the Plantago, or Plantain, the Valeriana, or Valerian, and some other plants, furnish us with examples of this form of root. 5. The radix granulata, or granulate root, consists of several little tubers, or fleshy knobs, which some- what resemble grains of corn. The Saxifraga granula- ta, or White Saxifrage, of the English, exhibits one of the best examples of this kind of root. 6. The radix bulbosa, or bulbous root, is the last species of root which I have mentioned. This form of root, which Linnaeus calls Bulbus, is, perhaps, more pro- perly speaking, a large bud, situated under ground. It en- closes and protects the future plant, several generations* of which lie enveloped in it, until they are unfolded by the action of water, or other fit alimentary stimulus. Linnaeus calls this part, as he also does the true buds of trees and shrubs, the Hybernaculum, or winter-quarters of the plant. He does not consider the bulbus as a spe- cies of root. Many respectable botanists have implicitly adopted the Linnaean opinion on this head. The bulbus consists of two parts, viz. the bulbus, properly so called, and the radicula, or radicle. This last is considered, by Linnaeus, as a true root, or fibrous appendage, arising from the lower part of the bulb, by which it is attached to the earth, in which it grows. * This subject will be particularly attended to in treating cfi he generation of vegetables. See Part II. At present, however, it may not be improper to observe that in the bulb of the Hyacinth four distinct generations of future plants have been observed. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 9 These radicles may, it is thought, be considered as so many absorbing vessels, by which the various alimen- tary matters of the plant are conveyed, through the bulb, to every part of the stem, leaves, flowers, &c. Actual experiments, however, show, that the radicles, or cy- lindrical fibres, of certain bulbous-rooted plants, such as the Hyacinth, are by no means necessary to J:he full growth and perfection of these plants. This has been proved by the Marquis de S. Simon, in his work on Hyacinths*. This writer considers the radicles rather as exhaling, than as absorbing organs; and asserts, that it is the middle part of the bulb which is endued with the absorbing power. Four different kinds of bulbs are described by Lin- naeus: viz. 1. Bulbus squamosus: 2. Bulbus solidus: 3. Bulbus tunicatus; and, 4. Bulbus articulatus. 1. The bulbus squamosus, which in English we may call a squamose or scaly bulb, consists of a num- ber of imbricated lamellae, thin plates, or scales, which are laid over each other, somewhat in the manner of tiles upon a house. Different species of Lilies furnish us with examples of this beautiful kind of bulb. 2. The bulbus solidus, or solid bulb, consists of one solid and fleshy substance. The Tulip is said, by Lin- naeus, and many of his followers, to supply us with an instance of this kind of bulb. I cannot, however, consi- der the bulb of the Tulip as a solid bulb. Carefully ex- amined, it evidently appears to be a true coated bulb. Professor Ludwig has adduced the common Crocus, or * Printed, at Amsterdam, in 1768. 4to. C 10 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Saffron, as an example of the solid bulb. But even this, upon minute examination, appears to consist of a num- ber of tunics, or coats, some of which (the exterior ones) spontaneously separate from one another; and the inter- nal ones, though thicker, may, with ease, be separated. Indeed, some respectable writers have doubted, whether a true solid bulb, in the Linnaean sense of the word, does exist. 3. The bulbus tunicatus, the tunicated or coated bulb, consists of a number of tunics, or coats, which are regularly laid over each other. The common Onion, the Amaryllis,and many other plants,furnish instances of this species of bulb. The coats of this kind of bulb are some- times very thick and succulent, insomuch that they are sufficient to make the plant vegetate, without the aid of earth or water. Thus,we often observe the officinal Squill, as it lies in the shops of the apothecaries, protruding both vigorous stems and flowers. 4. The bulbus articulatus, the articulated or joint- ed bulb, consists of lamellae, that are linked or chained togther,as in the Lathraea Squamaria,or Tooth-wort, the Adoxa Moschatellina, or Tuberous Moschatel, and the Marty nia. 5. Linnjeus also makes mention of a Bulbus du- plicate. This name is applied to certain roots, which have two bulbs connected together. Some species of Or chides furnish us with the best examples of this kind of root. Such is the Ophrys, which is called, in some parts of the United-States, by the ridiculous name of " Adam and Eve." Where two bulbs are thus united together, it is commonly observed, that one of them is light, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 11 empty, and swims upon the surface of the water; whilst the other, which is solid, sinks by reason of its weight. From the former, the plant of the present year has pro- ceeded, whilst the latter contains the bud of the future year*. Lin NiEus, it has been observed,does not consider as a true root any of the species of bulb,which I have mention- ted. He views them as large buds situated under ground, protecting the embryo from the severity of the winter, and from other injurious causes. That the bulb does, like a true bud, actually enclose the tender embryo, I shall not attempt to denyf. But I cannot convince my- self,that this is a sufficient reason for asserting, that the bulb is not,in reality,a species of root. Linnjeus is not always consistent. He has no hesitation in consi- dering the tuber, or knob, of the Potatoe, as a true root: yet who does not know, that this tuber, as well as the bulbus, in the Linnaean sense of the word, encloses and protects the tender embryo? Linnaeus informs us, that in the hollow stem of the Osmunda, near its root, is con- tained the embryo-plant, that is to be born the following year. Why does he not consider this " caulis cavus," or hollow stem, as a true hybernaculum, or bulb, or bud? * For representations of different species of roots, see, in this work, particularly Plates II. and III. and also some of the individual plates illustrative of the sexual system of Linnaeus. t Yet I believe it would have been difficult for Linnaeus to have demonstrated the pre-existence of the embryo, in all the different species of bulb. Who has seen the embryo, in some of the articulated bulbs ? It must exist there, it will be answer- ed, because the bulb shoots into anew plant, in every essential respect similar to the parent plant. Then the leaf of the Aloe, the leaf of the Orange, and the leaves of many other plants, are bulbs, or buds, for they, when committed to the ground, prod.ice new plants, similar to their parents. 12 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Besides, the observations of the Marquis de S. Simon, whom I have already mentioned, compel us to entertain doubts concerning some of the Linnaean notions respect- ing the bulb. The Swedish naturalist says, the radicles, or small fibres, which are attached to the bulb, are the only part entitled to the name of a true root. But it ap- pears highly probable, that all these fibres do not act the part of absorbing organs, or vessels: some of them, at least, appear to be exhalents. Certain it is, that the ra- dicles are not necessary to the nutriment of the plant, through the medium of the bulb. Some of the most vigorous blossoms are often protruded from bulbs, the radicles of which have fallen off, almost immediately after their appearance. In the study of plants, it is a matter of essential im- portance to attend to the structure of the bulb, or bul- bous root. These bulbs frequently afford excellent marks for distinguishing one species of plant from ano- ther of the same genus. Thus, the different species of the genus Scilla, or Squill, can hardly be distinguished from each other, except by the circumstance of their bulbs, which are coated, solid (at least, deemed solid), and scaly. Here, under the head of the bulbous roots, it might not be improper to take notice of the Bulbus caulinusy or stem-bulb, and other similar productions, which, both in their structure and office, are very nearly allied to the bulb of which I have already treated. I shall, however, reserve the consideration of these stem-bulbs, &c. until I come to speak of the Hybernaculum, or win- ter-quarters of the plant. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 13 Plants that are furnished with bulbs, or bulbous roots, have received the name of Bulbosa, or Bulbous plants. These bulbosae constitute one of the classes in the method of Andreas Caesalpinus. Bulbosa and Bul- bosis affines are the names of the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth classes in the Methodus PropriaotMr. Ray, the immortal English naturalist. Linnaeus's ninth and tenth orders, Spathacete, and Coronaria, in his attempt towards a natural method, embrace many of the finest vegetables that are furnished with bulbous roots. Such, among others, are the Haemanthus, Amaryllis, Pancra- tium, Narcissus, Galanthus, Crinum, Colchicum, Alli- um, Polianthes, Ornithogalum, Scilla, Hyacinthus, Hypoxis, Lilium, and Tulipa. t. n. Of Roots, in respect to their direction, or manner of growth. Roots, with respect to their direction, or manner of growth, are very different from one another. 1. Some roots are perpendicular, or run directly downwards into the earth. These constitute what Lin- naeus calls the Radix perpendicularis, or perpendicu- lar root. This term is generally applied to a particular kind of root, which descends, in one straight fibre, that gradually tapers from above downwards, and whose greatest diameter does not exceed that of the base of the stem. The Carrot, Parsnip, and other spindle-shaped roots, as we have called them, are also examples of the perpendicular root. Some of the perpendicular roots 14 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. strike but a little way into the ground, such as the Da- tura, or Thorn-apple: some pierce deep, as the Horse- radish, the Phytolacca, or Poke, and others. 2. The Radix horizontal'^, or horizontal root, ex- tends itself under the surface of the ground, nearly in a ho- rizontal direction. Thelris,the May-apple*,theHop,the Cinquefoil, and many other plants furnish us with ex- amples of this direction of the root. Some of the horizon- tal roots run very near to the surface of the earth; such as the Woodbine and the wild Anemone: others run lower down, as the Triticum repens, or Couch-grass. The horizontal root is sometimes called level or transverse- root. According to the greater or less severity of the climate, the perpendicular and horizontal roots (of the same species) will often be found to pierce the earth more or less remote from its surface. The root, as well as every other part of the plant, accommodates itself, in some measure, to the climate in which it grows. 3. The Radix repens, or creeping root, is, by Linnaeus, distinguished from the horizontal root, to which, however, it is nearly allied. While the latter species of root is extended under the earth, in a trans- verse direction, the former is observed to creep hori- zontally, in every direction, putting forth fibres, as it proceeds. The Mentha, or Mint, furnishes us with an example of this kind of root. 4. The roots of some plants have a two-fold direc- tion. Thus in the Primula, or Primrose, the stock, or main root, runs level, whilst the radicles, or fibres, strike perpendicularly downwards into the earth. ' Podophyllum peltatum. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 15 5. Some roots are entire, that is not branched. These constitute what Linnaeus denominates the Radix sim- plex, or simple root. Other roots are subdivided, or branched. These are the Radix ramosa, or branched root. The Radix ramosissima is a root which is greatly subdivided, or branches to a considerable degree.—The Podophyllum diphyllum, which I have called Jeffersonia binata, furnishes a good example of this last kind of root. J. HI. Of Roots, in respect to their duration. The period of the duration or existence of roots is very different. Some roots subsist for only one year; some for two, and some for many years. Those which subsist during only one year are denominated annuals: those which subsist for two years are called biennials, and those which subsist for many years are called peren- nials. It is only among the herbaceous* vegetables, that we have examples of annual and biennial roots. But the roots of both herbs and trees are perennials. 1. Annual plants, as I have already observed,exist only one year. At the completion of about this period, the root and the stem perish, and the individual dies, to rise no more from a root. It is perpetuated, however, by its seed.—Gleditschhas compared the annual plants with * Herbaceous vegetables are those which have succulent stalks, or stems, that perish down to the root every year- 16 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. insects. The annual plant, as well as the insect, having undergone various metamorphoses, arrives at maturity, performs the office of generation; after which the male quickly perishes, the female surviving some time longer, to nourish and deposit the seed. 2. Biennial plants renew their stems only twice, after which the root perishes, the plant being perpetua- ted by its seed. Biennial are much less numerous than annual or perennial vegetables. 3. Perennial plants are such as subsist, by means of their roots or stems, for more than two years. Some of the vegetables of this class preserve both their roots and stems for many years; such are the numerous species of trees, the roots of which have been denomina- ted Radices fruticosa*. The stems of other perennial plants perish to the ground, the stem being annually re- paired out of the root. Climate and cultivation exert a manifest effect upon the term of duration of the roots of vegetables. When transplanted into cold climates, many of the pe- rennial plants become annuals, and the species is perpe- tuated by seed. Thus, in its native warm climate, the Ricinus communis, or Castor-oil plant, has a shrubby stem, and is a perennial; but in cold climates, both the root and the stem perish, and the vegetable is continued by its seed. The effects of culture, in influencing the term of ex- istence of the roots of vegetables, are much less under- * Radices frutico&iB, or shrubby roots, from Frutex, a shrub. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 17 stood, than the effects of climate. It is certain, however, that, in many instances, culture does prolong the life of annual plants. §. IV. Miscellaneous circumstances relative tothe natural history of roots. I. The roots of the greater number of vegetables are hid below the surface of the earth, and from its bosom they derive a large part of their nourishment and growth. But there are many vegetables which are not thus neces- sarily attached to the earth. The Misletoe, the Vanilla* the Dodder, the Hypocistis, and many others, do not emit their radicles into the soil, but migrate, if I may use the phrase, in search of nourishment elsewhere. They attach themselves to other plants, which they use as fulcres or props, and from which, it is highly probable, they derive some of their nourishment. Such plants are denominated Plants Parasitica, or Parasitic Plants. This term was, long ago, employed by the celebrated Malpighi. Linnaeus makes much use of it, and he has not forgotten, in his employment of it, to glance severe- ly at the close-clasping habits of some botanists, his con- temporaries, and aspiring rivals after glory. The Misletoe, the Vanilla, the Tillandsia, and many others, attach themselves to the branches of trees. The Asarum Hypocistis shows a preference to the roots of plants, particularly, it is said, the Cistus, or Rock-rose; whilst different species of Cuscuta, or Dodder, cling to the stems of a great variety of plants. D 18 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. The parasitic plants attach themselves to other plants in various different ways. The seed of the Dod- der having been deposited in the ground, there makes its first effort towards vegetation. It protrudes a stem, which seizes upon the first plant in its vicinity, to which it closely adheres. It is imagined that it derives its nou- rishment, by means of certain glandular organs, from the supporting plant. It is observed, however, that the lower part of the stem of the parasitic plant soon dries up, the root perishes, and the parasite lives upon its fulcre, or support. Perhaps, however, it is not certain, that it derives any essential part of its nourishment from the juices of the plant to which it attaches itself. It is highly probable, that, in many instances, parasitic plants injure their supporters, more by emitting from their bodies some noxious fluid, than by absorbing whole- some fluids from the supports*. The Misletoe, the Vanilla, the Tillandsia, and the Hypocistis are never found upon the earth: they appear to have been originally produced upon the vegetables by which they are supported. The two first mentioned parasitic plants extend their roots under the bark, and even pierce the body of the wood. The Tillandsia usne- oides, which is well known in North-America by the names of Long-Moss, and Spanish-Beard, is much more loosely attached to the trees of the forest. This parasite is so abundant in the southern parts of the United-States, and in New-Spain, that it even communicates a melan- choly darkness to extensive woods. * The Cuscuta Americana, or American Dodder, grows very abundantly in Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United-States. lr clings to a great number of species of plants, and I am not certain, that it is found more frequently upon one species than upon another. This plant is known by two very different names viz. Love-vine, and Devils-gutts. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 19 2. The roots of many mosses attach themselves to the firm barks of trees, whilst the lichens cling to the hardest stones. Some species seem especially attached to stones of a calcareous nature; whilst others form a beautiful plating, as it were, upon the surface of whins, sand-stones, and never-dying granites. It has not yet been determined, with absolute certainty, from whence these latter mentioned vegetables derive their nutriment. It cannot be from the stony substances to which they are attached. It is proba- ble, that they are nourished entirely by the atmosphere, and by water and other extraneous bodies, which the at- mosphere contains. 3. Some plants swim upon the water, and even per- form pretty extensive migrations. Different species of Lemna*, or Duck-meat, swim upon the surface of the standing waters of Europe and North-America, and when not disturbed will cover the whole surface. Such plants cannot, with propriety, be said to be fixed to a certain spot. They are, indeed, furnished with radicles, or roots, but these hang loose in the water, from which, it is proba- ble, they derive their principal nourishment. But the Fuci, or Sea-wreck, an extensive tribe of plants, perform vast migrations upon the ocean, where the eye of the navigator is often enlivened with extensive fields, which are princi- pally composed of these vegetables. 4. Of the many thousand species of plants that are now known to the botanists, by far the greater number are, un- questionably, furnished with roots. Some plants, however, are said to be wholly destitute of roots. Such are the dif- ferent species of the genus Tremella, which have so many of the habitudes of animals, that, by certain writers, they * Lemna gibba, L. minor, L. trisulca, and L. polyrhiza. 20 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. have been considered as belonging more properly to the animal than to the vegetable kingdom. 5. According to Linnaeus, the root is made up of Medulla, or Pith; Lignum, or Wood; Liber, or Inner Bark; and Cortex, or Outer Bark. These several parts will be more particularly mentioned, when I treat of the anatomy of vegetables, in Part Second. 6. Linnaeus, ever fond of analogies, compares the roots of plants to the absorbing lacteal vessels in animals. The earth he calls the stomach of plants*. This language is, certainly, exceptionable. The roots may, indeed, with some propriety, be said to be the lacteals of plants. And long before Linnaeus, the learned Dr. Glisson had consi- dered the lacteals as the roots of animalsf. But with no manner of propriety can the earth be called the stomach of plants. The vessels of plants are, truly, their stomach, by which the various matters derived from the earth, &c, are digested or converted into fit nutriment. Section II. OF THE HERB. The Herb a, or Herb, is the second general part of the plant which I have mentioned. By Linnaeus, it is de- fined to be that part of the vegetable, which arises from the root, is terminated by the Fructification, and compre- hends the Trunk, the Leaves, the Fulcres, or Appendages; and the Hybernacle. * "Plantarum Vebthicolus est Terra, Vasa Chylifera Radix." Phi- losophia Botanica, &c. p. 93. f " Plants suis radicibus terrx infix* hsrent, nee de loco in locum movendo vjctum quxrunt: Animalia vero hue ilhic moventur, intiisque radices suas terram- que et succos, quibus aluntur, in ventriculis quippe et intestinis, secum gerunt." Tractatus de Ventriculo et Intestinis, authore Francisco Glissonio, M D., &c. p 195. Londini: 1677- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 21 ♦ I. The Truncus, or Trunk, is the body, or main stem of the vegetable, whether it be a tree, a shrub, or an herbaceous plant. It supports the leaves and the fruc- tification. Linnaeus enumerates six species of trunk: these are, 1. the Caulis. 2. the Culmus. 3. the Scapus. 4. the Pedunculus. 5. the Petiolus, and 6. the Frons. 1. The Caulis*, stem,, or stalk, is the body of an herb or tree, supporting branches, leaves, and fructifi- cation. " To this description, says Dr. Milne, may be " added another circumstance, that caulis is an univer- " sal trunk; that is, proceeds immediately from the " root, whilst the foot-stalks of the flower and leaf, " which Linnaeus likewise denominates trunks, are " partial; that is, proceed from an universal trunk, or " its branches." The caulis is the most common species of trunk, strictly so called. The stems or trunks of the grasses, the palms, the ferns, and the fungous plants, are distinguished by par- ticular appellations, which will be noticed in their pro- per places. I have said, that the caulis is the stem or trunk of a vegetable, whether herb or tree. It is to be observed, however, that formerly the term caulis was applied to herbs only. The term truncus, which was employed to denote the stem, or trunk, or bole of a tree, is now em- • Caulis, from the Greek xctvkos. Dr. Martyn observes, that the " English " Kale, and Cole (in Colewort aud Coleseed), come from caulis, as well as <■ Cauliflower vulgarly Collyfawer: but immediately from the Low-Dutch Kod." ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ployed as a generic name, of which the terms caulis, culmus, &c. are species. The caulis, or stem, is either simple or compound. " Simple stems are such as do not divide, but " proceed in a continued series towards their summits. " Compound stems are subdivided into ramuli, or small " branches, and diminish as they ascend, so as frequently " to lose the appearance of a stem altogether." I. Linn^us enumerates the following species or va- rieties of the caulis simplex, or simple stem: viz. 1. cau- lis nudus, a naked stem, or a stem devoid of leaves and hair. 2. caulis foliatus, a leafy stem, or stem covered with leaves. 3. caulis fiexuosus, a fluxuose stem, or stem which takes a different direction at every joint. 4. caulis Dolubilis, a twining stem, or stem which ascends, in a spiral direction, round the branch or stem of some other plant, or round some prop. 5. caulis reclinatus, a recli- ning stem, bending in an arch towards the earth. 6. cau- lis procumbens, a procumbent stem, lying along the ground, but not putting forth roots. 7. caulis repens, a creeping stem, or stem running along the ground, and striking root at certain distances. 8. caulis sarmen- tosus, or sarmentose stem; a slender stem, almost naked, or having only leaves in bunches, at the joints or knots, where it strikes root. 9. caulis parasiticus, or parasiti- cal stem; a stem which does not grow immediately from the ground, but depends for its support upon some other vegetable. 10. caulis teres, a columnar stem, or stem without angles. 11. caulis anceps, or ancipital stem; a two-edged stem, compressed and forming two oppo- site angles. 12. caulis triqueter, or three-sided stem, having three plane or flat sides. 13. caulis trian- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 23 gularis, or triangular stem, with three angles. 14. cau- lis trigonus, or three-cornered stem, having also three angles, with the sides concave or convex. 15. caulis sulcatus, or furrowed, grooved, or fluted stem; a stem marked, its whole length, with grooves, or channels. 16. caulis striatus, a striated or streaked stem; a stem marked, its whole length, with superficial or slight grooves, or channels. 17. caulis glaber, a smooth stem. 18. caulis scaber, a scabrous or rugged stem, some- thing like shagreen. 19. caulis villosus, a villose stem; a stem covered with down or soft hairs: and 20. caulis hispidus, a hispid stem, covered with bristley-like arms, or minute prickles. 2. Of simple branching stems, Linnaeus enume- rates the following kinds, viz. 1. caulis adscendens, or ascending stem; a stem whose branches grow, at first, in a horizontal direction, and then gradually curve upwards. 2. caulis diffusus, or diffused stem; a stem furnished with spreading branches. 3. cau- lis distichus*, a distich, or two-ranked stem; a stem with the branches horizontal, and produced in two rows: or, in other words, it is a stem whose branches proceed from only two sides of the stem. 4. cau- lis brachiatus\, or bracheate stem; a stem having branches, stretched out like arms, in pairs, and all nearly horizontal, each pair being at right angles with the next. 5. caulis ramosissimus, a stem very much branched: the branches disposed without any regular order. 6. caulis fulcratus\, or fulcrated stem. This species of * Distichus, from Sits twice, and ?t<^«;, a rank, or row. f Brachiatus, from Braclium, the arm. | Fulcraftn, from Fulcrum, a prop. 24 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. stem is supported by the branches, which descend to the root; as in the Fig-tree,and the Rhizophora,or Sea-man- grove. 7. caulis prolifer, a proliferous stem, that puts forth branches only from the centre of the summit: as in the Pine, Fir, Cedar, &c. 8. caulis simplicissimus, the most simple stem, having very few branches, and proceeding in a straight line to the top, as in the La- thraea Squamaria. 3. Of the caulis compositus, or compound stem, the following species are mentioned by Linnaeus, viz. 1. caulis dichotomus*, a dichotomus stem, or stem which continually and regularly divides by pairs, from the top to the bottom. This is instanced in the Viscum, or Misletoe, the Valeriana Locusta, called Corn-sallad, the Chironia angularis, or American Centaury, and others. 2. caulis subdimsus, a stem divided into branches irre- gularly, or without order. 3. caulis articulatus, a joint- ed stem, having knots of joints situated at certain dis- tances. II. The Culmus, which may very properly be trans- lated, Culm, but which is also called the Straw or Haulmf, is defined, by Linnaeus, to be the proper trunk of the gramina, or grasses, elevating the leaves, the flower, and the fruit. " The word Straw being com- * Dichotomus from hi, twice, and ripvu, to cut: or from IttKu, and upta, to divide by pairs. f' Haum, or Haume, is the older English spelling adopted from the Saxon. Thus, old Tusser uses the word : " In champion countrie a pleasure they take «• To mow up their Haume for to brew and to bake; " The haume is the straw of the wheat or the rye, " Which once being reaped, they mow by and by." ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 25 *" monly appropriated to the dry stalk of corn, I prefer ** using the Latin culm*." This species of stem is generally tubular, or hollow, and has very frequently knots or joints distributed, at certain intervals, through its whole length. Most of the grasses have a round and cylindrical stem, as in the Wheat, the Rye, the Oat, and many others. Some spe- cies of grasses, however, have a triangular culm. We have instances of this in several species of Schoenus, Scirpus, Cyperus, &c. I have said, that the culm is very frequently inter- rupted by knots or joints; as in the Wheat, Indian-corn, or Maize, &c. This is the culmus articulatus, or jointed culm. But the culms of some species of grasses are en- tirely destitute of such knots. These are the culmus enodis, or knotless culm. The interval, or space, con- tained between every two joints of a jointed culm is called Internodium, and Articulus culmi. To avoid all ambiguity, it may not be improper to anglicize the Latin word internodium, by using the word Internode, as a learned veteranf in the science of Botany has done. In the greater number of grasses, the culm is gar- nished with leaves, as in the Wheat, Rye, Indian-corn, &c. In some species, the culm is entirely naked, that is destitute of leaves. This is the case in certain species of Cyperus, or Cypress-grass. The culms of the great- er number of the grasses of the temperate countries are entire, that is not branched. In the Indies, however, many of the grasses have branched culms. The culm sometimes consists of a number of scales, which lie over * Professor Martyn. f Professor Martyn. E 26 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. each other, in the manner of tiles upon a house. The culm of an Asiatic species of grass* is said to at- tain to the height of sixty or an hundred feet. Even within the limits of the United-States, one speciesf of Arundo, or Reed, whose stem is a culm, grows to the height of thirty feet. Plants that are furnished with the particular spe- cies of stem which I have been speaking of, are known among botanists by the name of Planta Culmifera, or Culmiferous plants. By Linnaeus they are denominated Gramina, or Grasses. Mr. Jussieu calls them Gra- minea. Of this very extensive and interesting family of vegetables, I shall take more particular notice, in a future part of this work. 3. The ScapusJ, or Scape, as Dr. Martyn translates the word, is a species of stem, or trunk, which supports the fructification, but not the leaves. The scape, like the caulis, is an universal stem, in which respect it dif- fers from the pedunculus, or peduncle. The scape pro- ceeds immediately from the root, whereas the peduncle proceeds always from the stem, or branches of the stem. The scape also differs from the caulis aphyllus, or leafless stem, because although the scape is naked, that is without leaves, it has, nevertheless, always radical or bottom leaves: but the naked stem is entirely destitute of leaves.—Dr. Milne observes, that in the Species Plantarum of Linnzeus, " the term Scapus is generally " preceded by the superfluous word naked; an addition * Panicum arborescens, a native of Ce\ Ion. t Arundo gigantea of Walter. | Scapus, originally from 7rot, a stake. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 29 *. II. The Folium, or Leaf, is the next part of the herba, that demands our attention. It seems hardly necessary to attempt a definition of leaves: so familiar are these parts to the senses of all mankind. That it is not easy to succeed in our attempt after a definition of these parts, I infer from the very lame distinctions which have been given by celebrated writers. Thus, Linnasus defines the leaf to be " the organ of motion in a vegetable:" " Organum motus plantae." But these words convey no manner of idea of the form or structure of the leaf. They only tell us, what the Swedish naturalist deemed to be the true use of leaves in the vegetable economy. Professor Ludwig defines leaves to be fibrous and cellular processes of the plant, which are of various figures, but generally extend- ed into a plain membranaceeous, or skinny substance*. Miller's definition of the leaf, might serve as a definition of almost every other part of the plant. Reserving the consideration of some interesting particulars in the history of leaves, to the Second Part of this work, I shall now proceed to treat of leaves, un- der the following heads: viz. 1. of leaves in regard to their nomenclature: II. of the anatomical structure oi leaves: III. of the uses of leaves in the vegetable econo- my; and, IV. and lastly of certain miscellaneous circum- stances, in the natural history of leaves. Ludwig, as quoted by Milne 30 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. A. I. Of the Nomenclature of Leaves. Leaves, considered in respect to their nomenclatu- ral history, may be treated of under the three following heads, viz. 1. of Simple Leaves: 2. of Compound Leaves: and, 3. of Leaves according to their Deter- mination. 1. The Folium Simplex, or Simple Leaf, is that species of leaf, which consists of only one, undivided portion, situated upon a petiole, or foot-stalk. In other words, the simple leaf is a leaf whose petiole is termi- nated by a single expansion, the divisions of which, however deep they may be, do not reach to the middle rib. " To understand this, let it be observed, that the " middle rib of every leaf is the principal prolongation " of the foot-stalk; which, to form the membranaceous " expansion, called the leaf, runs out—into a number of " ramifications, that inosculating and crossing each " other mutually, form the cortical net" of the leaf. " When these ramifications of the foot-stalk are so con- " nected, as to form one entire expansion, the leaf is " said to be simple; but when the middle rib becomes, " in fact, a foot-stalk, and many different expansions, " instead of one, proceed from the common foot-stalk, " the leaf is said to be compound." The middle rib of a leaf, whether it be simple, or compound, is deno- minated by Linnaeus, costa. Of this more particular mention will be made, hereafter. The forms of the simple leaf are almost innume- rable. I shall here mention the greater number of those which are noticed by Linnaeus, in his Philosophia Bo- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 31 tanica*. They are the following, viz. 1. folium orbicw- latum, an orbicular, or circular leaf. 2. folium subrotun- dum, a leaf nearly round. 3. folium ovatum, an ovate, or egg-shaped leaf. 4. folium ovale, an oval leaf. 5. fo- lium parabolicum, a parabolic leaf. 6. folium spatula- tum, a spatulate, or spatula-shaped leaf. 7. folium cu- neiforme, a cuneiform, or wedge-shaped leaf. 8. folium oblongum, an oblong leaf. 9. folium lanceolatum, a lan- ceolate leaf. 10. folium line are, a linear leaf, as the leaves of the grasses. 11. folium acerosum, or acerose leaf; a leaf which is linear and permanent, as in the Pine, Yew, and many other evergreen trees. 12. folium subu- latum, a subulate leaf; linear at the bottom, but gradu- ally tapering towards the end. 13. folium triangular e, a triangular leaf. 14. folium quadrangulare, a quadran- gular leaf. IS. folium quinquangulare, a five-cornered leaf. 16. folium deltoides, a deltoid leaf. 17folium rotun- dum, around leaf. 18. folium reniforme, a reniform or kidney-shaped leaf. 19. folium cordatum, a cordate or heart-shaped leaf. 20. folium lunulatunr, shaped like a crescent. 21. folium sagittatum, a sagittate leaf; a leaf shaped like the head of an arrowf. 22. folium has tatum, a hastate leaf; a leaf resembling the head of a halbert. 23. folium panduraforme, a guitar-shaped leaf; as in Convolvulus panduratus, called Wild-Potatoe, &c. 24. folium fissum ,a cleft-leaf; a leaf divided by linear sinuses, with straight margins. (According to the number of these divisions, the leaf is called, bifid, trifid, quadrifid, * It is far, however, from being my intention toattempt any thing like afull de- finition or description of each kind of leaf. For the most satisfactory explanation of the Linnaan terms of leaves, &c. I must particularly refer the reader to Pro- fessor Martyn's work ( The Language of Botany, Wc), which I so often mention in the course of these Elements, and which I always mention with pleasure. f As in Sagitturia sagittifolia, of which see the figure in this work. 32 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. quinquefid, multifid, bifidum, trifidum, quadrifidum, quinquefidum, multifidum, &cj. 25. folium lobatum, a lobate orlobed leaf. 26. folium palmatum, a palmate or hand-shaped leaf. 27. folium pinnatifidum, a pinna- tifidleaf. 28. folium lyratrum, a lyrate, or lyre-shaped leaf. 29. folium laciniatum, a laciniate, or jagged leaf. 30. folium sinuatum, a sinuate leaf. 31. folium parti- tum, or parted leaf; a leaf divided almost down to the base. (According to the number of the divisions, the parted leaf is called bipartite, or two-parted; tripartite, or three-parted, &c. &c. bipartitum, tripartitum, qua- dripartitum, quinquepartitum, multipartitumj. 32. folium integrum, an entire leaf. 33. folium truncatum, a truncate leaf; ending in a transverse line, so that it seems as if the tip of the leaf had been cut off: beauti- fully illustrated in the Liriodendron Tulipifera, or Tu- lip-tree, of North-America. 34. folium pramorsum, a leaf ending very obtusely, with unequal notches*. 35. folium retusum, a retuse leaf; ending in a blunt sinus. 36. folium emarginatum, a leaf notched at the end. 37. folium obtusum, an obtuse or blunt leaf. 38. folium acu- tum, an acute leaf, ending in an acute angle. 39. folium acuminatum, an acuminate or sharp-pointed leaf; ending in a subulate or awl-shaped point. 40.folium cirrhosum, a cirrose leaf; terminating in a tendril. 41. folium spi- nosum, a spiny or thorny leaf. 42. folium dentatum, a toothed leaf. 43. folium serratum, a serrate leaf,toothed like a saw. 44. folium crenatum, a crenate leaf; having the edge cut with angular or circular incisures, not in- clining towards either extremity. 45. folium repandum, a repand leaf; having its rim terminated by angles, with * See radix pracmorsa, p. 7 & 8. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 33 sinuses between them. 46. folium cartilagineum, a cartilaginous leaf. ATI. folium ciliatum*, a ciliate leaf; having the edge guarded by parallel bristles longitudi- nally. 48. folium lacerum, a lacerated leaf; with the edge variously cut, as if it were torn. 49. folium ero- sum, an erose or gnawed leaf; as if gnawed by insects. 50. folium integerrimum, absolutely entire; the mar- gin or edge not in the ieast cut or notched. 51. folium viscidum, a viscid leaf; covered with a tenacious juice. 52. folium tomentosum, atomentose, downy or cottony leaf. 53. folium lanatum, a woolly leaf; covered with a substance resembling a spider's Aveb. 54. folium pilosum, a hairy leaf; having the surface covered with long, and distinct hairs. 55. folium hispidum, a hispid leaf (see caulis hispidus). 56. folium scabrum, a sca- brous or rugged leaf (see caulis scaber). 57. folium aculeatum, a prickly leaf; armed with prickles. 58. folium striatum, a striated or streaked leaf. 59. folium papillosum, a papillose leaf; having the surface cover- ed with fleshy dots. 60. folium punctatum, a dotted leaf. 61. folium nitidum, a glittering or glossy leaf. 62. folium plicatum, a plaited leaf; folded like a fan. 63. folium undulatnm, a waved leaf; with the surface rising and falling in waves, or obtusely. 64. folium crispum, a curled leaf. 65. folium rugosum, a wrink- led leaf. 66. folium concavum, a concave leaf; or leaf with the edge standing above the disk. 67. folium ve- nosum, a veined leaf; a leaf whose vessels branch, or variously divide over the surface. (When a leaf has no perceptible vessels, it is called folium avenium, a vei*- less leaf). 68. folium nervosum, a nerved leaf; having vessels quite simple and unbranched, extending from ' From Cilite, the eye-lashes. r 34 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. the base towards the apex, or tip. 69. folium colora- tum, a coloured leaf; of any other colour than green. 70. folium glabrum, a smooth leaf. 71. folium teres, a columnar leaf; a leaf without angles. 72. folium tu- bulosum, a tubulous or hollow leaf, as in the Onion; and most singularly in the Sarracenia purpurea*. 73. folium carnosum, a fleshy leaf: full of pulp within, as in Sedum, and many other succulent leaves. 74. fo- lium compressum, a compressed or flatted leaf. 75. folium planum, a plane or flat leaf; having the two surfaces parallel. 76. folium gib bum, a gibbous leaf; having both surfaces convex, owing to the abundance of pulp. 77. folium convexum, 2l convex leaf; with the edge more contracted than the disk. 78. folium depres- sum, a depressed leaf; hollow in the middle, having the disk more depressed than the sides. 79. folium canali- culatum, a channelled leaf; hollowed above with a deep longitudinal groove, convex underneath. 80. folium ensiforme, a sword-shaped leaf; tapering from the base towards the point. 81. folium acinaciforme, an acina- ciform leaf; fleshy and compressed, resembling a sabre, faulchion or scymitar. 82. folium dolabriforme, a dola- briforme, axe, or hatchet shaped leaf. 83. folium lin- guiforme, a tongue-shaped leaf; " linear and fleshy, blunt at the end, convex underneath, and having usually a cartilaginous border." 84. folium anceps, an ancipital leaf; having two prominent longitudinal angles, with a convex disk. 85. folium triquetrum, a three- sided leaf (see caulis triqueter.) 86. folium sulcatum, a farrowed, grooved or fluted leaf (see caulis sulcatus.) 87. folium carina turn, a carinated leaf; having upon the back a longitudinal prominency, like the keel of a * See Piatt I. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 35 vessel. 88. folium membranaceum, a membranaceous leaf; having no perceptible pulpy matter between the two surfaces. II. " Compound leaves are such whose footstalk is " terminated by several expansions; in other words, lt whose divisions extend to the common footstalk, k4 which not running into the membranaceous part of " the leaf, supports the several lobes, or lesser leaves, " called foliola, of which the compound leaf consists." The foliola, or leaflets, as Dr. Martyn translates the word, are true simple leaves, the forms of which are, like those of the simple leaves already treated of, very numerous. These leaflets are sometimes furnished with particular footstalks; sometimes they are destitute of such footstalks, but are seated upon the middle rib of the compound leaf. The former leaflet is denominated foliolum petiolatum, a petioled leaflet ; the latter folio- lum sessile, a sessile leaflet. In the compound leaves, of which I am speaking, the central longitudinal fibre, or part to which the leaflets are attached, is denominated the costa, or rib. I have alrea- dy observed, that the central fibre of the leaves, whether simple or compound, is known by the same name. This part of the leaf is by some writers denominated a nerve. This term ought not to be admitted in an accurate botani- cal language, since there is no reason to believe that any peculiar sensibility, the attribute of nervous matter, re- sides m the central fibre. It has also been called a vein, To this term there is less objection than to the former, since it is demonstrated, as I shall afterwards show, that a fluid circulates or moves through every part of the leaf, 36 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. along the course of the middle rib, and of the branches, which it sends out. Professor Ludwig has proposed to call by the name of nerve, the prominent division of the rib of the leaf; and by the name of vein, the pellucid part of the rib*. I think, however, that no manner of ad- vantage is gained by this nice distinction. Compound leaves are distinguished by Linnaeus, into, 1. compound leaves, properly so called. 2. leaves twice compounded; and, 3. leaves that are more than twice compounded- A. The folium compositum, or compound leaf pro- perly so called, is a leaf only once compounded, and ad- mits of the following species or varieties, which I shall mention in the order in which they occur in the Philo- sophia Botanica. 1. folium articulatum, a jointed leaf; when one leaflet grows from the top of another. 2. foli- um digita turn, a digitate leaf; when a simple or undi- vided footstalk connects several distinct leaflets at the end of it; as indifferent species of iEsculus, or Horse- chesnutf. 3. folium binatum, a binate leaf; having a simple petiole connecting two leaflets at the top of it; as in Jeffersonia binata, &c. 4. folium ternatum, a ternate leaf; having three leaflets on one petiole; as in Trefoil, Strawberry, &c. 5. folium quinatum, a quinate leaf; having five leaflets on one petiole. (Linnaeus considers the binate, the ternate and the quinate leaves as species of the digitate leaf). 6. folium pinnatum, a pinnate leaf; composed of a number of leaflets, arranged, like wings, along both sides of the middle rib. Of this beautiful * Institution's, &c. p. 26. f See the plate of ./Esculus spicata, in this work. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 37 kind of leaf, we have many examples, but the finest oc- cur in the leguminous plants, as they are called; as in different species of Robinia, Cassia, &c. &c. &.C.* To this general head of the pinnate leaf, Linnaeus refers various species or varieties, such as 1. folium pinnatum cum impari; unequally pinnate, when the wings composed of leaflets are terminated by a single leaflet; as in Robinia viscosa. 2. folium pinnatum cir- rhosum; cirrhosely pinnate; terminated by a tendril. 3. folium pinnatum abruptum; abruptly pinnate; neither terminated by a leaflet nor by a tendril. 4. folium pin- matum opposite; oppositely pinnate; having the leaflets placed opposite to each other, in pairs, as in Cassia ma- rilandica. 5. folium pinnatum alternatim; alternately pinnate; the leaflets ranged alternately along the common petiole. 6. folium pinnatum interrupte; interruptedly pinnate; having smaller leaflets interposed between the principal ones. 7. folium pinnatum articulate; jointed- ly pinnate; when the common footstalk is articulated, or jointed. 8. folium pinnatum de cursive; decursively pinnate; when the leaflets run into one another along the common petiole. 9. folium conjugatum, a conjugate leaf; having only one pair of leaflets. B. The folium compositum decompositum, or de- compound leaf, is so called, when the primary petiole is so divided that each part forms a compound leaf: in other words, the footstalk, instead of supporting small lobes, or leaflets, on the top, or on each side, bears par- tial footsalks, from which proceed the leaflets on both sides. To this head, Linnaeus refers the following spe- * See the plates of Robinia viscosa and Cassia marilandica 38 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. cies of leaves, viz. 1. folium bigeminatum, or bigemi- nate leaf; having a dichotomous or forked petiole, with several leaflets at the extremity of each division. 2. foli- um biternatum% 2l biternate or doubly-ternate leaf; when the petiole has three ternate leaflets; as in Epimedium. 3. folium bipinnatum, a doubly-winged leaf, or frond; when the common petiole has on each side of it pinnate leaves*. 4. folium pedatum; apedateleaf; when a bifid or forked petiole connects several leaflets on the inside only: as in Passiflora, Arum, Helleborus foetidus, &c. C. The folium compositum supradecompositum, or supradecompound leaf, is a species of compound leaf, in which the petiole, being several times divided, con- nects many leaflets, each part forming a decompound leaf: as in Pinlpinella glauca, Ranunculus rutsefolius, &c. To this head Linnaeus refers the following species, viz. 1. folium triternatum, a triternateor triply-three- fold leaf; when the petiole has three biternate leaves. 2. folium tripinnatum, a tripinnate, or three times pinnate- leaf; when the petiole has bipinnate leaves ranged on each side of it; as in the Pteris aquilina, and other ferns. 3. folium tergeminum, a tergeminate or thrice-double leaf; " when a forked petiole is subdivided, having two " leaflets at the extremity of each subdivision; and also " two other leaflets at the division of the common " petiolef." III. The Determination or Disposition of leaves, whether they be simple or compound, comprehends the following particulars, viz. a, the locus, or place of i.hc * As in Athamanta Lihanotis, many Ferns, &c. j Professor Martyn. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 39 leaf, b, its situs, or situation, c its insertio, or insertion, and d its directio, or direction. a. By the place of a leaf, botanists mean the particu- lar part where it is attached to the plant. Under this head, Linnaeus enumerates the following species of leaves, viz. 1. folium seminale, the seed-leaf; the pri- mary leaves of the plant; being the cotyledons or lobes of a seed expanded, and in a vegetating state*. 2. folium radicale, a root-leaf; proceeding immediately from the root, and not adhering to the stemf. 3. folium caulinum, a cauline leaf; growing immediately on the stem, without the intervention of branches. 4. folium rameum, a branch-leaf; growing on, or proceeding from, a branch. 5. folium axillare,an axillaryleaf; growing at the angle which is formed by the branch with the stem. 6. folium florale, a floral leaf; immediately attending the flower, and never appearing but with it. This last must not be confounded with the brae tea, or bracte. b. The situation of leaves respects their position in regard to themselves. Under this head, Linnaeus enu- merates the following species of leaves, viz. 1. folia stellata, or stellate leaves; when more leaves than two surround the stem in a whorl, " or radiate from the stem " like the spokes of a wheel;" exemplified in the Mede- ola verticillata, and Cucubalus stellatusj. Such leaves are also calledverticillate leaves. 2.folia terna,quatema. quina,senate, three-fold leaves, four-fold leaves, five- fold leaves, six-fold leaves: different species or varieties * See Plate V« f See the plates of Dionaea Muscipula and Hypoxis erecta. \ See the figures of these two vegetables. 40 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. of stellate leaves, when the leaves grow, in a whorl, three together, four, five, and six together. 3. folia opposita, opposite leaves; growing in pairs, each pair decussated, or crossing that above and below it*." 4-.foliaalterna,a\- ternate leaves; coming out one after or above another, in a regular succession, or gradation; as in Ludvigia alter- nifoliaf. The term alternate is opposed to the opposite. 5. folia sparsa, scattered leaves; neither opposite nor alternate, nor in any regular order : as in several species of Lily. 6. folia conferta, crowded or clustered leaves; leaves so copious as to occupy the whole of the branches, hardly having any naked space between: as in the An- tirrhinum Linaria, called in Pennsylvania, Ransted- weed. 7. folia imbricata, imbricate leaves; lying over each other in the manner of tiles upon a house. 8. folia fasciculata, fascicled leaves; growing in bundles or bunches from the same point; as in the Larch-tree. 9. folia disticha, two ranked leaves; leaves respecting • only two sides of the branch, though inserted on all parts of it: as in the Fir, and Lonicera Diervilla. c. By the insertion of the leaves, is meant the man- ner in which they are attached to the plant. To this head, Linnaeus refers the following species of leaves, viz. 1. folium peltatum, a peltate, or target-shaped leaf; having the footstalk inserted into the disk of the leaf, instead of the edge or base, which is the more common mode of insertion:-as in different species of Nymphaea, such as the Nymphaea Nelumbo, Nymphaea odorata", &c. in the Tropaeolum,or Indian-cress, which is mentioned in Part * See the figures of Collinsc.iia canadensis, Veronica, Rhexia mariana, Gerardia flava, and other plants represented in this work. ■j- See the figure. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 41 Second; in the Geranium peltatum, and the Podophyllum peltatum, or May-apple. 2. folium petiolatum^ a. peti- olate or petioled leaf; growing on a petiole or foot- stalk, which is usually inserted into its base: as in the greater number of leaves. The term is opposed to sessile. 3. folium sessile, a sessile leaf; a leaf which is immedi- ately connected with the stem or branch, without the intervention of a footstalk; as in Rhexia virginica*. 4. folium decurrens, a decurrent leaf; a sessile leaf, with its base extending downwards along the trunk, or stem: as in Symphytum,or Comfrey,Carduus, or This- tle, &c. 5. folium amplexicaule, a stem-clasping-leaf, embracing, clasping, or surrounding the stem by its base (N. B. some leaves go only half round the stem: these are denominated folia semi-amplexicaulia, or half-stem-clasping leaves). 6. folium perfoliatum, a perfoliate or perforated leaf; having the base of the leaf entirely surrounding the stem transversely; so that the stem appears to have been driven through the middle of the leaf: as in Bupleurum rotundifolium, Eupatori- um perfoliatum, or Thorough-wort, &c. 7. folium con- natum, a connate leaf; when two opposite leaves are so united at their bases as to appear as though they were one leaf: exemplified in the Garden Honeysuckle, &c. 8. folium vaginans, a sheathing leaff; when a leaf invests the stem or branch by its base, in form of a tube: as in many Grasses, Polygonum, Rumex, &c. d. With respect to their direction, leaves are as follows, viz. 1. folium adversum, an adverse leaf; when the upper side is turned to the south: as in Amomum. 2. folium obliquum, an oblique leaf, having the base di- * See the figure. f " A glove-like leaf." Milne. G 42 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. rected towards the sky, and the apex, or point, towards the horizon: as in Protea and Fritillaria. 3. folium in- fiexum, an inflex or inflected leaf; bent upwards, at the end, towards the stem. A,, folium adpressum, an appres- sed leaf; when the disk approaches so near to the stem, as to seem as if it was pressed to it by violence. 5. fo- lium erectum, an erect or upright leaf; when it makes with the stem an angle so acute as to be close tc'it. 6. fo- lium patens, a spreading leaf; forming an acute angle with the stem or branch upon which it is placed; be- tween the erect and horizontal position. 7. folium hori- zontal, a horizontal leaf; making a right angle with the stem, the upper disk being turned towards the heavens. 8. folium reclinatum, a reclined leaf; bent downwards, so that the point of the leaf is lower than the base. 9. folium revolutum, a revolute leaf; having the edges roll- ed back, or towards the lower surface; as in Rosemary, Kalmia glauca, &c. 10. folium dependens; a leaf hang- ing down, or pointing directly to the ground. 11. folium radicans, a. rooting leaf; a leaf shooting forth radicles, or roots; as in some aquatic plants. (This term is also ap- plied to those leaves which being planted in the ground, there strike root and vegetate: such are the solid and fleshy leaves of several of the Liliaceous plants, the Aloe, Squill, &c. also the leaf of the Orange, and many other vegetables.) 12. folium natans, a floating leaf; a leaf which lies or floats upon the surface of the water; as in Nymphaea, Potamogeton, Trapa natans, &c. and 13, and, lastly, the folium demersum, or demerse leaf; call- ed also a drowned or sunk leaf; a leaf which grows be- low the surface of the water: this is exemplified in Val- lisneria spiralis and Vallisneria americana, especially the male plants; and in many other aquatic plants.__ Some plants are constantly placed below the surface of ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 43 « the water, whilst others withdraw themselves to the bottom of the water, in which they grow, in order to avoid the rigour of the winter-season. In treating of the anatomical structure, and of the physiological functions of the leaves, I shall have parti- cular occasion to observe, that between the upper and under surfaces of leaves there is a very essential differ- ence. At present, it will be sufficient to remark, that, in the greater number of leaves, the nerves or veins, as they have been called, are much more in relief upon the un- der than upon the upper surface; and that, in general, the upper surface is of a deeper green than the under surfaee. The whole surface of a leaf is denominated by Linnaeus, Discus, or the Disk. The upper surface is called Discus supinus; the under Discus pronus, the up- per and under disk. Pagina superior, and Pagina infe- rior are also the names of the two disks, or surfaces. The apex, tip or end of the leaf, is the upper extremity, far- thest removed from the base or insertion. Ludwig and some other writers have distinguished leaves into primary and accessary. The primary leaves are those of which I have already treated: the accessary leaves are those which Linnaeus denominates stipula and bractea, and of which I am to treat particularly under the head of Fulcres. A knowledge of the leaves of plants is of the ut- most importance in the study of Botany. In the investi- gation of the species of vegetables, there are no parts, which furnish us with such elegant characters or marks 44 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. as do the leaves. Nature seems to have taken delight in giving to the leaves, forms almost innumerable*. With- out being acquainted with the principal and more deter- minate of these forms, it is impossible to make an ex- tensive progress in the attainment of botanical know- ledge. It is from the leaves, that some of the most emi- nent botanists, particularly Mr. Ray, Adrian Van Royen, and Linnaeus, have taken the greater number of their specific names or characters of plants. The last- mentioned writer lays it down as an axiom, that the leaves exhibit the most elegant natural differencesf. He allows, that good marks of distinction are afforded by the root, and the trunk, of which I have already treat- ed, and also by the various other parts of the plant, of which, as yet, no particular notice has been taken. As, however, the leaves of plants are subject to great variation, in respect to their forms and substance, and even in respect to their situation, so I cannot but think, that many botanists have laid too implicit a dependence upon their characters drawn from the leaves. Even Linnaeus may, with strict propriety, be included in the list of these botanists. It is certain, that soil, climate, elevation above the level of the sea, and other circum- stances, considerably vary the aspect of the leaves of vegetables. How different, in many instances, are the leaves of the same species of plant, when growing in a northern and more southern climate ? How different the same species when confined to the valley or the plain; * " Natura in nulla parte magis fuit polymorpha, quam in foliis, quorum " itaque species numerosissinue, studiose a Tyronibus addiscendac" Philosophia. Botanica, &c. p. 213. f " Folia elegantissimas naturalissimas differentias exbibent." Philosophia Botanica, Sic. p. 218. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 45 or elevated, far above the level of the sea, upon the sides or summits of lofty mountains? How different the same species when growing in a dry and in a wet situation ? Linnaeus observes, that opposite and alternate leaves generally indicate very different plants, with the exception of such genera as contain some species that have opposite, and others alternate leaves*. But neither should too much dependence be placed upon this cir- cumstance, in imposing specific names, or in drawing the characters of plants. Not unfrequently, the same individual has opposite leaves below, and alternate leaves above; or opposite above, and alternate below. This, indeed, is admitted by Linnaeus, who gives a small list of plants, the exceptions to his general axiomf. But a much more extensive list might be given. I can- not, in this place, attempt to enter into the investiga- tion of the subject. I may observe, however, that after a pretty extensive examination of plants, I am per- suaded, that the leaves are much less constantly opposite or alternate, even in the same species, than many writers have imagined%. In the year 1751, the celebrated nosologist, Francis Boissier Sauvages, published his Methodus foliorum seuplantaflora Monspelicnsis juxta foliorum ordinem. In this work, Sauvages has attempted an arrangement of plants, from the situation or position of their leaves. But no succeeding botanist, that I know, has implicitly adopted the method of the French writer. Nor is it pro- bable, that a method founded upon such principles will * Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 102. | Ibid. p. 103. t See the explanation of the figure of Ludvigia altenufolia. 46 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ever be adopted by genuine botanists, in pursuit of de- terminate characters, or in search of nature's scheme. Innumerable natural families of plants, such as the Ge- rania, Saxifragae, Ranunculi, Veronicae, not to mention the treasures which the great continent of New-Holland is pouring upon us, forbid such an arrangement. An arrangement of vegetables founded upon the resem- blances or differences of their leaves, will be even much more abominable, than the arrangements of those natu- ralists who have associated together quadrupeds, and other mammalia, from the affinities of their teeth and claws. B. II. Of the Anatomical Structure of Leaves. The anatomical structure of leaves is the subject which next claims our attention. It must be evident, however, that this is not the place to discuss this sub- ject, in all its parts. I have not yet treated of the ge- neral anatomy of the plant; of the spiral and other ves- sels which enter into the composition of almost every part of the plant. I cannot, therefore, at present, at- tempt any thing further than a very superficial view of the structure of leaves. My attention will necessarily be again turned to this subject, in various parts of this work. When the leaf of a plant is torn in a horizontal di- rection, we observe exteriorly a membrane, which is generally thin, and almost pellucid. This membrane has been called the epidermis, or scarf-skin, of the leaf. It has, with more propriety, been denominated the cor- tex, or bark of the leaf. This bark does not adhere to ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 47 the subjacent parts with equal firmness in all plants; nor, even on the two surfaces of the leaves, in the same plant. It possesses this singular property, that when you tear it off, it quickly folds itself inwards; but when it is dry, it is twisted in a contrary direction. This circumstance has induced some writers* to ima- gine, that the leaf contains two distinct systems of ves- sels. The pili, or hairs, which cover the surfaces of many leaves, appear to be seated in the bark. It is this part also, that is so frequently marked with white and other spots, in diseased plants. Sometimes, at least, as in the Cyclamen, or Sow-bread, the disease is not deep- er situated than the bark : in some plants, however, it extends further, even into the parenchymatous portion of the leaf. The bark of the leaf appears to be composed of an epidermis, properly so called, and a thicker substance, which, for distinction sake, might be denominated the cutis, or skin. It is the opinion of some physiologists, that this compound leaf-bark is a continuation of the outer and inner barks of the stem and branches, to which the leaf is attached: a supposition which seems extreme- ly plausible, since the leaf appears to be, in fact, no- thing but a kind of flat or compressed petiole, as is easi- ly discovered by macerating a leaf and petiole in water. Now, the petiole can, in many plants, be shown to be composed of the outer and inner barks, the wood, and the medullary substance of the common trunk or stem. The bark of the leaf is furnished with a number of glandular-like bodies, which are of different forms and * Mr. De Saussure, at least. 48 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. sizes in different, and even in the same, species of vege- table. The late learned Mr. Horace Benedict De Saus- sure has endeavoured to show, in an express work* on the bark of the leaves and petals of plants, that these organs are real glands, which perform the office of ani- mal glands; the secretion and the preparation of the juices of the leaf. It is known, that these cortical glands are found upon both disks or surfaces of the leaves of the herbaceous vegetables: but it has been assertedf, that in the arborescent vegetables they are exclusively confined to the under surface. This, when it is consi- dered, that between trees or shrubs and the herbaceous vegetables, nature has not placed any decided distinc- tion, seems not at all probable. But Mr. De Saussure has shown, that these glands exist upon the upper sur- face of the leaves of the Juniper. The cortical glands adhere to the beautiful net- work of which I am presently to give an account, and are surrounded by a fibre, or small vessel. Between the gland and the vessel, there is, however, an interval. The shape of the gland is that of an oval oblong : the surrounding vessel is of an eliptical form. There is an evident communication between the vessels of the cor- tical net and this circumambient vessel. Mr. De Saus- sure also observed a small and slender vessel proceed- ing from the extremity of the gland, and communica- ting with the circumambient vessel of the gland. This beautiful structure of the bark of the leaf occasions us to regret, that hitherto, we have attained to so little cer- tain knowledge concerning the real uses of the glandu- * Observations sur 1'ecorce des feuilles et petales. A Geneve: 1762. t By Mr. Bonnet. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 49 lar-like structure. Meanwhile, there seems to be little reason to doubt, that the glands are a necessary part of the vascular system, which is next to be mentioned. Under the bark of the leaf, we meet with a beauti- ful net-work of vessels, which, whether they be arteries, veins, or absorbing lymphatics, are evidently a continu- ation of the vessels of the common stem, and petiole. This net-work is known by the name of the cortical net of the leaf. It is the rete corticis of Mr. De Saussure. It is composed of a great number of vessels, which, by crossing each other, and often anastamosing (for the lan- guage of the animal anatomists may, with strict propri- ety, be extended to vegetables), form the net-like ap- pearance, of which I am speaking. The forms of the areas between the thread-like vessels composing the net are very different in different vegetables; and even in different parts of the same vegetable. These areas are more regular upon the upper than upon the under side of the leaf, and they are narrower and longer towards the petiole, or foot-stem of the leaf, than towards the middle and anterior part. Each area is commonly made up of six threads, so as sometimes to give to it an hex- agonal form. More generally, however, the areas are formed by right lines. The fibres or threads of the cortical net are, un- questionably, vessels. They are transparent, and it is highly probable are a true system of absorbents, fur- nished with their proper glands. In the leaves of many plants, they are sufficiently distinct, without the aid of colouring injections: but they are seen to the greatest advantage, in many other plants, by immersing a com- mon stem with a number of leaves, or a single leaf with n 50 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY* its petiole, in the diluted juice of the Phytolacca decan- dra: or in a solution of the sulphat of iron, and then transferring them to a decoction of galls. In the form- er case, the cortical net assumes a fine purple colour; in the latter it is as distinctly seen, being of a dark brown or ink colour. ( In the leaves of the Maple, the cortical net is simple; in those of the Holly, it is double; and it appears to be triple in the leaves of the Orange*. Under the cortical net, and in the areal interstices between the vascular fibres, we meet with another sub- stance, which has received the name of the parenchyma, the pulp, or pith of the leaf. This substance is of a ten- der and cellular nature, but is by no means inorganic, or destitute of vessels. On the contrary, it appears to be distinctly composed of larger vessels than those which compose the cortical net; at the same time tfyat the areal interstices are larger than those of the net. It is this pulpy substance which is so frequently consumed by the armies of insects, which spread their hateful ra- vages through the gardens, the fields, and the forests of our earth. Leaving entirely, or in a great measure, un- touched, the net-like work which has been mentioned, we often observe the leaves of a tree reduced, by cater- pillars, and various other species of insects, to the ap- pearance of mere dead skeletons. It is by macerating, for a considerable time, in water, the leaves of plants, and thus reducing the parenchymatous part to a more tender pulp, and afterwards expressing it out, that we form those beautiful preparations of leaves, which are so well calculated to show the fabric of the cortical net. * Professor Ludwig. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 51 Such are the observations which I have to offer, in this part of my work, on the subject of the anatomical structure of leaves. I am sensible how imperfect I have left the subject. But the limits allotted to these Ele- ments, do not permit me to dwell extensively upon any one of the various questions, which it is my duty to examine. C. III. Of the Uses of the Leaves. A subject more pleasing than any of those which I have hitherto touched upon, now presents itself to my view. I am to inquire into the uses of the leaves in the vegetable economy. This is a question of conside- rable difficulty. It has exercised the pens of some of the happiest talents, during the period of near two cen- turies. I exceedingly regret, that I shall be obliged to leave the subject involved in obscurity and doubt. There is, I believe, no part or organ of the vege- table body, concerning the uses of which physiologists have been more divided in opinion, than respecting the leaves. It is not my intention, in the following concise view of the uses of these organs, to detail the opinion or hypothesis of every author on the subject. It is proper, however, that I should notice a few of the principal opinions, before I particularly attend to that one, which seems especially entitled to our examination. The leaves have been considered as the perspiratory organs of the vegetable*. But Dr. Hales made an expe- • J. S. Guettard, and many other writers 52 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. riment which renders it very improbable, that the leaves are merely perspiratory organs. This learned writer having cut off some branches of trees with apples upon them, and then stripped off the leaves, found that one apple perspired or exhaled about the same quantity of fluid as two of the leaves, the surfaces of which were nearly equal to the surface of the apple*. This simple experiment proved, that both the fruit, and the leaves perspired : it, certainly, gave no ground for asserting, that the leaves are exclusively the organs of perspiration. By some writers, the leaves have been deemed the organs destined for the excretion of excrementitious jui- ces. Dr. Hales, however, has shown, that in moist wea- ther the leaves do not perspire at all. It has also been observed, that " as the vapour exhaled from vegeta- " bles has no taste," this idea is not more probable than that which considers the leaves as perspiratory organsf. This, to me, does not appear to be very satis- factory reasoning. Certainly, a fluid which, to our or- gans, has no perceptible taste, may be noxious to, and therefore proper to be thrown out of, the body of the vegetable. But the fluid perspired by the leaves of many vegetables is by no means entirely tasteless; and we well know, that it is often a fluid which exerts a very decided, and even powerful, effect upon our organs of smell. These circumstances do not, however, invalidate the opinion, that the leaves are pulmonary organs. On the contrary, they even give additional weight to that opinion. • Statical Essays, &c. Vol. I. p. 30. f Dr. Darwin. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 53 Some writers* are of opinion, that the leaves absorb a large quantity of nutriment, which is conveyed to every part of the plant. As the leaves are so abundantly supplied with vessels, which appear to be absorbents; and as the leaves of many vegetables when entirely de- tached from the parent grow extremely well, we can hardly doubt, that they are, in some measure, the organs of nutrition to the plant. Some ingenious philosophers have supposed, that the leaves acquire the electrical fluid from the atmos- phere; whilst others, with perhaps as much propriety, have imagined, that these organs derive a certain phlo- gistic or inflammable principle from the light of the sun; because the leaves of so many vegetables are observed to present their upper disk or surface to the light. With respect to these two hypotheses, a very ingenious philo- sopherf has observed, first, " that no electricity is shewn " by experiments to descend through the stems of trees, " except in thunder-storms; and that if the final cause " of vegetable leaves had been to conduct electricity " from the air, they ought to have been gilded leaves " with metallic stems": secondly, " that if the final " cause of vegetable leaves had been to absorb light, " they ought to have been black and not green; as by " Dr. Franklin's experiment, who laid shreds of various " colours on snow in the sun-shine, the black sunk " much deeper than any other colour, and consequent - " ly absorbed much more light:}:." We shall afterwards, • Hales, Lars Kullin, Dr. Adam Hunter, Dr. Priestley, 8tc. t Dr. Darwin. J Phytologia, &c. Sect. iv. 54 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. however, have occasion to show, that light is essentially necessary to the just nourishment and complete health of the greater number of plants. It has been supposed*, that the leaves are a kind of stomach or digestive organ to the plant; that the nutri- tious juices, which are absorbed by the roots, are con- veyed to the leaves, where they undergo a more com- plete assimilation, which better befits them for the nu- trition of the plant. But the function of vegetable diges- tion is by no means exclusively confined to the leaves; and it has not been proved, that these beautiful organs do, in fact, perform any very essential change in the ob- vious or intimate properties of the fluids or other mat- ters, which are originally taken up by the roots. We are certain, that the leaves are incapable of essentially alter- ing the taste, smell, colour and other properties of many of the bodies which their vessels absorb: and it would be rather unphilosophical to contend, that they are the digestive organs of the plant, unless we were able to prove (what has not yet been proved), that the nutri- tious matters which are conveyed from the root to the leaves, are again returned by the leaves to the stem, and other parts of the body. More probable than any of the opinions, that I have mentioned, is that which ascribes to the leaves a kind of respiratory function. This opinion, which was early adopted by some of the ingenious philosophers to whom we are indebted for much of our knowledge of the physiology of vegetables, very naturally resulted from a few simple, but conclusive experiments. Mr. Papin * By Gustavus Bonde, Professor Ludwig, Sir John Hill, &c. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 55 found, that a plant which he had put into an exhausted receiver, lived a long time, provided only the leaves were permitted to receive the influence of the air. But when the whole plant was put into the receiver, with- out the precaution just mentioned, it died very soon. Hence, it was sufficiently evident, that the leaves ab- sorbed or inspired air. Moreover, it had long been known, that the leaves of vegetables were destroyed by anointing their upper surface with oil. This seemed so analogous to the effect of oil in killing insects, to which it was applied, that it was naturally inferred, that the oil operated by stopping air-vessels in the leaves, as well as in the insects. About the year 1746, Lars Kullin, a Swedish writer, endeavoured to prove, that the leaves of trees absorb the external air, and that they afterwards exhale both air and water. L i n n m u s has very expressly denominated the leaves, the lungs of vegetables*. I am not able, however, to discover, that the prince of naturalists had advanced one step further, in the knowledge of the functions of the leaves, than many of his contemporaries, and even his predecessors. To the great loss of natural science, both Linnaeus and Haller were taken from their labours in this world, soon afterf the commencement of that brilliant era of the xviii century, when Priest ley, and other illustrious men, turned their attention to the rela- tive relations which subsist between the atmosphere and vegetables. Had the Swede and the Swiss philosophers • •« Folia in rnotu constituta & perspirantia hoc modo pulmonibus respon- ' dent; in se tamen re ipsa musculi analoga sunt, licet non uti in animalibus '• cauda affixa, cum motus voluntarius in his dari nequeat." Philosophia Botanica, lie p. 93. t Haller died in 1777, and Linnxus on the eleventh of January, 1778 56 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. lived a few years longer, they would, in all probability, have essentially changed some of their opinions, res- pecting the functions of plants and animals. The learned and ingenious Dr. Erasmus Darwin has taken much pains to prove, that the leaves are not only the lungs of vegetables, but that the office of these leaves is extremely similar to that of the lungs of man, and many other animals. The following is the substance of the author's arguments and speculations on the subject. 1. The leaves "consist of an artery, which carries the u sap to the extreme surface of the upper side of the 44 leaf, and there exposes it under a thin moist pellicle 44 to the action of the air; and of veins, which there 44 collect and return it to the foot-stalk of the leaf, like 44 the pulmonary system of animals. 2. In this organ 44 the pellucid sap is changed to a coloured blood, like 44 the chyle in passing through the lungs of animals. 44 3. The leaves of aquatic plants are furnished with a 44 larger surface, and with points like the gills of aquatic 44 animals. 4. The upper sides of aerial leaves repel 44 moisture, like the larynx of animals. 5. Leaves are 44 killed by smearing them with oil, which in the same 44 manner destroys insects, by stopping their spiracula, " or the air-holes to their lungs. 6. Leaves have muscles 44 appropriated to turn them to the light, which is neces- 44 sary to their respiration—7. To this may be added an 44 experiment of Mr. Papin, related by M. Duhamel*. 44 He put an intire plant into the exhausted receiver of 44 an air-pump, and it soon perished; but on keeping the 14 whole plant in this vacuum, except the leaves, which • La Physique des Arbres, &c. Premiere Partie. p. 169, 170. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 57 44 were exposed to the air, it continued to live a long 44 time, which he adds is a proof that the leaves are the 44 organs of respiration*." I have little hesitation in believing, that the leaves are somehow essentially concerned in the function of vegetable respiration. But I think it is far from being satisfactorily proved, that there exists in the leaf, a two- fold system of vessels, answering to the pulmonary ar- tery and the veins of man, and other animals. I do not, however, deny, that such a system does exist in the structure of the leaf. I even think it probable that it does. I cannot, however, consider as decided the ex- periments which Dr. Darwin has adduced, in support of his opinion. I have made similar experiments with lac- tescent and other vegetable leaves, immersing them in colouring matters, such as the juice of the Phytolacca, or Poke, decoction of galls, solution of the sulphats of iron, and copper, &c. In making these experiments, it was easy to perceive, that a system of vessels, which runs between the bark and the wood of the stem, enters the petiole, its continuation the middle rib, and is finally beautifully spread upon the disks or surfaces of the leaf. But I have not been able to convince myself, that the colouring matter is exclusively diffused, in the first in- stance, upon the upper disk. In some of my plants, in- deed, the colouring matter was most distinctly perceiv- ed upon the superior surface of the leaf, as in Dr. Dar- win's experiments with Euphorbia helioscopia, Picris, and Senecio bicolor. In other plants, however, it was sufficiently evident, that the colouring matter, after pass- ing through the petiole, moved more especially along the * Phytologia, &x. Seet. iv. I 5S ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. lower side of the middle rib, and from this was carried through the vascular net of the leaf, nearer to the lower than to the upper surface of the leaf. These experiments were so frequently repeated (under a favourite impres- sion too, that there is in plants, as well as in animals, a true circulation), that I cannot imagine, that I have been deceived in my observation. It must be confessed, however, that the upper sur- face of the leaves of vegetables, does seem admirably adapted for exposing the vegetable blood to the action of the atmosphere; and it is highly probable, THAT FROM THE INFLUENCE AND ABSORPTION OF AIR, OR ONE OF THE COMPONENT PARTS OF THE ATMOSPHERIC MASS, THE JUICES OF THE LEAVES DO UNDERGO SOME VERY ESSENTIAL AND INDISPENSI- ble change. Perhaps, the blood of the leaf is oxy- genated, or derives from the atmosphere, or from the water, in which it grows, a portion of vital air; much in the same manner that the blood of man and other land-animals is oxygenated by the vital air, which exerts its effects upon this fluid, through the medium of the lungs. The blood of man and many other animals does, unquestionably, derive its lively crimson color from the contact and absorption of vital air. It is even probable, that this vital air (so necessary to the maintainance of animal life) is the great source or foundation of the ir- ritability of the system; since in the beautiful experi- ment of Charles Frederick Wolf, the attribute of irrita- bility was first observed, in the incubated chick, at the very moment that the blood acquired its red colour*. Dr. Darwin, indeed, seems to have no doubts, that in * Thforia Gcnerationis. 1759. 4to ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 59 the lactescent plants, with which he made his experi- ments, the milky fluid, after having been exposed to the atmosphere, upon the upper surface of the leaves, was evidently of a much whiter colour on the under surface. In the former case, as we have seen, he supposes the blood was carried, by an artery, from the petiole to the extremity of the leaf; and in the latter case, returned by a system of veins, corresponding to the pulmonary veins, from the extremity to the petiole. I have already, however, mentioned the experiments, which have com- pelled me to entertain some doubts as to the reality of a circulation in the leaves of plants. It is, certainly, too soon to speak decidedly on this subject. Many more experiments must be made, before the cautious philo- sopher will think himself excusable in implicitly admit- ting, or absolutely rejecting, the experiments of Darwin. Whatever may be the precise function of the leaves in the vegetable economy, it is generally agreed among botanists, that a different office belongs to the upper and to the under sides of these organs. Thus, Dr. Darwin asserts, that it is the upper surface only, that respires. He justly remarks, that this surface, in many plants "strongly repels moisture," as in cabbage- leaves, where the particles of rain that lie over them, without touching them, have the appearance of globules of quicksilver. It appears, likewise, from actual expe- riments, that the leaves of many plants, when they were laid with their upper surfaces upon the water, withered almost as soon as in the dry air, though the same leaves, when they were placed with their under surfaces upon the water, continued green many days. These experi- ments, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bonnet, in- contestibly proved, that with respect to the plants which 60 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. were the subjects of his experiments, there was an es- sential difference as to the absorbing capacity of the two surfaces of the leaves: the upper surface absorbing much less than the under surface. Mr. Bonnet has also shown, by a number of well- conducted experiments, that the upper surface or disk of the leaves of many plants, exhaled much less than the under surface. He put the stalks of many leaves, fresh plucked, into glass tubes filled with water, having pre- viously covered with oil or varnish the upper surfaces of some, and the under surfaces of others. Our ingenious philosopher uniformly observed, by the sinking of the water in the tubes, that the exhalation from the under surfaces, was more than double what it was from the up- per surfaces. In a supplement to his great work*, on the uses of the leaves, Bonnet has further observed, that the inferior surface of the leaves of some aquatic plants is much better adapted for the purpose of absorption than the superior surface. He made his experiments with the leaves of a species of Nymphaea, or Water-Lily. It must not be forgotten, however, in this inquiry, that Saussure has discovered upon the upper surface of the leaves of some vegetables, a system of vessels, which ap- peared to that judicious author to be the same as the absorbing system of the lower surfaces of other leavesf. Upon the whole, there seems to be little reason to doubt, that both the upper and the under surfaces of the leaves of vegetables are furnished with their absorbing vessels ; and it is highly probable, that, in many plants, air is ab- * Recherches sur l'usage des feuilles dans les plantes, &c. A Gottingne Si Leide: 1754. 4to. ■{■ See page 48. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 61 sorbed as well by the latter as by the former of these surfaces. In concluding this subject of the uses of leaves, I must be permitted to observe, that some late philoso- phers have, in my opinion, too narrowly restricted the utility of the leaves to a single office. I cannot help thinking, that the office of the leaves, is a varied and a complex one. This, indeed, I have already intimated. Dr. Hales was of the same opinion, a long time ago. In his Statical Essays, a work which will be read and admired by a distant posterity, the amiable author does not hesitate to consider the leaves as the vegetable or- gans of nutrition, respiration, perspiration, and excre- tion. The experiments of Hales render it probable, that thus various are the functions of the leaves. I am per- suaded, that future experiments will decidedly prove, that the leaves are not merely the lungs and perspiratory organs of the vegetable. D. IV. Miscellaneous Circumstances relative to the Natural History of Leaves. I. More than twenty-five thousand species of ve- getables are now known to the botanists; and of this number a very large proportion is furnished with leaves. None of the trees, strictly so called, are destitute of these beautiful parts. Some vegetables, however, are leaf- less. Such are the two species of Ephedra*, or Shrub- by Horse-tail, and the great family of Fungous plants. These last have many of the habitudes of animals, and * Ephedra distachya, and Ephedra monostachya. The first species is a na- tive of the south of France, and of Spam: rhe latter is a native of Sibeci* 62 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. even the circumstance of their being leafless vegetables is one in the series of their relations to that vast empire of organized bodies. 2. The leaves of certain vegetables acquire a very great size. It is curious, too, to remark, that it is only in the hot or hottest portions of the globe, that we find the largest leaves. I believe that the cold climates, and even those which are moderately warm, do not furnish us with any instances of very large-leaved trees. It does seem, that the magnitude of the leaves of certain species of trees, increases as we approach the line*. In the cold climates, we find no Palms, with leaves so large as to be capable of sheltering whole families from the inclemency of the weatherf. Why should we doubt (when a vast system of benevolence is so conspicuous in this earth), that in giving to the vegetables of hot climates such ca- pacious leaves, the Author of the universe had consult- ed the health, the comforts, and the pleasures of the hu- man inhabitants, destined to live beneath the scorching rays of the sun ? But man is not the only animal that de- rives advantages from the large-spreading leaves of tro- pical trees. The birds and many other animals are equal- ly benefitted. Destitute of this shelter, many species would be nearly incapable of subsisting in the countries in which they reside; and, in particular, they would be incapable (unless their instinctive operations were es- sentially varied) of rearing their young. * The amiable Bernardin De Saint Pierre. f One of the largest leaves that are known to us is that of the Talipot (Corypha umbraculifera ?), a native of Ceylon. Robert Knox assures us, that a single leaf is capable of covering from fifteen to twenty persons. He considers the Talipot as one of the greatest blessings that Providence has bestowed upon the inhabitants of a country, which is parched by the sun, and inundated by the rains, for six months in the y*ar. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 63 3. The precise time of the year and month in which any given species of vegetable unfolds its first leaves is denominated, by Linneeus, Frondescentia*. To this subject, the Swedish naturalist has paid much attention. He made a great number of observations, in eighteen dif- ferent provinces of his native country, situated between the sixtieth and seventieth degree of north latitude, in the years 1750, 1751, and 1752. It was his object to discover, which species of trees begin to open their buds, and unfold their leaves, at the most proper time for the sowing of Barley. The result of his inquiries was, that the Birch-tree (Betula Alnus) gave the most proper indication for this purpose. He justly imagined, that in every province of Europe, there exist other trees, which will, in like manner, indicate the proper time for sowing grains of different kinds, and also esculent herbs. This is, certainly, a subject worthy of the attention of natu- ralists, whose inquiries are directed to utility. Much important information would result from an extensive investigation of the subject. The agricultural rules of savage nations are frequently founded,in a great measure, upon the frondescence, together with the time of flow- ering, of different vegetables, indigenous in their coun- tries. Thus, the Indians, in different parts of North- America, are of opinion, that the best time for planting the Maize, or Indian-corn, is when the leaves of the White-Oakf first make their appearance; or rather, as they express it, when the leaves of this common tree are of the size of a ^squirrel's ears. I shall have occa- * From Frons, a leaf. t Quercus alba. \ Sciurus cinereus, the most common species of Squirrel in North-America. 64 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. sion to touch again on this subject, when treating of the Calendarium Flora, or Calender of Flora*. 4. Bv the term Defoliation, or Defoliation, Lin- naeus means the season of the year at which the vege- tables of any particular country shed their leaves. Thus, this term is directly opposed to that of frondescentia. With respect to the defoliation of vegetables, it is pro- per to observe, that the same species does not always drop its leaves at the same time, eren in the same dis- trict of a country; but, in particular, that the same species sheds its leaves at very different periods, in dif- ferent countries. In both instances, the difference of the time of defoliation seems to depend, principally, upon a difference of season, or of climate. Extreme heat and extreme cold are both observed to be favour- able to the fall of the leaf. In the hot summers, the leaves of many plants lose their verdure, and fall a full month earlier than they do in milder seasons. 5. The fall of the leaf is almost always preceded by a very essential change in its colour. Yellow, red, and brown are the most common colours of the dying leaf. About the close of September (sooner or later according to the season), the forest-trees in Pennsylvania, and other middle parts of the United-States, begin to lose their verdure. The leaves assume new colours, particularly yellow and red, or crimson. Nothing can be more pic- turesque than an American forest, at this season. The beauties of the scenery will be described by some future » See Part II. f From de, and Folium, a leaf. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 65 Thompson; or exhibited on canvass by the pencil of an American Salvator Rosa. It will be sufficient for me to observe, that the leaves of almost all the species of Jug- lans (Walnuts and Hickery) and Maple,assume different shades of yellow; whilst those of Nyssa integrifolia, call- ed Gum, the Laurus Sassafras, the Cornus florida, or Dogwood, and others, are clothed in a livery of crimson, or red. 6. Some vegetables do not drop their leaves at all, during the whole year. Their verdure is not, in the least, injured by the changes of the weather. The Fir, the Juniper, the Yew, the Cypress, the Kalmiae, and many others, belong to this class of Evergreens, as they are very emphatically called. In general, the leaves of the evergreens are harder and less succulent than those of deciduous vegetables. It is observable, also, that their surfaces are covered by a very thin, parchment- like cortex, or bark. It is found, that they perspire less than the leaves of deciduous vegetables. Some writers have, accordingly, conjectured, that the sem- pervirent quality of these vegetables is owing to the smallness of their perspiration. Dr. Arbuthnot imagin- ed, that the verdurous quality was owing to the leaves containing more juices than can be exhaled by the sun. The celebrated Dr. Grew supposed, that a thick epi- dermis, dense cellular substance, and few trachea?, or spiral-vessels, are the true cause of the perpe- tual verdure of these vegetables. Duhamel thought, that this state of the vegetable depended upon a hard knot, at the base of the leaves. Others, again, have supposed, that a gummy matter, residing within the ve- getables, is the cause of the lasting verdure. But if this were the case, we should find, that Cherry-trees, Plumb- ic 66 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. trees, Peach-trees, and other vegetables that abound in gum, would be evergreens also. Perhaps, none of these explanations of the cause of the evergreen quali- ty of leaves is wholly satisfactory. The circumstance seems principally referrible to climate. The same species is a perdifoil, or drops its leaves, in one cli- mate, and preserves them in another. Thus, the Passion-flower* of America, and the Jasmine of Ma- labarf, are evergreens in their native climates, but become perdifoils when they are transplanted into Bri- tain, and other northern parts of Europe. On the other hand, many of the perdifoils of cold climates, when trans- plantedto warmer climates, become evergreens. Thus, the Quince-tree is a perdifoil in northern countries, but becomes an evergreen when transplanted to the south of France, the island of Minorca, and other southern cli- mates. I am assured, that the Currant-bushes which were sent from Britain, where they are deciduous, to the Island of St. Hellena, became, in a short time, ever- greens, but ceased to bear fruit. Professor Thun- berg informs us, that the Oak (Quercus Robur), the White Poplar (Populus alba), and other trees which were imported from Europe to the Cape of Good- Hope, " shed their leaves in the winter, as they do " in their native places, whereas the African trees " do not part with theirs. It is not long, however, " (continues our author), before they recover their " leaves again. This circumstance is singular enough: " first, because the cold here (at the Cape of Good-Hope) " in winter is not more severe than it is in Sweden in " the autumn; and in the second place, because they * Passiflora coerulea. f Jasmiaum grandiflorum. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 67 44 shed their leaves to the southward of the equator at " the very time that they put them forth to the north- " ward of it*." 7. Mr. Bruce informs us, that all the leaves of the trees in Abyssinia, are very highly varnished, and of a tough, leather-like texture, which enables them to sup- port the constant and violent rains, under which these trees are produced! • This is a wise provision of na- ture. But ia what, the highest or the lowest object, is not thy wisdom, Nature, conspicuous ? $. III. I am now to speak of the Fulcra, the third general part of the herb mentioned by Linnaeus. The fulcra, or fulcres, are defined by the Swedish na- turalist to be helps of the plant, for its more commodi- ous sustentation, or support. Of these fulcres, Linnaeus, at different times, enumerated a very different number. In the Fundamenta Botanica, published in 1736, they were six in number, and stood in the following order, viz. Bractea, Cirrhus, Spina, Aculeus, Stipula, and Glandula. In a subsequent edition of the same work, Linnaeus enumerated nine fulcres, the three additional to those just mentioned, being the Scapus, the Petiolus, and the Pedunculus, which our author had formerly con- sidered as species of trunks. In his immortal work, the Philosophia Botanica, published in 1750, we find but * Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, &c. Vol. I. p. 104. English transs- lation. London: 1796. t Travels, &c. Appendix, p. 151,152. Quarto edition. 68 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. seven species enumerated: viz. Stipula, Bractea, Spi- na, Aculeus, Cirrhus, Glandula, and Pilus. In the Termini Botanici, published in the Amoenitates Aca- demic a*, by John Elmgren, one of the pupils of the great naturalist, and in the Delineatio Planta, which is prefixed to the second volume of the Systerna Natura, the fulcres were to experience one more revolution. In these works, the terms Aculeus and Spina give way to the general term of Arm a; and Pilus is supplanted by the less delicate, and less determinate, term Pubes, by which Linnaeus means every species of pubescence, or hairy appearance, on the surface of plants. Glandula also is swallowed up in Pubes, and the partial trunks, Petio- lus and Pedunculus, are again to appear among the fulcres. The list now stood as follows, viz. Petiolus, Stipula, Cirrhus, Pubes, Arma, Bractea, Peduncu- lus-\. I find it not a little difficult to satisfy my mind, as to the parts of the plant which ought to be introdu- ced under this general head of fulcres. I do not think the science of Botany would loose much of its value, by * Vol. VI. Dissertatio cxiii. \ Perhaps, no man of real celebrity in science was so much in the habit of making essential alterations, in the different editions of his works, as Linnseus was. Mr. Pennant, speaking of the Swedish naturalist's arrangement of the mammalia has, with delicate severity, used the following w oris: " The variations ■ • in his different systems may have arisen from the new and continual discoveries " that are made in the animal kingdom; from his sincere intention of giving his " systems additional improvements; and perhaps from a failing (unknown, indeed, " to many of his accusers), a diffidence in the abilities he had exerted in his prior " performances. But it must be allowed, that the naturalist ran too great a hazard " m imitating his present guise ; for in another year he might put on a new form, >• and have left the complying philosopher amazed at the metamorphosis." History of Quadrupeds. Pre/are. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 69 the entire abolition of the term. Certain it is, that several of the articles enumerated by Linnaeus cannot, with any degree of propriety, be considered as props, for the more commodious sustentation of the plant. Upon what principle, can wre denominate the spina, the aculeus, the glandula, and the pilus, species of props ? Perhaps, bractea and stipula have not a much higher claim to this title. But I dare not think of abolishing a term, sanctioned by the authority of so many able bota- nists; though one* of the most distinguished of them has confessed, that the term is rather " forced." I shall treat, under the head of fulcres, of the following parts of the plant: viz. 1. Petiolus. 2. Pedunculus. 3. Cirrus. 4. Stipula. 5. Bractea. 6. Spina. 7. Aculeus. 8. Glan- dula. 9. Pilus. I. The Petiolusf, or Petiole, called also the Leaf- stalk, or Foot-stalk, is a fulcre supporting the leaf. I have had frequent occasion to make mention of this part, in the preceding pages. I have observed, that Linnaeus, at different times, considered it as a species of trunk. But if the name fulcre must be retained, I think we may- be glad to have an opportunity of referring to this head, both the petiole and peduncle. I am aware, that this is not the language of all botanists. Thus, Dr. Milne is of opinion, that neither the petiole nor the peduncle have been, with propriety, enumerated among the fulcres, " with which (says this often judicious writer) they " have no connection"!. * Dr. James Edward Smith. t By the Roman writers, the term petiolus was employed to denote the foot- stalk of the fruit. In this sense, it is used by Columella. \ A Botanical Dictionary, &c. article Fulcra 70 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. In the generality of plants, the petiole is nearly of the same colour as the leaf, to which it belongs. Indeed, it appears to be nothing but the leaf in a compressed state. The evolution of the leaf from the petiole is very distinctly observed in the Sallisburia adiantifolia, or Gingko*. The petiole of many plants is nearly cylindri- cal : it is, however, more commonly somewhat com- pressed, its upper surface, at least, being flatted; the under round or convex. " By this configuration, the " footstalks of compound leaves are generally, with ac- " curacy, distinguished from the young branches, with " which beginners are very apt to confound themf." In the greater number of vegetables, the leaves and the fructification are supported by distinct footstalks. In a few plants, however, the same footstalk supports both the leaf and the flower, or the fruit. This is the case in Turnera ulmifolia, and in Hibiscus Moscheutos, or Syrian Mallow. The petiole sometimes supplies us with very ele- gant marks for discriminating the different species of a genus. The petiolus alatus, or winged petiole, is a spe- cies of leaf-foot-stalk, which has a thin membrane or border, on each side of it. This little character distin- guishes the Orange (Citrus Aurantium), from the Le- mon (Citrus Medica). In the latter species,the petiole is ljjiear, that is nearly of the same breadth its whole length. This is the petiolus linearis of Linnaeus. * The Maiden-hair-tree, a native of Japan. t Milne. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 71 2. The Pedunculus*, or Peduncle, is a partial stem, or trunk, which supports the fructification, without the leaves. I think it most proper to treat of it, in this place, among the number of fulcres. Professor Martyn pro- perly calls it " the fulcre of the fructification." Various species or varieties of the peduncle are enumerated by Linnaeus. The principal of them are now to be mentioned. a. With respect to its place of origin, a peduncle is, l.radicalis, a root peduncle; proceeding immediately from the root. 2. caulinus, a stem peduncle; proceeding from the stem. 3. rameus, a branch peduncle; proceed- ing from a branch. 4. petiolaris, petiolary; proceeding from the petiole. 5. cirrhiferus, or tendril bearing. 6. terminalis, terminating, or proceeding from the top of the stem. 7. axillaris, axillary, proceeding from the axil, or angle, which is made by the leaf and the stem, or the branch and stem. 8. oppositifolius, opposite to a leaf. 9. lateriflorus, having the flower on the side of it. 10. interfoliaceus, among the leaves: perhaps, intrafo- liaceus, within the leaf. 11. extrafoliaceus, without, or on the outside of the leaf. 12. suprafoliaceus; inserted into the stem, higher than the leaf, or than its petiole. b. With respect to their situation, peduncles may be, 1. oppositi, opposite to each other, or, 2. alterni, alternate. 3. sparsi, scattered, without any regular order. 4. verticillati, in whorls. * Mr. Ray, and other of the older botanists use Pediculus, instead of Pedun- culus. The former is, certainly, the more clas«kal name. It is sanctioned by Pliny, the naturalist, and other good writers 72 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. c. With respect to their number, peduncles may be, 1. solitarii, solitary, or single. 2. geminati,double, two together, or in pairs. In the umbellula, umbellule, or rundlet, of which particular mention is afterwards to be made, several equal peduncles proceed or diverge from the same centre, or point. The peduncle, according to the number of flowers which it bears, is denominated, 1. unifiorus. 2. bifiorus. 3. trifiorus, &c. 4. multifiorus: that is, one, two, three- flowered, and many-flowered. d. Wi th respect to its direction, a peduncle may be, 1. appressus, pressed close to the stem. 2. erectus, upright. 3. patens, spreading. 4. cernuus, drooping, or pointing to the ground. 5. resupinatus, upside down. 6. declinatus, boned, or curved downwards. 7. nutans, nodding, or curved downwards, more so than in the last mentioned, but less so than in the drooping peduncle. 8. adscendens, rising gradually. 9.fiaceidus, weak or feeble, bending with the weight of the flower, which it supports. 10. pendulus, loose, tending downward with the leaf. 11. strictus, stiff and straight. 12. fiexuosus, bending readily, in different directions. 13. retrofractus, bent backwards, as if broken. e. With respect to its measure, a peduncle is, 1. brevis, short. 2. brevissimus, very short. 3. longus, long. 4. longissimus, very long. /. With respect to its structure, a peduncle is, 1. teres, round, cylindrical, or perhaps rather columnar. 2. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 73 triqueter, three-sided. 3. tetragonus, four-cornered. 4. filiformis, like a thread; or of the same thickness in all its parts. 5. attenuatus, tapering gradually towards the top. 6. incrassatus, growing gradually thicker towards the top. 7. clavatus, club-shaped; or thick at the end. 8. nudus, naked. 9. squamosus, scaly. 10. foliatus, leafy. 11. bracteatus, furnished with bracteae, or brac- tes. 12. geniculatus, kneed, or bent at the joints; and, 13. articulatus, jointed. 3. The Cirrus*, or Tendril, called also Clasper, is a fine spiral string, or fibre, proceeding from different parts of the plant, and by means of which it fastens itself to some other plant or body. The term cirrus is syno- nimous to the terms Capreolus, Clavicula, and Viticu- lus of the older botanists. Various species of tendrils are mentioned by Lin- naeus. These I shall notice under two heads: first, ac- cording to their place of origin, or situation: secondly, according to their form, or the number of leaves which they support. I. To the first head, we refer the following : viz. 1. cirrus axillaris, when the tendril proceeds from the axil, or angle formed by a branch with the stem, or by a leaf with a branch. 2. cirrus foliaris, proceding from the leaf; as in the Pisum Ochrus, or Winged-Pea. 3. cirrus * Linnaeus writes the word Cirrhus, which is less proper, not sanctioned, as far as I know, by any good or classical writer. Martial, Phxdrus, Pliny, &c. write it cirrus. The Latin word signifies a tuft, or lock of hair curled, a curl or frizzle, &c. The Greek original of the word is so doubtful, that I shall not notice the discordant opinions of authors on the subject. L 74 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. petiolaris, proceeding from the petiole, or footstalk of the leaf. 4. cirrus peduncularis, from the peduncle. 2. To the second head belong the following, viz. 1. cirrus simplex, a simple or undivided tendril. 2. cirrus trifidus, a three-cleft tendril; a tendril divided into three parts, 3. cirrus multifidus, many-cleft, or often divided. 4, cirrus diphyllus, a two-leaved tendril; furnished with two leaves. 5. cirrus tetraphyllus, a four-leaved tendril; having four leaves, 6. cirrus polyphyllus, a many-leaved tendril; having many leaves. 7. cirrus con- volutus, a convoluted tendril; twisted into rings, or spi- rals. 8. cirrus revolutus, a re volute tendril; when a spire of the screw having made half a revolution, turns back in a contrary direction*. Tendrils are a very important appendage to many vegetables. The Solanum Dulcamara, Bignonia radi- cans, called Trumpet-flower, and some species of He- dera, or Ivy, emit tendrils, which serve the place of roots, planting themselves into the bark of trees, or in the walls of buildings. In the Cucumber, and other cucurbitaceous plants, the tendrils serve both for sustentation, and for shade. By means of these parts, the trunks of the plants are bound, as it were, together, and prevented from be- ing at the sport of the winds. "The same claspers serve " likewise for shade: so that a natural arbour is formed 44 by the branches of the Cucumber, in the same man- "■ ner as an artificial one is made by tangling together 44 the twigs of trees; for the branches, by the linking of i; their claspers, being couched together, the tender * For a representation of the cirrus, or tendril, see the plate of Passiflova incamata, in this work. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 75 *' fruits lie under the umbrage of a bower, made of their 44 own leaves*." Many of the papilionaceous or pea-blossom plants have twining tendrils, which wind to the right and back again. Many extensive families of plants are entirely des- titute of tendrils. Philips has given a kind of instinctive perception to some of the tendril-vegetables, as appears from the fol- lowing lines in his poem, entitled Cyder. --------" The Gourd, " And thirsty Cucumber, when they perceive " Th' approaching Olive, with resentment fly " Her fatty fibres, and with Tendrils creep " Diverse, detesting contact."—Book 1.1. 257—261. I shall afterwardsf have occasion to observe, that it is among some of the vegetables that are furnished with tendrils, that we discover the most remarkable in- stances of that property, which has been called the per- ceptivity, or instinctive intelligence, of plants. 4. The Stipula^, or Stipule, is defined by Linnaeus to be a scale, or small leaf, situated on each side of the base of the petiole and peduncle, or footstalks of the leaves and flowers, at their first appearance, and are de- signed for the purpose of sustentation, or support. Lin- * Milne. f See Part II. i Stipula, the diminutive of Stipa, tow ; originally from v\wt, which also signifies tow. 76 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. nanus's pupil, Elmgren, whose paper I have already referred to, restricts the term stipule to the petiole only. The celebrated Malpighi, who may justly be stiled one of the_fathers of vegetable physiology, was,I believe, the first person who gave to the public any observa- tions concerning the number, the figure, and the situa- tion of this part of the plant. Linnaeus, borrowing the hint, has greatly improved upon the observations of the illustrious Italian naturalist. In particular, he has made much important use of the stipule in discriminating the different species of a genus, or family of plants. Stipules are very conspicuous in the Tamarind, the Rose, the Cassia, the Melianthus, or Honey-flower, the Apricot, the Peach, the Bird-Cherry, the Magnolia, and many species of Pea-bloom flowers, &c. Perhaps, in no plant are they more beautifully conspicuous than in the Liriodendron, or Tulip-tree. In this and in some other vegetables, stipules may, with some propriety, be said to be fulcres, or supports. They enclose, protect, and cherish the young leaves, until they have acquired a larger growth, and greater strength. But, in many plants, the stipules appear to have nothing to do in the business of giving support. In the greater number of plants, that are furnished with stipules, there are two of these scales or leaves, at- tached to the stem, one on each side of the footstalk. These are the stipula gemina, or stipules in pairs. In the African Melianthus, and in the Ruscus, or Butcher's broom, there is only a single stipule, which in the first mentioned plant is placed on the inside, and in the latter » ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 77 on the outside, of the stalk. Such stipules are called by Linnaeus, solitaria, solitary. In some plants, the sti- pules grow upon, or are inserted into, the sides. These are the stipula laterales, or lateral stipules. Stipula ex- trafoliacea, or extrafoliaceous stipules, are those which grow on the outside of the leaves, or below them; as in Betula, Tilia, and many of the Diadelphous, or Pea- bloom-flowers. This term is opposed to stipula intra- foliacea, or intrafoliaceous stipules; stipules that grow above, or within the leaves. Stipula oppositifolia, or oppositifolious stipules, are such as are placed opposite to the leaf. In point of duration, some stipules fall off* before the leaves. These are the, 1. stipula caduca, or cadu- cous stipules. We have examples of them in the com- mon Cherry-tree, the Almond, the Poplar, the Elm, the Oak, the Beech, the Horn-Beam, the Birch, the Alder, the Fig, the Mulberry, and many others. Other stipules are deciduous: these Linnaeus denominates, 2. stipula decidua, or deciduous stipules: they are those which fall off with the flower. 3. stipulapersistentes, or permanent stipules, are those which continue until the fall of the leaves; as in the Rose, the Rasberry, the Cinquefoil, the Tormentil, the Avens, the Pea-bloom-flowers, and many others. The terms sessile, adnate, decurrent, sheathing, su- bulate, lanceolate, sagittate, lunate, erect, spreading, re- flex, very entire, serrate, ciliate, toothed, cleft, very short, middling shoit, long, &c. &c. are applied to sti- pules, as well as to leaves. For the explanation of these various terms, I must refer the reader to the terminology of leaves, in the preceding pages. 78 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 5. The Bractea*, Bracte, or Floral-leaf, is a leaf which, in general, differs from the true leaves both in shape and in colour, and is commonly situated on the peduncle, and often so near to the corolla as to be mistaken for the calyx. This is the case in Hellebore, Nigella, Bartsia, Peganum, and others. The following, among other plants, furnish us with the most remarkable instances of the bracte, viz. the Tilia, or Lime-tree, Melampyrum, or Cow-wheat, Bart- sia coccineaf, some species of Fumaria, or Fumitory, the Monarda didyma, or Oswego-tea, Polygala, or Milk-wort, Ononis, or Rest-harrow, Anthyllis, or La- dy's finger, Glycine frutescens, or Carolina Kidney- bean-tree, &c. &x. In general, the bracte is of the same duration as the common or true leaves of the plant. This circum- stance is worthy of attention, as it will, in some instan- ces, enable us to distinguish the bracte from the peri- anth, or flower-cup, which last almost always withers when the fruit has ripened, if not, indeed, before. By not attending to this observation, the young or inexperienced botanist may very readily commit essen- tial mistakes, in ascertaining the genera of pertain plants; * Bractea, in Latin, has the following significations, «iz. a thin leaf, or plate of gold, silver, or any other metal; a tinsel, a spangle, a chip or thin piece of wood; a weather-cock upon the summit of steeples, turrets, &c. Hence it appears, that Linnxus has not discovered much taste in applying this name to the floral leaf. With respect to the English word, bracte, I should substitute in its place, flo- ral-leaves, were it not that this term is frequently employed by Linnaeus, to denote leaves which are situated near the flower, when they differ from the other leaves, though they are not, strictly speaking, bractes. t See Plate IV. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 79 such as Hellebore, Fennel-flower, Passion-flower, and others, which are furnished with bractes,but are destitute of calyx: at least according to the ideas of Linnaeus res- pecting the calyx; for I shall afterwards have occasion to observe, that Jussieu, Adanson, and other eminent botanists, often give the name of calyx, to that part which Linnaeus calls the corolla, or petals. a. Bractes are either, 1. virides, green, or, 2. colorata, coloured. They are green in Hypoxis erecta, and beautifully coloured in Bartsia coccinea*. b. In point of duration, they are either, 1. decidua, deciduous. 2. caduca,caducous. 3. persistentes^ perma- nent. These terms have already been explained. c. In point of number, bractes are either, 1. una, one. 2. dua, two. 3. plures, more than two. The fol- lowing, among other plants, have, in general, but one bracte: viz. Chondrillajuncea,AristolochiaPistolochia, andEricaDaboecia. The following plants have two brac- tes: viz. Campanula alpina, Commelina Zanonia, Rosa canina, Royena villosa, Ruellia ringens, Cineraria sibi- rica, and Hypoxis erectaf. Erica calycina, and Atrac- tylis cancellata have three bractes. Corymbium scab- rum has four or five. Cunila pulegioides, Stipa spinifex, Bartsia coccinea, and many others, have several bractes. d. In respect to size and height, bractes are, 1. shorter than the calyx, as in Justicia hyssopifolia, and Ruellia ringens. 2. longer than the calyx, as in Salvia ' See Plate IV. + See Plate XIII Fig. I. Hypoxis has nf'en n.ore than * L>va:tes 80 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Sclarea, Ruellia repens,and Stipa spinifex. 3. larger than the calyx, and placed under it, as in Royena villosa. 4. shorter than the flower, as in Salvia sylvestris, Fumaria nobilis, and Minuartia campestris. 5. of equal length with the flower, in Fumaria bulbosa, Hypoxis erecta, Ornithogalumcomosum; and, 6. longer than the flower, as in Ribes alpina, and Minuartia montana. 7. Cunila pulegioides, called, in the United-States, Penny-Royal, &x. besides a number of smaller bractes, has two that are larger than the flower, placed on each side of the footstalk. e. In some plants, such as Crown-Imperial, Laven- der, certain species of Sage, Bartsia coccinea, and a few others, the stem is terminated by a number of very large and conspicuous bractes,which are denominated Coma*, and Bractea comosa, from their resemblance to a bush or bunch of hair. In discriminating the species of plants, bractes, par- ticularly those of the bushy kind just mentioned, are of essential consequence. The real use of the bracte, in the vegetable econo- my, does not appear to be completely ascertained. In many vegetables, indeed, this part is so very inconside- rable in size, and so similar to minute squamae or scales, which, in other parts ofthe plant, have not seemed to me- rit any attention, and have not received a name, that it appears that such minute bractes are of no very indis- pensible consequence. But in other plants, the bracte is a part large, conspicuous, and seems to answer some im- * Coma, from K»|«ji, a head of hair. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 81 portant purpose. Dr. Darwin conjectures, that the brac- tes, or floral leaves, 4< supply an organ of respiration to 44 the calyx and pericarp of the flower-bud." All the different kinds of bractes, according to this multifarious genius,44 serve the office of lungs, for the purpose of ex- 44 posing the vegetable blood to the influence of the air, 44 and of preparing it for the secretion, or production 44 and nourishment of the vegetable uterus, or pericarp, 44 and of the seeds produced and retained in it, frequent- 44 ly before their impregnation, and always after it." Dr. Darwin observes, that in many plants, "brac- 44 tes do not appear till after the corol and nectaries, with 44 the anthers and stigmas, drop off; that is, not till after 44 the seed is impregnated, as in Colchicum autumnale, 44 Crocus, Hamamelis, and in some fruit-trees. The 14 production of the vegetable uterus, or pericarp, with 44 the unimpregnated seeds included in it, is (our author asserts) 44 in these plants accomplished or evolved, 44 like the bractes themselves, with the corol and sexu- 44 al organs, by the sap-juice, forced up in the umbili- 44 cal vessels from some previously prepared reservoir, 44 without the necessity of any exposition to the air in 44 leaves or lungs, which are not yet formed, though it 44 may acquire oxygenation in the fine arteries of the 44 embryon buds, which are supposed to surround the 44 horizontal air-vessels, observed in the bark of trees. 44 As soon as the seeds become impregnated, the 44 corol and nectaries with the sexual organs fall off, and 44 the pericarp and its contained seeds are then nourish- ed by the blood, which is aerated or oxygenated in 44 the bractes, or floral leaves. Thus the flower of the '4 Colchicum appears in autumn without any green M 82 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 44 leaves, and the pericarp with its impregnated seeds, 44 rises out of the ground, inthe ensuing spring, on astern 44 surrounded with bractes, and with other green leaves 44 below them, which produce new bulbs in their 44 bosoms." Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that the blood which supplies nourishment to the pericarp and the seeds which it contains, 44 does not seem to require so much 44 oxygenation as that which supplies nutriment to the 44 embryon buds; whence (he remarks) the floral leaves 44 are, in general, much less than the root-leaves in 44 many plants, and than the common green leaves of al- 44 most all vegetables*." 6. The Spina, Spine, or Thorn, is a sharp process from the ligneous, or woody part of the plant, and is said to serve for its defence. We have instances of this in many plants, such as Prunus, Crataegus, Gleditsia, Sec. Spines are protruded from the stem and branches, as in Buck-thorn, Pear, Plum, and Orange trees; from the petioles, as in Robinia Pseud-Acacia, called Locust in the United-States; from the leaves themselves, as in Aloe; Agave americana, or American Aloe; Yucca fila- mentosa, or Adam's needle; Holly; Manchineel (Hippo- mane Mancinella), Butcher's-broom, &c. from the ribs of the leaves, as in several species of Nightshade: from the calyx, as in Thistle; from the seed-vessel, or peri- carp, as in Datura Stramonium,or Thorn-apple, &c. &c. Thorns are either terminating, that is placed at the end of a branch or leaf; or axillary, proceeding from the • Phytclogia, 8cc. Sect. IV. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 83 angle which is formed by a branch or leaf with the stem. The first is the spina terminalis, and the last, the spi- na axillaris, of Linnaeus. Thorns are either simple, as in the greater number of thorny plants; double as in Horned Acacia; or triple, as in the Honey-locust of the United-States, which, on account of the number of its thorns, is called Gleditsia triacanthos. It must not, however, be supposed, that the number of thorns, growing together, in the same spe- cies, is always the same: for in the Gleditsia, although the number is, in general, three, there is sometimes only one; sometimes there are two, sometimes five or six. 7. The Aculeus*, or Prickle, is a sharp process from a plant, arising from the bark only, and not from the wood. In this respect, it differs essentially, from the spina, or thorn, which is a prolongation of the woody part of the vegetable, to which it belongs. The difference of the origin of these two^species of armature is very apparent, from the facility with which the prickle is detached, the bark merely coming away with it, and not the wood; whereas the thorn is not removed, with- out, at the same time, removing a portion of the wood. Owing to this difference of origin, prickles are less rigid than thorns. The Rose, the Raspberry, the Berberry, the Aralia spinosa, called Angelica-tree; the Currant, and other bushes or vegetables, furnish us with familiar examples of the prickle. * Aculeus, from Acus, a needle. 84 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Prickles are either, 1. recti, straight; as in the Solarium indicum. 2. incurvi, bent inwards; as in Mi- mosa cineraria. 3. recurvi, recurred, or bent outwards. 4. tomentosi, downy; or covered with a silver-white wooly appearance; as in Solanum sanctum. 5. acerosi, chaffy; as in Solanum tomentosum. 6. geminati, double; or two growing together; as in Euphorbia canadensis, and in Euphorbia officinarum. Prickles, when divided, are named, furca, forks, or forked prickles; and are called bifid, trifid, &c. from the number of their divisions. We appear to be rather better acquainted with the final intention of nature in forming thorns and prickles, than some of the other parts of vegetables. These two species of armature seem to have been bestowed upon vegetables, in some measure, for the purposes of defence, against the injuries of animals. But that this is the sole use of the prickle and the thorn, many circum- stances are calculated to render doubtful. Numerous vegetables, upon which various species of animals com- mit great ravages, are destitute both of spines and prickles; and, on the other hand, there are not a few in- stances of vegetables, which are carefully guarded with these armatures, although their poisonous or other qua- lity is sufficient to secure them from injuries. Culture exerts a decided effect upon both the spines and prickles of vegetables. The branches of the Pear, the Orange, the Citron, the Lemon, the Medlar, the Hawthorn, the Gooseberry-bush, not to mention others, when taken under the fostering care of the gar- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 85 dener, often lose their spines. This shows how great are the effects of culture upon vegetables: perhaps, it even shows, that the spine and the prickle were intend- ed for the purpose which has been mentioned; since ve- getables so frequently lose their armature, when they are transferred to the soil that is tilled by man, who will guard, with interested attention, these plants from the depredations of animals. 8. The Glandula, Gland,or Glandule, is said to be a kind of secretory or excretory vessel, which is found upon the surface of many vegetables. In his Philosophia Botanica, Linnaeus defines it to be a papilla excreting a fluid or humour*. In the Delineatio Planta, he defines it a fulcre secreting a liquorf. This last definition is un- meaning, and intolerable. Glands are found upon almost every part of the surface of different plants. They assume a great variety of appearances. Sometimes, they resemble a blister or bladder, as in St. John's-wort; sometimes a number of scales, as in many Ferns; sometimes small grains, not unlike those of Millet, as in Fir-tree; sometimes a small cup, as in the Apricot-tree. In many instances, glands are furnished with their proper footstalks: often they are situated upon the leaves of plants, without any foot- stalks. In the following plants, glands are situated on the petioles, or footstalks of the leaves, viz. Ricinus com- munis, Cassava, Passion-flower, different species of Cas- • "Papilla humorem excernens." t " Fu'crum secernens humorem-." 86 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. sia*, and Robinia. They are seated on the indented or sawed edges of the leaves in the Willow-tree. In the Al- mond-tree, the Gourd, the Gelder-Rose, and the Bird- Cherry, they proceed from the base of the leaf. In the Urena, Tamarisk, Bastard Ricinus, and others, they spring from its back; whilst in the Butter-wort, and Sundew, they come out from its upper surface. In some plants, as in Mountain Ebonyf, and Apri- cot-tree, the glands are situated upon the tender stipules or scales, which surround the young foot-stalks of the flower and the leaves. Such glands are called by Lin- naeus, glandula stipulares, or stipular glands. In other plants, as in the Currant-tree, Fig-wort, Viscous Campion, &c. Sec. the glands are slender, like hairs: hence they are called glandula capillar es, or ca- pillary glands. A glandular appearance is frequently observed between the stamens of certain plants, particularly those which belong to the xvth class, Tetradynamia, of the Sexual System J. Although Linnaeus has been pleased to denomi- nate the parts of which I have been speaking, glands, it is by no means certain, that they do, in reality, per- form a glandular office. On the contrary, there are good reasons for suspecting, that many of the glandula?, in the Linnaean sense of the word, are no ways concern- ed in the function of secretion. * See the figures of Cassia marilandica, and Passiflora incamata. f Bauhinia aculeata. % See Plate XIX. Fig. HI. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 87 These parts, whatever maybe their uses, are of great importance in discriminating the species of certain genera of plants. Thus, the Almond and the Peach are two distinct species of one genus, the Amygdalus; but it is hardly possible to distinguish the two species, with- out calling in the aid of the glands. In the Almond, these are situated at the base of the leaves, upon the serratures; but the Peach is destitute of the glandular structure. To this general head of glands, Linnaeus seems to refer the following, viz. 1. Folliculi, follicles, or ves- sels distended with air, such as are observable at the roots of the Utricularia, or Water-Milfoil, and on the leaves of the Aldrovanda*. He might, with as much pro- priety, have added, the much larger bags, or vesicles, which are found upon various species of Fuci, or Sea- wreck. In these last, the air has been examined, and found to be much purer than atmospheric air. 2. Utri- culi, or utricles, which are said to be filled with a se- creted liquor; though, I believe, it cannot be proved, that it is, in all plants, a secreted liquor. The Nepen- thes destillatoria, a native of Ceylon, furnishes us with a verj remarkable example of what Linnaeus calls the utriculus. The extremity of the leaf of this plant termi- nates in a filiform process, and this, again, in a cylin- der, which is closed at the end by an opercle, or lid, so as to retain water. Different species of the genus Sarracenia have hollow leaves, which retain, for a consi- derable time,the water that has been received into them, from the rain, dew, &xf. But I cannot think, that * Aldrovanda vesiculosa, a native of the marshes, or standing waters, of India and of Italy. t See Plate I. 88 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. there is any manner of propriety in considering as glands, the curious structure of these two plants. 9.1 am now to give some account of the last species of fulcre enumerated by Linnaeus. This is the Pilus, or Pubes. This is a general term, comprehending various species of pubescence, hairiness, or shagginess upon a plant; or, in other words,44 whatever clothes it with any 44 hairy or villous substance." The following species of pubescence are enumera- ted by the Swedish naturalist: viz. Pili, Hairs. 2. La- na, Wool; or close curled hairs. 3. Barba, Beard; or parallel hairs. 4. Tomentum, Flocks; or interwoven vil- lous hairs, scarcely conspicuous. 5. Striga, stiffish flattish hairs. 6. Seta, Bristles; or stiffish roundish hairs. 7. Hami, Hooks; sharp crooked points. 8. Glochides, Barbs; straight toothed points, or pointed hairs. I cannot pretend to enter into a full investigation of the history or appearances of all these various species or varieties of pubescence. The subject, however, is too important, in the study of plants, to be dismissed without some further notice. Perhaps, there are very few plants entirely desti- tute of some kind of hairy covering, or pubescence. It is true, indeed, that to the naked eye, the leaves or other parts of many vegetables appear to be absolutely smooth: but, even in these, the microscope discovers various lit- tle hairs, or other species of pubescence. It is especi- ally upon the young stalks or stems of plants, that this minute covering is discoverable. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 89 The hairs which are distributed over the surface of vegetables assume a considerable variety of forms. Thus, in the leguminous plants, they are generally cy- lindrical : in the malvaceous plants, they terminate in a point: in the Agrimonia, or Agrimony, they are shaped like a fish-hook: in Nettle, they are subulate, or awl- shaped, and jointed; and in some of the Syngenesious plants, that are furnished with hollow, or funnel-shaped florets, they terminate in two crooked joints. As early as the year 1682, the celebrated Dr. Nehe- miah Grew, and in 1686 Marcellus Malpighi, had paid some attention to the different kinds of hairs which con- stitute a downy covering upon the surfaces of vegeta- bles. But it was not until the year 1745, that the subject was handled in the masterly manner it deserved. In that year, Mr. J. Stephen Guettard, a very ingenious and learned French naturalist, began to publish his observa- tions upon the hairs and glands of plants. These obser- vations he continued during several succeeding years. The authorhas even establishedabotanical method dedu- ced from the form, the situation, and other circumstances of the hairy and other glandular appearances, on the sur- face of plants. He has shown, what perhaps, would hardly have been suspected, that these appearances are, in ge- neral, constant and uniform in all the plants of the same family, or genus. Hence, he has observed, that they constitute good generic, but not specific, characters. A minute investigation of the subject of vegetable pubescence would be more worthy of our attention, if we were acquainted with the actual use of this kind of covering. But upon this subject, little certain can be said. It seems very probable, that the pubescence of N 90 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. plants serves various useful purposes. I am inclined to think, that many of the hairs which cover the different parts of plants are exhaling and absorbing lymphatic-ves- sels. Some seem to have been designed, in a great mea- sure, for the purpose of preserving the parts where they are lodged, from the effects of friction; whilst others may form a kind of covering, like the furs, hairs, bristles, &c. of animals, for protection from cold, and other inju- rious causes. LinnjEus asserts, that an experienced botanist will often find it easy to determine, from an inspection of plants, whether they belong to Africa, Asia, America, or the Alpine countries; though he may not be able to say, by what feature, in the general physiognomy, he has made the distinction. The Swedish naturalist, how- ever, speaks of the American plants as being verdant, and smooth*. I do not doubt, that to the vegetables of ex- tensive tracts of the three portions of the world which Linnaeus has mentioned, a kind of national physiognomy often belongs: as we observe, that even the human inha- bitants of such countries have a set of features exclusively belonging to them. Thus, an Anglo-American may, very generally, be distinguished from an Englishman. But I suspect, that there is much more difficulty than Linnae- us seems to have imagined, in deciding, with certainty, from the mere fades, or aspect, of vegetables, upon the native countries of those vegetables. How, indeed, can this be doubted, when it is considered, that the very same * " Primo intuitu distinguit ssepius exercitatus Botanicns plantas Africse, " Asia, America:, Alpiumquc, sed non facile diceret ipse, ex qua nota. Nescio, " qux facies torva, sicca, obscura Afris; qux superba, exaltata Asiaticis; »< quxlceta, glabra Americanis; quKCoarctata, indurata Alpinis ? Philosophia Botanica, Sec. p. 117.118. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 91 species of vegetables are common to two, and even three, quarters of the globe? Thus, the northern parts of North-America, and the northern parts of Europe, pos- sess a considerable number of vegetables in common with each other. Many species are common to Siberia, Kamtchatka, Japan, &c. and to the north of America. A considerable number are common to the United-States and to Hindoostan; and even a few are common to the Cape of Good-Hope and North-America. That the American plants are peculiarly smooth, I am far from being convinced. Linnaeus might have found, in our woods, very many species covered over with all the various kinds of pubes, pubescentia, or pi- lus, which he has mentioned*. I cannot but suspect, that the great naturalist, misled by the phantom of a false analogy, conceived the plants of America very smooth, partly, at least, because the man of America has been so generally deemed, and by Linnaeusf, among other writers, beardless, and smooth-skinned. But we now know, that the Indians of America are not more smooth than are the Japanese, the Chinese, the Koriaks, and many other nations or hordes of AsiaJ. • Such, not to mention many others, are Rhus typhinum, Epigsea repens, Spirxa tomentosa, Sida Abutilon, many of the Oaks, Walnuts, rr Hickeries, and a very considerable number of species in the great class of Syngenesia. t Systema Naturae. Tom. I. p. 29. \ See New Views of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America. Pre- liminary Discourse, p. 55, and Appendix, p. 32. 92 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. \. IV. " Where dwell my vegetative realms benumb'd, " In Buds imprison'd, or in Bulbs intomb'd." The Botanic Garden. Part I. Canto 1.1.459, 460. I am now to speak of that part of the vegetable which Linnaeus has denominated the Hybernaculum, or Winter-quarters of the plant. Professor Martyn calls it the Hybernacle. The hybernaculum is denned by the Swedish natu- ralist to be a part of the plant which encloses the embryo- herb, protecting it from external injuries. In his lan- guage, it is either a bulbus, or agemma. I. Of the bulbus, or bulb, I have already made very particular mention*. I have given my reasons for consi- dering it as a species of root. At present, I am to take no farther notice of it, but am to confine myself to the consideration of the Gemma, or bud. Previously, how- ever, to my doing this, it will be proper to give some account of the bulbus caulinus, and other similar pro- ductions, to which I have alluded in a former part of the workf. Consistently with my view of the subject, I could not, with propriety, treat of those productions, under the head of roots. The bulbus caulinus, or stem-bulb, is a small spe- cies of bulb, or hybernacle, which is situated immedi- * See page 8—13 t t See page 12. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 93 ately upon the stem or stalk of certain plants, having no immediate connection with the root. In the Dentaria*, or Tooth-"wort, the Saxifraga, or Saxifragef, the Lilium bulbiferum, or Bulbiferous Lily, and many other plants, we find small bulbs in the wings of the leaves, that is at the place where the leaf is united to the stem. If, after the stalks have decayed, these bulbs be taken off, and planted, they will soon take root, and vegetate. It is evident, therefore, that these productions are the re- positories of an embryo or miniature-plant; and, there- fore, they may, with strict propriety, be considered as a species of hybernacle. In some of the alliaceous plants, or plants 6f the Onion and Garlick kind, bulbs, very similar to those which I have just mentioned, are produced at the ori- gin of the umbel of flowers, between the peduncles, or footstalks of the flowers. Such alliaceous plants are fre- quently called bulbiferous plants. The individual bulbs are well known among gardeners, and in common lan- guage, by the name of" cloves^." The structure of these cauline and umbel-bulbs ap- pears to be very similar to that of the true root-bulbs, of which I have given an account. Bulbous granules, or productions, are very common in many species of Lichen, belonging to the xxivth class of the Sexual System. But, in these Lichens, the bulbs are situated without the axils of the leaves. * Dentaria bulbifera. f Saxifraga bulbifera, and S. cernaa. | See Plate III. 94 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. In many plants, we observe an appearance, which, from its general affinity to that of the true bulbous gra- nules, deserves to be mentioned, in this place.' Some species of Poa, and other grasses, shoot out from their flowers, bulbous-like processes, which falling to the ground, there take root, and vegetate into plants simi- lar to the parent*. Such plants are called viviparous plants. In the Tangekolli, a plant of Senegal, which is particularly mentioned by Mr. Adanson, the seeds germinate in the fruit or capsule, forming bulbs, or suckers, even before the fruit has arrived at maturity. The Agave vivipara, of East-Florida, exhibits a very si- milar appearance. After the flowers of this fine vege- table have fallen off, the seeds often vegetate, and even arrive to a pretty considerable size, their leaves being sometimes three or four inches long, whilst the new offspring is still attached to the parent tree. The branch- es of the Agave frequently appear alive with the young plants. These falling to the ground, there take root, and grow and flower. To this vegetable, a celebrated bota- nist, Paul Herman, gave the very appropriate name of Sobolifera\. The appearance exhibited by the Tange- kolli and Agave, may, not unaptly, be compared to that of a Polypus, with a numerous progeny sprouting from various parts of her body. Under this head of stem-bulbs, I may, with propri- ety, mention the fleshy and succulent leaves of various species of plants, particularly those of the liliaceous or- der, such as the Aloe, the Squill, and others; and also * See Plate III. f Aloe Americana Sobolifera.—Horti Academic! Lugduno-Batavi Catalogus, kt. p. 16—18 . pi. 2. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 95 the leaves of some species of Arum, or Cuckow-Pint. These, if they be carefully planted in the ground, will, in due time, emit radicles, or fibres, and vegetate. Hence, it is evident, that there would be some propri- ety in denominating such leaves, hybernacles. Perhaps, the leaves of all plants contain the miniature-embryons of millions of plants, which are never brought into open view. The bulbous granules, whether they be situated in the wings of the leaves, or other parts of the stalk, fur- nish the botanist with excellent marks for the discrimi- nation of different species of plants, in the genera Orni- thogalum, Dentaria, Polygonum, Saxifraga, Lilium, Allium, &c. Different species of these genera receive their specific names, bulbifera, or bulbiferum, and vivi- para, or viviparum, from the bulbs which are found upon them*. 2. The hybernacle which more particularly claims our attention is the Gemma, or Bud. This is defined by Linnaeus to be a species of hybernacle sitting upon the ascending caudex, or stem, and branches, and composed of stipules, or petioles, or the rudiments of leaves, or cortical scales. In fact, every bud is to be considered as an epitome, or compendium, of one or more plants simi- lar to the parent plant. In other words, the bud, as Lof- t ling observes, is nothing else than the plant or vegetable straitened from a defect of the powers of vegetationf. » * Dentaria bulbifera, Saxifraga bulbifera, Dioscorea bulbifera, Lilium bulbiferum, Polygonum viviparum. \ " Gemma cnim nihil aliud est, nisi herba coarctata a defectu vis vege- " tantis," 8cc. 96 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. The term hybernaculum, by which the naturalist of Swe- den has designated the bulb and the bud, is very happi- ly applied. Mr. Ray is said to have been the first person who gave to the bud, of which I am speaking, the name of gemma. Before the time of that illustrious naturalist, one of the greatest ornaments of his country, the bud, we are told, had been denominated germen. It is admit- ted, indeed, that the term gemma was used before Ray's time, to signify a particular species of bud, viz. that which contains a flower; and some of the ancient authors appear to have carefully distinguished it from the ger- men, or bud, which contained leaves and wood. Pliny, whose merits are much greater than some writers will allow them to be, seems to mark the distinction between the gemma, and the germen, in very precise terms. The following are the words of the Romafl naturalist: " Ger- " men autem est id, quod ex ipsis surculis arborum pri- " mo vere exit, ex quo deinde folium producitur: nam " gemma proprie est floris, quanquam utrumque con- " fundatur*." Notwithstanding the very precise observation of Pliny, I think there are good reasons for supposing, that some of the purest of the Roman classical writers, used the term gemma, to express every kind of bud, without any regard to its individual contents. Thu^| when Virgil, in the following lines, speaks of the buds of the Vine, under the name of "gemmae," he, doubtless, means the leaf and flowfcr-buds of that vegetable!: * Naturalis Historian Lib. , f Ovid, too, as we shall afterwards see, calls the buds of the Vine, " gemmx." ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 97 " Muscosi fontes,' et somno mollior herba, " Et quae vos rara viridis tegit arbutus umbra, " Solstitium pecori defendite: jam venit aestas " Torrida: jam lata turgent in Palmite gemmae." Eclog. VII. 1. 45—48. With respect to the word germen, although it ap- pears, that this term was also used to denote a bud, it would seem, that it was more generally employed to de- note a branch, or young twig, or sprout of a tree. In the following lines, Virgil, in describing the opera- tion of vegetable inoculation, or budding, seems evi- dently to call by the name of "germen" the cion, or bud, which is made use of in this process: " Nee modus inserere, atque oculos imponere, simplex: " Nam qua se medio trudunt de cortice gemmae, " Et tenues rumpunt tunicas, angustus in ipso " Fit nodo sinus: hue aliena ex arbore germen •{ Includunt, udoque docent inolescere libro." Georgic. Lib. 11.1. 73—77. " ExperiencM art by varying culture knows " To graft the cion, or the bud enclose. " Where the swoln gem, in vernal vigour bold, " Bursts through the bark, and breaks each yielding fold, " Slit the mid knot, and, in the wound confin'd, " Teach the strange bud to wed the bleeding rind." Sotheby. Buds assume different forms in different vegetables. In general, however, they may be said to be small and rounded, or conical, bodies, sometimes ending in a point. But the form of the bud is often so different in the different species of the same genus, as to afford to the botanist a good mark of distinction, in the winter-sea- o 98 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. son, when the leaves and other parts, upon which the specific characters are more generally founded, cannot be seen. Thus, in many species of Willow, and in Rhamnus, or Buckthorn, the specific marks are often taken from the form of the buds. In general, buds are placed at the extremity of the young and tender vegetable shoots, and along the course of the branches. They are fixed, by a short foot-stalk, upon a species of brackets, which are the remainder of the leaves, in the axils of which the buds of the present were formed the preceding year. Sometimes, we ob- serve only one bud in a place : sometimes two are to- gether, and these are either opposite or alternate: whilst, sometimes they are collected, in greater numbers, in whirls, or rings. The construction of buds is at once beautiful and intricate. On the exterior surface of these vegetable cradles, we observe a number of scales, which are more or less hard, hollowed like a spoon, and laid over each other, in the manner of tiles upon the roof of a house. These scales are often beset with hairs, and other spe- cies of pubescence, and are fixed into the inner plates of the bark of the stem and branches, from which bark they seem to proceed. We cannot be at a loss to de- termine the use of these bud-scales. They serve to defend from cold, and other injuries, the tender and de- licate embryon-plants, that are contained within the bud. The scales are often sealed, as it were, or connected to each other, and to the embryon within, by means of a thick, clammy juice, which in the buds of many vege- tables, such as the Populus balsamifera, or Tacamahaca- tree, is of a resinous nature, and highly odoriferous. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 99 It is probable, that in some plants, this viscous matter may be useful by preventing an excess of perspiration from the bud. When the internal parts of the bud have expanded and unfolded, the scales, being no longer use- ful, fall off. The following observations of Ledermuller, an in- genious German naturalist, are well calculated to show the delicate and careful structure of the bud. In the win- ter-season, he separated from a Horse-Chesnut (iEscu- lus Hippocastanum), a bud not exceeding in size a com- mon pea. He found the bud to be covered externally with seventeen scales, anointed with a viscid fluid. Having carefully separated these scales, the whole bud, covered with a lanugo, or down, was brought into view. On re- moving the down, he found the bud surrounded with four branch-leaves, and covering a spike of flowers. In this spike, our author very distinctly counted sixty- eight flowers! By the assistance of a microscope, even the pollen, or fecundating powder of the stamens, was observable. Some of it was opaque, and some transpa- rent. Three different species of buds are enumerated by the botanists. These are, 1. a bud containing a flower; 2. a bud containing a leaf or leaves; and 3. a bud con- taining both flowers and leaves. I. The first species of bud that I have mentioned, is denominated gemma fiorifera, or the flower-bud. This contains the rudiments of one, or several, or many flow- ers, without leaves, folded over each other, and sur- rounded with scales. To this species of bud, the French have given the name of" bouton afleur, ou au fruit." 100 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. It is often found at the extremity of the small branches of certain trees, which branches are shorter, more rough, and less beset with leaves, than the other branches. It is also observable, that this flower-bud is, in general, thick- er, shorter, more square, and less pointed than the other kinds, which are next to be mentioned. It commonly terminates obtusely. This is the gemma fioralis of Linnaeus. This species of bud is particularly mentioned by Pliny, who calls it oculus gemma. It is the bud which is employed in that species of grafting, which is called inoculation, or budding. 2. The second species of bud is the gemma foliifera, or leaf-bud. It contains the rudiments of several leaves, without flowers. This kind of bud is commonly more pointed than the first species. In some vegetables, how- ever, as the Hazle-nut, it is nearly round; and in the .^Esculus Hippocastanum, or Horse-Chesnut, it is very thick. Linnaeus calls this species of bud, gemma foli- ar is. 3. The third species of bud is the gemma foliifero- florifera, or flower and leaf bud. This is the most com- mon species of bud. In general, it is smaller than either of the two preceding buds, and produces, as the name imports, both flowers and leaves. Linnaeus denomi- nates this bud, gemma communis. In this species of bud, however, the flowers, which are mixed with the leaves, are not always of the same kind. Sometimes, the bud protrudes, 1. male-flowers with leaves, as in the Pine, and Fir-tree: 2.female-flow- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 101 ers and leaves, as in the Hazle-nut, and Carpinus, or Horn-beam. 3. hermaphrodite flowers, and leaves, as in the Elm-tree, Cornus, or Cornel-tree, Daphne, or Mezereon, and the Almond-tree. Those buds which are evolved into leaves only, are called barren-buds. Those, which contain both leaves and flowers, are denominated fertile. These terms are very properly applied. It is observed, that from the size or bulk of the bud, we can often foretel, whether it contains merely leaves, or flowers and leaves together. The final object or ultimate end of the Great Creator or the Universe, in forming buds, must now, be sufficiently obvious. They are the protecting domes,the cradles, of tender embryons, which, in due time, are to burst from their enclosures, expose them- selves to the light of the day, and spread eternal beauties over this earth. " Vere nitent Terrae, vere remissus ager, " Nunc Herbse, rupta tellure, cacumina tollunt, " Nunc tumido Gemmas cortice palmes agit." Ovid. Fast. IV. 1.126. Such being the use of the parts which I am consi- dering, we are not to wonder, that the greater number of the trees and shrubs of cold climates are furnished with buds. In such climates, the protection which buds afford is wanted. Lofling has observed, that the Fran- gula, a species of Rhamnus, or Buck-thorn, is the only native tree of Sweden which is destitute of buds*. And • See his excellent paper, entided "Gemmae Arborum," in the Amoenitates Academicae. Vol. II. DissertatioXXIV. 102 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. how beautifully does this vegetable demonstrate the of- fice of the bud! The Frangula requires not the protect- ing aid of these winter-quarters: for " it grows under trees, in the marshy forests, where it is defended, along with other plants, from the severity of the winter*." On the other hand, it ought not to excite our sur- prize, that buds are so seldom found upon the vegetables of warm climates: I mean those climates where an in- tensely cold winter is unknown. For in many countries, as in those of the northern and middle states of the Ame- rican Union, although the summers are extremely warm, the winters are also intensely cold. In climates which enjoy an uniform series of mild or warm seasons, the ten- der shoots of vegetables do not stand in need of the pro- tection of buds. The following list, from Lofling, will show what vegetables, among others, are destitute of buds: viz. Citron, Orange, Lemon, Cassava, Mock- Orange, Blad-Apple, Shrubby Swallow-wort, the Shrub- by Geraniumsf, Berry-bearing-Alder, Christ's Thorn, Syrian Mallow, Adansonia or Baobab, Justicia, Wild Senna, the Acacias and Mimosas, Coral-tree, Stinking Bean Trefoil, Oleander, Tamarisk, Heath, Barbadoes- Cherry, Tree-Mallow, the Shrubby Nightshades J, Gui- nea Henweed, Cypress, Lignum Vitae, and Savin. * " Frangula est unica arbor indigena Suecix, quae gemmis caret, sed habitat " ilia sub arboribus, in nemoribus paludosis, cum aliis plantis a sevitia hyemis • ' defensa." f Geranium fulgidum, G. inquinans, G. papilionaceum, G. betulinum, G. scabrum, G. cucullatum, G. gibbosum, G. carnosum, G. peltatum, G. aceto- sum, G. zonale, G. vitifolium.&c. &c. of Linnaeus. J Solanum verbascifrlium, S.guineense, S. Pseudo-Capsicum, S. diphyllum, S. bonariense, S. pimpinellifolium, S. sanctum, S. tomentosum, S. bahamense, &c. of Linnaeus. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 103 Some of the vegetables, in this list, are large trees, such are the Adansonia, several of the Mimosas, &c. whilst others are smaller, but furnished with ligneous or woody stems, and belong to the families of shrubs and under-shrubs, as they are denominated by the English writers. True or complete buds are never produced upon the annual plants, or those whose root and stem perish after the term of a year*. In these annual plants, how- ever, small branches, like minute feathers, are protruded from the axils of the leaves. These feather-like proces- ses, which seem to supply the place of the buds, wither without undergoing a more complete evolution or ex- pansion, if the plants to which they belong are scandent, that is climb, and are destitute of lateral branches. But, in many other annual plants, these feather-like bo- dies, or small branches, grow into plants, similar to the parents. In the trees of warm and hot countries, an appear- ance similar to that which I have described, is observed to obtain. In these trees, several of which are enumera- ted in the preceding list of budless vegetables, aplumu- la, or small feather, emits branches, without, however, any scaly covering: for, as I have already observed, this covering is not wanted, where there is no severity of climate to injure the tender shoot. The scaly covering essentially belongs to completely formed buds. " When " we, therefore, speak of trees having buds, that are " naked or without scales, our meaning is the same as *' if we had said, that they have no buds at allf." • See pages 15,16. t Milnc 104 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Mr. Ray and Pontedera, have instituted a division of vegetables into herbs, or herbaceous vegetables, and trees, founding the distinction upon the absence or the presence of the gemmae, or buds. The herbs they have distinguished by the name of plants wanting buds: the trees by that of vegetables bearing buds. This division of the English and Italian naturalists, however, is certainly erroneous, and is calculated to in- troduce much confusion into the science of vegetables. It might not be improper, indeed, to adopt such a dis- tinction in the history of the plants of one country, not very extensive, or not enjoying very different climates. But it ought not to be adopted inNthe history of the plants of the whole globe; since it plainly appears, that the greater number of the trees of warm climates are desti- tute of buds, or at least of that scaly appearance, which seems to belong essentially to buds; and, hence, such trees, some of which are very large and stately, ought, upon the principles of the two authors whom I have mentioned, to be thrown into the same class or series as the humble, herbaceous plants. Father Plumier disco- vered much judgment in associating together the trees and the herbaceous plants; though his illustrious coun- tryman, Tournefort, had kept them asunder. With respect to the origin of buds, two different opinions have been entertained by botanists. Pontedera a very learned Italian botanist, imagined, that the buds derive their origin from the ligneous, or woody fibrillae. This opinion has not, so far as I know, been adopted by any succeeding naturalist. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 105 It is much more probable, that the buds derive their origin from the medulla, or pith of the vegetable. It is certain, that the pith is essentially necessary to the exist- ence and growth of the buds. But this subject will come more naturally to be treated of, when examining the ana- tomical structure of vegetables*. As every vegetable-bud contains the primordium, or embryon of a plant, and if separated from its parent, and nurtured with care, would produce a plant specifi- cally the same as the supporting stock, we are led to re- flect upon the unbounded fertility of Nature, who seems to have taken delight in forming (I would say to the ex- tent of her power, if to the power of Nature there were any limits), living, organized existences. Linnasus has made a calculation, by which it appears, that ten thou- sand buds, or, in other words, ten thousand herbs, may be produced from a single trunk, not exceeding a span in diameter. What an infinity of plants, then, might be raised from some of the most stupendous trees, such as the Adansonia of Africa, or the Liriodendron, Platanus, and others of North-America! But the fertility of nature, in the formation of buds, is infinitely greater than even philosophers themselves have, in general, imagined. Millions of buds lie latent in the tree, and never meet the light of the day. The embryon punctum is not evolved into notice, from a deficiency of those stimulating agents, which, if they be not the sole cause of life, are, at least, essentially necessary to bring the phenomena of life into view. In treating of the seed, I shall hint at the compara- tive fertility of the vegetable and animal kingdoms. * See Part II P 106 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Section III. OF THE FRUCTIFICATION. We now enter upon the consideration of the third great general division of the vegetable, which is named the Fructificatio*, or Fructification. This is beautifully defined by Linnaeus, to be a " temporary " part of vegetables, dedicated to the business of gene- " ration, terminating the existence of the old, and begin- ning the era of the new, vegetablef." The essence of the fructification consists in the flow- er and the fruit. These two parts, according to the Sex- ualists (or those who admit of the existence of two dis- tinct sexes in vegetables), are connected in the same manner, as generation and birth are connected together in animals. For although the fruit does not swell and come to perfection, until after the flower has decayed, or fallen, it seems to be sufficiently established as a fact, by the experiments of many learned men, that the pri- mordia, or earliest rudiments, of the fruit, pre-exist in the flower. But this subject will be particularly attended to, in a future part of this work. When perfect, the fructification consists of the fol- lowing seven parts: viz. 1. the Calyx. 2. the Corolla. 3. the Stamen. 4. the Pistillum. 5.the Pericarpium. 6. the Semen. 7. the Receptaculum. Of these, the four * Fructificatio, from Fructus, fruit, zndfacio, to make. f " Fructificatio Vegetabilium pars temporaria, Generationi dicata, anti- quum terminans, novum incipiens." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 52. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 107 first belong to the flower,properly so called; the two next to the fruit, and the last is common to both. I I. I begin with the Calyx*. This is defined by Lin- naeus the " outer bark of the plant, present in the fruc- tification." The calyx is frequendy denominated, by English writers on botany, the empalement and flow- er-cup. It seems more proper, however, to adopt the Latin word; since the word flower-cup, if used, ought certainly to be restricted entirely to one particular species of calyx, the perianthium, or perianth; whereas the term calyx is a generic phrase, comprehending, as we shall presently see, various parts, very distinct in their appearances, and perhaps, in their office. Linn-eus enumerates seven different kinds of ca- lyx: viz. 1. the Perianthium. 2. the Involucrum. 3. the Amentum. 4. the Spatha. 5. the Gluma. 6. the Calyptra: and 7. the Volva. 1. The Perianthiumf, or Perianth, is the most com- mon species of calyx. It is placed most contiguous to the fructification; or, in other words, immediately under the flower, which, in many plants, is contained in the perianth, as in a cup. On this account, this species of calyx has been denominated the flower-cup. It is also called the Empalement. * Calyx, from xx\v\, and originally from k*A»t1*, to cover: not, as some writers have supposed, from r.etXi.%, a cup. t Perianthium, from -xt^t, around; and «»£»?, a flower. 108 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Various species of perianthium are enumerated by Linnaeus. Of these it is necessary that I should take particular notice. A. The Perianthium fructificationis, or perianth of the fructification, includes both the stamens and the germ; that is, the male and female organs of generation. This is the most common species of perianth. It is ex- emplified in Nicotiana, and various other plants, which are figured in these Elements. B. The Perianthium fioris, or perianth of the flower, contains the stamens, but not the germ. This species of perianth is exemplified in Epilobium, Gau- ra*, and all those other vegetables which have the germ, or seed-bud, placed below the receptacle of the flower. C. The Perianthium fructus, or perianth of the fruit, contains the germ, but not the stamens. This is exemplified in the females of many of the plants of the two classes Monoecia and Dioeciaf. Linn.zea, Clove-tree, Morina, and several other ve- getables, have two perianths, which very well illustrate the two last mentioned terms. In these vegetables, one of the perianths is appropriated to the flower, whilst the other belongs to the fruit. a. With respect to the number of the leaves, or pieces, of which it is composed, the perianth has re- ceived the following names: viz. 1. perianthium mono- " See Plate XVI. Fig. 2. \ See Plate XX1X. Fig 2. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 109 phyllum; a one-leafed perianth, composed of only one leaf; as in Tobacco, Thorn-Apple, Primrose, and many other plants. 2. perianthium diphyllum, a two-leaved perianth, consisting of two leaves; as in the Poppy, Claytonia, Fumatory. 3. perianthium triphyllum, a three-leaved perianth; consisting of three leaves, as in Dock, Magnolia, Tulip-tree, Annona, or Papaw, Po- dophyllum peltatum, or May-apple, &c. 4. perianthi- um tetraphyllum, a four-leaved perianth, consisting of four leaves; as in Water-Lily, Heath, the plants of the class Tetradynamia. 5. perianthium pentaphyHum, a five-leaved perianth, consisting of five leaves; as in Ra- nunculus, Glass-wort, Beet, Flax, and a great number of those plants the flowers of which have more than one petal. 6. petianthium hexaphyllum, a six-leaved peri- anth, consisting of six leaves; as in Lions-leaf, Berberry, Hillia parasitica, &c. 7. perianthium heptaphyllum, a seven-leaved perianth; consisting of seven leaves; as in Trientalis, or Winter-green. 8. perianthium octophyl- tum, an eight-leaved perianth, consisting of eight leaves, as in Mimusops, and Diapensia. 9. perianthium deca- phyllum, a ten-leaved perianth; consisting of ten leaves; as in Galax. 10. perianthium polyphyllumy a many- leaved perianth; consisting of many leaves, or more than ten. b. A ONE-Ieaved perianth is either, 1. integrum, en- tire; that is undivided, as in Genipa and Olax. 2. bifi- dum, two-cleft; cut into two segments or divisions, as in Tuberous Moschatel, Purslane, &c. 3. trifidum, three-cleft; cut into three segments, or divisions; as in Hermannia and Cliffortia. 4. tetrafidum, four-cleft; cut into four segments or divisions; as in Galium, and Elephant's head. 5. quinquefidum, quinquefid, or five- 110 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. cleft; as in Tobacco, and the greater number of flowers that are furnished with a calyx of one leaf. 6. sexfidum, six-cleft, or cut into six segments; as in Ginora ame- ricana. 7. octofidum, eight-cleft; as in Tormentil. 8. decemfidum, ten-cleft; as in Cinquefoil, and Herb-Ben- net: and, 9. duodecemfidum, twelve-cleft; as in Purple Loosestrife, and Water-Purslane. c. In respect to figure, a perianth is either, 1. tubu- losum, tubular; or running in the form of a tube. 2. pa- tens, spreading. 3. reflexum, reflex, or bent back; as in Asclepias, and Leontodon. 4. infiatum, inflated, hol- low, or puffed up like a bladder; as in Physalis, called Ground-Cherry. 5. globosum, globose, or globular. 6. clavatum, club-shaped; as in Silene. 7. erectum, erect or upright. d. In regard to the proportion which it bears to the corolla, the perianth is, 1. abbreviatum, abbreviated, or shorter than the tube of the corolla; as in Tobacco*, and most other plants. 2. longum, long; longer than the tube of the corolla. 3. mediocre, middle-sized; about the length of the tube of the corolla. e. At its top, the perianth is, 1. obtusum, obtuse. 2. acutum, acute. 3. spinosum, spinous or thorny. 4. aculeatum, prickly. 5. acuminatum, acuminate. /. The perianth is, 1. aquale, equal, having all the segments of the same size. 2. inaquale, unequal; when some of the segments are smaller than others. 3. labia- turn, lipped; when the segments are irregular, and formed into two lips. * See Plate XI. Fig. 1. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 111 g. The perianth, with respect to its margin, is, 1. integerrimum, very entire. 2. serratum, serrated. 3. ciliatum, ciliate. h. The perianth has received a variety of names, according to its surface. But these names have already been explained, in treating of the terminology of leaves*. i. The situation of the perianth, with respect to the germen, is, 1. superum, superior; when the germen is under the lower part of the perianth. 2. inferum, in- ferior; when the germ is above the base of the perianth. k. In respect to its duration, the perianth is either, 1. caducum, caducous, or falling off before the complete opening of the flower; as in the Poppy and the Barren- wort. 2. deciduum, deciduous, or falling off with the flower, that is the petals, the stamens, and the style; as in Berberry and the Cross-shaped flowers. 3. persistens, permanent; or continuing until the fruit has attained to maturity; as in the lip and masqued flowers, and several others. /. 1. In respect to its composition, the calyx sometimes consists of a number of leaves, which are laid over each other, like tiles, or scales. This is the perianthium im- bricatum, or imbricate calyx. Hawk-weed, Sow-This- tle, and many other Syngenesious plants, furnish us with beautiful instances of this species ofcalyxf. 2. Some- times, the scales of the calyx spread wide, and are diffu- • See pages 33, 34. f See the Plate of Silphium terebinthinaceum. 112 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. sed on all sides, and not closely laid over each other, as in the preceding species. This last is the.perianthium squarrosum, or squarrose calyx; of which we have ex- amples in Thistle,* Onopordum, Conyza, &c*. 3. In some plants, as in the Pink, Coreopsis, and others, the base of the calyx, which is simple, is surrounded, exter- nally, by a series of distinct leaves, which are shorter than its own. To this species of calyx, Linnaeus has given the name of calyx auctus, and Vaillant, calyx ca- lyculatus, an increased calyx, caliculate, or calycled calyx. 4. The perianthium scariosum, or scariose peri- anth, is a species of calyx, which is tough, thin and se- mi-transparent; as in Statice Armeria,or Thrift, Centau- rea glastifolia, &c. 5. The perianthium turbinatum, tur- binate, or top-shaped perianth, is inversely conical, and shaped like a boy's top, or a pear. The Grislea secunda and Memecylon capitellatum exhibit instances of this species of perianth. m. The perianthium is either, 1. proprium, proptr, that is belonging to one flower; or, 2. commune, com- mon, belonging to several flowers, collected together. n. Some flowers, such as the Amaryllis, the Tulip, the Lily f, and many others of the liliaceous plants; also the MedeolaJ, are said to be destitute of the perianth. But I shall afterwards have occasion to observe, that what the Swedish naturalist names, in these flowers, the corolla is deemed the calyx, by some other eminent botanists. * See the Plate of Heliartthus divaricatus t See Plate XIII. Fig. 2. \ See Plate XIV. \ ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 113 In the greater number of plants, the perianth is sin- gle. In Morina, Sarracenia* and some of the plants of the Mallow-family, as Althaea, Alcea, Malva, Lavatera, Gossypium, Hibiscus, &c. it is double. Several circumstances relative to the perianth are necessarily delayed,until I shall have entered on the con- sideration of the corolla. Of the real and supposed uses of the perianth, I shall treat, after having finished the history of the various species of calyx. I have already mentioned the marks, or characters, by which the peri- anth may be distinguished from the bractef. 2. The second species of calyx, which I have men- tioned, is the Involucrum\. This is called by Dr. Mar- tyn, Involucre. It is chiefly restricted by Linnaeus to the umbelliferous flowers, and is defined, by this writer, a calyx remote from the flower**. This species of calyx is placed below the common receptacle, which, in the umbelliferous plants, is a num- ber of footstalks, which all proceed from one common point or centre, and rise to the same height. Each of the footstalks is terminated by an umbel, which is similar, in its form and structure, to the large umbel, and is com- monly, like it, furnished with an involucre. When a ca- lyx of this kind is placed under the universal umbel, it is called, by Linnaeus, involucrum universale, an univer- sal involucre. When it is placed under the smaller or * See Plate I. t See pages 78,79. \ Involucrum, from involvo, to wrap up. ** " Calyx Umbellas a flore remotus." 114 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. partial umbel, it is denominated involucrum partiale, a partial involucre. This is sometimes termed, involu- cellum, or involucret. Dr Withering calls it the Par- tial Fence. In most of the umbelliferous flowers, such as the Hemlock, Fennel, Anise, and in other plants, not strict- ly umbelliferous, as the Cornus florida, or Dogwood, and other species of this genus, there is, besides the two involucres, a proper perianth, which is situated under each of the florets, or smaller flowers, of which the umbel is composed. The involucre is composed of one or more leaves. When composed of one, it is denominated involucrum monophyllum, a one-leafed involucre, as in Bupleurum: when of two leaves, involucrum diphyllum, a two-leafed involucre, as in Euphorbia: when of three, involucrum triphyllum, as in Butomus and Alisma: when of four, involucrum tetraphyllum; as in Cornus: when of five, involucrum pentaphyllum; as in Daucus; and when of six, involucrum hexaphyllum; as in Haemanthus. The partial involucre, or involucret, consists either of two leaves, as in Artedia; of five, as in Hare's ear; or of many, as in Bishop's-weed, and Fennel-Giant. The involucrum dimidiatum, dimidiate, or half- leaved involucre, is an involucre which is deficient on one side; as in iEthusa, or Fools Parsley. It is difficult to say, in what very essential circum- stance the involucre of those plants which are not um- belliferous, such as Cornus, or Dogwood, some sprries ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 115 of Anemone, &c. differs from the bractea, or bracte. It would seem, indeed, that Linnaeus's principal reason for separating the involucre from the bracte was this, that he might make use of the former part in drawing his generic characters of the umbelliferae. 3. The Amentum*, or Ament, called also Catkin, is a species of calyx, which consists of a great number of chaffy scales, that are dispersed along a slender thread, or receptacle. On account of its supposed resemblance to a cat's tail (though it bears as close a resemblance to the tails of many other animals as to that of the cat), it has received one of its English names, viz. catkin. The French call it Chaton; and many botanists have de- nominated it Catulus. The term amentum was used by the great Tournefort, before it was employed by Lin- naeus. The term is perfectly synonimous to the terms julus and nucamentum, which are employed by some botanists. Linnaeus defines the ament to be a composition of a calyx, and a common receptacle. The squamae, or scales, which form this species of calyx, are mixed al- ternately with the flowers, and resemble the chaff in an ear of cornf. The ament occurs very frequently in the xxist and xxi id classes of the Sexual System, the classes Monoe- cia and Dioecia, the particular characters of which are * The term amentum, as used by the Roman writers, signifies a thong, a loop, a strap, or lash, to hold a sling, spear, or javelin by. t For a fine representation cf the ament, see the figure of Betula populifolia, in this work. 116 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. afterwards to be explained*. In this place, however, it is proper to observe, that in the first mentioned class, the ament supports both male and female flowers, on the same root, or individual. This is the case in the Horn- beam, Walnuts, and Hickeries, Chesnut, Chinquepin, and many others. In the class Dioecia, the ament sup- ports male and female flowers, on distinct roots, or indi- viduals. This is the case in the Willows, Poplars, and many others. It not unfrequently happens, that in plants of the class Monoecia, the male and female flowers are mixed together, or situated very close to each other; whilst in other plants, they are situated at a considerable dis- tance from each other; but, in both instances, upon the same root, or individual. In the latter case,the ament frequently supports flow- ers of one sex, and a calyx of the perianth-kind supports those of another sex. Thus, in the Corylus, or Hazle, the male and female flowers are placed remote from each other, upon the same root, or individual. The male flowers form an ament, whilst the females are inclosed in a perianth. In the class Dioecia, there are some plants, such as Pistachia-nut, Juniper-tree, and Ephedra, or Shrubby Horse-tail, the male flowers of which are formed into an ament; whilst the female flowers are surrounded with a perianth. In general, those flowers, whether they be male, or female, or both, which are supported by an ament, are • See Part III. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 117 destitute of the petals, or painted leaves. The Oak, the Beech, the Hazel, the Cypress, the Pistachia-nut, and several others, are illustrative of this observation. 4. The Spatha*, or Spathe, is a particular species of calyx, which opens, or bursts longitudinally, in form of a sheath, and produces a stem which supports one or more flowers. The spatha consists either of one piece, as in the Narcissus, Snow-Drop, and the greater number of plants that are furnished with this species of calyx. 2. of two pieces, as in the Stratiotes, or Water-soldier; or, 3. of a number of scales, which are laid over each dther like tiles; as in Musa, or Plantain-tree. The first species of spathe is called by Linnaeus, spatha univalvis, a one valved spatha; the second, spatha bivalvis, a two- valved spathe; and the last, spatha imbricata, an im- bricate spathe. The spatha dimidiata, or halved spathe, is a spathe which invests the fructification only on the inner side. According to the number of flowers, which it pro- duces, the spathe has received different names, such as 1. spatha uniflora, a one-flowered spathe. 2. spatha bi- flora, a two-flowered spathe. 3. spatha multifiora, a many-flowered spathe. Linnaeus, in his Fragments of a Natural Method, has established an order of plants, to which he has given * Spatha, in the Latin language, has various significations, such as a two- handed, or bastard sword, a spatula, the branch of a Palm-tree, &c. &c. 118 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. the name of Spathacea. This order embraces a number of very fine vegetables, some of which have already been mentioned, in a former part of this work*. I shall here give the list of all the genera that were known to Lin- naeus. They are all furnished with that particular spe- cies of calyx which I have been considering. Allium, Amaryllis, Bulbocodium, Colchicum, Crinum, Galan- thus, Gethyllis, Haemanthus, Leucojum, Tulbagia, Narcissus, Pancratium. The Massonia of Thunberg, the Cyrtanthus of the younger Linnaeus, and the Aga- panthus of L'Heritier, also belong to this order. Of some of these plants, I shall take further notice in speaking of the plants of the class Hexandriaf. At least three of the genera, viz. Allium, Amaryllis, and Pancratium, are indigenous to the United-States. 5. The GlumaJ, or Glume, is a species of calyx re- stricted to the gramina, or grasses. It is formed of valves, and embraces the seed. This species of calyx, which is also called the Husk or Chaff, is frequently ter- minated by a stiff-pointed prickle, called the awn, or beard. a. The glume has received different names, according to the number of flowers which it supports: such as, 1. gluma uniflora, a one-flowered glume. 2. gluma bi- flora, a two-flowered glume. 3. gluma trifiora, a three- flowered glume. 4. gluma multifiora,* many-flowered glume. * See page 13. t See Part ill. | Gluma, fromglubo, to bark, or take the bark from a tree ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 119 b. Various appellations have also been given to the glume, according to the number of its valves: viz. 1. gluma univalvis, an univalvular, or one-valved glume. 2. gluma bivalvis, or bivalvular glume; consisting of two scales. This is the most common species of glume. 3. gluma multivalvis, a multivalve, or many-valved glume; having more than two scales, or valves. c. The glume is, 1. color at a, coloured; of any co- lour but green, which is the general colour of this spe- cies of calyx. 2. glabra, smooth. 3. hispida, hispid; shaggy or rough with hairs. d. The glume is either, 1. aristata, awned; having an awn. 2. mutica, awnless; blunt, or without any point at the end. The Arista, or awn, is a slender and sharp process, which issues from the glume of many grasses. In En- glish, this part is commonly called the Beard. But this latter term ought not to be applied to the awn, since it is systematically appropriated to a particular species of pubescence*. To the awn, as well as to the glume itself, various names have been applied, such as the following: viz. 1. terminalis, terminating, fixed to the top of the glume. 2. dorsalis, dorsal; placed on the back, or outside of the glume. 3. recta, straight; issuing from the glume in a perpendicular direction. 4. tortilis, twisted, or coiled like a rope. 5. recurvata, recurved; or bent back; and, 6. geniculata, geniculate; or bent like the knee-joint. • See page 8S 120 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Plants that are furnished with the species of stem which we have called the culm*, and with the glume, in place of a calyx, are known among botanists by the name of Plant a Culmifera, or Culmiferous plants. By Linnaeus they are denominated Gramina, or grasses. Wachendorff calls them Glumosa. The greater num- ber of these grasses are furnished with hermaphodite flowers, and belong to the third class of the Sexual Sys- tem. Some important species belong to the other clas- ses, particularly to the sixth class, where we find the Oryza, or Rice; and to the twenty-first class, to which belongs the Zea Mays, or Indian-corn, &c. Some spe- cies belong to the twenty-third class. Haller and Scheuchzer affirm, that in many of the grasses, they have found but two stamens. This is denied by Linnaeus. But the authority of Haller ought not to be questioned. Linn^us, perhaps without the best foundation, considered the grasses as the most simple of all plants, in regard to their structure. He has also observed, that very few of these vegetables have any taste; that many of them are insipid, like the 01era,or pot-herbs; that a very small proportion are fragrant; and that none of them arc poisonous!- Many of the grasses, however, have a very agree- able sweetish taste; some of them possess an astringent quality; and in this very interesting class, there are some very fragrant plants, such, not to mention others, as the Seneca-grass of the United-States. This has a most agreeable smell, very similar to that of the pod of the * See page 24—26. \ Horti Ultrajectani Index. 1747- \ Prxlectiones in Ordines Naturales Plantarum. p. 137. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Vanilla. It is much esteemed by the Senecas, and other Indian tribes. From the Senecas, it receives its name. That none of the grasses are poisonous, is not con- sonant to the observations of other botanists. The Lo- lium temulentum, or Darnel, is commonly esteemed a noxious species of grass. This is the plant which Virgil, in the following lines, calls infelix, or unhappy. " Prima Ceres ferro mortales vertere terram " Instituit: cum jam glandes atque arbuta sacns " Deficerent sylvae, et victum Dodona negaret. " Mox et frumentis labor additus : ut mala culmos " Esset robigo, segnisque horreret in arvis " Carduus: intereunt segetes: subit aspera sylva, " Lappaeque tribulique : interque nitentia culta " Infelix Lolium, et steriles dominantur avense." Georgic. Lib. I. 1. 147—154. " First pitying Ceres taught the famish'd swain " With iron shares to turn the stubborn plain, " What time the arbute fail'd, and fail'd the food " Shower'd from the oak along Dodona's wood. " New cares the corn pursu'd: here mildew fed, " There thistles rear'd aloft their horrent head: " The harvest perishes; with prickles crown'd, " The bur and caltrop bristle all around: " Their baleful growth wild-oats and Darnel rear, " And tow'r in triumph o'er the golden earl" SOTHEBY. The Darnel is, unquestionably, a noxious plant. Actual experiments, however, seem to show, that it is much less poisonous than has been generally imagi. ned. Manetti* observes, that this grain may be eaten, • Delle specie divcne di frumento e di pane, Stc. &c. Firenze : 1765. R 122 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. with impunity, provided there be mixed with its meal, a larger proportion of the meal of other cerealia, or grains; and the compound mass be subjected to a second, but gentler, baking; care,atthe same time, being taken, not to eat the bread too warm. He applies the same obser- vations to the Bromus secalinus, or Field Brome-grass* Upon the whole, the grasses constitute one of the most natural families of plants with which we are ac- quainted. It will be a happy era in Botany (the era is, unquestionably, remote), when the labours of learned men shall have disposed of all, or the greater number of plants, into classes or orders as unexceptionable, and as agreeable to the scheme of Nature^ as is the order of Gramina. 6. The Calyptra*, or Calyptre, is said to be the ca- lyx of the mosses, covering the anther, or male organ, of this family of vegetables, like a hood, monks' cawl, or extinguisher. But, the calyptre cannot, I think, be considered as a real calyx. It is, moreover, to be ob- served, that the part, which Linnaeus calls the anther of the mosses, is known to be the capsule, or pericarp, of these vegetables. The calyptre is either, 1. recta, straight; equal on every side; or, 2. obliqua, oblique, bent on one sidef. 7. The Volva, or Ruffle J, as Dr. Withering calls itr is defined to be the membranaceous calyx of a fungus * Calyptra, from %#>>.V7rlti, to cover. + See Plate XXX. t See P1ate XXX. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 123 plant. It is also called the Curtain. This ought not to be considered as a species of calyx, and is, to all appear- ance, a part of very little consequence in the vegetable economy. The volva is said to be, 1. approximata, approxi- mating; when it is placed upon the stem of the fungus, near the cap. 2. remota, remote; when it is at a distance from the cap. In order to convey to the reader some idea of the re- lative proportion that obtains, in respect of number, be- tween the several species of calyx which I have enume- rated, it will not be amiss to notice the following obser- vations, by Dr. Alston, of Edinburgh. In the year 1753, that learned, but acrimonious opposer of the Sexual System of Linnaeus, published his Tyrocinium Botani- cum. At this period, the Genera Plantarum of Lin- naeus, contained only 1021 genera, or families of plants. Of these, according to the professor, 673 have for their calyx a perianth: 72, a spathe: 75, an involucre: 29, a glume: 18 an ament: and, 3, a calyptre. Of the volva, or ruffle, Alston has taken no notice; nor ought he to be blamed for the omission: for this imaginary calyx is never once named by Linnaeus, in drawing the charac- ters of the genera of Fungous plants, which were, at that time enumerated, in the Genera Plantarum. Dr. Alston also remarked, that about 110 genera were entirely des- titute of the calyx; that 25 have both a perianth and an involucre; and a few both a perianth and a spathe. Since the time of Alston, the accessions to Botany have been immense. But I have not leisure to pursue the subject of the relative proportion of the different spe- 124 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. cies of calyx, in the many thousand species of plants that are now known. I shall only observe, in this place,that within the last twenty or thirty years, Botany has been enriched with a very great proportion of plants, that are furnished with two of the species of calyx ; I mean the glume and the calyptre. In his attempt to establish the analogy between the animaland the vegetable kingdoms, Linnaeus has desig- nated the calyx by the name of thalamus floris, or the conjugal bed*. But this poetical language seems but ill adapted to the grave dignity of science. I may add, that the Swedish naturalist would have used a less exception- able phrase, had he considered the perianth merely, as the conjugal bed. With no manner of propriety can this term be extended to the spatha, the volva, and calyptra. Dr. Grew has observed, that the design of the em- palement, or perianth, is to enclose, secure, and support the other parts of the flower; to be their security before its opening, by intercepting all extremities of weather; and afterwards to be their support, by containing all the parts in their due, and most graceful posture. Hence, continues this celebrated vegetable physiologist, we have the reason why the calyx is frequently various, and sometimes wanting. Some flowers have none, as Tulips; because having a fat and firm leaf, or petal, and each leaf likewise standing upon a broad and strong basis, they are thus sufficient to themselves. Carnations, on the con- trary, have not only an c mpalement, but that, for greater support, of one leaf: for, otherwise, the foot of each leaf * " Calyx er;*o est Thalamus, Corolla. Aukum," &c. Philosophia Bota- nica, he. p. 92 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 125 or petal, being very long and slender, most of them would be apt to break out of compass. In the same flow- er, the top of the empalement is indented, that the in- dentments may protect the petals; by being lapped over them before their expansion, and afterwards may sup- port and prop them up, by being spread under them*. There can, perhaps, be little doubt, that the calyx, or more specifically speaking, the perianth, is of essen- tial use, as Dr. Grew asserts, in giving security or pro- tection to the petals, and other parts of the flower. In many plants, the calyx likewise serves the office of a pe- ricarp, or seed-vessel; as in the plants of the order Gym- nospermia, in the class Didynamia. But these, I am inclined to think, cannot be the only uses of the perianth. It is probable, that this part is concerned in the great business of vegetable respiration. This opinion, which has been suggested by some ingenious writers, will ap- pear more probable from the view which will afterwards be given of the uses of the corolla, and the near relations of this part of the fructification to the perianth. With respect to the involucrum, I have already hinted at the affinity which this species of calyx bears to the bractef. There seems to be as good reason to consider the invo- lucre of many plants, a pulmonary system, as to consi- der the bracte in this lightj. Of Linnaeus's opinion concerning the origin of the calyx, viz. that it is a continuation of the cortex, or outer bark, of the vegetable, I shall take more particular notice afterwards. * Grew, as quoted by Milne. f See pn^e* 111, 115. } See page 80—82. 126 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 4- II- The Corolla*, which some English writers have de- nominated the Corol, is the second of the seven parts of fructification already enumerated. Linnaeus defines it " the liber or inner bark of the plant present in the fruc- tificationf." I shall afterwards examine the propriety of this anatomical definition. Some writers have translated the term corolla by Blossom. But Dr. Martyn has observed, that"■ blossom " has a more contracted signification in English, being " usually applied to the flowers of fruit-trees." I may add, that in the United-States, the term blossom, though it is by no means exclusively restricted to the flowers of fruit-trees, is generally employed to denote the whole of the flower, including the calyx (at least the perianth), the corolla properly so called, and the male and female organs. The petals of the corolla are frequently called, both in common language, and in the writings of poets and philosophers, " the leaves of the flower." Thus Thomp- son calls the petals of the Helianthus, or Sun-flower, *' yellow leaves." " and all yonder stars innume- " rable, with their dependencies, says an ami- able philosopher^, may perhaps compose but the LEAF OF A FLOWER'IN THE CREATOR'S GARDEN." * Corolla, in the Latin, literally signifies, a little crown, or garland; a chaplet, a coronet. f Liber plant«e in Flore pra:sens." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 52» | The late Mr. David Rittenhouse. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 127 But this language is not sufficiently precise and spe- cific for the purpose of science. To avoid all ambiguity, I shall retain, without any alteration, the Latin word Co- rolla, which ought, I think, to be preferred to Dr. Dar- win's word Corol. The segments of the Corolla, I shall continue to call Petals. The corolla, according to Linnaeus, consists of two parts, viz. the Petalum, or Petal, and the Nectarium, or Nectary. The last, however, is not always a part of the corolla; and, therefore, at present, I shall take no further notice of it. It is said, that, in general, the corolla may be distin- guished from the perianth, by the fineness of its texture, and the gayness of its colours; the perianth, or calyx, being usually rougher, and thicker, and of a green co- lour. But to this rule there are many exceptions. Thus, in Bartsia*, the perianth is coloured, even more so than the corolla. The perianth of Fuschia coccinea is a bright scarlet: the corolla, indigo coloured. The perianth of Dombeya lappaceaf, before the opening of the flower, is of a crimson colour. It afterwards becomes green. The corolla is of a brownish-violet colour. Moreover, the corolla of Daphne Laureola is green. The calyx is painted. The perianth and the corolla of Bignonia ra- dicans (Trumpet-flower), are both of the same colour. It is necessary, then, to have recourse to other marks, by which these two parts of the fructification may be accu- rately discriminated from each other. ' See Plate IV. f See a figure and description of this plant, in the Stirpes Mama of L'Heritier Fa«\ II. p. 33. 34. pi. xvn. 128 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Linn^us makes the distinction between the corolla and the perianth to consist in this circumstance, that the former has its segments, or petals, disposed alter- nately with the stamens; whereas the perianth has its parts, or leaflets, arranged opposite to the stamens. " This rule, says Dr. Milne, " determines with preci- " sion, in such flowers as want either the calix,or petals. " Thus, in Pellitory, Wild Orach, and Nettle, one of the " two covers is wanting. Which is it? Am I to infer " that the single cover present is the corolla, because the " finer and more principal part? Nothing would be more " erroneous than such an inference; many flowers, as " Water-Purslane, Ruellia, and Bell-flower, which ge- " nerally have both covers, are found occasionally to " lose the petals, but never the calix. How then, am I " to proceed? Apply the rule mentioned above. I do so, " and finding the divisions of the only cover that is pre- " sent, to stand opposite to the stamina, I conclude that " cover to be the calix. " That the rule just mentioned, is founded in the u natural situation of the parts in question, will appear, " by examining any number of complete flowers in the " fourth and fifth classes of Linnaeus's Sexual Method. " In the former of these classes, the number four, in " the other, the number five, is* predominant; and, as " both covers are present, the opposition and alterna- " tion alluded to, becomes distinctly visible*." Notwithstanding what has been said, there is, on many occasions, a great difficulty in distinguishing * Milne's Botanical Dictionary. &c. art. Corolla. See, also, Philosophia Bo- tanica, &c. p. 57, 58. $. 90. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 129 the corolla from the perianth. Linnaeus himself con- fesses, that Nature does not seem to have placed any absolute limits between the calyx and the corolla*. This, I think, must be admitted as a well-founded po- sition; especially if it be not true, that the calyx is exclu- sively derived from the outer, and the corolla from the inner, bark. The learned Mr. A. L. De Jussieu, defines the co- rolla to be that cover of the flower, " which is surround- " ed by the calyx, or very rarely naked; is a continu- " ation of the liber, or inner bark, and not of the cor- " tex or outer bark, of the peduncle; is not permanent, " but commonly falls oft'with the stamens; which in- " volves or crowns the fruit, but never grows fast to it; " and which almost always has its segments, or divisions, " ranged alternately with the stamens." From this view of the subject, the painted petals of the Narcissus are regarded by Jussieu, as a true perianth; as, indeed, Tournefortf had taught a long time ago; and by the same rule, the Hyacinth, and other liliaceous plants very near- ly allied to the Narcissus, are furnished with a perianth, but are destitute of the corollaf. Mr.Adanson^ botanist of great learning, has also observed, that in the liliaceous plants, what is called by Linnaeus the corolla, is, in reality, a perianth, according to the very principles of the Swedish naturalist. * " Limites inter Calycem & Corollam absolutos, naturam non posuisse; •• patet ex Dapbnide, ubi connata ambo, & margine omnino unita, veluti folium Buxi." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 58. §. 90. t Isagoge in Rem Herbariam. p. 72. | Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita, &c. Introductio. p. xiii. Parisiis : 1789. S 130 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. LinnjEus has not only acknowledged the difficulty of distinguishing the calyx from the corolla, but in his different works, he has confounded these two parts with each other. Thus, in his Genera Plantarum, that part which he names the corolla of Rhamnus, he denominates the calyx in the Systema Vegetabilium. Again, in his Genera, he calls the cover of Polygonum a calyx, or pe- rianth; but in the Systema Vegetabilium, he calls it the corolla. Other instances, of a like kind, might be point- ed out. I may add, that Linnaeus calls the cover of Phy- tolacca*, the corolla. But this cover is, unquestionably, a calyx, if any regard be due to the Linnaean rule of the relative disposition of the stamens, and the parts of the cover. Sensible of the great difficulty which not unfre- quently occurs in distinguishing the corolla from the calyx, the late learned Nat. Jos. De Necker, has calledf both the corolla and the calyx by one name, viz. Peri- gynanda%, a name derived from the Greek, and signifies the envelope, the cover, or wrapper of the stamens, and the pistils. Our author distinguishes the perigynanda, when there are two covers, into the outer and the inner. The inner ansAvers to the corolla, and the outer to the calyx of Linnaeus. Hedwig, who is generally supposed to have dispro- ved the ideas of Linnaeus, concerning the origin of the calyx and corolla, from the outer and the inner bark of * See Plate XVII. Fig. 4. A. B. \ In his Corollarium ad Philosophiam Botanicam Linnxi spectans, &c. &c. in his Phytozoologie Philosophique, &c. and other works. | Perigynanda, from nift, around, ywm, a woman, and #*nf a man. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 131 the stem, denotes both the calyx and the corolla, by the name of Perigonium*. When there are two coverings (the calyx and corolla of Linnaeus), he designates one by the name of the /w^r/ztf/perigonium, and the other by the name of the external perigonium. When there are three covers, as is the case in Morina, several malvace- ous plants, &c. he calls the third one, the intermediate perigonium. I have said, that "the corolla, according to Lin- " naeus, consists of two parts, viz. the Petalum, or Pe- " tal, and the Nectarium, or Nectary." The petal constitutes the principal part of the co- rolla. It surrounds both the stamens and the pistils, or the male and female organs of generation. It consists of one or more pieces. According to the number of its petals, the corolla has received the following names. 1. corolla monopetala, one-petalled, or monopetalous, consisting of only one petal; as in Convolvulusf, Tobaccof, and many others. 2. corolla dipetala, dipetalous, or two-petalled; as in Commelina**, Circaea, and others. 3. corolla tripe- tala, three-petalled; consisting of three distinct petals; as in Sagittariaff, Alisma, &c. 4. corolla tetrapetala, tetrapetalous, or four-petalled; as in the plants of the class Tetradynamia. 5. corolla pentapetala, or five- petalled; consisting of five distinct petals; as in Marsh- * Perigonium, from vigt, about, and yevsy, seed. f See Plate XI. Fig. 3. % See Plate XI. Fig. 1. ** See Plate X. Fig. 1. ft See Plate XVIII. 152 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Marygold, the Umbellata, he. 6. corolla hexapcta- la, hexapetalous; or six-petalled; consisting of six petals; as in Lily, Tulip, Amaryllis, Pancratium, &c. 7. corolla polypetala, polypetalous, consisting of many petals. (This term is sometimes used by Linnaeus, in opposition to the term monopetalous. By many writers, it has been put for a corolla of more than six petals). Of the polypetalous plants, some have nine petals, as the Liriodendron; and some an indefinite number, as Wa- ter-Lily, and Globe-Ranunculus. When the corolla consists of only one piece, as in the monopetalous corolla, the whole corolla, in the Lin- naean sense of the word, is a petal. A flower which has no petals, or corolla, is termed by the botanists, apetalus, or apetalusfios, an apetalous flower. This term was adopted by Linnaeus, from Tour- nefort. It is equivalent to the term imperfectus, or im- perfect, of Rivinus, Knaut, and Pontedera: the term stamineus of Ray; the incompletus of Vaillant; and the capillaceus of some other botanists. The existence of apetalous flowers has been denied by Christian Knaut J. But we well know, that there are not a few vegetables whose flowers are entirely destitute of the petals. If the notions of Mr. Jussieu and some other botanists, concerning the calyx and the corolla, be admitted as just, it must then be granted, that very many plants, and some of them the most beautiful with which we are acquainted, are strictly, apetalous. \ In his Methodus Plan'arum gennina. Hallae: 1716. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 133 The number of petals of which a corolla consists is determined from the base of the corolla. The rule of Rivinus is to reckon as many petals, as the parts into which the flower, when it falls, resolves itself. This cri- terion will, in most instances, be found very exact. But, in some instances, it is found to be insufficient for our purpose. For the corolla of the Vaccinium Oxycoccos, or Cranberry, is unquestionably, only one-petalled; but this flower, upon falling, resolves itself into four distinct leaves. From the difficulty that occurs, in some instan- ces of determining, whether a corolla consists of one or more petals, we find that Tournefort reckons the corolla of the Mallow-tribe of plants, monopetalous; whilst Linnaeus considers it as pentapetalous. a. Different names are assigned to different parts of the corolla. Such are the following. 1. The tubus, or tube, is the lower part of amonopetalous corolla; as in To- bacco, &c. 2. The unguis, or claw, is the lower part of a many-petalled corolla, by which it is fixed to the recep- tacle; as in Lily, &x. 3. The limbus, or limb, is the border, or upper dilated part, of a monopetalous corolla. 4. The lamina, or border, the upper, spreading part of a many-petalled corolla. (Linnaeus has not uniformly used the term limbus, in one sense: for he sometimes em- ploys it for the dilated part of a many-petalled corolla). b. In regard to its divisions, the corolla is, 1. bifida, bifid, or two-cleft; when each petal is divided into two; as in Chickweed,and Enchanters-Nightshade. 2. trifida, three-cleft; when each petal is divided into three parts; as inHolosteum,andHypecoum. 3.tetrafida,four-cleft; as in Cucubalus*. 4. quinquefida, five-cleft; as in Basard- * See Plate XVII. Fig. 3. 134 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Rocket. 5. multifida, many-cleft; as in Convolvulus Soldanella. (This term is equivalent to the term laci- niatus fios of Tournefort.) 6. bipartita, two-parted; simple, but divided almost down to the base. 7. tripar- tita, three-parted, simple, but divided into three parts, almost down to the base. 8. laciniata, laciniated; divi- ded into segments. c. In respect to equality, the corolla is, 1. regular is, regular; equal in the figure, size, and proportion of the parts; as in Privet, Lilac, Jasmin, &c. 2. irregularis, irregular; when the parts of the limb differ in figure, magnitude, or proportion; as in Aconite, Lupin, and Dead-Nettie. 3. inaqualis, unequal; having the parts corresponding, not in size, but in proportion; as in Bu- tomus umbellatus*. 4. aqualis, equal; when the petals are of the same size and figure; as in Primula, Limo- sella, &c. (There does not appear to be any essential dif- ference between the terms aqualis and regularis: and, perhaps, as Dr. Martyn observes, the term regular ex- presses the idea better). 5. difformis, diffbrm, anoma- lous, or irregular; when the petals, or their segments, are of different forms. d. In respect to figure, the corolla is, 1. globosa, glo- bose, globular, or spherical; round like a ball; as in Trollius, or Globe-Ranunculus. 2. campanulata, cam- panulate, bell-shaped, or bell-formed; swelling or bel- lying out, without any tube; as in the Campanula, Convolvulusf, Atropa, and many others. (This term is, * See Plate XVI. Fig. 3. According to Jussieu, the cover of Butomusis a calyx, or perianth. f See Plate XI. Fig. 3. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 135 in strict propriety, applied to the monopetalous corol- las only: yet, sometimes, it is extended also to flowers that are polypetalous. 3. infundibuliformis, funnel-sha- ped; having a conical border rising from a tube; as in Lithospermum, Stramonium, Henbane, Tobacco*, and many others. 4. hypocrateriformis, salver-shaped; ri- sing from a tube with a flat border; as in some of the plants called Asperifolia; in Diapensia, Aretia, Andro- sace, Hottonia, Phlox, Samolus, he. 5. rot at a, wheel- shaped; spreading flat without any tube; as in Borago, Veronicaf, PhysalisJ, Verbascum, and others. 6. cya- thiformis,cyathiform, glass-shaped, or cup-shaped; cy- lindrical, but widening a little at the top. 7. urceolata, pitcher-shaped; bellying-out like a pitcher. 8. ringens, ringent, irregular, gaping with two distinct lips; a one- petalled corolla, the border of which is commonly di- vided into two parts, to which the botanists have given the names of upper and lower lip. The former is some- times called the galea, or helmet: the latter, the barb a, or beard. The opening between the two lips is named rictus, or the gap: the opening of the tube, faux, the throat or jaws: the prominent swelling in the throat, palatum, or the palate; and the upper part of the tube, collum, or the neck. Most of the flowers in the xivth class of the Sexual System, Didynamia, are furnished with this species of corolla**. 9.personata, personate, or masked: said, by Linnaeus, to be a species of ringent corolla, but closed between the lips by the palate. " But " surely (as Dr. Martyn observes), ringent, or gaping * See Plate XI. Fig. 1. t See Plate IX. Fig 2. f See Plate XI. Fig. 2. ** See Plate XIX. Fig. 1. 136 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. " with the lips closed, is a contradiction in terms. It " would be better to define it, a species of labiate co- " rolla, which has the lip closed." 10. cruciata or cruci- form is, cruciform or cross-shaped; consisting of four equal petals, which spread out in form of a cross. This species of corolla is exemplified in most of the plants of Linnaeus's xvth class, Tetradynamia*. 11. papiliona- cea, papilionaceous, or Butterfly-shaped; irregular, and most commonly consisting of four petals, to which Lin- naeus has given three different names: viz. the carina,the vexillum, and the ala. The carina, or keel, is the lower petal, which is shaped somewhat like a boat; the vexillum, or standard, is the upper petal, which spreads and rises upwards; and the alae, or wings, are the two lateral petals, which stand singly, being separated by the keel. 12. rosacea, rosaceous, or rose-like; consist- ing of four or more regular petals, which are inserted into the receptacle, by a short and broad claw; as in the Wild-Rose. (To plants which are furnished with this species of corolla, Tournefort has given the name of Rosacei. They constitute his sixth class.) 13. undulata, waved or undulated; the surface rising and falling in waves, or obtusely, not in angles; as in Gloriosa super- ba, and Gloriosa simplex. 14. plicata plaited; or fold- ed like a fan; as in Convolvulus. 15. revoluta, revolute, rolled back or downwards; having the petals rolled back; as in Asparagus, Medeolaf, and LiliumJ. 16. torta, twisted; as in Nerium, Asclepias, Vinca, &c. e. In respect to its margin, the corolla is, 1. crenata, crenate; as in Linum, Dianthus chinensis, &c. 2. ser- * See Plate XIX. Fig. 3. f See Plate XIV. I-See Plate XIII. Fig. 2. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 137 rata,serrate; as inTilia, Alisma, &c. 3. ciliata, ciliate; as in Rue, Menyanthes, Tropceolum, Gentiana ciliata, &c. (These terms have already been explained, under the head of the nomenclature of leaves)*. /.In respect to its surface, the. corolla is, 1. villosa, villose. 2. tomentosa, tomentose. 3. sericea, silky, or covered with very soft hairs, pressed close to the sur- face. 4. pilosa, hairy. 5. barbata, bearded; as in Dian- thus barbatus. 6. imberbis, beardless: opposed to beard- ed. 7. cristata, crested; furnished with an appendage, like a crest or tuft; as in Polygala, Iris cristata, &c. g. In respect to its proportion,the corolla is, 1. longis- sima, very long; several times longer than the calyx; as in Lobelia longiflora, he. 2. brevissima, very short; not as long as the calyx; as in Sagina procumbens, &.c. h. In respect to its situation, the corolla is, 1. su- per a, superior; having its receptacle above the germ. 2. infer a, inferior; having its receptacle below the germ. i. In point of duration, the corolla is, 1. caduca, ca- ducous; continuing only until the expansion of the flow- er, and then falling off; as in Herb-Christopher, and Meadow-Rue. 2. decidua, deciduous; when the petals fall off with the rest of the flower. 3. per sis tens, perma- nent; continuing until the fruit has attained to maturity; as in Water-Lily. 4. marcescens, withering or shrivel- ling; withering on the stalk, without dropping; as in Campanula, Orchis, Cucumber, Gourd, Bryony, &c. * See pages 32, 33. T 138 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. In some plants, even of the same species, the corolla is very caducous, or transitory; in others, it is more per- manent. We are not acquainted with all the circumstan- stances which thus essentially vary the longevity of the corolla. It is, however, a well known fact, that double- flowers, in general, last much longer than single ones. Thus, in single Poppies, the corolla falls off in a few hours, whilst in double ones it lasts for several days*. The double blossoms of the Cherry last much longer than the single blossoms of the same tree. It would, indeed, seem to be a general law of nature, that a longer duration of life is conceded to those vegetables, as well as animals, which are prohibited by their structure, or other circumstances, from the function of generation. In double blossoms, the organs of generation being obli- terated, impregnation cannot take place; but in single blossoms, the parts being perfect, there is no obstacle to the generative act. In like manner, we find that the mule, which (in general at least) is not fertile, lives longer than the horse or the ass, by which he is begotten; and it has, long since, been observed, that the term of life of the locust and other species of insects, as well as of va- rious species of birds, may be very considerably protrac- ted, by prohibiting them from all intercourse with their respective females. k. In respect to its composition, the corolla is, 1. com- posita, compound; consisting of several florets, included within a common perianth, and sitting upon a common receptacle; as in the plants of the class Syngenesia. 2. ligulata, ligulate, or strap-shaped; when the florets have their corollets flat, spreading out towards the end, * Dr. James Edward Smith. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 139 with the base only tubular; as in the plants of the first order of Syngenesia*. 3. tubulata, tubuious; when all the corollets of the florets are tubular, and nearly equal. 4. radiata, radiate, consisting of a disk, in which the corollets or florets are tubular and also regular; and of a ray, in which the florets are irregular, and common- ly ligulate. /.In regard to its colour, the corolla of different vege- tables assumes almost every known colour. Linnaeus, ever in pursuit of analogies, has distin- guished the corolla by the name oiauleum fioris, or pa- lace in which the nuptials of the plant are celebrated. But this species of language teaches us nothing very de- terminate concerning the uses of the corolla. Our author has also observed,that the corolla serves as wings to waft the flower about, and thus to assist in the business of impregnation. It seems highly probable, that one use, among others, of the corolla, is that of sheltering and defending the stamens and other important parts, which are situa- ted within this beautiful structure. But it is by no means probable, that this is the only use of the corolla. Spre.vgel observes, that the corolla is " an attrac- " tion to insects, and a convenient seat or bed for them " while extracting the honey, and promoting the im- ' pregnation of the flowerf." But who will seriously believe, that Nature has exerted so much care and skill in the construction of the beautiful petals of flowers, • See Plate XXII. t Sprengel, as quoted by Dr. J E. Smith. 140 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. merely to form a palace for insects, whilst they are aid- ing in a work, which, in innumerable instances, is fully accomplished without the least of insectile aid? Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that the corolla forms a pulmonary system " totally independent of the green " foliage," and that this respiratory system belongs to the sexual or amatorial parts of the fructification only! He asserts, that each petal is furnished with an artery, " which conveys the vegetable blood to its extremities, " exposing it to the light and air under a delicate moist " membrane, covering the internal surface of the petal, " where it often changes its colour, as is beautifully " seen in some party-coloured Poppies, though it is " probable (he observes) that some of the iridescent " colours of flowers may be owing to the different de- " grees of tenuity of the exterior membrane of the pe- " tal, refracting the light like soap-bubbles. "The vegetable blood (continues our learned au- " thor) is then collected at the corol-arteries, and re- " turned by correspondent veins, exactly as in the green " foliage, for the sustenance of the anthers, and stigmas, u and for the important secretions of honey, wax, essen- " tial oil, and the prolific dust of the anthers, and thus " constitutes a pulmonary organ." In support of this opinion, Dr. Darwin has adduced several very ingenious arguments, for the full exposition of which, I must refer to his Phytologia*, a work re- plete with learning, and marked, in every page, with the genius of the British Lucretius. It must be con- * Sect. IV. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 141 fessed, however, that much of mere hypothesis is attach- ed to Darwin's observations, concerning the uses of the parts of vegetables. He has too frequently assumed as points completely established, points that are still invol- ved in great uncertainty. Thus, a fundamental part of this author's reasoning concerning the use of the corolla is the assumption of the fact, that in this part of the fruc- tification, there is a two-fold system of vessels, corres- ponding to the pulmonary artery and veins of animals. Now, many experiments, which I have made, compel me to entertain some doubts relative to the existence of an arterial and venal system in the corolla. What I have already said concerning the leaves*, may, with equal propriety, be extended to the corolla. I have often suc- ceeded in colouring this part of the plant, with the juice of the Phytolacca, and other colouring matters: but I have not been able to convince myself, that the colour- ing matter is exclusively carried, in the first instance, along the upper surface of the corolla; and I never could decidedly perceive, that it was returned by a venous system, on the under side of the petals. I do not mean, however, to deny the existence of arteries and veins in the corolla. I wish to proceed with caution. Many experiments remain to be made, before the uses of the corolla can be completely demonstrated, to the satisfactipn of naturalists and philosophers. I am disposed, in the meanwhile, to believe, that both this part and the calyx are essentially concerned in the office of vegetable respiration. Indeed, as nature does not seem to have drawn any certain line of discrimination between the calyx and the corolla, it must, perhaps, be * See pages 57—59. 142 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. admitted, that both of these parts perform the same office, whatever that office may be. I have already particularly mentioned the curious fact of the longer duration of the double flowers, than of single flowers, in the same species of plant. The in- genious Dr. Smith thinks it probable, that this circum- stance, "combined with other observations,"may "lead " to a discovery of the real use of the corolla of plants, " and the share it has in the impregnation*." I shall not pretend to determine, how far there may be a solid foundation for this idea. But the fact itself is very inte- resting, and will be again reverted to, in the sections on vegetable life and generationf. The importance of the corolla, as an organ essenti- ally concerned in the business of respiration, or in that of impregnation, is, perhaps, somewhat diminished by the following fact. Many plants, in certain situations of climate, heat, &c. are observed to drop all, or the greater number of,their petals; and yet their seeds ripen, and come to full perfection. Such flowers are called mutilated flowers (mutilus flos), and their mutilation has generally been ascribed to the agency of heat. This is, doubtless, a frequent cause of the falling of the petals of plants. But it cannot be the only cause: for some of the plants which are natives of warm and temperate cli- mates, are observed to drop their petals in cold climates. Indeed, Linnaeus has asserted, that the falling of the pe- tals is generally owing to a deficiency of the requisite • Philosophical Transactions, for 1788. See, also, Tracts relating to Natural History, p. 177,178. London: 1798. t See Part II. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 143 heat*. He mentions the following plants as instances of flores mutilati: viz. Ipomoea hepaticaefolia, Campanu- la Pentagonia, Ruellia clandestina, Violae (Violets of various species), Tussilago Anandria, and Lychnis apetala. To this list may be added the following plants, viz. Campanula perfoliata, Salvia verbenaca, Silene por- tensis, Cistus salicifolius, Cistus guttatus, Lamium amplexicaule* and many others. The learned Mr. Adanson informs us, that the fol- lowing plants lose their petals at Paris, viz. Glaux ma- ritima, Peplis, and Ammannia. In investigating the characters of vegetables, a knowledge of the various forms and appearances that are assumed by the calyx and the corolla, is indispensibly necessary. As this subject will be more particularly treated of in a future part of this workf, it is the less necessary to dwell upon it in this place. In drawing the generic characters of vegetables, the different species of calyx and corolla are constantly at- tended to by Linnaeus, and all other modern botanists. In many instances, these parts even afford excellent marks for the discrimination of the species. Neither the calyx nor the corolla are ever essenti- ally regarded by Linnaeus in the classical or ordinal cha- racters of his Sexual System. It is to be observed, how- ever, that this illustrious naturalist has founded a method of plants exclusively upon the form and other circum- stances of the calyx. To this method, which he publish- * Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 79,80. § .119 t See Part III. 144 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ed in 1737, he has given the name of methodus calycina. The method of Magnol, a Professor, at Montpelier, can hardly be called a method founded on the calyx. Lin- naeus, however, mentions Magnol, along with himself, among the Calycist^:, or those botanists who have founded their classes upon the calyx. With respect to the corolla, many botanists have founded the classes, or primary divisions, of their sys- tems, entirely upon the regularity, the figure, the num- ber, and other circumstances of the petals. The most celebrated systems of this kind, are those of Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, and Joseph Pitton Tournefort. The method of Rivinus proceeds upon the circum- stance of the regularity and the number of the petals. That of Tournefort is founded upon the figure and regu- larity of the petal. Both of these methods are now uni- versally neglected. They have given way, in the revolu- tions of science, to the more difficult Sexual System of Linnaeus. But genuine botanists will continue to re- gard, with some attention, the arrangements of these Co roll is t^:, as Linnaeus is pleased to denominate them*. System is a slippery thing. The time may again arrive, when the method of Tournefort will maintain a station, if not as elevated as it once did, at least much more elevated than it does at present. The Sexual System of Linnaeus cannot be immortal. It will, at some future period, be deserted for a system more agreeable to the scheme or in- tentions, of nature. * Linnaeus has given this name (which, it is evident, is derived from the word corolla), to those systematic botanists, who have distributed vegetables ac- cordingto the regularity, the figure, and other circumstances, of the corolla. Some of the most eminent botanists have been Corollistx, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 145 §. III. It has already been observed, that the corolla, ac- cording to Linnaeus, consists of two parts, the Petal, and the Nectarium, or the Nectary*. Of this last-men- tioned part I am now to give some account. Linn.sus defines the nectary " the melliferous part " of the vegetable, peculiar to the flower." According to our author, it secretes or contains a peculiar fluid, the honey of the plant, which constitutes the principal food of bees, and various other species of insects. The Swedish naturalist assumes to himself the ho- nour of having first recognized this part in the vege- table structure. " Nectarium (says he) ne nomine " notum erat, antequam idem determinavimusf." But it is certain, that both Tournefort and Sebastian Vail- lant had noticed the nectary in certain species of plants; the first of these celebrated men before the birth of Lin- naeus, and the last when the Swede was not more than ten years old. In 1694, Tournefort observed the nectary inthe Passion-flower, the Asclepias,or Swallow-wort, and some other plants; and in 1718, Vaillant, who was both a man of genius and an able botanist, noticed it, and re- garded it as a part depending upon the corolla, or petals; but which did not, in his opinion, merit any particular appellation. • Seepages 127, 131. t Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 125. §. 181. U 146 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. To the part of which I am speaking, the English writers have given different names. By some*, it has been called the " honey-cup." But this name can- not, with propriety, be applied to every species of nec- tarium, since, in many plants, this part bears no resem- blance whatever to a cup, or vessel of any kind. To the term nectary, as a generic term equivalent to the Latin nectariumf, there is less objection, especially as the word nectar, applied to a sweet or honied liquor, is so fa- miliar in the English language; as are also, the words " nectared," " nectareous," and" nectarine." Thus,in the following lines, the greatest of the English poets uses the word " nectared." " How charming is divine philosophy ! " Not harsh and crabbed, as dull fools suppose, " But musical as is Apollo's lute, " And a perpetual feast of nectar'd sweets, " Where no crude surfeit reigns." Milton. a. The nectary assumes a variety of forms, in different species of vegetables. Thus, 1. in many flowers, it is shaped like a horn, or the spur of a cock. This is the nectarium calcaratum, corniculatum, or cornutum, the spurred, spur-shaped, or horned nectary; of which we have examples in the following vegetables, viz. Vale- rian, Water-Milfoil, Butter-wort, Calves-snout, Lark- spur, Violet, Fumatory, Balsam, and Orchis. 2. The nectarium scrotiforme, or purse-like nectary, is some- what globular, with a depressed line in the middle. 3. nectarium ovatum, or ovate nectary. 4. nectarium tur- * Dr. Darwin, &c. f " Those who prefer the Latin termination, use nectaria in the plural, " which is not English. Why do they not use filamtnta, stigmata, &c 1" Profes- sor Martyn. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 147 binatum, or turbinate nectary; and, 5. nectarium cari- natum, or keeled nectary. This kind of nectary, being entirely distinct from the petals, is denominated necta- rium proprium, or proper nectary. b. In some plants, the nectary is really a part of the corolla, since it lies within the substance of the petals. The following plants are instances of this kind of nec- tary, viz. Fritillaria, Lilium, Swertia, Iris, Hermannia, Uvularia, Hydrophyllum, Myosurus, Ranunculus, Bro- melia,Erythronium, Berberis,andthe wonderful Vallis- neria. This is what Linnaeus calls nectarium petalli- num, or petalline nectary. c. In many plants, the nectary is placed in a series or row, within the petals, or corolla, and yet is entirely unconnected with their substance. A nectary of this kind is said, by Linnaeus, to crown the corolla. The following plants, among many others, furnish examples of this kind of nectary, viz. Passiflora*, Narcissus, Pancratium, Olax, Lychnis, Silene, Stapelia, Asclepias, Cynanchum, Nepenthes, Cherleria, Clusia, Hamamelis, Diosma. d. In the following plants, the nectary is situated upon, and makes a part of, the calyx, instead of the corolla: viz. Tropaeolum, Monotropa, Biscutella, and Malpighia. This is the nectarium calycinum, or caly- cine nectary. e. In some plants, the nectary is situated upon the anthers, or summits of the stamens. Hence one of these • See Plate XXV. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. plants, the Bastard flower-fence of the English, has re- ceived the generic name of Adenanthera. /. Th e nectary of many plants is placed upon the fila- ments. This is the case in Laurus, Dictamnus, Zygo- phyllum, Commelina*, Mirabilis, Plumbago, Campa- nula, Roella, and others. g. In the following plants, the nectary is placed upon the germ, or seed-bud: viz. Hyacinth, Flowering-Rush, Stock July-flower, and Rocket. This is the nectarium pistillaceum, or pistillaceous nectary. h. In Honey-flower, Orpine, Buck-wheat, Collinsonia, or Horse-weed; Lathraea, Navel-wort, Mercury, Clutia, Kiggelaria, Sea-side Laurel, and several others, the nec- tary is placed upon, or attached to, the common recep- tacle. This is the nectarium receptaculaceum, or recep- tacular nectary. i. Linn^us considers, as a true nectarium, the tube, or lower part, of the monopetalous or one-petalled flowers, such as Datura, Nicotiana, &c. because, in ge- neral, this part contains, and probably forms, a sweet or honied liquor, which constitutes one of the alimentary articles of bees, phalaenae, and other insects. k. In many plants, such as Ginger, Turmerick, Re- seda, Grewia, Nettle, Bastard Orpine, Vanilla, Wil- low, &c. the nectary is of a singular construction, and cannot, with propriety, be referred to any of the prece- ding heads. •See Plate X. Tig. 1. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 149 Linn.«us affirms, that those plants which have their nectary distinct from the petals, that is, not lodged within the substance of the petals, are generally poison- ous. The following plants are adduced as examples of this observation: viz. Monkshood, Hellebore, Colum- bine, Fennel-flower, Parnassia, Barren-wort, Oleander, Marvel of Peru, Bean-Caper, Succulent Swallow-wort, Fraxinella, and Honey-flower. Some of these plants are, indeed, poisonous, such as Monkshood, Oleander, Hellebore, &c. But, I am in- clined to think, that the observation of Linnaeus is not of much practical importance; since it is certain, that some of the plants which he has introduced into the list are by no means highly deleterious; and their honey does not seem to contain any noxious quality. F. A. Cartheuser, a longtime ago, denied the truth of the Lin- naean position. S. A. Spielmann asserts, that there is nothing poisonous in the flowers of the Aconitum, or Monkshood*. Certain it is, that bees extract the honey of this plant, as they do also from the nectaries of Aqui- legia vulgaris, and Aquilegia canadensis, or Common, and Canadian Columbine. It must, however, be admit- ted, that we cannot safely infer the innocent nature of a vegetable, because bees extract, and receive no injury from, the honey of such vegetable. It has always appeared to me, that the Swedish na- turalist has been less happy, and has discovered less talent and precision in his history of the nectary, than in his account of most of the other parts of the vege- table. Notwithstanding his assertion, that the nectary * De Aconito. Argentorati: 1769 8vo. 150 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. is a part of the corolla, it is certain, that all flowers are not provided with this organ or appendage, and in many plants which are provided with it, there is no immedi- ate connection whatever between it and the corolla. 44 Linnaeus (to use the words of a very sensible botanist) 44 might, with equal propriety, have termed it (the nec- 11 tary) a part or appendage of the stamina, calix, or poin- 44 tal, as the appearance in question is confined to no par- 44 ticular part of the flower, but is as various in point of *' situation, as of form. The truth is, the term nectarium 44 is exceedingly vague; and, if any determinate mean- 41 ing can be affixed to it, is expressive of all the singu- 44 larities which are observed in the different parts of 44 flowers*." Dr. Smith observes, that u Linnaeus called every 44 thing, not Calyx, petals, or organs of propagation, 44 nectarium^." It may be added, that what the Swe- dish naturalist calls nectaria, some other writers have thought proper to denominate petals. Thus, Vail- lant denominated the nectaries of the Nigella and Aqui- legia, petals. The coloured leaves of these plants, which are now regarded as petals, the French botanist called the calyx, or flower-cup. G. C. Oeder follows Vaillant, in considering the nectaries of many of the plants of the class Polyandria, as petals. Moenich calls these spur- red or horned nectaries, of which I am speaking, para- petala. Linnaeus has, moreover, sometimes called the abortive or infertile stamens of certain plants, nectaria. In this respect, Mr. L'Heritier has also erred, particu- larly in drawing the generic character of Erodium. * Milne's Botanical Dictionary, &c. article Nectarium. t Syllabus, 8cc. p. 23. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 151 Up o n the whole, the term nectarium is an extremely vague one. I cannot help agreeing with Mr. De Jussieu, that the term should be rejected from the science of Bo- tany. It is greatly to be wished, that some person, pos- sessed of the requisite talents, would undertake the investigation of the subject of the various species of nectaries, and arrange these parts under some more ap- propriate names. Necker restricts the term nectarium, to those glan- dular bodies which occupy the base of the stamens, and secrete a honied liquor. He admits, that there are other parts of vegetables which furnish a honied liquor in flowers, but these, he says, are of no consequence in determining the characters of plantsf. In investigating the genera of plants, a knowledge of the various species of nectarium is of very essential, and indeed, indispensible, consequence. Thus, the es- sence of the genus Ranunculus, consists in its nectary, which is a small prominence that is situated at the un- guis, or claw, of each petal of this plant. But this subject will be particularly attended to, in Part Third of this work. Jfc jft Jfc jj£ .jjf The chemical analysis of the honey of the necta- ries, has been very little attended to. What has been done, leads us to believe, that this secreted juice (in many plants at least), contains nothing distinct from su- f Corollarium, &c. p. 13, 14 152 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. gar or honey. F. A. Cartheuser examined the honey of the nectaria of different plants, particularly that of the Melianthus, or Honey-Flower. He says the honey of this plant is a true honey. Some authors inform us, that the honey of the Melianthus is a stomachic. This would seem to show, that it contains some foreign qua- lity, distinct from mere sugar or honey. There is often, however, combined with the honey of plants, a noxious property. This is frequently the pro- perty of the plant which secretes the honey. The tube of the flower of the Agave americana contains a great deal of a watery, honey-like fluid, which is sweet, and of an acid nature. This fluid is purgative, and emetic, when exhibited in the dose of two table-spoonfuls. The nectar of some plants is entirely refused by the bees. Thus, bees do not touch the honey of the Fri- tiliaria, or Crown-Imperial*. Yet I do not know that any experiments have shown, that this honey is noxious to animals. The Fritillaria is, indeed, a poisonous plant. But we are told, that the Willow-wren runs up the stem of this fine vegetable, and sips the honey. We know that the honey which is procured from certain vegetables is poisonous. The Greekf and RomanJ na- turalists speak of a poisonous honey; and we are ac- quainted with some of the plants from which this honey is procured. In North-America, an intoxicating and de- leterious honey is procured from the flowers of the Kalmia angustifolia, and other vegetables. In the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society**, * J. Duverney, Linnxus, &c. f Xenophon, Dioscorides, Diodorus Siculus, Sic. | Pliny. ** Vol. V. No. VII ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 153 I have inserted a memoir on the 44 Poisonous and Inju- rious Honey of North-America." To this memoir I beg leave to refer the reader. It has been observed, that the nectar of plants,44 tempts insects to assist the impregnation*." This is, no doubt, the case. But it may well be questioned, whether this is the final end, or intention of nature, in furnishing plants with the nectary fluid. We find that the nectar of some plants is altogether untouched by insects. Such as Fritillaria. Besides, in very many plants, which abound in nectar, the styles, from their proportion, or situation, are readily, nay necessarily, impregnated, without any insectile assistance. In Fritillaria, the aid of insects cannot be wanted. I presume, that the business of vegetable impregnation would proceed very well, even were the whole world of insects entirely annihi- lated. So little necessary dependence, in this respect at least, is there between the great worlds of animals and vegetables. So feeble, so visionary, is the theory of those philosophers, who have imagined, that Nature has con- nected together, in necessary dependence, her innume- rable productions, like links in a chain of man's con- struction! The botanists have found no small difficulty in de- termining the real use of the nectaries, and of the honied liquor which they contain. Julius Pontedera imagined, that the honey of plants is equivalent to the liquor amnii, or liquor of the amnion, in pregnant animals, and that it enters the fertile or impregnated seedsf. Here it might * Dr. I. E. Smith. f Anthologia, seude Floris Natura, &c. Patavii: 1720. 4to. X 154 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. be observed, that the importance of the liquor amnii, as an agent in the nutrition of the fetus, is not admitted by the generality of the modern physiologists*. It is, how- ever, of more importance, to observe, that the hypothe- sis of Pontedera is rendered improbable by this circum- stance, that the nectary, and the honey which it contains, are found in many male flowers, such as those of the Willow and the Nettle, where there are no seeds to be impregnated. Perhaps, however, this does not decidedly show, that the nectareous fluid is useless in giving ferti- lity to the seed. It is certain, that nature, intent upon a specific object, or end, sometimes bestows upon the dif- ferent sexes of a species, the same organs. Thus, she concedes to the males and females of certain animals, the secretory organs, which we call mammae, or breasts. In both sexes, these organs sometimes secrete a peculiar fluid, called milk. Yet, this secretion can be required in one of the sexes only. But actual experiments have shown, that the nectary is not essentially necessary to the fertility of the seed. We have seen, that in many plants, the nectaries are distinct from the corolla. The Aconitum, or Monks- hood, is one of these plants. The nectaries of this plant were removed, but the seeds were as effectually ripened, as though the operation had not been performed!. Ludwig supposed that the office of the nectary is to excrete those juices of the plant which are too thick, or • Of late, however, Dr. Darwin has endeavoured to show, that the liquor amnii is of real importance, in the nutrition of the fetus. See his Zoonomia, :^c. Vol. I. Sect. XXXVIII. f F. A. Cartheuser. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 155 gross*. But neither is this a very satisfactory explana- tion of the use of the organ. Boehmer supposes, that the true nectaries secrete a juice which is necessary to the nutriment of the plantj\ Dr. Darwin has proposed a new and very ingeni- ous idea concerning the use of the nectary of vegetables. 44 The nectary, or honey-cup, he says, is evidently an 44 appendage to the corol, and is the reservoir of the 44 honey, which is secreted by an appropriate gland from 44 the blood, after its oxygenation in the corol"------- 44 and is absorbed for nutriment by the sexual parts of 44 the flower." It is the opinion of this writer, that this saccharine secretion serves as food to the anthers, and stigmas. Let us see upon what grounds this idea pro- ceeds. In many tribes of insects, as in the silk-worm, moths, butterflies, &c. the male and female parents die as soon as the eggs are impregnated and excluded, the eggs remaining to be perfected and hatched at some future period. In vegetables we observe nearly the same phe- nomenon. In this family of animated objects, the stamens and pistils fall off and die, as soon as the seeds are impreg- nated, and along with these genital parts, the petals and honey-cups. It is observed, that the insects which I have mentioned, so soon as they acquire the passion and the apparatus for the reproduction of their species, lose the power of feeding upon leaves, as they did before, and be- come nourished by honey alone. 44 Hence (continues our author) we acquire a strong 44 analogy for the use of the nectary, or secretion ofho- • Institutiones Regni Vegetabilis, &c. 1757- 8vo. t Dissertatio Inaugurate Nectariis Florum. Wittemberg: 1758. 4to 156 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. " ney, in the vegetable economy; which is,that the male 4 parts of flowers, and the female parts, as soon as u they leave their fetus-state, expanding their petals •4 (which constitute their lungs*) become sensible to the 4 passion, and gain the apparatus, for the reproduction 4 of their species; and are fed and nourished with ho- 14 ney like the insects above described; and that hence :4 the nectary begins its office of producing honey, and 4 dies or ceases to produce honey, at the same time with 4 the birth and death of the anthers, and the stigmas; 4 which, whether existing in the same or in different ' flowers, are separate and distinct animated beings. 44 Pre vious to this time, the anthers with their fila- ' ments, and the stigmas with their syles, are in their 4 fetus-state sustained in some plants by their umbilical 4 vessels, like the unexpanded leaf-buds, as in Colchicum 4 autumnale, and Daphne Mezereon; and in other plants 4 by the bractes, or floral-leaves, as in Rhubarb, which ' are expanded long before the opening of the flower; the 4 seeds at the same time existing'in the vegetable womb 4 yet unimpregnated, and the dust yet unripe in the cells ' of the anthers. After this period, the petals become ex- r panded,"-------44 the umbilical vessels, which before ' nourished the anthers and the stigmas, coalesce, or 4 cease to nourish them; and they acquire blood more 4 oxygenated by the air, obtain the passion and power 4 of reproduction, are sensible to heat, and light, and 4 moisture, and to mechanic stimulus, and become, in ' reality, insects fed with honey; similar in every res- 4 pect except that all of them yet known but the male * See page 140, 141. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 157 ** flowers of Vallisneria*, continue attached to the plant, 44 on which they are produced. 44 So water insects (continues our author), as the 44 gnat, and amphibious animals, as the tad-pole, ac- 44 quire new aerial lungs, when they leave their infant 44 state for that of puberty. And the numerous tribes of 44 caterpillars are fed upon the common juices of vege- 44 tables found in their leaves, till they acquire the organs 44 of reproduction; and then they feed on honey, all I be- 44 lieve except the silk-worm, which in this country 44 (Britain) takes no nourishment after it becomes a but- 44 terfly. And the larva or maggot of the bee, accord- 44 ing to the observations of Mr. Hunter, is fed with 44 raw vegetable matter, called bee-bread, which is col- 44 lected from the anthers of flowers, and laid up in cells 44 for that purpose, till the maggot becomes a winged bee, 44 acquires greater sensibility, and is fed with honey f." Such is Dr. Darwin's hypothesis concerning the use of the nectar, or honied liquor of plants. The hypo- thesis is certainly ingenious, and is entitled to the at- tention of naturalists. But it is merely in the light of an hypothesis that it ought to be viewed. And yet it has already been adopted by some writers, particularly by the ingenious female author of a work entitled Botanical Dialogues%. Future experiments will show how far the opinion of the English philosopher is founded upon a * We are now acquainted with two species of Vallisneria, the V. spiralis, and V. Americana. Of this last species, which is a native of many parts of North- America, growing abundantly in the river Delaware, &c. &c. I have given a particular account, in a memoir read before the American Philosophical Society, on the 6th of February, 1801. t Phytologia, &c. Sect. VII. See, also, Sect. VI. \ London: 1797. 8vo. 158 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. solid basis. I must confess, that very powerful objec- tions to the hypothesis present themselves to my mind. Certainly, all plants are not furnished with the organs called nectaries, particularly with those species of necta- ries which are known to secrete or contain a honied fluid. Moreover, we have seen, that the nectaries of cer- tain species of plants may be entirely removed, without obviously affecting, in any degree, the health or fertility of the plant. When we consider, however, the highly nutritious nature of sugar, honey, and other saccharine matters, it would seem not improbable, that the nectar is really conceded to plants to assist in giving nutriment or strength to them. This opinion is, at least, more phi- losophical, than that of those writers, who have imagi- ned, that plants are furnished with nectar merely as an alimentary article for insects, or as an incitement for them to give their aid, in ensuring the fertility of plants. |. IV. The Stamen, which some English writers have called the Chive, is defined, by Linnaeus, 44 an organ for the preparation of the pollen:" " Viscus pro Pollinis praeparatione*." The stamens, in most flowers, are placed round the seed-bud, and consist, according to Linnaeus, of three parts, the Filamentum, the Anther a, and the Pollen. In reality, however, the stamen consists of only two parts, the filamentum, and the anther, the pollen being merely a matter secreted by, or contained in, the anther. * Philosophia Botanica, See. p. 53. §. 86. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 159 A.I shall first speak of the Filamentum. This,which receives its name from the Latin word, filum, a thread, is the more slender, or thread-like part of the stamen which supports the anther, and connects it with the flower. The term filament is equivalent to the term sta- men, as employed by Tournefort, and other botanists. a. The filaments, in respect to number, are very different, in different vegetables. Some plants have but one filament, some two, three, &c. &c. whilst some have from twenty to a thousand. b. In point of figure, the filament is, 1. capillare, capillary; long and fine like a hair. 2. planum, flat; having the two surfaces parallel. 3. cuneiforme, cunei- form; or wedge-shaped. 4. spirale, spiral; ascending in a spiral line. 5. subulatum, subulate, or awl-shaped. 6. emarginatum, emarginate. 7. reflexum, reflected. 8. laciniatum, laciniated. 9. dentatum, toothed. 10. muti- latum, mutilated; with the rudiment only of a filament. 11. castratum, castrated; elevating a barren anther, or none at all; as in some species of Geranium. c. In point of insertion, the filaments are, 1. calyci opposita, opposite to the leaflets or segments of the calyx. 2. calyci alterna, alternate with the calyx; placed alternately with the leaflets of the calyx. 3. corollina, inserted into the corolla. 4. calycina, calycine; inserted into the calyx. 5. receptaculacea, receptacular; inserted into the receptacle. 6. nectarina, nectarine; inserted on the nectary. 7. stylo inserta; inserted on the style; as in the plants of the class Gynandria. 160 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. d. In point of proportion, the filaments are, 1. aqua- lia, equal; all of the same length. 2. inaqualia, unequal; some larger than others. 3. connata, connate; conjoined into one body, so as to form a tube at the base; as in the plants of the class Monadelphia 4. longissima, very long; longer than the corolla. 5. brevissima, very short; much shorter than the corolla. 6. longitudine corolla, of the same length as the corolla. 7. longitudine calycis, of the same length as the calyx. e. In respect to its surface, the filament is, 1. pilo- sum, hairy. 2. villosum, villous. 3. hirsutum, hirsute. f In respect to its structure, the filament is, 1. membranaceum, membranous. 2. nectariferum, necta- riferous. g. In respect to its direction, the filament is, 1. erec- tum, erect. 2. patens, spreading. 3. patentiusculum, somewhat spreading. 4. patentissimum, very much spreading. 5. arcuatum, bowed; bent in the form of a bow. 6. connivens, converging; approaching the other filaments with the point. 7. reftexum, reflected. 8. decli- natum, declined. 9. infiexum, inflected. 10. flaccidum, flaccid. 11. assurgens, assurgent. 12. ascendens, as- cending. 13. recurvum, recurved. 14. incurvum, incur- ved. In assimilating the animal and the vegetable king- doms, Linnaeus has been pleased to denominate the fila- ments, 44 vasa spermatica," or the spermatic vessels. We shall afterwards have occasion to inquire, how far there is any foundation for this opinion; and, also, with ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 161 what propriety, the anthers are denominated the "testes" of the plant. B. The Anther is the second part of the stamen. This is the part which Ray denominated the Apex, and Malpighi, Capsula staminis. Dr. Grew, and others of the older botanists,called it the Summit, Semet, Pendent, or Tip. 441 prefer Anther to Anthera, in English; be- 44 cause we thus avoid any dissention between the learn - 44 ed and unlearned, respecting the pronunciation of the 44 penultima, and the formation of the plural*." LiNN-ffius defines the anther to be a part of the flow- er, big with pollen, or farina, which it emits or explodes when ripef. The anther may be defined, a capsule or vessel, destined to produce or contain a substance whose office is the impregnation of the germ, or female organ. It commonly forms a part of the stamen, and is usually placed upon the top of the filament. But it must not be forgotten, that in many plants, the anther exists without any filament to support it. a. The number of the anthers is very different in dif- ferent plants. The generality of plants have a single an- ther to each filament. This is the case with most of the plants that are figured in these Elements. To this gene- ral rule, however, there are many exceptions: viz. 1. Mercurialis, or Mercury, and Ranunculus have two an- thers to each filament. This is what Linnaeus denomi- nates, anthera didyma, or twin anther. 2. Fumaria has * Professor Martyn. f " Anthera pars floris gravida Polline, quod matura dimittit." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 53. §. 86. Y 162 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. three anthers to each filament. 3.Bryonia has five anthers to three filaments. Here a single anther is affixed to one of the filaments, and the remaining four anthers are equal- ly divided between the other two filaments. 4. In the The- obroma, or Chocolate-nut, there are five anthers to each filament. 5. The Pea, the Bean, Vetch, Trefoil, Liquo- rice, and many other flowers of the class of Diadelphia, have, in general, ten anthers to two filaments; or, more properly speaking, to two sets of united stamens. 6. In the Cucurbita, or Gourd, there is one anther common to three filaments. 7. In the Dandelion, Feverfew, Ground- sel, and other really compound flowers, of the class of Syngenesia, one anther is common to five filaments: or, to speak more properly, five anthers, which are united into a cylinder, are placed upon five distinct and sepa- rate filaments. 8. In some plants, some of the filaments are terminated by anthers, whilst others are naked, or destitute of these parts. Thus, the two genera Chelone and Martynia, are furnished with four complete sta- mens; together with the rudiment of a fifth filament, which is destitute of the anther. Verbena has four fila- ments, only two of which are antheriferous. The Big- nonia Catalpa of Linnaeus has two perfect stamens, or stamens with anthers; and three filaments, which want the anthers. Other irregularities of this kind will be no- ticed, in the progress of this work. b. In point of figure, the anther is, 1. oblonga, ob- long. 2.globosa, globular. 3. sagittata, sagittate. 4. angulata, angular. 5. cornuta, horned. 6. bicornis, two- horned. 7. linearis, linear. 8. acuta, acute. 9. acutius- cula, rather acute. 10. cor data, cordate. 11. ovata, ovate. 12. hastata, hastate. 13. biloba, two-lobed. 14. reniformis, reniform. 15. bifida% bifid. 16. bipartita, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 163 two-parted. 17. aristata, awned; ending in an awn. 18. setifer,bristle-bearing; ending in a bristle. 19. rostrata, rostrate, or beaked; ending in a filiform beak. 20. trun- cata, truncated. 21. obtusa, obtuse. 22. emarginata, emarginate. 23. acuminata, acuminate. 24. furcata, forked; divided at the end, and diverging. c. In point of direction, the anther is, 1. erecta, erect. 2. rigida, rigid. 3. patens, spreading. 4. assurgens, assurgent. 5. inflex a, inflected. 6. nutans, nodding. 7. declinata, declined. 8. pendula, pendulous. 9. incurva, incurved. 10. connivens, converging. 11. spiraliter con- torta, twisted spirally. d. In point of insertion, the anther is, 1. sessilis, sessile. 2. versatilis, versatile; incumbent, but freely moveable. 3. adnata, adnate. 4. distincta, distinct; not cohering with other anthers. 5. connata, connate; when several anthers are conjoined into one. 6. cylindracea, cylindrical; formed into a cylinder, or equal tube. 7. tu- bulata, tubular; coalescing so as to form a tube; as in the compound flowers of the class of Syngenesia. 8. coharentes, cohering at the base, apex, &c. 9. incum- ber, incumbent; fixed by the middle upon the filament. 10. lateralis, lateral; connected by the whole side to the filament. e. In respect to substance, the anther is, 1. membrana- cca, membranous. 2.depressa, depressed. 3. compressa, compressed. 4. convexa, convex. 5. plana, fat. 6. sul- cata, furrowed. 7. transversim sulcata, transversely furrowed. 8. longitudinaliter sulcata, longitudinally furrowed. 9. subulata, subulate. 10. bilameUata, bila- mellated; with two membranous plates. 164 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. f. In respect to measure, the anther is, l.fllamentis brevior, shorter than the filaments. 2. corolla brevior, shorter than the corolla. 3. longitudine filamenti, of the same length as the filament. 4. longiorfilamentis, longer than the filaments. 5. aquales, equal; of the same size as one another. 6. longissima, very long; much longer than the filament. I.brevissima, very short; much short- er than the filament. g. In respect to its place, the anther is, 1. tecta, covered; concealed by a scale of the arch, as in the As- perifolia, or Rough-leaved plants. 2. inclusa, enclosed; situated within the throat of the corolla. 3. nuda, naked; neither covered nor enclosed. h. In respect to its cells and aperture, the anther is, 1. uniloculars, one-celled. 2. bilocularis, two-celled. 3. trilocularis, three-celled. 4. bivalvis, two-valved. 5. didyma, didymous; gibbous outwardly, with two pro- tuberances. 6. sterilis, barren; not forming pollen, or fecundating matter. 7. deflorata, deflorate; having ejec- ted, or excluded the pollen. 8. foecunda, fertile, with pollen. 9. apice dehiscens, opening at the top. 10. latere dehiscens, opening at the side. Linnjeus denominates the bursting of the anthers, Dehiscentia*. i. In respect to situation, 1. the anthers are gene- rally situated upon the tops of the filaments. 2. In some plants, however, the anthers are fixed to the middle or sides of the filaments. 3. In many plants, having no fila- ments, the anthers adhere to the stigma, or summit of * Dehisccrtia, from debisco, to gape, or open wide. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 165 the female organ. 4. In other plants, also destitute of filaments, the anthers are fixed to the receptacle. 5. In some, they are situated upon the nectary. C. The Pollen, which Linnaeus is pleased to call the third part of the stamen, is the farina, or prolific powder, which is contained in the anthers of flowers, and which, according to the Swedish naturalist, after being moistened with a liquor which is peculiar to, and lodged upon, the stigma, or summit of the female organ, bursts like a bladder, and gives out, elastically, a substance which is imperceptible to the naked eye. This substance Linnaeus calls Fovilla, or aura scminalis. Necker defines the pollen, a collection of minute inflammable globules, in which the 44 lympha fcecun- dans," or fecundating fluid, is contained*. The pollen of some plants, is, certainly, inflammable; but in the pollen of many other plants we discover nothing of an inflammable quality. In many plants, such as Veratrum luteumf, &c. the pollen has a peculiar and powerful smell, very similar to that of certain animal secretions. The pollen of vegetables is of various colours, but most commonly of the different shades of yellow, orange, red, and purple. It is beautifully conspicuous upon the anthers, or summits, of some flowers, particularly the Tulip, the Lily, he. When completely matured, and fit for performing the important office, for which it is destined, it is readily removed from the anthers, by the application of the finger, or other moist body. * Corollarium, &c. p. 14. f Melanthium clioicum ' of Walter. 166 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. To the naked or unarmed eye, the pollen appears to be a mere inorganic farina, or powder. But when it is subjected to the aid of the microscope, it is found to put on a great variety of forms, in different species of vege- tables. These forms, it is asserted, frequently predomi- nate, not only through the different species of a genus, but even through the different genera of a natural family, or order. Thus, in Helianthus, or Sunflower, the polle- nifercus particles assume the appearance of prickly balls, or burs. In the Geranium sanguineum, or Bloody Cranesbill, they are like perforated globules of -fire; in the Mallows, they resemble wheels furnished with teeth; in the Ricinus communis, or Palma Christi, they are shaped like grains of Wheat; in the Viola tricolor, or Pansies, they are angulated; in the Turkey-Wheat*, they are flat and smooth; in the Borage, like a thin leaf, rolled up; in the Narcissus, reniform, or kidney-shaped; and in the Symphitum, or Comfrey, like double or twin globulesf. It is unnecessary to pursue this subject through numerous other vegetables, the pollen of which has been particularly examined, through good glasses, by many ingenious naturalists. Tuberville Needham, and other writers have shown, that the pollen of vegetables upon being put into water, immediately bursts, and scatters its fovilla, or fecundating aura, abroad. The great importance of the pollen, which Linnaeus has called the 44 genitura" of the plant," will be very particularly considered, in treating of the generation of vegetables. v|c ^^ *^ *ftc '^ Jf*' ^ ^ ^ ^ •& jjg Afc, » Zea Mays, or Indian-corn. t J- G. Wahlbom. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 167 As the nectar of vegetables is an article of great im- portance in the nourishment of bees and other insects, so also the powder of the anthers constitutes one of the alimentary articles of bees. These industrious insects visit the flowers of an immense variety of plants, quaff- ing the nectar, and carrying away, upon their thighs, great quantities of the pollen. This they lay up, in the cells of their combs, as food for the young bees, whilst in their larva, or maggot-state. To the pollen, thus sto- red up, the name of 44 bee-bread" has been given, both in Britain and in the United-States. This, as has been already observed*, is 44 raw vegetable matter," or pollen so little altered that it retains its peculiar taste and smell, in the cells of the comb. Thus, we can often tell, by an examination of the bee-bread, from what particular spe- cies of plants it has been procured. By thus depriving vegetables of their pollen, there can be little doubt that bees, in many instances, essentially diminish the fertility of plantsf. This, perhaps, is more especially the case with respect to many of the plants of the class Dioecia: for here, the male and female organs of generation being situated upon distinct individuals, and frequently at a considerable distance from each other, the chances of impregnation are necessarily fewer than in the plants of the hermaphrodite classes, where the males and females are situated, in close vicinity, within the same calyx, or corolla. On the other hand, however, it is the opinion of many writers, that bees are no mean agents in fa- • See page 157. t It has been observed, in Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United- States, that the bees rob certain species of plants, particularly the Polygonum Fagopyrum, or Buck-wheat, of such immense quantities of pollen, that great numbers of the little insects are drowned in crossing our creeks, and rivers, owing to the too heavy loads of the powder, which they attempt to carry to their hives. 168 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. vouringthe impregnation of vegetables. We shall after- wards see, that the naturalists of the school of Linnaeus have frequently been under the necessity of availing themselves of the agency of bees, to explain some of the difficulties which still obstruct the beautiful doctrine of vegetable generation*. By robbing plants of their pollen, do not bees con- tribute not a little to that vast variety of double blos- soms, with which our gardens are stocked and beauti- fied? Some facts, and some plausible reasoning, might be urged in support of this conjecture. To the pollen of vegetables and the labours of the bees mankind are indebted for a very important arti- cle, I mean wax, or bees-wax. The celebrated R. A. F. de Reaumur, a long time agof, asserted, that the pollen of vegetables, after undergoing the digestive process in the stomach of the bee, was converted into wax. This opinion has lately been confirmed by the inquiries of Mr. John Hunter J. With respect to the analysis of the pollen and of wax, much still remains to be done by the chemists to complete this subject. Experiments, however, seem to render it probable, that the basis of both of these mat- ters is a fat oil, which, combining with oxygen, passes to the state of a resin. If the nitric or muriatic acids be digested, for a considerable time, upon a fixed oil, this passes to the state of a matter intimately resem- * See Part III. ■f In the year 1740. \ Philosophical Transactions, for the year 1792 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 169 bling wax. It remains to be proved, what is the precise nature of the matter by which the pollen is converted into wax, in the stomach of the bee. Experiments will, in all probability, show, that the pollen of plants (of many plants, at least) contains a very large portion of oxygen. An anonymous author*, many years ago, asserted, that the pollen of plants (by giving out its phlogiston, as he supposed) brought the calx of iron to the state of a metal. Tingry discovered, that the pollen contains vola- tile oils, and different essential oils, that are soluble in spirit of wine. The powerful odour and the taste of the pollen of many plants would lead us to believe, that this prolific matter possesses very active qualities, with respect to the human and other animal bodies; and it is not im- probable, that it might be advantageously employed in the treatment of some of our diseases. If I do not greatly mistake, the pollen of some of the cerealia is employed as a medicine, in certain diseases, in some parts of Poland. In the study of Botany, it is a point of the utmost importance to be intimately acquainted with every cir- cumstance relative to the stamens, by which I mean the male organs, taken in the aggregate, and consisting of the filaments, the anthers, and the pollen. Without an intimate acquaintance with the natural history of these truly important parts in the vegetable economy, we shall * See Bibliotheca Botanica, &c. Auctore A. Hallero. Tom. ii. p. 189 Z 170 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. be incapable of understanding that wonderful function, by which the world of vegetables has been thus far pre- served from destruction; and by which it will, doubtless, be perpetuated (with the occasional loss of some species, in future, as heretofore, so long as our globe shall exist), to serve as the sustenance of man and other animals, and for innumerable other purposes. Nor does the utility of an acquaintance with the stamens terminate here. Upon these organs of the vegetable, the great Linnaeus has constructed the most essential parts of his Sexual Sys- tem: the classes, or primary divisions, and many of the orders, or secondary divisions. The twenty-four classes of this celebrated system, are founded upon the circum- stances of the number, the place of insertion, the pro- portion, the connection, the disposition, or the absence, of the stamens. Hence, it is obvious, that we cannot understand the system of the Swedish naturalist, with- out a thorough acquaintance with the sexual organs*. r- V. The Pistillum is the fourth part of the fructification enumerated by Linnaaus. He defines it, 44 a viscus or 44 organ adhering to the fruit, for the reception of the 44 pollen:" 44 Viscus fructui adhasrens pro Pollinis re- "■ ceptionef". The pistillum, to which the English botanists have given the name of Pistil and Pointal, is the female part of the vegetable, which assumes the appearance of a » See Part II. for a particular investigation of the physiology of the stamens: and Part III. for an exposition of the Linnsan System, t Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 53. $. 86. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 171 column, or set of columns, and is commonly situated in the centre of the flower, within the stamens. When perfect, it consists of three parts, the Germen, the Sty- lus, and the Stigma. A. The Germen, which is called by the English bo- tanists the Germ, Ovary, or Seed-bud, is the rudiment of the fruit, yet in an embryo-state. It constitutes the lower part, or base of the pistil, and supports the style and the stigma. a. The germ varies in respect to number in differ- ent plants. Some plants have but one germ, some two, three, he. he. whilst some have many. b. In point of figure, the germ is, 1. subrotundum, roundish. 2. ovatum, ovate. 3. oblongum, oblong. 4. turbinatum, turbinate. 5. conicum, conical; in the form of a cone* 6-lineare, linear- 7. cordatum, cordate* 8« obcordatum, obcordate. 9. globosum, globular. 10. fis- sum, cleft. 11. bifidum, bifid. 12. trifidum, trifid.' 13. partitum, parted. 14. bipartitum, two-parted. 15. an- gulatum, angular. 16. triangulare, triangular. 17.didy- mum, didymous. 18. compressum, compressed. 19. acutum, acute. 20. rostratum, beaked. 21. subulatum, subulate. c. In respect to its surface, the germ is, 1. scabrum, rough. 2. villosum, villous. 3. imbricatum, imbricated. d. In regard to its place, the germ is, 1. superum, superior; that is, included in the corolla, or the calyx. 172 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 2. inferum, inferior; placed beneath the corolla, or the calyx*. e. In respect to its insertion, the germ is, 1. sessile, sessile. 2. pedicellatum, pedicelled; standing on a pedi- cel, or footstalk. 3. seta insidens, sitting on a bristle. f. In regard to its measure, the germ is 1. mini- mum, very small in proportion to the corolla. 2. lon- gitudine staminum, as long as the stamens. 3. longi- tudine calycis, as long as the calyx. 4. longitudine nectarii, as long as the nectary. Pursuing his favourite subject of the analogies which subsist between animals and vegetables, Lin- naeus has denominated the germ, the ovarium, or uterus of plants. To this language, I shall offer no objection. We shall afterwards see, that in the germ are contained the embryo-seed of the plant, which pre-exist in this organ (as do the ova in the ovaria of many, if not all, animals), and after receiving the influence of the pollen, or powder of the stamens, are rendered fertile, and thus befitted for the important business of the perpetuation of the species. B. The Stylusf, or Style, is the middle portion of the pistil, which, in many plants, connects the stigma with the germ. I say, in many plants, for the style is not present in all plants, and is not essentially necessary to the generation of the plant. In this respect, it is upon a footing with the filament. * See page 137. f Stylus, from rft/Aej, a column. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 173 a. The style, as well as the germ, varies in res- pect to number, in different plants. Some plants have but one style, some two, three, &c. &c. whilst some are furnished with many, of these organs. In general, the number of the styles is equal to that of the germs, or ovaries, each germ being furnished with its particular style. This is the structure of the compound flowers, the cone-bearing plants, the Rose, the Ranunculus, the Liriodendron, or Tulip-tree, and many others. 1. To this general rule, however, there are exceptions; that is, there are vegetables, which have more than one style to a single germ, or seed-bud. 2. There are other plants, such as the Asperifolia, and most of the Lip-flowers, which have a single style common to many germs. 3. In other plants, again, the style, at its origin, is single, but soon branches out into as many ramifica- tions, as there are divisions, or cells, in the cavity of the germ. We discover this structure in the plants of the two families of Geranium and Mallow, and many of their relations, principally belonging to the class Monadelphia of the Sexual System. b. In point of proportion, the style is, 1. longissi- mus, very long, with respect to the stamens. 2. bre- vissimus, very short. 3. longitudine staminum, as long as the stamens. 4. crassitie staminum, as thick as the stamens. 5. crassus, thick with respect to the stamens. 6. tenuis, slender with respect to the stamens. c. In respect to its division, the style is, 1. simplex, simple; not divided. 2. bifidus, bifid. 3. trifidus, trifid. 4. bipartitus, two parted. d. In respect to its figure, the style is, 1. teres, co- lumnar. 2. cylindricus, cylindrical. 3. capillar'™. 174 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. capillary. 4. clavatus, club-shaped. 5. subulatus, subu- late. 6. alatus, winged. 7. tetragonus, four-cornered. 8. ensiformis, ensiform. 9. pubescens, pubescent; cover- ed with pubescence. 10. villosus, villous. e. In respect to its direction, the style assumes most if not all the directions which have been noticed in treating of the filaments*. f. In respect to its situation, 1. the style, in the greater number of plants, is in apice germinis, placed on the top of the germ. 2. ad latus germinis, at the side of the germ: that is, the styles, which are nume- rous, proceed from within the side of their correspond- ing germs. This structure is observable in the Rose, the Raspberry, the Strawberry, the Cinquefoil, the Tor- mentil, and other plants belonging to the order Polygi- nia in the xnth class, or Icosandria, of the sexual system. g. In point of duration, the style is, 1. persistens, permanent; remaining until the fruit be ripe; as in the plants of the class Tetradynamia. 2. deciduus, deci- duous; falling off with the other parts of the flower ; as in the greater number of vegetables. We have seen, that Linnaeus denominates the germ, the ovarium, or uterus of plants. With respect to the style, he has been pleased to call this part, the vagina or fallopian tubef. If it could be demonstrated, that * See page 160. g. + " Fii.amenta Vasa Spermatica; antherae Testes, pollen Genitura, » stigma Vulva, stylus Vagina, germen Ovarium," &c Philosophia Bota- nica, &c. p. 92. §• 146. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 175 the style, in all plants, is really tubular, or hollow, there would, I think, be but one serious objection to the em- ployment of the word vagina, in the manner it is appli- ed by Linnaeus. And it must be confessed, that in very many plants the style is unequivocally tubular: that is, there is an open or uninterrupted cavity leading from the stigma (which is next to be considered) to the ovary, or germ. In many other plants, however, no such duct has been discovered, even when the style has been examined by a powerful magnifier. But it does not follow from hence, that no such duct does exist. It may be too small to fall under the cognizance of our senses ; or it may be visible only at a particular period, viz. when the stigma has received the influence of the pol- len ; or, in other words, at the moment of impregnation. Linnaeus has shown, that in many plants the stigma is dilated at the moment it receives the pollen; but after- wards closes, so that no cavity is to be perceived. In treating of the generation and of the irritability of plants*, I shall resume the consideration of this sub- ject. Meanwhile, I must not pass by unnoticed the observation of Linnaeusf, respecting the Gratiola, or Hedge-hyssop. 44 Gratiola, cestro venereo agitata, pis- 44 tillum stigmate hiat, rapacis instar draconis, nil nisi 44 masculinum pulverem affectans; at satiata rictum 44 claudit," &c. C. The Stigma is the third and last portion of the pistillum. It is the summit or top of this female part of the plant, and is destined to receive the influence of the pollen, and transmit it to the germ. In the Latin * See Part II. t See the admirable paper, entitled Spontalia Plantarum, p. 90, in the first vol. of the Amoenitates Academic*. 176 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. language, the word stigma has several significations, none of which are agreeable to the senses in which it is employed by Linnaeus. I wonder, with Professor Mar- tyn, why the Swede did not make use of the more clas- sical and appropriate word, fibula*. Dr. Grew called the stigma, the knob, or button; and Dr. Withering the Summit. a. The number of the stigmas is very different in different vegetables. Some plants have only one stigma; some two, some three, some four, some five, &c. b. In respect to division, the stigma is, 1. simplex, simple. 2. fissum, cleft. 3. bifidum, two-cleft. 4. trifidum, three-cleft, &c. &c. 5. partitum, parted. 6. bipartitum, two-parted, he. 7. lobatum, lobed. 8. bilobum, two-lobed, &c. &c. c. In respect to figure, the stigma is, 1. capitatum, capitate ; approaching in its form, at the top, to the shape of a globe. 2. globosum, globular. 3. urceola- tum, urceolate; pitcher-shaped. 4. ovatum, ovate. 5. obtusum, obtuse. 6. truncatum, truncated. 7. oblique depressum, obliquely depressed. 8. emarginatum, emarginatc. 9. planum, flat. 10. reniforme, reniform. 11. orbiculatum, orbicular. 12. peltatum, peltate f. 13. coroniforme, crown-shaped. 14. cruciforme, cruci- form ; in the form of a cross. 15. stellatum, stellate. 16. canaliculatum, channelled. 17. concavum, con- cave. 18. umbilicatum, umbilicate ; concave, and or- bicular. 19. plicatum, plaited. 20. radiatum, radi- * Fibula , a button, a clasp, a buckle, &c.&c. f See Plate 1. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 177 ate ; marked with striated rays, which diverge from the centre. 21. angulatum, angular. 22. striatum, stri- ated. 23. plumosum, feathery. 24. pubescens, pube- scent. 25. filiforme, filiform. 26. capillare, capillary. 27. convolutum, convolute. 28. revolutum, revolute. -29. fiexum sinistrorsum, bent to the left. 30. fiexum dextrorsum, bent to the right. 31. barbatum, bearded. 32. imberbe, beardless. d. In respect to measure, the stigma is, 1. longi- tudine styli, as long as the style, &c. e. In respect to expansion, the stigma is, \. flim* briato-crispum, fimbriate-curled, or fringed. 2. folia- eeum, foliaceous, or like a leaf. 3. cucullatum, cowled. f In respect to its duration, the stigma is, 1. per- sistens, permanent; remaining until the fruit be mature ; as in Sarracenia*, Podophyllum!, and others. 2. marcescens, shrivelling, remaining, but becoming with- ered ; as in the greater number of plants. I have already % mentioned the analogical name by which Linnaeus has thought proper to designate the stigma. For that name there is, I think, as much, and even more, foundation, than for some others which the burning imagination of the northern naturalist has imposed, not only upon the organa sexualla, but upon other parts of the plant. It is, perhaps, to be regret- ted, that Linnaeus so frequently indulges in the use of terms which might, without any real injury to his writ- * See Plate i. f See Plate xvni. \ See page 174. Note. A a 178 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ings, have been dispensed with. It would have been well had he recollected the words of Cicero, 44 Nihil 44 obscoenum, nihil turpe dictu". But Philosophy must not be too squeamish ; and when I read the least chaste writings of Linnaeus, I will not say with the poet: « No pardon vile obscenity should find, " Though wit and art conspire to move your mind". Pope. A knowledge of the pistil, by which I mean the female organ, taken in the aggregate, as consisting of the germ, the style, and the stigma, is of no less con- sequence in the study of Botany, than is a knowledge of the stamens. In a physiological point of view, each set of these sexual organs is entitled to an equal portion of our attention. They are equally concerned in the business of the perpetuation of the species. The pollen of the anthers would have been secreted or formed in vain, Mere there no stigma, or germen to receive and preserve its vivifick influence. As the classes, or primary divisions, of the sexual system of Linnaeus, are founded upon the stamens, or male organs of generation, so many of the orders, or secondary divisions, are founded upon the pistils, or female organs, which I have been considering. All the orders of the first thirteen classes of this system are constructed exclusively upon the circumstance of the number of the pistils. This circumstance will necessa- rily claim our attention in the third part of these Ele- ments ; as will, likewise, the importance of the pistil as a generic and even specifick feature, in the descrip- tion of vegetables. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY- 179 |. VI. The Pericarpium * is the fifth part of the fructifi- cation enumerated by Linnaeus. He defines it 4' a 44 viscus, or organ, gravid (big) with seeds (that is a 44 vessel producing seeds), which it lets drop, when 44 they are ripe". 4% Viscus gravidum seminibus, quae <'- matura dimittitf". He has also called it the " Ova- 44 rium fcecundatumi", or " impregnated germ or 44 ovary". By the English botanists, it is denominated, the Pericarp, Seed-vessel, or Seed-case. Each of these terms may be employed; for each is just and significant. I shall however more generally make use of the word pericarp, as being most agreeable to the prevailing English botanical nomenclature which is adopted in these Elements. Dr. Johnson's definition of the word, in his Dictionary, is extremely lame, and exception- able. He says the pericarp is " a pellicle or thin mem- 44 brane encompassing the fruit or grain of a plant, or 44 that part of a fruit that envelopes the seed". The pericarp is the developed germ, ovary, or seed-bud : that is, the germ fecundated, swollen, and arrived at maturity, after having received the influence of the pollen, or fecundating powder. Linnaeus has, therefore, very properly compared this part of the fruc- tification to the fecundated ovary in animals. It is cer- tain, that, in general, the vegetable germ is not evolved * From trtp., around or about, and xxp-tk, fruit, or seed. f Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 3o. f.. 86. 1 Ib'd. p. 92. ^. 146- " Percarpium Ovarium fxcur.:!atum, unde ova producit foecunda". 180 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. into a true pericarp, if the pollen has been prevented from having access to the stigma*. The pericarp is an organ of great importance. Hence< like all the truly important parts of vegetables, and of animals, it is very generally present. Its use is obvious ; to keep and preserve the seeds until they are ripe ; to serve as " the guard of the seedf", and then to commit them to the bosom of the earth, or to the air, and waters. Some plants are destitute of the pericarp. This is the case in the Asperifolias, or Rough-leaved plants, in the Verticillate plants, and in the Compound-flowers. In these families of vegetables, the place of the pericarp is supplied by the calyx, which encloses the seed, and accompanies them to perfection % ; or by the receptacle, of which I am afterwards to speak more particularly. I cannot pretend to state, in this place, the proportion of plants that are destitute of the pericarp, compared to those which are furnished with this viscus. It may, however, be proper to observe, that the compound- flovi ers form a very extensive family, in most countries (particularly, perhaps, in North-America); and that many of the genera belonging to the other orders which I have mentioned, embrace a great number of species. Lin n^;us enumerates eight different species of pe- ricarp, viz. 1. the Capsula, 2. the Siliqua, 3. the Le- gumen, 4. the FoUiculus, 5. the Drupa, 6. the Pomum, 7. the Bacca, and, 8. the Strobilus. '* See Part II. t Mr. John Ray. | See page 125. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 181 1. The Capsula*, or first species of pericarp which I have mentioned, is called by the English bo- tanists, Capsule, little chest, or casket. It is a mem- branaceous, hollow pericarp, which spontaneously opens or splits in some determinate manner, or different- ly in different vegetables : 44 Pericarpium cavum, de- 44 terminate dehiscensf". Dr. Grew distinguishes all the dry seed-vessels, whether they be capsules (in the Linnaean sense of the word) or pods, by the name of 44 seed-cases", or 44 membranous uteri", in opposition to the pericarps of a pulpy kind, such as the fruit of the Apple, the Quince, the Cherry, the Gooseberry, and others ; these last he nominates fruits. This distinction of the great English philosophical naturalist is more agreeable to the prevailing ideas with regard to all the various kinds of pericarp, than the distinction of Lin- naeus, and the botanists of his school. Nevertheless, the term pericarp, as a generic term, may, with great propriety, be employed. a- In respect to its figure and substance, the cap- sula is, 1. turbinata, turbinate- 2- infiata, inflated. 3. globosa, globular. 4. didyma, twin, or didymous. 5. scrotiformis, purse-like ; elevated with two protube- rances. 6- cylindracea, cylindrical. 7 columnaris, co- lumnar ; cylindrical and capitate. 8- oi-atc, ovate. 9. subrotunda, roundish. 10. oblonga, oblong. 11- ob- cordata, obcordate ; inversely cordate- 12- obtusa, ob- tuse. 13- acuminata, acuminate- 14- ventricosa, ven- tricose ; oblong and very convex- 15. compressa, com- pressed. 16- membranacea, membranous. 17- elastica, * Capsula, in Latin, signifies, a little coffer, or chest, or casket. | Philosophia Botanic*, &c p. 53 ^. 86. 182 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. elastic. 18- triquetra,triquetrous- 19- tetragona, four-cor- nered*. 20. trisulca,three-furrowed. 21. triloba, three- lobed- 22. quinquedendata, five-toothed. 23. coronata, crowned ; the extremity furnished with leaflets, digest- ed into a crown. 24- circumscissa, cut round; or bursting all round horizontally, like a snuff-box ; as in Anagaliis- 25. articulata, jointed ; intercepted by joints. 26. coriacea, coriaceous ; resembling leather; as in iEsculusf. 27. carnosa, fleshy ; resembling flesh ; as in Pontederia. 28- lignosa, woody ; of a woody texture ; as in Cedrela. Capsules, in splitting or opening, are divided externally into one or more pieces, to which Linnaeus has given the name of Valva and Valvula%, or Valves. The valve is the outer coat, shell, or covering of a cap- sule, or any other species of pericarp, or the several pieces which compose it- It is rather the door, or open- ing, by which the seeds of the capsule are to go out, or escape- According to the number of its valves, the cap- sule is, 1. bivahis, bivalve, or two-valved ; splitting into two parts or pieces; as in Celandine, and in all the siliques and legumes- 2. trivahis, trivalve, or three- valved ; opening with three valves ; as in Violet, JEs- culus, Cistus Helianthemum, and others. 3. quadri- valvis, quadrivalve ; or four-valved ; opening with four valves ; as in Ludvigia, Oenothera, &.c. 4. quinque- valvis, quinquevalve, or five-valved ; opening with five * See Plate x. ■(■ See Plate xv. d. e. \ From the Latin valvx, doors or gates, which open and shut on both sides ; folding-doors. Linnxus d >es not make any distinction between valva and val- vula. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 183 valves, as in Hottonia, Flax, Lime-tree (Tilia), Syrian- Mallow (Hibiscus), and Cotton (Gossypium). The internal divisions of the capsule are denomi- nated Loculamenta*, or Cells. Thes eare the chambers appropriated for the reception of the seeds. According to the number of these cells, the capsule is, 1. unilocu- laris, unilocular, or one-celled ; as in the Primrose. 2. bilocularis, bilocular, or two-celled ; as in the Henbane, Tobacco, and Thorn-apple, or James-town-weed. 3. trilocularis, trilocular, or three-celled; as in the Lily, the Hyacinth, &c 4. multilocularis, multilocular, or many-celled ; as in the different kinds of Nymphaea and Nelumbium, which are known by the names of Wa- ter Lily- The capsule has received different names, accord- ing to the number of the seeds which it contains. Thus, we have, 1. capsula dicocca, a dicoccous or two-grained capsule; consisting of two cohering grains or celb, with one seed in each. 2. tricocca, tricoccous or three- grained ; swelling out in three protuberances, internally divided into three cells, with one seed in each ; as in the genus Euphorbia, or Spurge. 3. pentacocca, penta- coccous, or five-grained ; swelling out in five protube- rances, or having five united cells, each containing one seed. The partitions by which the capsule is internally divided into cells, are called by Linnaeus Dissepimenta ; each of these partitions, dissepimentum : 4< a wall sepa- rating a pericarp internally into cells". Dr. Martyn * Loeulamentum, in Latin, siguiiles a case, a drawer, a bag, Sec. 184 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. calls this part of the plant, the partition : but I think it better to use the word Dissepiment. The dissepiment is either, 1. parallel, dissepimen- tum parallelum, or, 2. contrary*. The former ap- proaches in breadth and its transverse diameter to the valves ; as in Lunaria and Draba. The latter is nar- rower than the valves ; or, as Linnaeus more fully ex- presses it in the Delineatio Planta, narrower, when the valves, by being queezed or contracted, become con- cave. (<4 Angustius ubi valvulae coarctatae evadunt concavae)"- This is exemplified in Biscutella and Thlaspi. Linnaeus borrowed these two terms from Tournefort: he observes, that they are to be under- stood with some allowance as to the manner in which they are employed- This is candidly observed- 44 I 44 should have conceived (says Dr. Martyn) a parallel 44 partition in a siliqua or pod to have been in the direc- 44 tion of the valves—a contrary or transverse one, at 44 right angles with the valves". By some English. writers on Botany, the name of transverse dissepiment is given to the dissepiment called by Linnaeus con- trary- The Columella^ is the central pillar in a capsule. It is the part which connects the several internal parti- tions with the seed : 44 Pars connectens parietesinternos 44 cum seminibusj" It takes its rise from the recepta- cle, and has the seed fixed to it, all round. * Dissepimentum contrarium- f Columella, in Latin, signifies a little pillar, a tomb-stone, or pillar of in- scription. \ Philosophia Botanica, &.c. p. 53. §. 86. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 185 Representations of different kinds of capsules are given in this work *. 2. The Siliqua, Silique, or Pod, is a two-valved pericarp, having the seed fixed along both sutures. The proper silique is bilocular, or two-celled, being furnished with a partition which runs the whole length of this kind of pericarp. It is to be observed, however, that some pericarps which have the same form, take the name of siliqua, although they have no partition, and, of course, are unilocular, or one-celled ; as in Fumitory (Fumaria), and Celandine, or Cheledonium. Linn^us, after Ray, has distinguished the silique into the siliqua, properly so called, and the silicula, or silicle. These two pericarps do not essentially differ from each other : they differ only in form and size. The first-mentioned species is much longer than it is broad : we have examples of this kind of pericarp in the following vegetables, viz. Mustard, Radish, Wall-flower (Cheiranthus), Water-cresses, Bignonia longissima, and many others. The silicle is almost round, or at least makes a much nearer approach to the orbicular form ; as in the Lunaria (called Honesty and Satin-flower), in Alyssum (Mad-wort), Thlaspi (Shep- herd's Purse), Iberis (Candy-tuft), and others. This difference in the form and shape of the silique and sili- cle, is assumed by Linnaeus as the foundation of the two orders into which he has distributed the plants of the xvth class of his system. * Sec Plates iv, vm, x, xi, -n, xiv, xv, &c. &c. Bb 186 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. a. In regard to its figure, the species of pericarp of which I have been speaking (whether silique or si- licle) is, 1. compressa, compressed. 2. torosa, torose ; swelling out into knobs, like the veins and muscles. 3. torulosa, swelling as above, but in a smaller degree. 4. articulata, jointed ; intercepted with tight joints *. 3. The Legumen, or Legume, is a pericarp of two valves, in which the seeds are fixed along one of the sutures only. By this circumstance, it differs from the last mentioned species of pericarp, in which we have seen the seeds are fixed to both sutures. The old English word for the legume was codf, and the pericarp ol the Pea, which is a true legume, is still called a Peas- cod. 44 Pod (as Dr. Martyn observes) is used both for 44 the legume and the silique indifferently : but they are 44 so distinct, that they ought not to have the same ap- 44 pellation. It seems better, therefore (the same inge- nious writer remarks), '4 to anglicize the Latin terms : 44 and with respect to this, it is become sufficiently fami- 44 liar to the English earj". In the United-States, it may, however, be observed, that the word cod is much less generally applied to the legume, or any other spe- cies of pericarp. a. In regard to its figure, its substance, he. the le- srume is, 1- subrotundum, roundish. 2. ovatum, ovate. 3. oblongum, oblong. 4 lineare, linear. 5- rhombeumi rhombed,'or rhomb-shaped. 6- rhomboidale, rhomboi- * See Plate xxvi. \ Thus May, in the following lines : " Thy corn thou there may'st safely sow, " Where in full cods last year rich pease did grow". | I lit Language of Botany, 8cc. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 187 dal; of a rhomboid form. 7- lunulatum, crescent- shaped. 8. muticum, awnless; without a point. 9. obtusum, obtuse. 10- acuminatum, acuminate- 11. spina mucronatum, mucronate with a thorn- 12- venoso- reticulatum, venose-reticulated; the veins disposed so as to form a net-work- 13. venoso-varicosum, venoso- varicose ; the veins dilated so as to form varices- 14- striatum, striated- 15- villosum, villose- 16. tubercu- latum, tubercled ; covered with cartilaginous points. 17. scabrum, rough. 18- planum, flat. 19- membrana- ceum, membranous. 20- foliaceum, foliaceous. 21- diaphanum, diaphanous. 22- coriaceum, coriaceous. 23.gibbum, gibbous. 24- teres, columnar. 25. tereti- usculum, somewhat columnar. 26. cyUndraceum, cy- lindrical. 27- alatum, winged. 28- angulis membra- naceis, with membranous angles- 29- compressum, compressed ; as in Gleditsia triacanthos, called Iloney- Locust. 30- nodosum, knotty; elevated in knots. 31. infiatum, inflated. 32. turgidum, turgid; swollen, as in Ononis, and Crotallaria sagittalis (called in the United-States, Rattle, and Rattle-Box). X. B. The turgid and the inflated legume are thought, bv some writers, to be no ways different: 44 but in the latter (as Dr. Martyn observes) 44 I apprehend the pericarp to be 44 in substance, as well as in form, somewhat like a 44 blown bladder; whereas in the former it is merely 44 more swelled out, and has a wider cavity than usual". We have a good example of the legumen infiatum in Colutea, or Bladder-Senna- 33. torosum, torose, or necklace-form ; gibbous, with protuberances disposed linearly. 34- farctum, stuffed; fV.il of a pulpy or fleshy substance. 35. pulposum, pulpy; filled with pulp. 36. carnosum, flesh}"; filled with a fleshy substance. 57. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. lignosum, woody. 38. subulatum, subulate. 39. falca- tum, falcate, or sickle-shaped ; compressed, subulate, and curved. 40- sessile, sessile- 41. pedicdlaium, pe- dicelled ; elevated on a pedicel. 42- rectum, straight; without a bend- 43. strictum, stiff and straight. 44. rigidum, rigid. 45- ascendens, ascending, with an ascending point. 46- incurvatum, incurved- 47- arcu- atum, bowed ; bent like a bow. 48- inflexum, inflected. 49- reflexum, reflected- 50- revolutum, revolute. b. In regard to its measure, the legume is, 1- longissimum, very long, with respect to the corolla. 2. longum, long. 3. maximum, very large, as in Gledit- sia. 4- minimum, very small; as in the different kinds of Clover (Trifolium). 4- latissimum, very broad. c. In regard to its structure, the legume is, 1. artiadatum, jointed. 2. uniloculare, unilocular. 3. biloculare, bilocular. 4. isthmis interceptum, divided transversely, within, into different cells. Plants that are furnished with the legume, as a pericarp, are known by the name of Leguminosa, or Leguminous Plants. The greater number of these ve- getables are arranged by Linnaeus under his xvnth class, or Diadelphia. Of these plants particular men- tion will be made in treating of the artificial and natural arrangements of vegetables *. It may here be observed, that Dr. Arbuthnot and some other English writers have confounded the siliquose and leguminousplants with each other. Dr. Johnson does not seem to have had correct ideas on the subjectf. This, however, is the more * See Part III. f See his Dictionary. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 189 excuseable, since the ancients themselves, as Linnaeus observes, confounded under one name, the pericarps of the Tetradynamous and Diadelphous plants: that is, the silique and legume. Thus, Columella denominates the pods of Beans, 44 siliquse. Virgil uses siliqua in the same sense, in the following lines : " Semina vidi equidem multos medicare serentes ; " Et nitro prius et nigra perfunderc amurca, " Grandior ut fetus siliquis fallacibus esset". Gkorgic. Lib. i. 1. 193-195. " Though steep'd in nitrous juice and oily Ices, " And seeth'd o'er gentle fires by slow degrees, 44 Oft have I seen the temper'd seeds deceive, • " And o'er the treach'rous fwd the peasant grieve". SOTIIEBY. We are certain, from a passage in Pliny, that Virgil is speaking of Beans, and of course, that the word siliquis is properly translated by pod. But the word legumen very frequently occurs in the writings of the Roman authors. In these it seems to imply every species of pulse, such as Beans, Pease, he. Thus Virgil : " Alternis idem tonsas cessare novales, " Et segnem patiere situ durescere campum. "■ Aut ibi fiava seres, mutato sidere, farra, " Unde prius 1 actum siliqua quassante legumen. " Aut tenues fetus viciae, tristisque lupini (i Sustuleris fragiles calamos silvamque sonantem". GfcOMGic. Lib. 1.1.71-76. •' Alternate fallows rest th' exhausted earth, u And gradual fit the soil for future birth ; " Or sow with golden corn the furrow'd clod, " Where the bean hurvest burst the shattcr'd pod, 190 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 44 Or the light vetch and bitter lupine grew, 44 Bow'd to the gale, and rattled as it blew". Sothebt. Even Linnaeus himself has sometimes confound- ed the terms siliqua and legumen. Thus in his Pra- lectiones in Ordines Naturales Plantarum, he calls the pericarp of the Lomentacea* a 44 siliqua" : but at a sub- sequent period, he denominated it a legumen. For representations of the Legume, see Plate XXI. 4. The Folliculusf, or Follicle, is a one-valved pericarp, which opens longitudinally only on one side, and having its seed loose within it, that is not bound to the suture. In the writings of Linnaeus, the terms fol- liculus and conceptaculum (conceptacle) are entirely sy- nonymous. The latter term occurs in the Philosophia Botanica, the former in the Delineatio Plants, and in the early and late editions of the Genera Plantarum. We have examples of this species of pericarp in the genera Nerium, Stapelia, Cynanchum, Periploca, Apocynum, Asclepias, Embothrium, and others. 5. The Drupa, or Drupe, is a species of pericarp which is destitute of valves, and contains a nut or stone within which there is a kernel. The drupe is mostly a moist and succulent fruit, as in the Plum, the Cherry, the Apricot, the Peach, and the Olive : but sometimes, it is dry, as in the Almond. To these two species of * See Part III. Class x. Decandria. ■f FoUiculus, in Latin, signifies a little leather bag, a husk of Wheat, or other grain.—See page 87. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 191 drupa have been given the names of 1. succulenta, succu- lent, or juicy ; containing a fluid, and, 2. sicca, dry, or juiceless ; opposed to the-preceding term. The term drupa is sanctioned by classical autho- rity. It is employed by Pliny, who uses the word for the fruit of the Olive *. The term is synonymous to Tournefort's 44 fructus mollis ossiculo", or, soft fruit with a stone. It is, also, equivalent to the term Prunus, as employed by other botanists. The nut, or stone, which in the drupe is surrounded by the soft, pulpy flesh, is a kind of woody cup, which commonly con- tains a single kernel, called Nucleus. The hard shell thus enveloping the kernel, is denominated Putamen. As Linnaeus is not always consistent, so the reader will not be surprized to find, that the definition which has just been given of the drupe, does not apply to every pericarp designated by this name in the Genera Plantarum. For not, again, to mention the Almond, Linnaeus calls the pericarp of the Elm (Ulmus) a drupe, although its substance is like parchment, and its seed are not contained within a stone. Beside the vegetables which I have mentioned, the following indigenous plants furnish good examples of the drupe, viz. the Sour-Gum and Sour-Olive of the United-States (Nyssa integrifolia and N. denticulata); different species of Laurus, such as Sassafras (Laurus Sassafras), Spice-wood (Laurus Benzoin), and others. The term drupe gave name to an order, Drupacea, in the former editions of Linnasus's Fragments of a na- * Lib. xv. cap. vn. 192 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. tural method. This order (the thirty-eight) compre- hended the Almond, the Peach, the Plumb, the Apri- cot, the Cherry, and the Bird-seed : but they were af- terwards referred to the order Pomacea, some account of which is given in the last part of this work*. 6. The Pomum, or Pomef, or Apple J, is a pulpy pericarp, without valves, but containing a membranous capsule\, with a number of cells or cavities, for the lodgment of the seeds- This species of pericarp has no external opening or valve. At the end opposite to the peduncle, or footstalk supporting the pome, there is frequently a small cavity, to which the gardeners have given the name of the eye of the fruit. The Apple, the Pear, the Quince, the Gourd, the Cucumber, the Melon, and many others, furnish us with instances of this species of pericarp. Several of these plants belong to Linnaeus's order Pomaceae, just mentioned. a. In regard to its figure, the pomum is, 1. ob- longum, oblong. 2. ovatum, ovate- 3. globosum, glo- bular. 4. subrotundum, roundish; not to mention many other forms ; for the form of fruits is immensely varied by climate, and by soil. b. With respect to its cells, this species of peri- carp is triloculare, three-celled, &:c- * See Class xn. Icosandria. f Dr. Martyn. \ Dr. I. E. Smith. ^ " Pcricarpium i'arctum evalve, Capsulam cominens". ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 193 7. The Bacca, or Berry, is a succulent or pulpy pe- ricarp, without valves, and containing naked seeds, or seeds which have no other covering. The seeds, in this species of pericarp, are sometimes dispersed promiscu- ously through the pulpy substance, as in the Water- Li ly : but they are more generally placed upon recepta- cles, or foot-stalks, within the pulp ; as in the Currant, the Gooseberry, the Raspberry, the Hydrastis, called in the United-States, Yellow-root, and many others. To the former kind of seed, Linnaeus.has given the name of semina nidulantia, or nestling seed. 0. The berry assumes a considerable variety of forms. It is however, very frequently round, or oval, and is often furnished with an umbilicus, or small cavity, at the end opposite to the foot-stalk, as is the case in the Apple, and ether species of the pomum. This species of berry is called, by Linnaeus, bacca umbilicata- £. According to the number of seeds which it con- tains, the bacca is, 1. monosperma, one-seeded; con- .taining a single seed ; as in Plinia, &c. 2. disperma, two-seeded ; containing two seeds ; as in Chiococca. 3. polysperma, many-seeded ; containing several seeds ; as in the Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), Wither- ingia, May-apple (Podophyllum peltatum), and others. In the use of the term bacca, or berry, Linnaeus is sometimes as inconsistent as in the use of the term drupe. Thus, he calls the pericarp of Lesser-Burdock (Xr mhlum) a berry : but it is dry, and contains within it a nut, which is furnished with two cells ! Again, he calls the pericarp of Capsicum, a berry. But this has c c 194 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. no pulp, and is hollow within. The following pericarps, though, certainly, very different from each other, are * all denominated by Linnaeus, berries, viz. Sumach (Rhus), Nightshade (Solanum), Sow-bread (Cycla- men), Medlar (Mespilus), Orange and Lemon (Citrus Aurantium and C. medica), Yew (Taxus), and Pine- apple, or Bromelia. c. The berry is said to be proper, or improper. The former is formed of the pericarp, or seed-vessel. The latter is formed of any of the other parts of the fructifi- cation. Thus, in the Mulberry, the Rose, the Blite (Blitum\ and Myrtle-leaved Sumach (Rhus Coriaria), the large, fleshy, and succulent calyx becomes a berry. In the Strawberry and Cashew-nut (Anacardium), it is formed from the receptacle : in the Raspberry and Ado- nis, of a seed : in the Marvel of Peru CMirabilis) of the nectary : in the Garden Burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba) of the tube of the corolla, which hardens and shuts, for the purpose. Certain fruits, such as Mulberry, Raspberry, Blackberry, not to mention many others, which are ge- nerally regarded as berries, have, with more propriety, been denominated Compound and Spurious Berries : for in these, each of tlje component parts, which are called acini, or granules, may, very properly, be consi- dered as a distinct berry, containing a single seed, im- mersed in the pulpy matter. The berry does not spontaneously gap or burst, as do the four first species of pericarp which I have men- tioned, viz. the capsule, the silique and silicle, the le- gume, and the follicle, or conceptacle. Birds and other ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 195 species of animals, as we shall afterwards see, are very instrumental in the dissemination or dispersion of va- rious kinds of berries. " Finis Baccae, says Linnaeus, 44 ut semina ab animalibus serantur : c. gr. Viscum*''1. For representations of different kinds of berry, see, in this work, Plates i, ix, xiv, xvni. 8. The Strobilusf, or Strobile, is the last species of pericarp enumerated by Linnaeus. He defines it, a pericarp formed from an ament by the induration of the scales. This is the definition as given in the Termini Botanici. In the Delineatio Planta, it is thus expres- sed, 44 Strobilus imbricatus amenti coarctati". That is, the strobile is made up of scales that are imbricate, or lie over each other, from an ament contracted or squeezed together, in this state of maturity. 44 This 44 term includes (as Dr- Martyn observes) not only 44 the cone of former writers, but also some other 44 fruits, which recede considerably in structure from 44 that sort of pericarp ; as that of Magnolia", Tulip-tree (Liriodendron), and others. It must be evident, there- fore, that it is improper to translate strobilus by cone, as has been done by some writers. The strobile assumes a variety of forms in different vegetables. • Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 75. ^. 113. t Strobilus has very different significations in the Latin language ; it signifies a wild Pi u tree, a Pine-apple, an ArtichoLe, and, also, a whirl-wind. 196 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Although Linnaeus, in the later editions of his works, has discarded the term cone, and adopted that of strobile, he has, nevertheless, retained an order of vegetables, which he calls Conifera, or Cone-bearing, of which notice will be taken in a subsequent part of the work*. To this order belong the Fir, the Pine, the Cypress, the Thuja, and others. Beside the eight species of pericarp above men- tioned, four other species are enumerated by Professor Scopoli, of Pavia. These are the Theca, the Grana- tum, the Cysta, and the Scrinum- Of each of these, it is proper that I should take some notice. 9. The Thecal sde fined to be a double involucre of the seed, the exterior covering bursting open; the in- terior one, which is either pulpy, membranaceous, hairy, or woolly or brittle, envolving the seed- 44 Fructus 44 cum involucro duplici; exterius, dehiscens, interius, 44 pulposum, membranaceum, pilosum, lanatum aut 4' fragile, semina obvolvensj". We have examples of this species of pericarp in the Euonymus, or Spindle- tree, and in the Celastrus, or Staff-tree, and several others. Linnaeus was not unacquainted with this spe- cies of pericarp. He did not, however, consider it as a pericarp, but as the proper and exterior coat or covering of the seed||, which falls off spontaneously, or encloses the seed partially. I think, however, that the theca may very properly be considered as a species of pericarp. In this opinion, I follow not only the learned Scopoli * See Part in. Class xxi. Mosoecia. ■)■ Theca, in Latin, signifies a sheath or case, also a box or bag, and the husk of corn. \ Necker. See his Corollarium, &c. p. 28. |J Arillus. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 197 himself, but also Giseke, and some other writers. By some English botanists, the theca has been denominated the Case- 10. The Granatum*, or Granate, is also a double involucre ; one of the covers being of a corky or coria- ceous texture, the other succulent. In this species of pericarp, however, of which we have the most familiar instance in the Punica Granatum, or Pomegranate, neither of the involucres, or covers, splits or opens. 11. The Cystaf, or Cyst, consists of three covers, one of which is membranaceous, another succulent or fleshy, and the third and most interior also membrana- ceous or brittle. Neither of these covers splits or opens. 44 Cysta, fructus minime dehiscens e germine oriens, 44 triplici involucro. Exterius, membranaceum, fragi- 44 leve semina involvens". TheBerberis, or Barberry, supplies an example of this species of pericarp. 12. The ScrinumJ, or Serine, is also composed of three covers, viz. an exterior one, which is of a woody texture, and does not split at all; a middle one, which is pulpy, and an interior one, which is membranaceous, envelopes the seed, and spontaneously splits, or opens : 44 Fructus ex involucro triplici compositum. Exterius, 44 lignosum minime dehiscens, medium pulposum, in- 44 terius sponte dehiscens, membranaceum, semina fo- 44 vens'.". * Granatum is used by Pliny (Lib. xx. cap. xiv.) as the name of the Punica Granatum, or Pomegranate-tree. f Cysta, or rather Cibta, signifies, in Latin, a basket, or chest for books, money, &c. \ Scrinum, or scrinium, signifies a casket or coffer, an escritore, a book- ease, &c. (j Necker. Corollarium, &c. p. 17, 18. 198 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. I do not know that names for all of these four spe- cies of pericarp have been as yet introduced into the English botanical nomenclature. I think we may use the following, viz. Theca (without any alteration), the Granate (sufficiently distinct from the compound stone called granite), the Cyst, and the Serine. §. VII. The Semen, or Seed, is the sixth part, and the 44 end and aim", of the fructification- It is defined by Linnaeus, the deciduous part of a vegetable, containing the rudiments of a new or other vegetable of J:he same species, and fertilized by the aspersion or sprinkling of the pollen, or fecundating powder : 4 4 pars vegetabilis 44 decidua, novi rudimentum, Pollinis irrigatione vivi- 44 ficatum*". The parts of a seed, properly so called, are enu- merated by the Swedish naturalist, as follows; viz. 1- the Corculum- 2. the Cotyledon. 3. the Hilum- 4- the Arillus. 5. the Coronula, and, 6. the Ala. Of each of these parts I shall give some account, though not in the precise order in which I have mentioned them. I shall, also, take notice of some other parts of the seed, unnoticed by Linnaeus ; for since his time the subject has excited much more attention than he has devoted to it. A. I begin with the Hilumf. This part, which is frequently called the Eye, is an external cicatrix. * Philosophia Botanica, &c. p 54. \. 86. t The word hilum, in the Latin language, signifies the little black of a Bean, and, also, a very nothing. In this sense it is used by Cicero and by Lucretius. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 199 mark or scar of the umbilical chord of some seeds, where they adhere to the pericarp. In other words, it is the scar formed by the breaking off or separation of the stalk to which it was affixed, and by which it re- ceived its nourishment, whilst in the pericarp, or vege- table womb. In the Delineatio Planta, Linnaeus deno- minates the hilum, " cicatrix umbilicalis", and in his Philosophia Botanica he thus defines it: 44 Cicatrix ex- 44 terna seminis ab ejusdem affixione in fructu*". This part of the seed is more or less conspicuous in different seeds. In the following, it is very large and conspi- cuous, viz. the Garden-Beanf (Vicia Faba), in the Cardiospermum, or Heart-seed; and in the Sta- phylea trifolia, or Bladder-nut. B. Besides the hilum, we observe, in various species of seeds, particularly when in their green state, a very minute foramen, or hole, of which I think Lin- naeus has taken no notice. This aperture is perceptible, even without the assistance of a glass, in the full-grown Garden-Bean. In this species of seed, it is situated at the end of the hilum, and immediately at the point of the radicle, which is presently to be mentioned%. It is uncertain whether this foramen be present in all seeds. Some writersII have supposed, that it is. Possibly, it is constant in all seeds. We cannot doubt that it exists in many in which neither the armed or un- armed eye has detected it. It is so minute, that it may readily escape our notice, especially in small seeds, when the) are perfectly ripe and dry. * Page 54. S- 86- f Scv Plate v. Fig. A. 1. Fig. D. 1. \ See Plate v. Fig. A. 4. || Mr. Cunts. 200 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. The use of this foramen is unknown to us. Dr. Grew, who was acquainted with it, supposed, that the moisture, which the Bean absorbs, when it is commit- ted to the earth, and by which it becomes distended, finds a passage through this aperture. The late Mr. Curtis made an experiment to ascertain the truth of this opinion. He covered the aperture in six Peas (Pisum sativum), with a strong spirit varnish, and placed them in a pot of moist earth, along with six other Pease, which were of the same weight. The following day, he took them out of the pot, and upon weighing them, he found, that the varnished were nearly as heavy as the unvarnished seed, and that there was but little difference in the size of the Pease thus treated. From this expe- riment, the ingenious experimenter concludes, 44 that 44 the moisture which the Pea absorbs, enters the Co- 44 tyledons by some other channel than the aperture, 44 most probably the whole surface of the husk is perme- 44 able*". I think it probable, that the whole surface of the husk is really permeable: but it must be ob- served, that Mr. Curtis's experiment is not conclusive. His Pease were not left for a sufficient time in the earth, and it does appear, that the seed in which the foramina were not varnished had absorbed, in the course of about one day, more moisture than the others. C. By the Arillus, Arilf, or TunicJ, Linnaeus, as I have already observed, means a particular covering of the seed, to which other writers have given the name of pe- ricarp. I shall not employ arillus, in the Linnaean sense of the word, but shall speak of the coverings of the seed under other names. * A Companion to the Botanical Magazine, Sa. p. 6. t Dr. Martyn. | Dr. I. E. Smith. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 201 By some writers*, the exterior covering of the seed is denominated the Cutis, or Husk. Gaertnerf, who has devoted more attention to the seed than any other writer, divides the Proper integuments of seeds ('Integumenta seminum propria), into the Testa, or Shell, and the Membrana interna, or Internal Membrane. These are the coats which invest the nucleus (kernel); they do not separate, except under germination, and even then, not spontaneously : they are burst irregularly by the swelling of the cotyledons. 1. When the seed is furnished with two proper coats, the shell is the outer one : when there is only one coat, this is accounted the shell; and when there are more than two coverings, the second from the nucleus is named the shell. The shell is deemed an essential part of the seed, because the kernel, which originally was wholly fluid, could not have been formed unless a coat had been placed round it. This integument is never wanting. a. In regard to its consistence, &c. the testa is, 1. membranacea, membranous. 2. pellucida, pellucid ; as in Rice (Oryza). 3. opaca, opaque; dry and almost friable ; as in Messerchmidia. 4. chartacea, paper-like, and somewhat elastic and very tough ; as in the Indian- corn (Zea Mays). 5. coriacea, coriaceous; thicker than the preceding. 6. spongiosa,fungosa, and subcrosa, spongy, fungous, or cork-like; formed of a porous substance. 7. carnosa, fleshy. 8. Crustacea, crusta- * Curtis, &c. f See his great and classical work, De Fructibus &. Semmibus Plantarum. Slutgardix • 1783, is. Tubingse : 1791. D a 202 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ceous; thin, and not capable of being softened by water, or cut by a knife, but easily broken by the fingers; as in the Palms. 9- ossea and lapidea, differing from the preceding, only in thickness and hardness- b. The testa is, 1. bilocularis, or two-celled; as in Sapindus. 2. Most generally, however, it is unilo- cularis, unilocular, or one-celled, containing a single kernel- 2- The internal membrane is generally present, but is, nevertheless, often wanting. This integument always closely invests the kernel, but readily secedes from the shell. It is, 1« membranacea, or membranous ; or, 2. subspongiosa, somewhat spongy- The former is the most common- The Chalaza is situated in the internal mem- brane. This is a part of the seed of which the learned Gaertner has taken particular notice. It is a small deep- coloured areola, or a small spongy or callous tubercle on the outer surface of the internal membrane of the seed ; it is found in many but not in all seeds, and is either placed near the external umbilicus, or diametri- cally opposite to it. The latter situation is the most common. 3- The Accidental integuments, as Gaertner calls them, are superadded to the testa, or shell, of the seed, and either wholly or partially cover it in such a manner, that they may be easily removed. The first of these accidental coverings is called by Gaertner, the epidermis, or cuticle. It is a thin pellicle, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 203 which invests the whole seed, and never spontaneously separates from it- The epidermis is, 1. membranacea, membranous. 2. mucilaginosa, mucilaginous. This is only observed, when seeds, by being thrown into water, have their sur- face softened and resolved into a jelly, or mucilage. This is very observable in the seed of the Quince (Pyrus Cydonia), and in those of the Siliquose plants. Gjertner retains the term arillus, or aril, as one of the accidental integuments, which covers the seed, either wholly or partially, adhering only to the navel. Of the aril, I have already spoken under the head of pe- ricarp, and have nothing further to say concerning it, in this place. * D. The Nucleus, or Kernel,is the part which fillsthe internal cavity of the various integuments which have been mentioned. It is of an almond-fleshy substance*, and generally composed of four distinct parts, viz. 1. the Albumen. 2. the Vitellus. 3. the Cotyledon ; and, 4. the Embryo. Of these I shall treat in the order in which I have mentioned them. 1. The Albumen, or White of the Seed, is that part of the kernel which invests the cotyledons, and is thought to afford the same support to the germinating embryo, that the white of the egg does to the chick. Both in respect to its consistence and colour, the albu- men, in many seeds, greatly resembles the white of a boiled egg. It is not deemed an essential part of the • That is retailing the impression of the nail. Girtner calls it amygdalino- carnosum. 204 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. seed. It is wanting in many seeds, but, upon the whole, appears to be present in a majority of the many seeds which were examined, with a truly scientific patience, by Gaertner. It is present in the plants of the following natural orders, viz. the Grasses, the Palms, the Lili- aceous plants, the Umbelliferae, the Coniferae, and the Multisiliquae, not to mention some others. The albumen is wanting in the seeds of the Compositae, the Verticil- latae, the Siliquosae, the Cucurbitaceae, and the Asperi- foliae- In the Leguminous plants, a very great number of the genera are destitute of albumen, whilst a few are supplied with it. Among the plants of the class Mona- delphia, there is a greater number of genera with albu- minous than with exalbuminous seeds. Although the albumen is thus wanting in many seeds, it must be admitted, when present, to be a sub- stance of considerable importance. It supports and de- fends the embryo, whilst this essential part is imprison- ed in the seed, and serves for the first nutriment of the embryo, when it begins to germinate. It has no con- nection with the embryo, whether it surround, or is surrounded by, the embryo : it is always so distinct, as to be very readily detached from it. The part of the kernel of which I am speaking, was not unknown to Dr. Grew, who gaye it the name which it now retains. Gleichen calls it the 44 seminal placenta", whilst Meese and Boehmer designate it by the name of cotyledon. Linnaeus asserted, that the vegetable egg is destitute of albuminous matter, and that it is of no use in the seed. He would have said, with mere truth, as Gaertner observes, that albumen is ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 205 not found in all seed. Moreover, some seeds have but a very small quantity of this substance. 2. The Vitellus, or Yolk, is placed between the embryo and the albumen, and is different both from the cotyledons and the albumen. . It is so closely connected with the embryo, that it cannot be detached from it, without injuring the substance of the latter. It is never carried without the shell of the seed, whilst this is ger- minating, nor does it become a seminal leaf, as the co- tyledons do, but is entirely exhausted by the seminal plant and converted into its nourishment; in both which respects it resembles the albumen. In albuminous seeds, or seeds furnished with albumen, the vitellus oc- cupies the middle place between it and the embryo, in such a manner, that it can be easily separated from the albumen, without any injury to its form. It is evident, therefore, that it has some affinity with the cotyledons, and also with the albumen. Of all the internal parts of tue seed, the vitellus is the most uncommon- In the seeds of what are commonly called the more imperfect plants, such as the Fuci, the Mosses, and the Ferns, the vitellus presents itself in its most simple form and fabric. In these plants, the whole kernel is a pure vitellus, which is formed of mere herbaceous or almond- flesh, and exacth' adapted to the cavity of its shell. Even here, although the diagnosis of it is difficult, it cannot, in the opinion of Gaertner, be referred to the al- bumen, because it does not contain within itself a dis- tinct embryo, but is perfectly solid. Moreover, near the umbilicus of the seed, the vitellus has growing to it, a <4 germinating cicatricle", which is not separable 206 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. from the remaining substance of the kernel, nor even distinguishable from it, except by its paler colour, and more medullary consistence ; as we observe in the seeds of Lycopodium. Nor can the substance in question be considered as a solid cotyledon, because in the germi- nating seeds of the Mosses, we plainly observe cotyledo- nous leaflets, arisingbelow it from the seed; and it is seen adhering to these new and true cotyledons, a long time after their appearance, and the seminal plant consuming and destroying it. The vitellus, from all these circum- stances, appears to be of an intermediate nature, between the albuminous and cotyledonous matter. In other vegetables, as in Ruppia and Zamia, the fabric of the vitellus is more evident. In the first of these plants, it is very like to a fleshy albumen, and in Zamia, it is still more like albuminous matter. In Zos- tera, Ceratophyllum, and others, the vitellus approaches nearer to the form of a true cotyledon, being formed of a white almond-flesh, and divided into two lobes. In Ceratophyllum and Nelumbo, indeed, there is but little perceptible difference between the vitellus and the coty- ledons. Upon the whole, however, the vitellus, in the opinion of Gaertner, constitutes a distinct kind of viscus*. 3. As the texture of the albumen is much more simple than that of the vitellus, so the fabric of this last- • In describing the different parts of the seed, such as the albumen, the vi- tellus, &c, I frequently employ, with but little alteration, the words of Gaertner, in his extensive history of these parts. Candour requires me to make this acknow- ledgment ; and whilst I make it, I must not omit to refer the reader, who is anxious for more minute information concerning the history of the seed, to the learned and ingenious work of the German botanist. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 207 mentioned part is less perfect than that of the cotyledons, which now claim our attention. The cotyledons* are organized parts of the kernel, simple or divided, which together with the radicle and plumule form the body of the embryo, which is next to be treated of, and by the germination of the seed, are commonly converted into the first leaflets of the new plant, which, in general, are different from the succeed- ing leaves. This is the definition of Gaertner. Lin- naeusdefines them to be the lateral body of the seed, bibu- lous or imbibing moisture, and caducous, or falling off quickly: 44 corpus kiterale seminis, bibulum, caducumf". Professor Giseke defines it 44 folium primum germi- 44 nantis seminis"J : the first leaf of the germinating seed. But this is rather a definition of the seed-leaf. In English, the part of which I am speaking, is com- monly called the Seed-Lobe, " when we speak of it as *4 a portion of the seed, in a quiescent state—and the 44 seed-leaf, when the seed is in a growing state $". From different writers, the cotyledons have"receiv- ed different names. Jungius, in the seventeenth cen- tury, denominated them Valva seminis, or Valves of the seed. Gleichen called them Lobi seminales, or Seed- lobes : whilst by others, they have been called Foliola seminalia, or .Seminal-leaflets. Linnaeus adopted the name of cotyledon, which is used by Gaertner, and most of the other modern writers on botany ; and which, indeed, seems preferable to any of the other appellations. In English, we shall avoid all ambiguity by employing * From xoti>>.», a cavity. t Philosophia Botanica, Sic. p. 54. S- 86- \ Termini BotanicL , Professor Martyn. 208 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. the Latin word, cotyledon, only using, in the plural, cotyledons. The cotyledons seem to derive their original from the embryo, of which they always constitute an integral part. In particular, the simple or undivided cotyledons are supposed to be formed by the mere extension of the corcle*, or first medullary point of the seed, and are nothing else than the scape of the embryo more or less distinct from its radicle ; as in the Palms, the Grasses, and the Liliaceous plants. On the other hand, however, the double or conjugate cotyledons are formed by the fissures, which divide the part of the corcle, opposite to the radicle, into two lobules, which are generally equal. a. In regard to its fabric, the cotyledon is gene- rally composed of three distinct parts, viz. epidermis, or cuticle, parenchyma, and tracheae, or vessels. 1. The cuticle invests the whole surface of the cotyledons, and, in the opinion of Gaertner, serves them partly as a filtre, through which the liquor of the amnion passes, and partly hinders them from coalescing with the neighbour- ing bodies. 2. The parenchyma proceeds from the in- ternal bark of the embryo, and is formed of cellular tex- ture, in the interstices of which are deposited a thick oil, and other inspissated liquors. This parenchyma alone forms nearly the whole mass of the cotyledons, and is commonly of an herbaceous, almond, or some- what coriaceous consistence, and principally serves the purpose of depurating and containing the nutritious juices. 3. The tracheae, or vessels, are dispersed * See what is afterwards said on the Embryo. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 209 through the whole cellular texture of the cotyledons, and connect them intimately with the contained embryo*. They seem to arise from the fleshy sub- stance of the embryo, immediately below the origin of the plumule, and terminate with their fine extremities in the parenchyma, or the surface of the cotyledons. It is supposedf, that they are of use to the seminal plant by performing the two-fold office of exhaling and absorb- ing vessels. Whatever may be their precise use, it is probable, that they perform for the seed, an office simi- lar to that which is performed by the apparently-same system of vessels, which are so conspicuous in the leaves and other parts of vegetables^. The tracheae are, at all times, conspicuous in the thinner cotyledons; and in the thicker ones, they are rendered obvious to the senses by germination, and different coloured fluids, which they greedily absorb. We cannot doubt, that this absorption depends upon a living principle (irritabi- lity), inherent in the vessels of which I am speaking : for the absorption, or propulsion of fluids, is observed to be considerably increased by the application of various stimulating agents, such as camphor, nitre, &c. b. The number of the cotyledons is different in different seeds ; upon the whole, however, the number of these parts is more constant than that of any other part of the fructification. Hence, as we shall afterwards see, some eminent botanists have founded their methods of vegetables principally upon the number of the coty- ledons. * See Plate v. Fig. F. f By Gaertner, and others. \ See page 49, &c, and, also, Part II. e e 210 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. A seed, in the language of the botanists, is, L Acotyledonous. 2. Monocotyledonous. 3. Dicotyledonous- or, 4. Polycotyledonous. 1. The seeds which are destitute of cotyledons are named Acotyledonous seeds, and the plants which arise horn such seeds, Acotyledonous plants. The acotyle- donous seed has no conspicuous or distinct embryo, but contains •within itself only a punctum saliens, or mere germinating cicatricle ; or a certain simple primordium of a radicle, implanted in the kernel, and which is se- veral times larger than itself; as in Ruppia, Zostera, Zamia, the Fuci, the Mosses, the Ferns, and the Fun- gous plants. A plant is named acotyledonous, which, without any preceding vestige of a true leaflet, arises from the earth, a frond of different species, but perfectly similar to the parent plant. Plants of this kind are seldom propagated from seed, but more commonly spring from simple or fruit-like (carpomorphi*), buds, as is the case with respect to the Fungous plants, the Lichens, the Confervae, and some of the Algaef. Linn^usJ, Adanson, Jussieu, Gaertner, and other able botanists, have no hesitation in asserting, that there are seeds, which are acotyledonous, or destitute of co- tvledons. On the other hand, however, Dr. Hedwig, of Leipsic, of whom it has been said, that he was 44 born to abolish Cryptogamy", asserts, that there are no seeds whatever destitute of cotyledons ; that the * Gartner. t See Part III. Class ?.xiv. Crvptogamia. i " Musci et adfines (says Linmeus) solis Cotyledombus destituuntur". Phi- losophia Botanica, &c. p. 89. \. 136. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 211 powder of the Mosses (a tribe of plants which the bo- tanists, whom I have mentioned, arrange under the head of Acotyledones) is the genuine seed of these plants, which are furnished with their proper cotyledonous matter, as in other plants. 44 Pulvisculus (these are his words) " igitur Muscorum intra capitula contentus, " verum eorum est semen, quod, veluti aliorum vege- 44 tabilium semina, sua tunica, cotyledone uno et ultra, " et plantulae rudimento instruitur*". Notwithstand- ing, however, the truly ingenious and meritorious la- bours of this author, it still, I think, remains to be ascertained, whether the Mosses are really furnished with cotyledons, or not. Meanwhile, I follow the au- thors above mentioned, in retaining a head or class of acotyledonous seeds. 2. The Monocotyledonous seeds are such as have only one cotyledon, or lobe, in the seed- A seed of this kind contains with it a very entire embryo, without any per- ceptible chink, and is either entirely free, or at least loose from the rest of the kernel, at the extremity oppo- site to its radicle. Monocotyledonous are much more numerous than acotyledonous, plants. To the former head, are referred the great natural families of the Grasses, the Palms, the Scitamineaef, the Liliaceous, and many other, plants. Gaertner observes, that these seeds are of two kinds, viz. 1. the true monocotyledonous, having the embryo formed from its first production, of one in- * D. Joannis Hedv