*rr^ • ■# 1 *■■•»--<■. THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA; OR, A DICTIONARY OF FACTS, AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. COMPREHENDING A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS. CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ART; THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR DISEASE; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS KNliKAVlNUS AND CUTS. IN FIVE VOLUMES. VOLUME I. BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D. AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, ISfci^L FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS, APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE UNITED STATES: BY JAMES MEASE, M. D. AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL, NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET. ROBERT CARR, PRINTER. 1803. District of Pennsylvania: to viit. Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty-seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America, William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words fol- lowing, to wit: " The Domestic Encyclopaedia; or, A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful Know- " ledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Discoveries, Inven- " tions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to Rural and Domestic Eco- " nomy. Together with Descriptions of the most interesting Objects of " Nature and Art; the Hitsory of Men and Animals, in a State of Health " or Disease; and practical Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both " familiar and commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts. " In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D. Author of the " Lectures on Diet and Regimen, isfc. &c. First American Edition; with " Additions applicable to the present Situation of the United States. By " James Mease, M. D. and Fellow of the American Philosophical Society." In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intituled, " An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act entituled, "An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints." ( L. S. ) D. CALDWELL, Clerk qf the District of Pennsylvania. PREFACE, BY THE AUTHOR. AS the nature and practical tendency of the Domestic Encyclopaedia have, in some measure, been anticipated, partly in the prefixed Title-page, a few remarks on the origin and composition of this Work, will suffice to convince the Reader, that it has not been undertaken with a view merely to increase the number of voluminous works already extant, and of a similar complexion. It has been generally supposed, that the rapid suc- cession of Cyclopaedias, and Encyclopaedias, which have appeared within the last twenty years, and which often are more distinguished by their alluring title- pages, than by their intrinsic merit, affords so many proofs of the progress of Science and Literature, as well as of the increasing spirit of inquiry. This con- jecture, however, is extremely doubtful, if not totally unfounded. When it is considered, that the Editors of these bulky Compilations have directed their chief attention to the quantity of materials, rather than to a critical se- lection of facts; that, with a few exceptions, such works have been conducted by persons better qualified to su- perintend a printing-office, or a bookseller's shop, than iv PREFACE. to arrange or explain the immense circle of the Sci- ences ; and that the auri sacra fames has almost uni- formly been the principal object of these Speculators, it will then be readily allowed, that their productions afford only negative advantages to the social world. Farther, the plurality of readers have conceived an opinion, that, by the possession of an Encyclopae- dia, or what is pre-eminently termed, " A Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences," their library, however de- ficient, at length becomes complete. But those who are only in a slight degree acquainted with the gradual, though daily, advancement both of the abstruse and practical Sciences, will not be disposed to harbour a notion alike contracted, and fraught with consequen- ces highly detrimental to the acquisition of knowledge. Nay, it may with equal truth be asserted, that the ear- lier impressions of books, which have progressively received additions and improvements, will answer the purpose as well as the latest publications; because they are comparatively cheaper, and fill a similar space on the shelves__Such arguments may satisfy the An- tiquarian Collector, but they are inconsistent with the conviction of intelligent minds. On the other hand, it cannot be denied, that many attempts have been made to supply the Public with works professedly commenced on a more economical plan; by abridging the labours of others. Without presuming to decide on their merits, we shall quote a passage occurring in the Preface to the illustrious Johnson's Dictionary, when he compressed his bulky folios, or quartos, into an octavo form...." For these PREFACE, v purposes (says that energetic writer), many dictiona- ries have been written by different authors, and with different degrees of skill; but none of them have yet fallen into my hands, by which even the lowest ex- pectations could be satisfied. Some of their authors wanted industry, and others literature: some knew not their own defects, and others were too idle to sup- ply them." In regard to the composition, and arrangement of the Domestic Encyclopaedia, many circumstan- ces might be pleaded, by way of apology, for occa- sional inaccuracies and omissions; but, in a work, consisting chiefly of practical information, and con- taining, perhaps, a greater number of usefulfacts than have ever appeared in the compass of four moderate volumes, it is to be hoped, the discreet reader will na- turally be inclined to qualify his strictures, by a large share of candour and impartiality. Conformably to his original plan, the Editor has spared no pains, trou- ble, or expence, to render this Economical Dictionary as complete as the present advancement of Agricul- ture, Gardening, of the Familiar Arts and Manufac- tures, as well as the imperfect state of Medical Science, would respectively admit. Many subjects, indeed, might have been extended to greater length, and others considerably abridged, had these volumes been pecu- liarly calculated for the use of either town or country readers. Such, however, was not his design; as the Work now submitted to the Public, includes almost every object, more or less connected with Rural, Do- mestic, and Animal, Economy. Hence, the inquisi- vi PREFACE. tive Reader will find numerous experiments related, many hundreds of which have not hitherto been pub- lished in the English language. To facilitate the mode of consulting this Work, a Table of Contents, and an Index to the correspond- ing Synonyms, or inversions of terms, have been pre- fixed to each volume ; though a few provincial or ver- nacular names, which are now obsolete, have purposely been omitted, in order to avoid unnecessary repeti- tion . It will not, however, be expected that the Editor should be responsible for the accuracy of the result of those Experiments, which he has faithfully reported on the authority of others, whose names have been quo- ted on almost every occasion ; but, in various instan- ces where no vouchers have been adduced, the facts are either self-evident, or the account of the subject is given with a degree of diffidence, to induce attentive readers to farther investigation. Although the Editor has, in the commencement of this arduous task, inserted the Latin names of subjects in alphabetical order, and referred thence to the appro- priate English terms; yet, as such a troublesome me- thod promised no real advantage, he was induced to re- linquish it, and to subjoin to the Fourth Volume a complete Index to the Latin Names of Plants, Animals, Minerals, Diseases, and other subjects occurring through- out this Work. Lastly, as numerous useful and valuable sugges- tions, connected with particular subjects, are scattered in different parts of this alphabetical Manual, it has PREFACE. vii been deemed expedient to conclude with a General In- dex of Reference, both for Economical and Medical purposes; which is accordingly subjoined to the Fourth Volume: thus, the Reader will be enabled to find, at one view, whatever relates to the article under con- sideration ; an advantage which few works of a similar nature afford, and which cannot fail to be attended with good effects. u Ne tabulis cjf picturis domum tuam circumda, sed temperan- tiam ipsam depinge. Jlludenim alienum est, et oculorum modo jucunda prcestigiatio: hoc vero indelibilis, ceternusque domiu ornatus existitJ* A.M i PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. IN presenting to the public, the First American Edition of the Domestic Encyclopedia, the Editor has great pleasure in think- ing, that it will diffuse a large portion of highly useful information among his fellow-citizens. In the impressive language of Lord Bacon, the, subjects treated of in the work, " come home to every " man's business and bosom;" and it will, no doubt, meet with a re- ception justly proportioned to its extensive utility. The original work contained a variety of articles relating to the local customs, laws, police-regulations, mineral waters, isfc. of England, from which the people of this country could derive no practical or useful information ; all these have been omitted in the present edition, and other matter substituted, which it is hoped will be found nearly connected with the interests, or domestic comforts of the citizens of the United States. Consistently with the original design of the author, the Editor en- deavouring to keep in view the practical tendency of the work, has avoided all theoretical discussions, except when they appeared necessary to place facts in such a light as would tend to point out relations and connections that might otherwise have escaped notice ; and thus as Dr. Anderson justly observes " by forming habits of attention, call forth the discriminative powers, on the due exercise of which all time knowledge must ultimately depend." It has been a principal object to direct the attention of the reader to the native resources of our country, whether they refer to medi- cine, the arts, or to the general purposes of life; thai jy employing them we may become less dependant on foreign nations. vol. i. A X PREFACE. In one respect the original arrangement of the author has been partially departed from. Dr. Willich treats of plants under their trivial names, referring to the Botanical names; and as whim, op false judgment give rise to the former, which are not only vari- ous in different countries, but in different parts of the same country, it was thought better in all the additional articles to give the Latin name first, referring to the numerous trivial ones. If this plan were generally adopted, an universal language might soon take place, and much confusion and embarrassment be avoided. The common objec- tion to this plan, that it is difficult for those who are unacquainted with the Latin language, to remember the names imposed by Botanists, will be found unimportant, when we advert to the ease with which many of those names are remembered by persons who are entirely ignorant of the language. Thus Anemone, Ranunculus, Convolvulus, Daphne Indicum, isfc. are common, and others surely may be remem- bered with as much ease as the absurd trivial names which are at present used. The " Sweet flag" of England is universally known in Pennsylvania, by its proper name Calamus: indeed it only requires a little trouble by learning the botanical names at first, to render them as familiar as the common appellations. ERRATA. Page 127, column 1, the additional article on Artichoke ought to have come in at the conclusion of the first species mentioned. --------col. 1, line 25, for " to" read in. ---- 131, col. 1, line 26, dele" also wild ginger." line 27,for " catsfoot" read coltsfoot, wild ginger. ---- 1.35, col. 2, line 36, for " 29" read 32. ---- 171, col. 1, line 38, for these read banks. ----■ 246, col. 1, line 14, after dwarf chesnut tree read chinquapin. ■■ 15, dele chinquapin. ■ 17, for Suton read Aiton. —— 248, col. 2, line 25, for Memorable read Memoirs. ---- 302, col. 2, line 34, for 17811b. 4oz. read 1781b. Uoz. •---- 303, col. 1, line 40, for detached read detailed. » ---- 305, col. 2, lines 2&3,for "pulp griper on this last process. See &c." read " pulp of paper. On this laa^rocess, see &c." ------------------ 43, for Philadelphia read Philosophical. ---- 358, col. 1, line 19, for " be" read is. ---- 388, col. 2, line 38, dele the crotchet. ---- 406, col. 2, line 41, after " appetite" add and. ---- 416, col. 1, line 31, in some of the copies, for " Probing" read Probang. ---- 485, col. 1, line 21, for Pennsylvania read Peruvian. ---- 495, col. 1, line 3 from bottom, for Linnaeus, read Linnsi. —- 500, col. 1, line 8 from bottom, for "or by" read from. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME, PAGE PACS ABDOMEN, 1 Allspice .... ib. Ablution, 3 Almanack . 35 Abortion, 4 Almond .... ib. Abraum, 6 Aims-Houses 36 Abridgment, ib. Abscess, 7; Alum . . . . 39 Abstinence, 8: . 41 Acacia, 9 Ambergrise 42 Acids, 11 Ambury 43 Acorns, 12 Acre, 14 Ammoniac 45 Actea Spicata, . ib. Amphibious Animals . . ib. Acute Diseases ib. Amputation 48 Adder 15 Amusements ib. Adulteration ib. Annagallis Arvensis 49 Advertisement . ib. Anchovy . 50 iEther 16 Ancient Languages 51 Affliction . ib. Ancient Learning . . ib. Agaric 17 Ancient Times . 52 Age ib. Andromeda ib. Agitation . ib. Anemometer . . 53 Agony . 18 Anemone . . . . ib. Agriculture . ib. Anemoscope (with a Cut) . 55 Agrimony, Common 20 Aneurism . . • 57 Ague . . 21 Air . 23 Anger 59 Air-Bath 25 Air-Jacket . . 26 Animalcule . 61 Alabaster ib. Animal Flower . . 62 Alarum 27 Animal food . . ib. Albumen ib. Animal Kingdom . . . 63 Alcarrazas . 28 Animal Lite . . . . 64 Alchemy ib. Animal Magnetism . . 65 Alcohol . . - .. 29 Animal Motion , lb. Alder-Tree . . ib. Animal Economy 66 Ale ... 30 Animal Spirits . ib* Ale-Aouse . 31 Animation . . ib Aliment . . , ib. Anis .... . 68 Alkalies . 32 Annealing 70 Alkanet . 33 All-Heal . 34 Anodyne * 73 CONTENTS. page PAGE Anotta . 77 Assimilation . • 143 Ant ib. Asthma . • ib. Ant-Hills . 79 Astringents 146 Anthrax . 80 Astrology . 147 Antidotes . ib. Astronomy ib. Antimony 82 Atamasco Lily < 148 Antipathy . 84 Athletic Habit 149 Antiquities . . 85 Atmosphere ib. Antiscorbutics . 86 Auction . 150 Antiseptics . . ib. Autumn . • ib. Antispasmodics 87 Avarice 151 Anxiety . ib. Avens 152 Ape . 88 Aya pana . . 153 Aperients . ib. Avoirdupois ib. Aphorism . 89 Apoplexy . ib. Baccharis Halimifolia 154 Appetite 91 Bachelor ib. Apple-tree . 93 Bacon 155 Application . 102 Badger 156 Apprenticeship . ib. Bag, in commerce . 157 Apricot-Tree ib. Bag, in farriery ib. Aqua Fortis . 105 Bagnio ib. Ac;ua Regia 106 Baiting . 158 Arable Lands . ib. Baker . . ib. Aralia 108 Baking ib. Archery . ib. Balance 160 Architecture . . 109 Bladness 164 Argument 111 Ball 165 Arithmetic 112 Balls ib. Aromatic 113 Horse Balls ib. Arquebusade-Water ib. Portable Balls ib. Arrack 114 Balm, common 166 Arrangement . . 115 Balsam ib. Arrow ib. Balsamics ib. Arrow-Grass ib. Balsam ine 167 Arrow-Head ib. Bamboe Habit ib. Arrow-Root 116 Bandage 167 Arsenic 117 Bandy-legs ib. Art 123 Bane-berries 168 Artemesia Dracunculus 124 Bank .... ib. Artery . ib. Bank-fence 169 Artichoke 126 Banks of Rivers ib. Artichoke, the Jerusalem ib. Hanks of the Sea 171 Articulation 127 Barbel ib. Artificer 12? Garbles, or Barbs 172 Artist ib. iJLi:?inu or empty gut, and the ileum, or crooked gut; and the latter, or large portion, into the caecum, or blind gut; the colon, or hollow gut, being tha largest of all the intestines; and the rectum, or the straight excretory gut, which terminates in the anus. On opening the abdomen, we ob- 11 2 ABD ABD serve its viscera and intestines in the following situation: after having re- moved the skin and the muscles, we discover the peritoneum, or a membrane which envelopes all the viscera of the lower belly. This being • divided, the omentum, or rawl, appears floating on the sur- face of the intestines, which are likewise seen in a moist and loose state, making numerous windings through the whole cavity. The vi- scera next present themselves in this order : on the uppermost part of the belly, namely, under the midriff, towards the middle, but rather inclining to the right side, lies the liver, and near its concave surface is the gall-bladder ; some- what to the left is the stomach, and laterally, contiguous to it,the spleen. The kidneys are placed about the middle of the lumbar region, or the loins, while the urinary bladder, and the parts of generation, are si- tuated in the lower division of the belly ; in that bony cavity which is denominated the pelvis, or bason, and the sides of which form what are commonly called the hips. The situation of these parts, however, in a natural state, fre- quently undergoes considerable va- riations, especially that of the liver, the stomach, and the spleen : and these deviations, being produced by various causes, as by a different posture of the whole body ; disten- tion of the stomach with an unusual quantity of food, either in a solid or liquid form; or lastly, during preg- nancy ; hence it may be understood that,witheverypreternaturalchange of their respective positions, there may arise ruptures, spasmodic con- tractions, callosities, accumulations of water, called dropsy, and many eimilarcomplaints. Topreventsuch disastrous consequences, we cannot too strongly inculcate the necessity of observing stricttcmperance, par- ticularly with respect to food, drink, and exercise. This proposition may be rendered more evident, by ap- pealing to the experience of those Europeans, who have long resided in warm climates, and prudently restrained their sensual appetites ; in consequence of which, they have seldom been attacked with diseases of the liver; an organ which cannot fail to become a prey to an irregular mode of living. The intestines have certain gene- ral characters, though each of them manifests its peculiarities. In the former respect, we find that they are all connected with the vertebra; by means of the mesentery ; that each of them consists of different membranes, the innermost coat of which terminates in the intestinal canal itself, and forms semi-lunar valves, inclining towards each other contracting the tube of that passage, and often appearing in several parts more numerous and conspicuous than in others. Each gut is, far- ther, provided with small glands, for the secretion of a viscid humour and many small vessels for the ab- sorption of certain fluids. Lastly, all intestines possess, in common, a certain creeping, called the peris- tallic, or vermicular motion; which is occasioned by the contraction of their muscular fibres, operating in a sp'nv.l direction, or obliquely from the upper towards the lower parts ; and they are thus liable to alternate contortions in their respective situ- ations. This curious phenomenon may be clearly perceived for some time after death, and especially in an animal recently opened. By inverting this motion of the stomachandbowels, an effect which may be produced by certain stimu- ABD AB L 3 lating medicines, for instance,ipecu- cuanha, as well as by a local irrita- tion of the fauces, it will be easily understood,that either nausea or vo- miting will be the natural conse- quence, according to the different degrees of the stimulus applied. The viscera of the abdomen are, in common with other parts of the body, liable to a variety of disorders; the most formidable of which are, those arising from inflammation. An inflammation of the liver, hi- therto supposed by the generality of physicians to be a very rare disease, has by alate Frenchwriter, M. Fer- rkin, been affirmed to be of all dis- eases the most frequent, and least understood. It often occasions other lasting and dangerous diseases; and even when removed, unless proper precautions be observed, is liable to return. See the article Liver. The usual symptoms of inflam- mations of the lower belly are, pain attended with fever ; but these are .by no means a necessary conse- quence ; as in this, and other dis- eases of the Animal Economy, a flight degree of inflammation may- prevail, unaccompanied either by febrile symptoms, or considerable pain. The mode of discovering the existeuceof inflammation is,to press with the tip of the finger on the seat of the complaint; and, if the viscera be inflamed, the pain will be increas- ed fn such manner, as when we touch a bruised or tender part. For the treatment of this dangerous af- fection, we must refVr the reader to the article Inflammation. I n order to protect thetenderparts we have now described, from exter- nal injury, every judicious person will admit the necessity of adopting such a dress, as is best calculated to answer this useful purpose. Hence no whalebone,or other stays tightly laced, should be worn by women, nor high and straight waistbands be sufferedto impede the free action of the bowels, either in boys or men. It is indeed unreasonable to expect, that the present generation can enjoy the ease and comforts of their less fashionable, though more pru- dent, forefathers, so long as man- kind continue to encourage those customs and habits, which almost every body deprecates, but which few have the resolution either to oppose or abandon. Abies. See Fir-tree, or Pinus Abies, L. ABLUTION, in its literal sig- nification, implies washing, and is tiaually confined to purification by the aid of water ; but may also be appliedto c!eansing,or washingv\ ith any other pure liquid. It is a term well known in the religious workU As a practice, its antiquity is coeval with the first institution of religious ceremonies. Ablutions were, on various occa- sions,en joined by the Jewish Legis- lator. The Mahometans frequently have recourse to them in the cele- bration of those rites prescribed in the Alcoran ; and they form no in- considerable part in the established religion of almost every nation. Egyptians,Grecians,Romans,Sy- rians, Cophts, Jews,Christians, Sec. all admit them, as forming a part of their ceremonials; by total or par- tial immersionofthebody,by sprink- lings in baptism, and so forth. ikit though used in some measure symbolically, cr as emblems of that inward purity requisite to the dis- charge of duty, among the faithful disciples of religious institutions,yet the importance of ablutions is very considerable, when viewed in a phy- sical sense, as being instrumental to preserve health and beauty, and not 4 ABO ABO only to prevent, but in many cases to remove, disease. See this sub- ject underthe articlesBATHiNGand Washing. ABORTION, or miscarriage, is in modern times, justly considered, as a misfortune; though the detest- able and unnatural vice of procuring it by art, was connived at by the ancient Romans; whose disgraceful fall, as a nation, may in a great measure be attributed to their luxu- rious manners, and immoral habits. As the history of this subject is rather disgusting than instructive, we shall proceed to state matters of a more useful tendency ; we may, however, previously observe, that those enemiesof human nature,who attempt to procure artificial abor- tion, generally experience either the punishment due to this out- rage, by the fatal consequences which often destroy both mother and child, or not less frequently all the powers of art prove ineffectual, and the abandoned creature is tor- mented only with bitter remorse. Weakly and irritable, hysterical, passionate and especially voluptuous women of a plethoric habit, are most liable to miscarriage; though it may also happen from a general defective constitution, or rather from a mal- conformation of the sexual organs. The most frequent causes of abor- tion, however, are, the depressing passions, such as grief and fear; debility of the mother, especially if occasioned by great loss of blood ; violent exercise of every kind, but particularly sudden stooping, and lifting weights ; all diseases which agitate the whole frame, as fevers, convulsive fits, and coughing; as well as falls and blows on the abdo- men; an indolent and irregular mode of living, whether too high, or on too poor sustenance; and sometimes even offensive smells. The symptoms indicating abor- tion are, cold shiverings of short duration ; nausea seldom accompa- nied with vomiting; pain about the loins, but more frequently in the abdomen, below the navel, and in the thighs; depression and softness of the breasts ; palpitation of the limbs, and more especially of the heart ; sinking of the lower belly ; and a discharge, of various appear- ance, from the uterus. One of the most general expedi- ents adopted to prevent a miscar- riage, has been periodical blood- letting, either from the arm or foot; which, in plethoric constitutions, has sometimes been carried to such excess, as to be repeated every month, during pregnancy. This practice, however, so prevalent in France and Germany, is hazardous and liable to many strong objections; for, as abortions most generally oc- cur in debilitated and nervous wo- men, such losses of the vital fluid1 caimot but be attended with detri- mental effects. According to the o- pinionof experienced practitioners, bleeding is advisable only in cases where particular circumstances concur to render such a diminution necessary, and even then, two small venisections, from four to five ounces each, within the space of four or six days, are generally suffi- cient to obviate the most urgent symptoms. The most effectual method of preventing such accidents, consists in a regular mode of life previous to pregnancy, occasionally aided by bracing remedies, such as the cold bath, moderate exercise on horse- back or on foot,the use of the mineral waters; in short, all those means which tend to counteract nervous and hysteric debility, or, in other- words, which are proper for irritable ABO ABO 5 habits. Yet the strictest observance of dietetic rules will not be attended with the desired effect, unless the person who is desirous of becoming a mother, have sufficient resolution to abstain from an immoderate in- dulgence in sensual pleasures.... These, indeed, cannot be too much guarded against in a married state; as the contrary practice seldom fails to be attended with the most me- lancholy consequences. Hence we find, that, in certain families where temperance and prudence are strict- ly observed, a miscarriage is a rare event. There are, however, cases in which mothers are constitutionally liable to abortion, and where the combined efforts of art and nature cannot prevent a misfortune, which not only in a remarkable degree debilitates the constitution, but has also a tendency to return on a fu- ture occasion. The most critical periods at which abortion may oc- cur, are those of the third, fourth, and fifth months of pregnancy ; though it may happen sooner or later. If, therefore, a woman be affected with a violent shooting pain in the back, extending to the uterus, together with the symptoms already described, it will be neces- sary, either to bleed her, if she be of a full and vigorous habit, or to adopt such a treatment as may be best calculated to obviate the por- tending danger. This consists in a very moderate, and chiefly liquid, nourishment, excluding whatever may rouse and irritate the system; and a calm and composed state of body and mind ; so that to prevent a relapse of painful symptoms, she must sometimes keep her bed for several weeks or months together. Cataplasms applied to the pit of the stomach, and opiates,may occasion- ally become necessary; but the lat- ter ought never to be resorted to, without proper medical advice; for there can be no doubt, that tamper- ing with laudanum, or similar me- dicines, has often been productive of irreparable mischief. According to the uniform experience of pro- fessional men, however, the last- mentioned remedy may with more safety, and greater advantage, be employed in the form of clysters. Thus, we may confidently say, that an injection composedof six ounces, or a tea-cup full of cold chamomile- tea, and fifty drops of laudanum, every other night, or, according to circumstances, more or less fre- quently, has been attended with the happiest effects, especially if, in the intermediate days, when neces- sary, an emollient clyster was ad- ministered, with a view to relies e costiveness. We cannot, at the same time, too seriously deprecate the custom of tampering with laxa- tives taken by the mouth; a custom very prevalent among the vulgar, who are not aware of the injury thereby inflicted upon their disor- dered constitutions. With respect to the concomitant affections of pregnancy, we must be very concise...The pain in the head, and tooth-ach, may, in general, be relieved by a cool regimen; an emollient diet, chiefly consisting of mucilaginous and subacid vegeta- bles, such as fruit boiled in milk, artichokes, asparagus, parsnips, spi- llage, &c. aided by diluent drinks made of rice, barley, sago, the arrow-root, and similar vegetables; keeping the legs and feet sufficient- ly warm, and occasionally soaking them in tepid water; shaving the head, and washing it with diluted vinegar. If these simple means do not prove successful, bleeding with 6 ABO A BR leeches on the temples, or even openingthe jugular vein, will some- times become necessary, especially in plethoric and bilious females. Be- side these remedies, ablister applied to the neck behind the ears, or to the part most sensibly affected, is often of great service ; though, in urgent cases,this application should cover the whole head. In full and robust habits, issues are eminently useful, while the bowels should be regularly opened by the mildest pur- gatives. Sometimes, however, the simple external application of a few drops of cajeput, juniper, or any other essential oil, operates like a charm,in removingeither the tooth- ach, or violent pains of the head. In all the complaints of pregnant women, arising from too prevailing an acidity, such as heart-burn, vo- miting, cough upon taking food, and that feverish, restless state, so common in thelatterperiod of preg- nancy, Dr. John Sms directs two or three spoonfuls of the following "mixture to be taken, either occa- sionally, or when the symptoms are continual, after every meal: viz. ■one drachm of calcined magnesia, five ounces and an half of pure wa- ter, three drachms of the spirit of cinnamon, and one drachm of the water of pure ammonia. Magnesia has long been a celebrated remedy for these complaints ; but the most efficacious ingredient in the pre- scription, is the pure ammonia, as the effect will be nearly the same with the omission of the magnesia, which, without the ammonia, is of inferior efficacy. This judicious physician farther remarks, that the vomiting, which occurs in early pregnancy, seldom arises from, cr is connected with, acidity; and that the remedy before specified is, in that case, not adapted to the pur- pose. When such vomiting is mo- derate, and confined to the early part of the day, it appears to be use- ful ; but if it incessantly continue for many days together, accompa- nied with great loss of strength, constant thirst, and an utter inabi- lity of retaining any thing on the stomach, in this state Dr. Sims as- serts,that the most effectual remedy is the application of leeches to the pit of the stomach ; and a constant attention to diet, that the patient may swallow nothing which has a tendency to irritate or stimulate the organs of digestion. He has also found it of great service to allow no other drink than ass's milk, and that by single spoonfuls only. The use of leeches, applied to the pit of the stomach, for the relief of vomit- ing, is by no means confined to the state of pregnancy ; but when this symptom occurs in fevers, or is produced in consequence of taking any acrid or indigestible substance, he has repeatedly experinced that their application in those cases is of equal utility. ABRAUM, in natural history,is a term given by some writers to a species of red clay found in the Isle of Wight, and used by our artizans to impart a fine red colour to new mahogany wood. ABRIDGEMENT, is the art of compressing any species of literary composition, so as to convey its full and complete tenor in a smaller compass than the original. The talent of abridging the la- bours of others, and of communi- cating much information in few words, is an art not only eminently useful in itself, but productive of great advantages. It enables the reader to take a concise and com- prehensive view of those subjects, which, in a more diffuse form, his ABR leisure or his inclination may not permit him to consult; while it ex- ercises the mind of the writer in ha- bits of close reasoning and accurate investigation. The attention which, in works of a complicated or exten- sive nature, is often distracted by brilliancy of style or variety of ma- terials, is, by a short and faithful analysis, fixed to the merits of the subject, and to the truth of its con- tents. The chief end of abridging is rather to convey ideas, than mul- tiply words, and to retrench super- fluous expressions. To offer any positive instructions for exercising this useful and valu- able talent, is almost unnecessary ; since taste, judgment, and critical discernment, are the safest guide. A few suggestions, however, may afford some illustration of the sub- ject. In attempting to give an analysis or abridgment of any particularpro- duction, it will be requisite to read it with proper attention ; to exa- mine the design of the author, and to discover the leading features and plan of the whole. Having perus- ed and' digested the work, it will be proper to transcribe only such parts as tend.to convey definite ideas, or explain its immediate pur- pose ; omitting all such remarks as are either inconsistent with, or in- applicable to, the subject. In works of a more abstruse and comprehensive nature, it will be preferable to convey, as far as pos- sible, the exact expressions of the author ; but in those of a lighter description, such as works of ima- gination, public lectures, orations, essays, &c. it will be sufficient to give an outline of the substance; without directing the attention to the embellishments of style, or the structure of periods. A B S 7 Abridgment is used also in a more circumscribed sense; to sig- nify a short analysis of reference ; by which, from a few abstracted particulars, we recur to any subject which has been either neglected or forgotten ; and thus recall it to our recollection. This is particularly useful to those engaged in a variety of literary pursuits, as it preserves a free and unfettered application Works of history, in which the leading facts are merely detailed* are often happily abridged for the use of the student. See the article Memorandum. ABSCESS is a soft, circumscrib- ed tumor, containing matter, gene- rally attended with fluctuation, and sometimes, though not always, with considerable pain. It is the conse- quenceof some previous inflamma- tion, and is often a critical effort of Nature to relieve the patient from superfluous or noxious humours, and to remove an acute disease. The mode of treatment to be adopted in the cure of an abscess, will be to assist its complete suppu- ration, and promote a free discharge of matter; for which purpose, all remedies that have a tendency to soften the skin, and encourage per- spiration, are eminently useful. In languid habits, however, and where the suppuration proceeds but slow- ly, it will sometimes be necessary to open it either by caustic applica- tions, or the lancet. Warm fomentations, and emol- lient cataplasms made either with bread and milk, or oatmeal, renew- ed several times a day,are the usual poultices for an abscess. In large tumours, from which the discharge ofmatterhas been considerable, and especially in those of the lower ex- tremities, it w ill often be necessa.T to have recourse tosuchintemalre- 8 ABS AB S medies as may strengthen and sup- port the system. Bark, wine, and, i f considerable pain or irritation pre- vail, opiates judiciously administer- ed, will be highly beneficial. After an abscess has been opened, it will require to be kept clean, and drest, either with dry lint, or some mild digestive ointment, once or twice a day, assisted by a compress and linen bandage. Dr. Hartuxg,an ingenious phy- sician at Erfurt, in Germany, has lately proposed a plan for the treat- ment of abscesses ; which, for its simplicity and novelty, is worthy of attention. In their incipient stage, he recommends the frequent appli- cation of compresses moistenedwith simple ivarm water, and after the suppuration has entirely ceased the same fluid applied in a cold state in order to strengthen the surrounding parts. Abscesses, which are formed, on any of the more important organs of life, such as the brain, the lungs, liver, &c. are particularly to be dreaded ; as, by bursting, and dis- charging their contents into the contiguous cavities, they frequently occasion instantaneous death. From neglect, or mismanagement, ab- scesses sometimes terminate in mortification, or gangrene ; which subject will be farther discussed un- der the head of Inflammation. Absinthium vulgare. See Arte- misian Absinthium^,. orMuGwoRT. ABSTINENCE may be defin- ed, the habit of refraining from what is either useful, agreeable, or perni- cious ; and may be divided into ge- neral and particular. Inthe former sense, it may signify a certain pri- vation, whereby the senses are mor- tified, and the passions restrained. In the latter, it is confined to the exclusion of certain substances, at stated times and seasons, in com- pliance either with the customs of particular countries, or with reli- gious precepts. There is, also, an- other sense, in which the term absti- nence denotes the limitation of any usual indulgence, for the purpose of preserving health, and removing the consequences of excess. In the religious institutions of all countries, we find many regulations on this subject. The Mosaic Law forbids the eating of animals that were strangled, the use of swine's flesh, the exercise of daily labour on the Sabbath, &c. The Christian system more particularly enjoins the discipline of the passions, and an abstinence from those pleasures which have a tendency to degrade our nature. In England, particular days have been appointed, called vigils and fasts, to which flesh is prohibited, and fish enjoined: this, however, being more a political re- striction than a religious obligation, was first enacted in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, with a view to encourage the fisheries. The effects of abstinence in the preservation of health, and the cure of diseases, are, by many physici- ans, stated to be remarkable. Dr. E. Miller, of New-York, in his Original Observations, relates that in a district of the United States, which is particularly obnoxious to epidemicdiseases,the febrile attack is often obviated and diminished by a rigid abstinence from food ; and the celebrated Sydenham declares, that he has often cured the synocha, or inflammatory fever, and other fevers, by prescribing diluent drinks and prohibiting every kind of ali- ment, even,to use their own words, "for two or three days." The me- thod, in this respect, adopted by Dr.MiL LF.R,was to commence his ABS plan of abstinence on the first sen- sations of indisposition, and con- tinue it on some occasions for a period of twenty-four, and even forty-eight, hours, until these feel- ings had subsided, the appetite was restored, and the calls of hunger become not only frequent, but even importunate. He concludes his in- teresting remarks with an apho- rism, «That in those particular states of the body, which denote the afffiroach, and at the commencement, of acute diseases the strict observ- ance of a rigid and continued ab- stinence has been productive of the most beneficial effects"....The late celebrated author of the" Kle'menta Medccina," Dr. Brown,has,in that work, particularly enjoined it, as one of the means to be employed in the prevention and cure of sthenic, or inflammatory diseases; and he declares that the cynanche tonsil- laris, or inflammatory sore throat, and the catarrh, or common cold at- tended with hoarseness, may often be cure! by abstinence alone. Men of genius, and persons who lead sedentary lives, are more espe- cially benefited by occasional ab- stinence , as these, from the want of vigorous exercise, and their in- tense application, are generally the severest sufferers from diseases of repletion. In the observance of the rules of abstinence, due attention must always be paid to the age, strength, constitution, and habit of the patient. Of the brute animals, many are remarkable for their long absti- nence from food, such as the ser- pent, the rattle-snake, tortoise, bear, dormouse, elephant, Uc. Instances may also be found, of men who have been abstemious to a degree almost incredible; and ex- perience has demonstrated that, VOL. I. AC A 9 from habit and use, the power of abstinence may be either increased or diminished. Some persons will bear the attacks of hunger without any visible marks of impatience, while in others, a mere temporary privation will occasion the most ur- gent and distressing symptoms. See the article Fasts. [ACACIA. Robinia, Pseudo acacia, or false acacia, is a native of the United States....lt is commonly termed locust tree. Dr. Mitchell observes, that the Acacia is one of the most valuable trees now cultivated. It grows best in warm sandy land, and becomes fit for timber in about twenty-five years, The greatest use made of the trees, is for ship tunnels, fence posts, mill cogs and fire wood ; or if worked into posts to be set into the ground for garden fences, and other inclosures, they are superior in point of durability to almost any known wood. The acacia is orna- mental as a flowering tree. The blossoms unfold in June, and per- fume the air to a considerable dis- tance with their sweet and fragrant odour. It is so easily cultivated that on Long-Island we often see large pieces of land entirely over- grown with artificial woods of these trees. As our commerce and ma- nufactures improve, the demand for this valuable timber, will increase ; farmers on whose lands the acacia will grow, ought to begin immedi- ately the cultivation of-the trees. The multiplication of this tree has seldom been attempted by seeds, but almost constantly by young trees sprouting up from the wound- ed roots of the old one. The readi- ness of the roots of the parent tree, to vegetate, soon after the incum- bent sward is broken up by the plough, surpasses that of any othe*' C 10 AC A AC A tree; for in soils favourable to their growth, the farmers are obliged to grub with great labour to prevent them from overrunning the land, and whenever suffered to indulge their native luxuriance, they will soon convert a piece of cleared land to forest.] Acacia may be propagated by setting the seeds; and, when it is once introduced, numerous plants may be obtained, by cutting its roots near the surface of the ground. As the roots extend rapidly along the surface of the earth, and shoot up numerous suckers, the Acacia may be advantageously planted on the banks-of rivers, for consolidating and securing the soil from the en- croachmentsofthe current; farther, its wood is eminently adapted to ship-building ; and, though inferior in point of durability to the oak, it is perhaps preferable to any other timber for barges, and similar ves- sels of a small size. The leguminous seeds of this tree, after being divested of their acrid taste, by infusing them in different waters, and afterwards ground into meal, are by the Ton- gusian Tartars converted into a wholsome bread: these seeds are also eagerly eaten by poultry,which may thus be speedily fattened. It has been ascertained by expe- riments, that the leaves of this tree, when prepared in the same man- ner as indigo, may with great ad- vantage be.substituted for that ex- pensive dyeing drug. The foliage of the smaller variety of the False Acacia, however, is reputed to be better adapt ed*for such purpose: its culture corresponds with that above stated; and it certainly merits to be more generally cultivated in or- namental shrubberies, where it thrives rapidly, and produces ele- gant odoriferous yellow flowers, which abundantly supply bees with honey....The seeds of both varie- ties also afford a large proportion of expressed oil....It deserves to be noticed, that the yellowish wood of these trees, though hard and tough, is very brittle while the plants are young, and they wight, therefore, in exposed situations, to be supported by stakes. Lastly, it is remarkable, that no part of the acacia is sub- ject to the depredations of vermin or insects....Dr. Medicus, a pro- lific, though esteemed German au- thor, has published several volumes on the culture and useful proper- ties of the Acacia. The leaves of acacia are said to afford an agreeable nourishment to horses and horned cattle. They may be given, either green or dry, alone or mixed, with hay or chop- ped straw. The flowers of the acacia are used by the Chinese in making that beau- tiful yellow with which they stain their silks and stuffs, and colour their paper, in the following man- ner : take half a pound of these flowers before they are fully blown, and roast them over a clear and gentle fire in a very clean copper pan, continually stirring them with a brisk motion ; when they begia to turn yellow, pour on a little wa- ter, and let it boil till it become thick, and acquire a deeper colour; then strain the whole through a piece of coarse silk. To the liquor thus expressed, add half an ounce of alum, and one ounce of calcined and finely-powdered oyster-shells : when the whole is well mixed, it will be fit for use. The origin of thebezoar has been attributed to the seeds of this plant, which being browsed by certain ani- mals, have, by their great acidity ACI AC I 11 and astringent qualities, caused a condensation of the juices of the stomach, and produced this cele- brated concrete. Acer campestre, L. See Com- mon Maple. Acer pseudo-platanus, L. See Sy- camore Tree. Acetite of Copper; See Verdi- GREASE. Achillea millefolium, L. See Mil- foil, or Common Yarrow. ACIDS are obtained from vege- table and mineral substances, either by fermentation or distillation. The vegetable acids, however, such as the juice of limes and le- mons, are frequently procured with- out the aid of art. They are of a saponaceous consistence, and there- fore, in a variety of affections, emi- nently adapted to the human consti- tution. With respect to their gene- ral effects, it may be said that they attenuate the fluids, remove ob- structions, stimulate the appetite, promote digestion, quench thirst, and, in hot seasons, counteract the putrid tendency of the animal hu- mours : they afford an excellent remedy in pectoral, bilious, and in- flammatory diseases, but particu- larly in the true scurvy, as like- wise in all maladies of the kidneys ; and are the most effectual antidotes against the narcotic vegetable poi- sons. Thus, a most powerful dose of opium may be checked in its so- porific effects, if a proper quantity of the acid of lemons be taken with, or immediately after it. For in- stance, four grains of opium, or one hundred drops of laudanum, form a large, and sometimes fatal, dose ; but if one ounce of pure lemon- juice, or twice that quantity of good vinegar, be added to every grain of opium, or to twenty-five drops of laudanum, we can declare from ex- perience, that such a compound will produce a very different effect. Instead of stupifying the head, and producing troublesome costiveness, it will not only relieve the bowels, but also occasion a degree of chear- fulness, never attainable by the use of opium alone, or strong liquors, and afterwards induce a composed and refreshing sleep. Hence the use of acids, to persons who are ha- bitually obliged to take considerable doses of opiates, cannot be too strongly recommended. In the form of clysters, the mild vegetable acids, such as vinegar, diluted with an equal quantity of cold water, are a safe and effectual remedy for cos- tive habits: and few persons will be inclined to doubt their good ef- fects, when sprinkled about the floors and walls of rooms inhabited by patients labouring under putrid disorders, especially in the heat of summer. The citric acid is a concrete juice obtained principally from lemons : it has also been discovered in the red whortleberry, cranberry, bird- cherry, as well as in the fruits of the woody nightshade, and the dog- rose. In order to divest this acid of the mucilaginous or other foreign par- ticles, with which it is frequently combined, the juice obtained by pressure from lemons, or similar fruit, should first be heated, then strained, filtred, and afterwards saturated with pulverized chalk, or the carbonate of lime, till all effer- vescence cease. The precipitate, formed by this process, is called citrate of lime; and, being inso- luble, it must be separated from the liquor, washed with cold wa- ter till it become tasteless and per- fectly white : next, it ought to be decomposed in a gentle heat, by 12 AC I A CO adding half its weight of sulphuric acid diluted with six parts of wa- ter. As soon as the mixture be- comes cool, it should be filtred: when the pure citric acid will be disengaged from the sulphate of lime....Such acid may also be ob- tained in a crystaline form, by previously filtering, and then eva- porating it to the consistence of a slear syrup, which concretes on exposing it to a cold temperature. Dr. Brugnatelli has lately published a new method of pre- serving and concentrating the acid of lemon. He directs the newly expressed juice to be strained through fine linen, a small portion of rectified spirit of wine to be added, and the whole to be depo- sited for several days in a bottle closely stopped : thus, a considera- ble mucilaginous sediment will be formed, but which may be easily separated, by passing the liquor through blotting-paper. If the quantity of spirit employed be con- siderable, it may be drawn off by distillation in a glass retort : in the contrary case, the juice may be exposed for some time in a warm temperature, and the alkohol will readily evaporate, leaving a very clear acid of peculiar strength. The citric acid affords an agree- able lemonade, by dissolving half a dram in two pints of water ; add- ing a sufficient quantity of sugar, and bittersweet, which is prepared by rubbing the latter substance on fresh lemon-peels, till the essential oil be absorbed. [The following methods have been communicated, for preserving the juice of lemons or limes, by different persons: 1. Boil the juice after straining it j if necessary, and bottle it. •2. Squeeze the fruit, put the juice and pulp into a bottle : cover the top with an inch of oik Cork and rosin the bottle. The juice is sup- posed to feed upon the pdlp. Be- fore using the juice, the pulp and oil must be carefully taken out.] As a proper substitute for the acid of lemons, we refer to the ar- ticle Barberries. The mineral acids, however, art- productive of very different effects : when applied in a diluted state to the human body, whether external- ly or internally, they generally con- tract, and gently stimulate, the ani- mal fibre ; but, in a concentrated form, violently stimulate, corrode, and destroy its texture. With re- spect to their comparative activity, the nitric acid, or aquafortis, is the most volatile; the vitriolic acid, the most diffusible; and the marine acid, or spirit of salt, perhaps the most active and permanent in its effects on the human system. Hence the lasthaslatelybeenusedbyDr.REiCH of Erlang, in Germany, with unex- ampled success, in the cure of the true typhus, or putrid nervous fe- ver, after all other remedies had proved ineffectuaL This-bold prac- titioner did not hesitate to give the muriatic acid, diluted with the smallest possible quantity of water, to an extent almost exceeding be- lief; though his cures appear to be sufficiently attested by the royal College of Physicians at Berlin. The particulars of these extraor- dinary facts, we propose to lay be- fore the public under the head of Fever. ACORNS, or the seeds of the oak, though not at present an ar- ticle of human subsistence, yet, if we may credit the testimony of an- cient writers, formed no small part ACO AC O 13 of the diet of the ancient Germans and Britons ; and the desire to pos- sess what was then considered as a table delicacy, was often a cause of hostilities between various nations. They have seldom been used for medicinal purposes. We have,how- ever, the testimony of several fo- reign practitioners in their favour, and especially that of Dr. Marx. In describingthe valuable properties of acom-cofi'ee, he asserts that this preparation has often cured obstruc- tions arising from an accumulation of mucus in the viscera, and re- moved nervous complaints, when all other remedies have been tried in vain. The following is his me- thod of preparing the acorn-coffee : Take sound and ripe acorns, peel off their shells or husks, divide the kernels, and, after gradually drying, roast them in a close vessel, keep- ing them in continual motion. In this process, however, particular at- tention should be paid, that they may not be burnt, or roasted to ex- cess. Takeof the powder, when ground like other coffee, half an ounce, or about four small tea-spoon fulls every morning and evening ; using it either alone or mixed with one tea-spoon full of real coffee, and sweetening it with sugar. This kind of coffee has, by the frugal house-wife, been employed as an article of domestic economy, but has not obtained general sanc- tion ; nor do we pledge ourselves for its medicinal efficacy ; though several foreign practitioners affirm that it is an excellent remedy in asthmatic, and other pectoral com- plaints. A coins possess an astringent qua- lity, which may be extracted by steepingthem in cold water,or boil- ing th^m. On expression, they also afford an oil, which may be ad- vantageously used in the burning of lamps. In the year 1756, an ingenious gentleman, Mr. Ellis, invented a method of preserving acorns for a considerable time, and of retaining in them the power of vegetation, by encasing them in wax. In this manner, they may be transported to distant climates, and preserved in a fresh state for several years ; so that they can be transplanted with hopes of success. Lastly, acorns afford a very pro- per and nutritious food for hogs, which are readily fattened by their use : and we are farther convinced, from their analogy to the horse- chesnut, that, by depriving them of their husks, soaking them carefully in several infusions of fresh water, then drying and reducing them to flour, they would, in times of scar- city, serve as a tolerable substitute for bread-corn ; for by this simple, though troublesome process, most of the astringent vegetables lose their acrid and bitter taste. [Acorus Calamus, L. The com- mon Calamus aromaticus, or Sweet Flag, grows in marshy situations, and in shallow water, and may be known by its long, sword-shaped leaves,resemblingthoseof the flag, but narrower, of a brighter green, waved along one of the edges, and also by its oblong, cylindric spike of flowers coming from the side of the stem at the edge of the leaf. The root is like that of the flag, long, cylindric, tuberous, spongy, marked with rings, and putting out abundance of fibres, which, indeedt are the proper roots. It has a strong aromatic smell, and a warm, pung- ent, bitterish taste. The flavour is greatly improved by drying. It possesses carrainitive and stomachic 14 ACT AC U virtues, and is frequently used as an ingredient in the morning bit- ters in this country, in places sub- ject to ague. AccordingtoBechstein,the leaves may be employed for dispelling ma- ny noxious insects ; hence we re- commend them particularly against moths, infesting woollen cloth, and the destructive worms in books ; for which purpose they might every year be replaced in the corners of the drawers and shelves. M. Bau- troh has used the whole plant for tanning leather; and Dr. Bohmer remarks, that the French snuff, call- ed a la violette, probably receives its peculiar scent from this fragrant root. Neither horses, cows, goats, sheep, nor hogs, will eat the herb or roots of this vegetable.] ACRE, a denomination used in the measurement of land : an acre consists of four square roods, each containing 40 perches, or poles. In different countries it varies, accord- ing to the length of the pole, which is from 161 to 28 feet. It is, also, divided into ten square chains, of twenty-two yards each, or 4840 square yards. The English statute acre com- prises 160 square poles, each of which contains 16A feet. The same measure of land, in Scotland, is re- gulated by the Scotch ell, which is 37 rfa English inches: thus, 36 square ells make 1 fall; 40 falls, 1 rood; and 4 roods constitute an acre ; so that the proportion of a Scotch to an English acre is near- ly as that of 5 to 4. The acre em- ployed in the Principality of Wales, is equivalent to 2 English ones ; and the Irish acre is equal to one acre, 2 roods, and 19 perches-^- of English statute measurement. ACTEA SPICATA, L. Herb Christopher. The dry leaves are ex- tremely sharp and rough, so that they may be usefully employed for polishing hard wood and ivory. The berries boiled with alum, yield a deep, black dye; and Thielbin, a German writer, asserts that, the red berries of the actxa spicata give a beautiful dye, equal to that obtained from cochineal; after boil- ing them with cream of tartar, and dropping into the decoction, a solu- tion of tin in aqua fortis, the colour became permanent. We believe he alludes to the berries produced by another species of this herb, either the actea alba, or racemosa of N. America, or the cimicifuga of Si- beria, which is an excellent pre- servative against the worm in paper, moths, and bugs; because the Eng- lish native species generally pro- duces black berries. [TheA. Spicata has two varieties in the United States: 1. a. alba with very white transparent berries; 2. a. rubra with red berries.] [ActeaRacemosa,black snake root, or rich weed, is a very beautiful plant when in flower. The utility of the root of this plant, is well known. It is an astringent; andDr.BARTON says, it was used in the form of de- coction as a gargle, with success, in a putrid sore throat, which pre- vailed in New Jersey many years ago. A decoction of the root cures the itch. In North Carolina, it has been found useful as a drench in the disease of cattle, called the murrain.] ACUTE DISEASES are such as are either attended with inflam- mation, or other urgent symptoms, which bring on an early crisis, and render them dangerous in their con- sequence : hence they are opposed to chronic diseases, or those which, though of slower progress, may ne- vertheless terminate in dissolution. ADU AD V 15 As the former are more in need of the immediate assistance of art, we shall state the most proper methods of treating them in their commence- ment, as well as the suitable diet and regimen to be observed in them, under the different heads of Apo- plexy, Asthma (suffocative), Cho- lera Morbus, Colics, Convul- sions, Cramps or Spasms, Epi- lepsy, Fevers ( inflammatory), Fractures, Hydrophobia, In- flammations, &c. 8cc. ADDER, in zoology, a name for theviper.As this reptile iswell known aparticular descriptionof itis unne- cessary ; but as accidents frequent- ly happen by its bite, we shall pre- sent our readers with a list of the most esteemed remedies to be re- sorted to on such occasions, toge- ther with some account of this ani- mal, and the means of destroying it, under the article Viper. Adderivort. See Great Bis- tort, or Polygonum Bistorta, L. Adonis Autumnalis, L. SeePHAE- sant's Eye. ADULTERATION is the cor- ruption, or debasement by an im- proper mixture, of any substance that was originally in a pure state. This art, though not unknown to the ancients, has in modern times been carried to a great extent; in- somuch that we are sorry to ob- serve, the rules and principles upon which so pernicious a practice is founded, are considered as qualifi- cations essential to those persons who supply others as well with the common necessaries, as the luxu- ries, of life. We are, indeed, pro- vided with excellent laws against adulterations; but crafty and ava- ricious dealers take frequent op- portunities, either of eluding the vigilance and severity of justice, or of concealing their nefarious prac- tices in so skilful a manner, as to render their detection extremely difficult, and sometimes impossible. We shall, therefore, consider it as our duty to point out those articles which are most liable to the species of fraud. They may be found under the different heads of Beer, Bread, Coffee, Hair-Powder, Honey, Oil, Snuff, Spirits, Tea, To- bacco, Vinegar, Wax, Wine, &c. Sec. ADVERTISEMENT, general- ly, signifies any information given to those who are interested in a common concern. It more parti- cularly alludes to a short account of an affair inserted in a public newspaper. We should have scar- cely noticed this article, had it not been with a view to caution the un- wary, and animadvert upon the fraudulent practices to which the advertisements of the present day are frequently subservient; for in- stance, those of money-lenders, ser- vants' office-keepers, agents for place-men, adventurers, marriage- brokers, and other unprincipled in- dividuals, who prey upon the cre- dulity of the public. Hence, we venture to suggest an opinion, that it would be more conducive to the interests of society, if the public prints were subjected to some re- gulations in this respect; and that no advertisement could be inserted, without being authenticated before a magistrate. By this precaution, the editor and printer of a newspa- per, who sometimes become the innocent accomplices of fraud or swindling, would be secured against the attempts of those who frequent- ly avail themselves of this mode of publication, to make it a vehicle for falsehood and depredation. 16 JETH AFF Aegofiodium Podagraria, L. See Gout-Weed, or Herb-Gerard. Aesculus Hippocastanum,"L. See Horse-Chesnut, and Flour. jETHER, a term formerly used to signify a thin subtle matter, fin- er than air, and completely filling the whole space of the firmament. Various opinions have been held respecting its precise nature : by some it is supposed to be a fluid of a peculiar kind, and confined to the regions above our atmosphere ; by others, a subtance so subtle and penetrating, as to be intimately dif- fused through the air, and to insinu- ate itself into the pores of all other bodies. Its existence, however, has been denied by many, who assert, that the air, by its tenuity and ex- pansion, is fully sufficient for the above-mentioned purposes. Whatever conjectures may be formed concerning the nature and properties of this subtle fluid, there is every reason to believe in the ex- istence of a matter finer than the air itself. Sir Isaac Newton has observed, that heat is readily com- municated through avacuum,which cannot take place without the inter- vention of some other medium..... This, being subtle enough to pene- trate even through the pores of glass, may readily be conceived to be ca- pable of pervading all other bodies, and diffusing itself through every part of space : and thus it conveys a complete idea of an xthereal fluid. jEther is now principally consi- dered as a chemical composition.... It is a combination of vitriolic acid and spirits of wine, and is used for a variety of medical purposes. The head-ach is said to have been often cured by rubbing it on the temples; and Dr. Conyers declares, that a tea-spoon full applied to the affect- ed jaw, and repeated till the pain ceases, is a never-failing remedy for the tooth-ach. It has also been used in cases of rheumatism, gout, and hooping-cough, with great success. In a paroxysm of suffocating asth- ma, and all those diseases where the organs of respiration are affect- ed, half a tea-spoon full of vitriolic Ether in a table spoon full of water, quickly swallowed and occasionally repeated, has often produced instant relief. Even the simple evaporation of this volatile fluid, a spoon full of which may be placed at a time in a shallow vessel contigious to the pa- tient, has frequently been found of great service, and alleviated the most distressing shortness of breath. A combination of spirit of sea- salt with the flowers of zinc, pro- duces the marine xther. JEthusa Cynapium, L. See Fool's Parsley. AFFLICTION, as opposed to a state of joy and prosperity, cannot be called a disease, though when indulged to excess, it may be pro- ductive of many mental and bodily affections. For whatever tends to excite anger, hatred, envy, &c. cannot fail to bring on disorders arising from tense or rigid fibres ; as, on the contrary, fear, grief, and excessive joy, engender those ma- ladies which are the consequence of relaxation. Hence we cannot be too much on our guard against the invasion of passions, which may be truly styled the greatest enemies of man- kind. Lord Bolingbroke, in his Letters " on the study and use of history," gives the following perti- nent advice : " Let us set all our past and our present afflictions at once before our eyes. Let us re- solve to overcome them, instead of shrinking from the contest, or of wearing out the sense of them, by AG A AGI 17 long and ignominious patience..... Instead of palliating remedies, let us use the incision-knife and the caustic ; probe the wound to the bottom, and work an immediate and radical cure." Uninterrupted misery, continues this stoic philo- sopher, has this good effect, that, as it continually torments, it finally hardens the sufferer. After-birth. See Midwifery. AGARIC of the oak, or the Agaricus Quercinus, L. is well known as a styptic, when applied to exter- nal wounds. M. Adouillet, an eminent French surgeon, has em- ployed it, instead of ligatures, on the arteries, in cases of amputation, by applying small pieces of it to the mouths of these vessels, and af- terwards covering the stump with lint. This species of agaric may be usefully employed for the purpose of dying silks of a black colour : to succeed in the experiment, it ought to be cut in small pieces, and boil- ed in a solution of copperas, over a gentle fire, till the dye be sufficient- ly strong. Another species of agaric, namely, the common puff-ball, has, by far- riers also, been used as a styptic : and, in an experiment made upon a horse, it completely stopped, in a fi w minutes, a hemorrhage from one of the largest arteries. The wound afterwards healed, without any further discharge. We cannot, on this occasion, omit to remark, that persons living in retired situations, and particular- ly those employed in husbandry, as v ell as artisans working with sharp instruments, ought always to be provided with some stypiic, which, at a distance from medical aid, and in a moment of emergency, may, sometimes, save^ an useful animal, VOL. I. and even the life of a fellow-crea- ture, by its timely application. The efficacy of agaric, as a styptic for external wounds, has, however, been disputed by Mr. Neale, a surgeon of the London Hospital, who published some observations on the subject, in the year 1757.... He asserts, that he has seen it used on several occasions, and frequently employed it himself, without effect, nay, to the detriment of the patient. Agaricus Muscarius, L. See Musky Mushroom. AGE signifies any period of du- ration. It is indiscriminately used to express many objects and situa- tions, but is more frequently ap- plied to the latter or advanced pe- riods of human life ; and, in this sense, is accompanied with the epi- thet old. Human existence has been di- vided into four distinct periods, viz. infancy, youth, manhood, and old age. The gradation through these successive stages is often slight and imperceptible ; it may be either ac- celerated or retarded, according to* the more or less prudent conduct of the individual, the mode of life which is pursued, and the various rules and precautions observed in diet, regimen, &c. Age, when accompanied with other good qualities, is more espe- cially entitled to respect and reve- rence ; but if marked with igno- rance and folly, becomes disgusting and contemptible. See the article Longevity. AGITATION is the act of shak- ing a body, or tossing it backwards and forwards. In physics, this term is often used for a commotion of the parts of a natural body. Fer- mentation and effervescence are at- tended with a brisk agitation of the particles. D 18 A G R AGR Agitation is also one of the chief causes or instruments of mixtion. By the agitation of the parts of the blood and chyle, sanguification is in a great measure effected. Butter is also made out of milk by the same means ; a separation of the oleous from the serous parts taking place, and a combination of the for- mer among themselves. Digestion is supposed to be accomplished by an insensible kind oS agitation* This term is also used, in medi- cine, to denote that species of exer- cise, commonly called swinging ; which has been found serviceable in several complaints; and it is assert- ed, that even the toolh-ach and deaf- ness have sometimes been removed by violent agitations of the body. We propose to make some farther observations on this species of exer- cise, under the article Swinging. AGONY is a term used to sig- nify an extreme degree of pain, or the last pangs of death. The ter- ror of death appears, in a great de- gree, occasioned by the contortions and convulsions with which the ago- ny seems attended ; though the ge- neral opinion of physiologists is, that in such cases the sensations ©f pain are not very acute ; a course of affliction during sickness, having naturally indisposed the nerves for any quick sensations- Various means have been em- ployed for mitigating the agonies of death, such as opium, Sec.; but these attempts are, by judicious per- sons, generally discountenanced : the conscious reflection of having spent an active and useful life, is, on this occasion, the most effectual remedy which suggests itself to the christian and the philosopher. AGRICULTURE is the art of cultivating the earth, so that it may produce the vegetables we desire in their greatest perfection. It may be divided into two branches; name- ly, theory and practice. The for- mer particularly treats of the va- rious means of preparing and ma- naging the soil and manure, and of the different kinds of vegetables which are adapted to particular soils, and most proper to be raised for the consumption of men, cattle, 8wv The latter relates to the im- plements of husbandry, the various methods of cultivating land, raising crops, and feeding cattle. Agriculture is one of those arts which, from the earliest periods, have been deservedly held in the highest estimation* One of the first injunctions upon our original pro- genitor, after his dismission from the garden of Eden, was, that he should " till the ground." Subsequent ex- perience has fully proved, that the cultivation of this necessary art es- sentially contributes to the prospe- rity of mankind, and that it ought to form a primary object in all mo- ral and political regulations. In the earliest ages, and among those nations' which have been ce- lebrated for their refinement and civilization, agriculture has been highly prized, and carried even to considerable perfection. Among the Hebrews, high birth or rank conferred no exclusive distinctions; for it was then considered as the most honourable of human em- ployments. By this valuable art, the Chaldeans discovered the means of procuring excessive crops of corn, which enabled them to Femain sta- tionary, and not migrate, as their predecessors had formerly done, in order to obtain subsistence for them- selves and their flocks. So sensible were many nations of itsr great im- portance, that, according to the his- tory of the ancient Persians, their AGR AGR IS kings, once in every month, divest- ed themselves of regal pomp, and ate with husbandmen. In China, a day is still annually appointed, when the emperor goes in solemn pro- cession to a field, where he shews his sense of the inestimable benefits of agriculture, by undertaking, for a short time the laborious occupa- tion of directing the plough in per- son. Among the Romans, the ru- ral art was deemed so honourable a pursuit, that the most distinguished senators, at their leisure intervals, applied themselves to the cultiva- tion of the soil. NumaRompilius, one of their first kings, was distin- guished as much for his skill in agriculture, as for his exemplary piety ; and such was the amiable simplicity of those times, that their greatest warriors and legislators, were often called from the active labours of the field to the higher, but not more dignified,ofnces of the state. Cato, the censor, who had governed and subdued many war- like nations, did not consider it be- neath him to write a treatise on agri- culture ; and several valuable works upon this subject, appeared at va- rious periods of the Roman em- pire. In the year 1756, a period of dif- ficulty and distress, France began to pay particular attention to this important subject. Prize questions were annually proposed by the aca- demies of Lyons, Bourdeaux, and by the society instituted for the im- provement of agriculture in Brit- tany. About this time, also, it was greatly encouraged in Russia, Prus- sia, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Italy; in the last mentioned country, a private gentleman, about 40 years ago, left his whole fortune to the establishment and support of an agricultural academy. Whether we consider agriculture as a means of procuring, as well the necessaries as luxuries of life ; of providing a security against the ag- gregated calamities of scarcity, fa- mine and disease ; or of engaging the mind in active and extensive pursuits of general knowledge, it is one of the most useful and import- ant of all the arts which have em- ployed the attention of mankind. Its theory is, in a great measure, dependent on several branches of science, such as natural history, chemistry, experimental philoso- phy, and mechanics, all of which may be successively applied to its advancement; and without a com- petent knowledge of these, it can- not be properly -understood. Ita practical part, however, may be car- ried on, independently of scientific experiments. No person, therefore, need be deterred from attempting any improvements, because he is not conversant with the more ab- stract parts of physical knowledge. The successful advancement of the rural art depends upon two cir- cumstances ; the one, its improve^ ment by discoveryor invention ; the other, a more extensive practice of such improvements, when fully de- monstrated. The former is effect- ed, by the contrivance of more per- fect machines and implements cf husbandry, which facilitate the pro- gress of labour; the introduction of new articles of profitable culture, and the most advantageous method of treatingthose-which have already been cultivated, though in a defec- tive manner. The latter, namely, the practice, relates not only to fu- ture improvements, but likewise to those which, though generally known, have been either wholly nc* glected, or adopted only in particu- lar places. 20 AGR AGR Agricultural pursuits will always constitute one of the principal em- ployments of the bulk of mankind; it is, therefore, as well the interest, as the duty, of the higher classes, to contribute every comfort in their power, towards alleviating the bur- thens inseparable from the lot of the husbandman. For, so long as that valuable body of the people, who cultivate the soil, were duly stimulated to habits of industry, and encouraged in the practice of do- mestic virtues, we find no example in the pages of ancient or modern history, that such a nation ever suf- fered a general calamity. [It has been justly observed, that in America, in particular, agricul- ture is the foundation of productive Industry, and the bulwark of moral habits. Throughout the United States, the land is distributed among a great number of proprietors ; and these proprietors have the entire disposal of their freeholds; the ec- clesiastical encumbrances of tythes, and the feudal impositions of ser- vices, which cramp and paralize every effort made towards the im- provement of this science, are un- known ; and the improvements of the farmer or planter, accrue to themselves and their families, in- heritable as a clear estate, or trans- ferable at their option to any pur- chaser. Where the soil is parcelled out aniong millions of free citizens, each lias more at stake in the com- munity, has greater importance and higher responsibility, and as he va- lues his actual enjoyment and future prospects of happiness, will become convinced that the self-government he exercises ought to be founded on wisdom and virtue. From these i auses m.-;y be deduced that inde- pendent spirit, that honest demea- nour, that unsuspicious frankness, andthatunaffectedpatriotism,which distinguish the sons of agriculture. How worthy then of consideration is this noble art! How laudable the efforts of those who detect its errors, or introduce improve- ments! Howparticularly commend- able are those Americans who la- bour and make experiments for the instruction of their fellow-citi- zens !] For an account of the different subjects connected with agriculture, we refer the reader to the articles, as they are classed in the order of the alphabet. AGRIMONY, Common ; or Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. It is re- presented in the 6th and 7th plates of Curtis's Flora Londinensis, p. 317. In a medicinal view, the leaves of this vegetable are said to be ape- rient, detergent, and to strengthen the tone of the viscera; hence they have been used in laxity of the in- testines, in scorbutic, and other dis- orders arising from debility. Di- gested in whey, agrimony affords a diet-drink grateful to the palate and stomach; though its leaves have an herbaceous and roughish taste, accompanied with an aromatic fla- vour. The leaves and stalks, toge- ther with the closed flowers, afford a dark yellow decoction, which when previously impregnated with a diluted solution of bismuth, im- parts a beautiful and permanent gold-colour to animal wool. We are induced to state this fact upon the authority of M. Dambourkey, who, in the year 1793, published a volume of" Facts and Experi- ments on genuine and permanent Colours," printed at Leipzig, in the German language. The blossoms of the common acrimony have also been occasion- AGU AGU 21 ally employed by tanners, for curing soft and delicate skins. [A. Eufmtoria is a native of the United States. Kalm says, the Canadians use an infusion of the Toot in fevers with great success.... Varieties of thisspecies,are a.minor, or white a....a. odorata, or sweet- scented a....The a. passifl.ora,\s also found in the United States.] Agrostemma Githago, L. See Corncockle. Agrostis Spicaventi,~L. See Si lky Bent Grass. AGUE is a general term for those fevers which have periodical intermissions, and are specifically denominated quotidian,tertian, quar- tan, according to the various pe- riods at which the febrile paroxysm returns. The symptoms generally observ- ed, during the cold fit in agues are, strong shiverings, succeeded by great heat, and the usual concomi- tants of fever, such as thirst, quick pulse, &c. The hot fit is termi- nated by a perspiration more or less profuse, according to the habit and constitution of the patient. Several other symptoms occa- sionally present themselves in the different stages of the disease. Dur- ing the interval of each paroxysm, the patient apparently enjoys as good a state of health, as previous to the attack of this disease. Never- theless, if it be sufferedto continue long, it weakens and exhausts the constitution, and occasions such ra- vages as medicine cannot easily re- pair; producing general debility, obstructions in the viscera, jaundice, dropsy, Sec. We shall proceed to point out a few of those remedies which have been found effect' ul in this disease. A tea-spoon full of powdered snake-root mixed with a glass of brandy and water, and taken be- fore the approach of the fit, keeping the body warm to induce perspira- tion, has been of considerable ser- vice. The following remedy is also said to have been successfully em- ployed in agues: Two spoor sfuls of the juice of sage, mixed with an equal quantity of vinegar, and taken at the ap- proach of the fit. The regular method of eradicat- ing an ague, after the disease has been properly ushered I."!, by a few successive paroxysms, consists in cleansing the first passages by pro- per laxatives and emetics, as occa- sion may require. The patient, during the fit, should drink freely of water-gruel,and other warm diluents. The Peruvian bark may then be administered in any form best suited to the patient's stomach, either in decoction, infu- sion, tincture, or in powder mixed with Port wine. The last mode, as being the most efficacious, ought, when practicable, always to be pre- ferred. Dr. Lysons has observed, that his patients derived great benefit from the use of the snake-root com- bined with bark. His receipe is as follows: two scruples of bark and one of snake-root. He says, that two or three doses rarely fail to ar- rest the progress of a distinct ter- tian, Or quartan ague. Should a farther repetition of this remedy be requisite, it will be attended with this advantage, that the disorder will be less likely to return, than if it were stepped by the bark alone. Repeated shocks ot the electrical fluid have been said to cure agues; but this is a precaiions and hazard- ous practice. Even that sovereign remedy, the bark, has sometimes been known to fail. 22 AGU AGU If no other means be found ade- quate to the inveteracy of this com- plaint, we cannot, in justice to Dr. Fowler, omit to mention his mi- neral solution, or ague-drops, so well known to all our apothecaries, that they require no farther description. Yet, convinced of their violent ef- fects on the human system, we seriously recommend the use of the remedies above specified, be- fore arsenic be employed as the ultimate resource. [In most cases it is necessary to give a gentle emetic, to clear the stomach of bile before the bark be taken. Ipecacuanha is the safest emetic: fifteen or twenty grains will answer for most persons: three or four grains of calomel may be joined with the ipecacuanha to open the bowels. The bark may then be commenced, and a tea-spoonful taken every three hours during the absence of the fever: beer is the best vehicle to disguise the taste of the bark, but milk answers the purpose very well. It may also be taken wrapped up in a wafer made of flour and water, pressed between two hot flat-irons, and in this way proves less disagreeable to the sto- mach. After a few days use of the bark, the stomach commonly nauseates it; it may then be omitted for a short time, and strong snake-root and chamomile tea,or a decoction of dogwood and black alder, to which some shavings of sassafras root have been added, may be substitu- ted. The diet may be more gene- rous than usual; and great care taken to avoid any cause that may bring on a return of the ague, par- ticularly cold, damp air. Should however,the usual symptoms of ant come on, twenty drops of laudanum must be taken, and the person co- vered up in bed.' The bark must then be recurred to and steadily taken. The complaint is very apt to return, after being suspend- ed for some time. To prevent this, care should be taken not to go out in the morning before the ground be dry, or with an empty stomach: to avoid the hot sun, and chilling damps of the night. It often hap- pens that a change of air, will prove a cure, when no internal remedy avails. A flannel shirt is highly useful in fortifying the body against the attacks of intermittents; and after a long continued indisposition always ought to be worn, and re- gularly changed once a week. In situations subject to intermit- tents it is an excellent practice to keep fires in the common sitting rooms every morning and evening, nay in the middle of the day, even if it be necessary to keep the doors open: for the air will be thus de- prived of its unhealthy moisture, and the walls kept dry. By this practice I have known the health of a family in the swamps of Dela- ware, preserved during a whole summer, while the neighbours were all afflicted by agues. In obstinate intermittents, a slight salivation will prove a cure: blisters applied to the wrists, will also check the return of fits. Dr. Rush re- commends the loss of some blood when the disease is protracted to the winter months, and I have known the remedy frequently suc- cessful. Periodical head aches, sore eyes, and pains in other parts of the body, frequently proceed from the same cause that produced the intermit- tent fever, and may be cured by the bark, or by the mineral solution of AIR AIR 23 Dr. Fowler. The following are the doses for various ages: Years. Drops. 5 to 7 from 5 to 7 8 12 7 10 13 18 10 12 18 and upwards. 12] AIR, in a pure state, is a colour- less, transparent, compressible and clastic fluid; and one of the most important elements; whether we consider its application to pur- poses of general economy, or its effects on animated nature. It is the medium through which we breathe, and without which we can- not exist. When perfectly freed from all extraneous and noxious particles, it may be denominated vital air, or oxygen; and in this state is capable of invigorating and supporting the human frame, in a very eminent degree. Mixed with the common ingredients, it is called atmospheric air, or that by which we are usually surrounded. [Before the modern discoveries in chemistry, the atmosphere was con- sidered as one simple elastic fluid: but it now appears that there are four distinct elastic fluids found in every portion of atmospheric air. And these, for aught we know, are totally independent of one another: so much that if any one of them were wholly withdrawn from the surface of the earth, the rest would not at all be affected by the circum- stance either in their density or si- tuation.] In diseases of the lungs, and epi- demics arising from a confined or vitiated atmosphere, the adminis- tration of air, in a pure state, has been attended with singular suc- cess; while, in such complaints, the most powerful remedies have been unable to compensate the want of this necessary article. Air vitiated by the different pro- cesses of respiration, combustion, and putrefaction, or which is suf- fered to stagnate, becomes prejudi- cial to the human frame: hence large cities, public assemblies, hos- pitals, burying-grounds, Sec. are injurious to health, and often pro- ductive of contagious disorders. Plants and vegetables possess the wonderful property of restoring the purity of air. This, however, takes place only in the day-time, and when they are exposed to the light of the sun; for at night they dis- charge their noxious particles, and corrupt the atmosphere. Never- theless, the disadvantage arising from their impure exhalation dmv ing the night, Is far exceeded by the benefits produced in the day-time; as the former does not amount to a hundredth part of the pure vital air, which is generated by the same plant, in the course of two hours of a fine day. It has been.asserted, that the purity of air may be also restored by wetting a cloth in wa- ter mixed with quick-lime, hanging it in a room till it become dry, and renewing the operation so long as it appears needful. A mode of forwarding the distil- lation of salt water at sea, has been discovered, and consists simply in blowing currents of air through the distilled fluid. The same me- thod has also been successfully em- ployed to take off the unpleasant taste which is sometimes found in milk. Dr. Reich of Erlang, describes a particular machine for the pur- pose of extracting air from the in- testines, and thus procuring instant relief in a complaint called tympa^ nites, or the dry windy dropsy. A small tube with a cock having a valve on its side, and so constructed 24 AIR AIR as to turn quickly, is affixed to the commonclystering machine. Upon each successive introduction, the cock must be turned, in order to admit the air into the tube, and then quickly closed. Air which is rarefied, ascends. This is particularly exemplified in the periodical sea and land breezes of hot climates; where, in conse- quence of the reflection of the sun from the earth's unequal surface, the lower land-air becomes highly rarefied, and rises into the upper at- mosphere, while the seL>air, being cool and dense, rushes in to supply its place. Upon this principle, M. Van Marum, a Dutch chemist, has discovered a method of purifying assembly-rooms by a tin tube of nine inches diameter, and ten feet length, to the lower surface of which lamps are suspended, for the purpose of rarefying the air, and urging it to ascend through the ceiling of the room. Dr. Hales has described the useful effects produced in French prisons, by long air-trunks fixed through the ceilings of wards in gaols, to carry off the foul vapours which exhale from the prisoners : he declares that it has not only pre- served many of their lives, but pre- vented them from communicating infectious distempers to persons as- sembled in the courts of judicature. We are happy to add, that this valuable improvementhas also been adopted in this country. An apparatus invented by Mr. Salmon, of Canterbury, for the ex- pulsion of noxious air from wells, has been employed with consider- able success. Air-baloons are constructed upon similar principles; they continue to ascend, so long as the inflammable gas with which they are hiicd is lighter than the atmosphere with which they are surrounded. Noxious and mephitic vapours, arising from wells and other sub- terraneous places, may be effectu- ally corrected by simple ventilation, or the admission of such portions of vital air, as will render the whole sufficiently respirable. To ascertain whether the air of a mine, well, cellar, or large cask, be safe, a lighted candle, suspended by a cord, ought to be conveyed to the bottom, before any person ven- ture to approach it. Should a slight explosion take place, or the light burn dimly, or even be extinguished, the air is certainly noxious ; but if the flame continue bright, no dan- ger is to be apprehended. Another easy expedient of puri- fying foul air may be adopted, by pouring several vessels of boiling water into such receptacles, before any person be suffered to descend. A still better method of dispel- ling the deleterious air from deep wells or pits, is the following : take a leather tube of sufficient length to reach the bottom of the shaft or cellar ; fix the nozle of a pair of large bellows to the top, and work them briskly for, a few minutes : thus fresh air will be introduced, the flame of the candle, on trial, will not be extinguished, and we may descend without any danger. [ This last is the plan recom- mended by Mr. Robertson of Phil- adelphia, in the Amer. Phil. Trans. It is a tedious method; a much bet- ter one will be described under the article Well.] Artizanswho are employed over charcoal-fire, such as dyers, gilders, refiners of metals, Sec. are exposed to considerable danger from the vi- tiated state of the air : to avert the injury to which their lungs are thus A I R AIR 25 exposed, it would be advisable to place near them a flat-bottomed vessel filled with lime-water, and to renew it every other day, or so often as a variegated film or pellicle appear floating on such water..... This powerfully attracts and ab- sorbs the pernicious exhalations pro- duced from the burnir,; of charcoal. Likewise, in the construction of chemical laboratories, smelting- mills, and similar offices, proper attention ought to be paid to their free and constant ventilation; as the metallic fumes, and other noxious vapours which they generate, are highly detrimental to health. In chronic diseases, especially those of the lungs, a change of air is strongly recommended. It has sometimes, independently of any pther circumstance, proved highly beneficial; inasmuch as patients have breathed more freely, even though removed to a damp and con- fined situation. In a late volume of the " Annates de Chimie, we meet with a memoir by M. Deyeux, on the means of purifying infectious air ; and which is extracted from a work of M.Guy- ton de Morveau, who made nu- merous experiments with different matters, in order to ascertain those which were best calculated to pre- vent the diffusion of contagious atoms in the atmosphere. As, how- ever, we cannot enter into an ana- lysis of his experiments, we shall briefly state their results. Accord- ing to these, the nitric acid is well calculated to destroy the putrid ef- fluvia ; but, as it cannot without great difficulty be divested of nitrous gas, the action of which is always prejudicial to the health of those who respire it, M. Morveau re- marks, that the use of this remedy is still attended with great incouve- VOL. I. nience. He is, therefore, of opinion, that the muriatic acid affords very great advantages in dispelling con- tagion, by the uncommon expansi- bility of its vapours; which thus pe- netrate every part of the substance on which the operation may be per- formed. Nevertheless, he conceives oxygenated muriatic acid to be su- perior to every other remedy, both for the celerity and facility with which it is diffused, and likewise for the certainty of its action ; in consequence of which, it instantly destroys all putrid miasmata, that may either be floating in the air, or be fixed upon bodies. [With regard to Guyton's pub- lication, the editor agrees with Dr. Mitchell in thinking, that soap- suds, alkaline lye, and lime-water, properly used, by an active woman, will much more effectually extin- guish contagion and infection, than any acid fumigations, whether ni- trous or muriatic ; and that there is no need of books, or chemical pro- cesses, when the best possible me- thods are in daily use already, and only want to be carried rigorously into execution. It is curious to ob- serve that while Dr.C. Smyth, who has lately been rewarded by the British Parliament with 50001. for the discovery, insists upon the effi- cacy of the " nitrous vapour," Guy- ton is'equally positive that the suf- focating fumes of the muriatic acid are the most certain destroyers of contagion. Both methods are at variance with the common expe- rience of mankind.] Aira Cespitosa, L. See TuRFr Hair Grass. AIR-BATH, in its general ac- ceptation, implies a contrivance for the reception of fresh air. All per- sons, but especially children, ought to resort, at least for a short time, E 26 AIR ALA every day to this method of enjoy- ing the salubrious influence of that universal agent. To persons of a robust and vi- gorous habit, we cannot recommend a more bracing and pleasant reme- dy. In this place, however, we shall give only an historicul sketch of the simple air-bath, without ex- patiating on its nature and effects. Its benefits were first pointed out by the late illustrious Franklin, who describes it with his peculiar simplicity, in the following words : " Every morning at day-break I get out of bed, and pass' half an hour, or an hour, in my chamber, according to the season, in writing or reading, without any clothes; and this seems rather pleasant than otherwise : and if I return to bed, as is sometimes the case, before I dress myself, I have an addition to my night's rest of one or two hours sleep, sweeter than you can ima- gine." The late Lord Monboddo, a man of an amiable, though eccentric cha- racter, was so decided an advocate for the air-bath that he accustomed himself to take violent exercise, when quite undressed, in the open air. In this practice he persevered till within a few years of his death ( which happened in May, 1799); he also annointed his body, like the ancients, with aromatic oils, espe- cially in a moist and heavy atmos- phere. Whether by these singular expedients, or by a frugal and phi- losophic mode of life, he enjoyed that extraordinary degree of men- tal serenity and bodily energy, which prolonged his existence to the 90th year of age, Ave shall not pretend to decide. AIR-JACKET, a dress made of leather, in which are contained se- veral bags or bladders, composed of the same materials, and communi- cating with each other. These are filled with air blown through a lea- ther tube, having a brass stop-cock, accurately ground at its extremity* In order to confine this elastic fluid, the jacket must previously be wet- ted ; and thus the person is sup- ported in the water without any ef- fort, by the aid of these bladders placed near the breast. Those who are proficients in the art of swim- ming, condemn such artificial as- sistance as cannot always be readily procured : in our opinion, the most proper and easy method of acquir- ing this useful talent, is that men- tioned by Dr. Struve, in his Ger- man treatise on the Physical Educa- tion of Children, lately published, with three Introductory Lectures by the Editor of this Encyclopxdia. See the article Swimming. Aix-la-Chapelle. See Mineral Waters. ALABASTER, is a species of stone, the basis of which is calca- reous earth. Mixed with any acid, no effervescence takes place ; in this respect it differs from marble, but in its chemical properties it re- sembles gypsum, selenite, and plas- ter of Paris. There are three spe- cies of alabaster: the white-shining; the yellowish ; and the variegated, a mixture of yellow and red. The last, indeed, violently ferments with aqua-fortis, and bums to a pale yel- low. It was formerly brought from Egypt, but is now obtained in se- veral parts of England. Mr. Boyle, speaking of the first sort, says, that, if finely powdered, and set in a bason over the fire, it will, when hot, assume the appear- ance of a fluid, rolling in waves, yielding to the smallest touch, and emitting vapour. On the departure of the heat, it loses these proper- ALA ties, and again becomes a mere in- coherent powder. So great is the transparency of this stone, that it has sometimes been employed for windows, and at Florence a church still receives its light through the medium of alabaster. It is found in the greatest abundance near Co- bientz, in Germany ; near Cluni, in France; near Rome, in Italy ; and in some places of Lorrain. Alabaster, or maible, may be cleaned by the following process : beat pumice stones to an impalpa- ble powder, and mix it up with ver- juice : let it stand for two hours, then dip into it a sponge, and rub the marble or alabaster, wash it with a linen cloth, and fresh water, and dry it with clean linen fags. ALARUM, a term employed to signify any instrument, or contriv. ance, for the purpose of awakening persons from sleep, at a certain hour, or of alarming them when exposed to danger. In the former sense, it is generally a part of clock-work, and deserves here no farther notice; but, in the latter, we strongly reT commend the utility of alarums to every family, whether living in towns, or in solitary situations in the country. Many ingenious suggestions have been devised, for affording security to the industrious, against the au- dacious attempts of house-breakers: the most common of these are, hanging bells to the windows, or larger beils and rattles kept in rea- diness for giving early notice to the watchman absent from his duty, or to the peaceful neighbourwhose aid is required. In the year 1771, Mr. Henry invented a curious alarum, which was highly appro\ id of l>y Sir John Fielding. All burglaries being perpetrated at night, this piece of ALB 27 mechanism deserves peculiar en- couragement. On being fixed up by a bell-hanger, with wires fasten- ed to the windows and doors, it will, upon the least attempt to break into the house, go off with a noise sufficient to awaken the family. As every clock-maker is acquainted with the construction of this alarum, we think it unnecessary to give a particular description. ALBUMEN, properly signifies the white of an eggs but has lately been used in chemistry to denote likewise one of those elementary constituents of vegetable bodies, which, in its colour and properties, bears an exact resemblance to the animal substance known under thi:, denomination. The white of eggs if taken warm from the hen, especially in luke- warm milk, is uncommonly nourish- ing to the weak and infirm ; but, when boiled hard, its nutritive qua- lity is in a great measure destroyed, and it then becomes very difficuk of digestion. If the white of a fresh egg be ap-« plied to burns, immediately after ^ the accident, it generally prevents them from rising in blisters ; it al- so tends to abate recent inflamma- tion of the eyes when spread upon soft linen, and placed over the paTts affected. Used as a lotion on the face, it preserves it from sun-burn- ing or freckles, in the heat of sum- mer. On the contrary, a very small portion of the white of an ^^, if swallowed in a putrid state, is at- tended >\ ith dreadful effects ; such as nausea, horror, fainting, vomit- ing, diarrhoea, and gripes, accom- panied by heat, thirst and fever, while it iiiflames or violently stimu- lates the bile, and, not unlike the plague, promotes a speedy dissoh> tion of the humours, 28 ALB ALC It is remarkable that, according to Boer ha ave, the white of eggs was employed by the reputedPARA- celsus, as a menstruum of extraor- dinary properties; and which great- ly contributed to his fame. When boiled hard in the shell, and then suspended in the air by a thread, it dissolves and drops down into a flavourLss lienor ; which, though destitute of acrid, oily, or sapona- ceous ingredients, makes a more perfect solution of myrrh than either water, oil, spirits, or even fire itself can effect. In domestic economy, the white of eggs is usefully employed for clarifying ale, wine, Sec. for which purpose it should be mixed with the liquor, and the whole boiled toge- ther : thus all the gross particles of the latter will subside, or be car- ried off with the former, which, by this processes reduced to a concrete state, and is either precipitated, or combined with, the feculent ingre- dients of the liquid. The vegetable albumen is one of those primary constituents of plants, ■which may be separated by chemi- cal aid, without undergoing any change of their native or inherent qualities. It is found principally in cresses, scurvy-grass, hemlock, and most abundantly in the anti- scorbutic and narcotic plants, where it generally resides in the leaves. Its existence may be easily disco- vered, by mixing the freshly ex- pressed juice of these plants with spirits of wine, or by macerating them with hot water, nearly to the boiling point: in both cases, the albumen will be coagulated and se- parated from the other fluids in the form of cheesy matter. It is, per- haps, superfluous to observe, that this vegeto-animal production may in times of scarcity serve as a pror per substitute for the white of eggs; it being possessed of similar proper- ties. See the article Eggs. [ALCARRAZAS. A kind of vessels used in Spain for cooling water intended for drinking. As they are exceedingly porous, the water oozes through them on all sides ; the air which comes in con- tact with the water by making it evaporate, carries off the caloric or the principle of heat in the water in the vessel, and by these means renders it remarkably cool. The most celebrated place for this spe- cies of pottery is Anduxas in An- dalusia. These vessels might be easily imported from Spain, and would be found of singular use in the United States.] Alcea rosea, L. See Hollyhock and Paper. Alchemilla vulgaris, L. See Com- mon Ladies' Mantle. ALCHEMY is the art of trans- muting metals into gold, or chang- ing the inferior into more precious ores. It was formerly much culti- vated, and held in high estimation by fanatics, as well as by many learned but deluded men : in latter times, however, it has been almost generally exploded, and is now pur- sued only by crafty impostors. The ruin which frequently at- tended this popular delusion, be- came so extensive, that alchemy has, at various times, been proscrib- ed in several states. The Romans banished such persons as professed it; and Dioclesian and Caesar ordered all books on this subject to be publicly burned. In England it has, at no period been much en- couraged ; for the native good sense of the inhabitants generally pre- vailed, so that this useless art, has by the more enlightened, always been cpnsidered in its true colours. ALD ALD 29 ALCOHOL, in chemistry, sig- nifies spirit of wine, in a more ar- dent and purified state, obtained by distillation. Its specific gravity is to that of distilled water, as 815 to 1000. When diluted, in the pro- portion of about twenty ounces to seventeen of water, it is called proof spirit, and is used for tinc- tures, distilled cordials, Sec. See the article, Spirit of Wine. [Thefollowingmethod of rectify- ing weak spirit of wine, will be found very advantageous to artists. Take well dried potash and pour over it spirit of wine : the latter will not unite with the potash, but the water which it may contain will be taken up by that alkali.... The spirit of wine is then to be poured into another glass, and sub- jected to the same operation as be- fore. This process is to be repeated till it is observed that the potash is no longer very moist. Such spirit of wine is exceedingly strong, but rendered a little impure by the pot- ash, as will appear from its yellow- ish colour. It must therefore be poured into a retort, having a re- ceiver adapted to it, and distilled to a fifth part over a slow heat. What comes over is alcohol.] ALDER-TREE, or the Betula Alnusot Linnaeus, is so well known by the name of common birch, as to require no particular description. There are three species, l.the alba, or common; 2. the nana, or dwarf; and 3. the lenta, or Canada-birch : the last of which grows to a height of upwards of sixty feet. The al- nus,or alder-tree,is,properly speak- ing, another species of the Canada- birch. When suffered to grow in an open situation, it has an agree- able appearance. Whenever any soil be intended for pasture, the &\-. der should by no means be encou- raged, as it poisons the herbage, and renders the soil moist and rotten. The alba, or common birch, is easily propagated; either from seeds or layers, and will flourish in most soils. While in the nursery, they should; in dry weather, be con- stantly weeded and watered. Ac- cording to Hanbury, the best method of producing them, and preserving their varieties, is by dis- tributing them in layers. The wood of this tree was, in ancient times, used for the con- struction of boats, and at present, on account of its hardness, is em- ployed in the North of Europe for making carriages and wheels. In France, it is generally used for wooden shoes; and in England for women's shoe-heels, travelling box- es, Sec.; it also affords ve;y e;ood fuel. In Sweden it is employed for covering houses, and is very dn.-a- ble. On deeply wounding,or boring the trunk of this tree, in the begin- ning of spring, a sweetish juice ex- udes in large quantities ; and one branch alone will yield a caHon in a day. This juice is recommend- ed in scorbutic disorders, and other impurities of the blood. Its most sensible effect is in promoting the urinary discharge. By proper fer- mentation, and with the addition of sugar, it makes a pleasant wine.... The plant itself is uitringent, but the bark of the black berry-bearing alder, is affirmed to be the most certain purge for horned cattle..... The leaves, when eaten by cows, are said greatly to increase their milk. [There are several species of al- der peculiar to the United States. The bark is used by dyers, tan- ners, and leather dressers. It dyes a yellow; and with a little copperas, a yellowish gray, very useful in the 30 ALD demitints, and shadows of flesh in tapestry. The shoots cut in March will dye a cinnamon colour ; and a fine tawny if they be dryed and poAvdered. The fresh wood yields a dye the colour of rappee snuff.... The catkins dye green. The bark is also used as a basis for blacks; an ounce of it dried and powdered, boiled in three quarters of a pint of water, with an equal quantity of logwood, with solution of copper, tin, and bismuth, six grains of each, and two drops of solution of sul- phate of iron (copperas) will dye a strong deep boue-de-Paris, or Paris- mud. The leaves have been some- times employed in tanning leather. The whole tree is very astringent. The alder-tree thrives in swampy ground. The v.ood of this tree is in great esteem in Europe for ma- chinery. The cogs for mill wheels formed of it are deemed superior to any other. It is commonly used for bobbins. It resists wrater pow- erfully, and hence is of great value for pump trees, pipes, drains, con- duits to reservoirs, piles under wa- ter; and all kinds of wood work, kept constantly wet. In Flanders and Holland it is raised for this purpose. The alder is highly useful as a medicine. I have heard of a well authenticated instance of the effica- cy of an infusion of the catkins or candies taken internally, having effectually cured a boy of sore eyes, which apparently proceeded from ascrophulous cause, after a variety of remedies had been used without effect. A decoction of the barks of black alder and dogwood (cornus f.orida) is a common and successr ful remedy in the United States for intermittents. The roots of the Hriondendron tulifiifera, or tulip poplar tree, and of the sasafrass ALE (laurus sasafrass) are sometimes joined with the alder and dogwood. Medical gentlemen who practise in the country would render a ser- vice to the public by stating the pro- portions of each remedy, which produce the best effect.] ALE, a fermented liquor, ex- tracted from malt by the process of brewing. It differs from beer, in having a less proportion of hops.... This beverage was first made in Egypt, and used as a substitute in those climates which were unfavor* able to the production of the grape. Among the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, it was a favourite drink, and they believed, that large and fre- quent potations of it constituted one of the chief enjoyments of those who were admitted into the Hall of Odin. There are various kinds of ale, particularly the pale and brown; the former, being brewed from malt slightly roasted, is esteemed more glutinous and wholesome than the latter, which is made from malt of a drier nature. It may be prepared in various ways, from wheat, rye, millet, oats, barley, Sec. Its con- sumption in England, was about twenty years ago, computed at the value of four millions sterling an- nually, including Great Britain and Ireland. See the articles, Beer, and Brewing. In cold countries, and to persons who take considerable exercise, ale may be of service, but in weak and lax habits, it is often attended with disagreeable effects, such as indi- gestion, flatulency, &c. When drunk to excess, it has sometimes occasioned cholera morbus, and se- vere eoljes. Various methods of preserving this valuable liquor from turning sour on long voyages, have bee^ ALI A L I 31 proposed ; of which the following appears to be the most effectual: it was first published by Dr. Stubbs, in the 27th Number of the Philo- sophical Transactions. I'or its dis- covery we are indebted to an ale- seller at Deal; and it was tried with success in a voyage to Jamaica..... " To every nvnlet of five gallons, after being placed in a cask on ship- board, not to be stirred any more, put in two new laid eggs whole, and let tliein lie in it; in a fortnight, or little more, the whole egg shells will be dissolved, and the eggs be- come like wind-eggs, inclosed only in a thin skin ; after this, the white is preyed on, but the yolks are not touched or corrupted, by which means the ale was so well preserv- ed, that it was found better at Ja- maica than at Deal." ALE-HOUSE, a public place of resort for drinking ale or beer. The utility of ale-houses has been much questioned ; they certainly, in some degree, encourage habits of intemperance and dissipation; yet, we must acknowledge, that by the subsistence which they afford to a considerable part of the commu- nity, the facility with which they enable those who cannot brew for themselves, to procure their liquors at intervals, and in small quantities; and the social relaxation they pro- cure for the weary traveller, as well as the industrious peasant,they ma- terially contribute to the ease and enjoyment of a portion of society, over whom the moralist may be safely allowed to exert the sober influence of persuasion, but with whose amusements the legislature should cautiously interfere. ALIMENT. By this term is understood the nutritive quality of such substances as are dissolved and m.xed in the stomach, and convert- ed into chyle, by the digestive pro- cess. It may be considered rather as the consequence of food taken by a healthy individual, than as an ar- ticle of food itself; for all kinds of animal and vegetable bodies do not furnish an alimentary supply, or at least, not in the same proportion. Of those articles which afford it in the highest degree, animal food is the principal; being most easily digested, and furnishing a greater quantity of that milky fluid, called chyle* For this purpose, however, a due mixture of vegetables must be added, in order to correct its high luxuriance, and to render it more congenial to our nature. Fresh air is one of those agents which are necessary to the digestion of food, and the consequent produc- tion of aliment: as, without a re- newal of this salutary medium, the most wholesome diet will be pro- ductive of but little benefit. It is asserted that substances have been discovered, which have ena- bled men to exist without proper food, for a considerable length of time ; and as a proof of this asser- tion, the following instance of an extraordinary powder, which was given to six pensioners of the Royal Hospital of Invalids at Paris, is re- corded in the Gentleman's Maga- zine for January, 1755. It is sup- posed to consist of Turkey corn, roasted, powdered, and mixed with a small quantity of sea-salt: six ounces of this composition, with less than a pint of water, afforded suf- ficient nutriment to one person for twenty four hours. No other pro- vision was taken for fifteen days, during which time, it is said, these invalids continued well and hearty, though one was seventy years of age, and the other five were young men, who had lost some of their 32 ALK ALK limbs. None experienced any in- convenience, either from faintness or hunger ; several of them being employed in such bodily exercises as were suited to their years ; and they frequently did not eat the whole Of their allowance. To prevent any deception, they were constantly guarded by a centinel. Previous to its administration, the powder was prepared in the manner as follows : six ounces of it were shaken by degrees into boil- ing water, and briskly agitated with a spoon ; after having acquired the consistence of a thin panada, it was fit for use. The invention of it is ascribed to M. Bouch, late surgeon- major of a regiment in France. It is recommended to an army on forced marches, a besieged garri- son, and to the poor at a time of scarcity, or when other provisions cannot be easily procured. Among the articles of diet afford- ing aliment in an uncommon pro- portion, we may enumerate the following, to which we refer the reader, under the heads of Arrow- Root, Rice, Sago, Salep-Pow- der, Tapioca, Sec. See also Food and Drink. Alisma Plantago, L. See Great- er Water Plantain. ALKALIES, in chemistry, sig- nify those substances which possess the following properties: viz. they are 1. incombustible; 2. capable of converting a vegetable blue to a green colour; 3. they manifest a hot and caustic taste; and 4. are soluble in water. Alkalies are divided into two )tinds,fixed and volatile. The fixed are subdivided into vegetable and mineral; the former being the pro- duction of burnt vegetables in the open air; and the latter have some- times been found native in the earth, though we generally obtain our soda by the calcination of ma- rine plants, chiefly from the differ- ent species of the glass-wort, or Salsola, L. as well as from other saline vegetables growing near the sea-shore....See the article Ba- rilla. Both the fixed alkalies endure a very intense degree of heat, with- out dissipation, and are used in the composition of glass: the volatile are produced by distillation from animal substances; in their pure state they are invisible, and so pun- gent to the smell, that they can- not be approached without great danger. All vegetable substances contain fixed alkali, in greater or less pro- portion. M. M. Deyeux and Vau- qyELiN have proved by recent ex- periments, that one pound of the ashes of horse-chesnuts yields nearly six ounces and a half of pot-ash; nay, the same quantity of the burnt husks produced more than six ounces. But, accosding to an ac- curate analysis made by these chemists, the greatest quantity of vegetable alkali is contained in the fruit of the Spanish lilac, or sy- ringa vulgaris, L. the ashes of which yield more than one-half of pure alkali, or in proportion of eight ounces and three drachms to a pound. M. Jacobson, the editor of the German Technological Dictionary, asserts, that the dry or withered leaves of the beech-tree, or the Fagus sylvatica, L. afford the vege- table alkali in great abundance, in- somuch that ten pounds weight of the ashes thence obtained, are equal to thirty pounds of common wood- ashes.... We have purposely men- tioned the results of these experi- ments, as the vegetables alluded to ALK ALK 33 may be readily procured, and sub- stituted for the very expensive arti- cles of pearl-ashes and soap. A far- ther account of useful substitutes will appear under the different headsofSoAP,SoD a,and Washing. It is affirmed, that pestilential fluids are rendered harmless and inactive by alkaline substances; and Dr. Mitchill, of New-York, in two letters written to a young lady has ingeniously and humourously described their good effects. As these refer to many articles of do- mestic economy, which are more or less composed of alkaline pro- ductions, we shall present our read- ers with an extract, nearly in the author's own words....It is a stale and indelicate subject of jesting among men, how much time and labour are consumed by women in scrubbing, scowering, whitening, and washing. These operations, however, are not performed for mere pleasure, but to prevent the conversion of impurities to infec- tion ; or to destroy it, if already pro- duced. For this purpose, they em- ploy pot-ash and its ley, soap, lime, calcareous earth, Sec. to scower the porous materials of their floors and stair-cases; to purify garments that have become soiled or contaminated by long use, or wearing; and with good reason, as these saline sub- stances are capable of drawing forth and rendering hannless, those ani- mal exhalations which are ready to be converted into pestilential poi- son....The ladies have indeed prov- ed from long established experi- ence, that " infection is uniformly prevented and extinguished by the use of alkalies." Dr. Mitchill also recommends the use of pot-ash cakes for chil- dren, to prevent the injurious ef- fects of an acid upon their stomach, VOL. I. and mitigate the disorders to which their bowels are liable. He ob- serves, that those infants who have been accustomed to eat cakes a little tinctured with this excellent ingredient, grow fat and healthy; and concludes with advising alka- line washes and powders as dentri- fices; which, in his opinion, have been beneficial only in proportion to the alkali, of which they are partly composed. [For a large body of evidence in favour of the antiputrefactive and antipestilential properties of alka- lies, and of their virtues in curing various diseases, See the Medical Repository of Ncw-York.~\ ALKANET, Evergreen, or Bugloss; the Anchusa sempervirens, L. of eight species, the only one which is indigenous; it is repre- sented in Sowerby's Engl. Bot. 45, p. 5....7. The Anchusa officinalis, or great- er garden-bugloss, is a native of the warmer parts of Europe; but will also thrive in Britain. The flowers of this species, which blow during the whole summer, have ob- tained the name of cordial flowers, as they moderately cool and soften the palate and stomach. They are much visited by bees....the young leaves afford a good substitute for early garden vegetables, and the whole plant is an excellent fodder for cattle....If the juice of the fresh flowers be boiled with a solution of alum, it yields a green colour, which is used for dyeing. The Anchusa lutea, or Onosma echioides, L. is a native of France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, and some parts of Russia. Its peren- nial and woody root is, as it were, externally varnished with a beau- tiful carmine colour; hence the fe- males of the last mentioned country F U ALK ALL steep it in oil, for the vain purpose of painting their faces. Another species, the Anchusa tinctoria, L. is imported from the Levant, but unprincipled dealers frequently dye the common- gar- den-bugloss in a decoction of Bra- zil wood, and substitute it for the genuine root, which, as obtained from Montpellier, is of a woody texture, externally blood-red, but internally white, without flavour, and of an acrid taste. Dodonaeus affirms that, when transplanted to a cold climate, it loses its red co- lour. The Spanish wool, or Charta hispanica, is said to be prepared of this root: and Ruger, a late Ger- man writer, gives, in his " Pocket- book for Painters," the following directions for obtaining from it a beautiful purple lacker: take two ounces of the root finely powdered, and boil it for a few minutes in a lixivium made of pot-ash suf- ficiently diluted: and, after the liquor has grown cold, precipitate the colouring matter with a strong solution of roach-alum. The pre- cipitate thus obtained must not be edulcorated or washed with water, as is done in similar processes; be- cause this ablution would carry off too many of the colouring particles. All the species of Anchusa may be propagated by seeds, which should be sown either in the spring or autumn, upon a bed of light sandy earth; and when the plants are strong enough to be removed, they should be planted in beds two feet distant from each other, and watered, if the season require it, till they have taken root. The al- kanet reared in this country, is greatly inferior to that which is im- ported from the Levant. ALL-HEAL, Clown's, or, Marsh Woundwort, the Stachya palustris, L. is an indigenous plant, growing on the sides of rivers and lakes, in low, moist grounds, and sometimes in corn fields. It is re- presented and described in Cur- tis's Flora Londinensis, pi. 8, p. 248. This plant has- a fetid smell, and bitter taste. Formerly it was em- ployed in medicine as a vulnerary; but at present we shall confine our account to its economical purposes. Linnaeus, the illustrious author of the prevailing system of botany, informs us, in his account of escu- lent plants, that the creeping roots of the all-heal are sought after with. avidity by hogs; and that from their farinaceous nature, they would well repay the trouble of collecting and converting them into flour, for the purpose of making bread. In the present distressing condition of the industrious poor, Ave feel it our duty to take particular notice of all such substitutes as would, if pro- perly and timely resorted to, in a great measure tend to avert or re- lieve a national calamity..«See Bread* Allium. See Garlicr* ALLSPICE, Pimento, or Ja- maica pepper. The berry, in its smell, resembles a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence it has derived its name. It is milder than the East India pep- per, and, when employed in whole grains, makes an useful ingredient in broth, and stewed dishes. In me- dicine, it forms the basis of a dis- tilled water, a spirit and an essential oil; in which different forms it is efficaciously employed as an aro- matic, for cold and phlegmatic habits....See the article Spices. ALM ALM 35 ALMANACK, a term derived from two Arabic words, al and ma- nack, a diary; and is, as its name imports, a table or register con- taining a calendar of days and months, the rising and settingof the sun, the age of the moon, ami the eclipses of these luminaries. It is also used to foretel the change of seasons, the state of the weather, the ebb and flow of the tide, Sec. A great number of such diaries are annually printed in Britain; and we understand, that of the celebrat- ed Moore's Almanack, notwithstand- ing all the superstitious notions per- petuated in this popular book, not less than 400,000 copies are, every year, ushered into public notice.... It is, therefore, sincerely to be wish- ed, that such publications as are ad- dressed immediately to the bulk of the people, may in future be render- ed the vehicles of more useful infor- mation. Hence we presume to re- mark, that an annual publication, conducted upon the plan of Poor Richard's Almanack, in Pennsylva- nia, would be attended with great advantages, both to the husbandman and mechanic, in this country. The great Franklin, who is said to have edited that popular work for many years, furnished it with various sen- tences and proverbs, principally re- lating to subjects of industry, do- mestic economy, and frugality. ALMOND, a tree, eminent both for its fruit, and for the ornament which it affords to a shrubbery. It is the original of the ancient genus amygdalus, and by the botanic cha- racters of the flowers, comprehends also the peach and nectarine. Bota- nists admit but of one real species of the common almond tree, which they term Amygdalus communis.... Not being indigenous, we shall omit its particular description, and pro- ceed to state the properties and effects of its fruit on the human body. Sweet almonds are supposed to afford but little nourishment, and are not easily digested, unless tho- roughly triturated. Six or eight of them peeled and eaten, sometimes give immediate relief in the heart- burn. In medicine, theyiare chiefly used for preparing emulsions, as they abound not only with an oil, but likewise with a mucilage fit for incorporating oil and water. We have already observed that this fruit is difficult of digestion, on account of the oil it contains, which quickly becomes acrid in the stomach; hence it is particularly improper for bilious constitutions. The various preparations of almonds are liable to similar objections: and it is there- fore absurd to give almond milk as a common diet-drink to febrile pa- tients : for, as it consists entirely of oily and insoluble parts, it not only heats and vitiates the stomach, but at the same time occasions an ac- cumulation of bile. Almonds, as well as nuts, ought to be eaten only while fresh, and witiiout their skins. They should be well chewed; for every piece swallowed entire is indigestible. The use of a little salt, however, renders them miscible with our fluids, as a saponaceous mass; but, if indulged in to excess, they are productive of alarming, and some- times fatal disorders. The expressed oil of bitter al- monds, is, in cases of poison, recom- mended preferably to all others; but care must be taken not to use the chemical, instead of the natural oil, as the former is itself a poison. Bitter almonds are now generally disused. They have been found to destroy some kinds of animals; 36 ALM ALM hence modern physicians prescribe them with more caution; they are, nevertheless, frequently employed, for making orgeat and other liquors, without producing any bad ef- fect. Although we have declined to give a particular description of the Almond-tree, yet as it is frequently cultivated «in shrubberies, both on account of its beautiful flowers, and also for its fruit, we shall here add an outline of the manner in which it should be managed. Almonds are propagated by Ino- culation, or budding on plum or peach stocks, in the month of Au- gust, at such height as may cor- respond to that of the stem in- . tended to be raised: at the expira- tion of two years, the trees may be finally planted out. If the soil be dry, this operation should be per- formed in October, when the leaves begin to decay; but, in case the ground be wet, the proper season is the month of February. When the young trees are re- moved from the nursery, Mr. For- syth is of opinion, that they should never be cut, or pruned, " till the " new shoots begin to break;" and, as these frequently perish during severe winters, that succeed wet autumns, when the wood is not well-ripened, he directs them to be cut down to the sound wood; care being taken to extirpate with the knife all cross shoots, so as to make the tree open in the middle, and to leave the principal shoots, accord- ing to their strength, from six to sixteen inches long. Those parts, which are affected with theCANKER, must also be cut out; and such ex- cision ought farther to be extended to all decayed wood. Almond-trees being very deli- cate, it will be advisable to place them in a southern aspect, and in a sheltered situation, either among tall flowering-shrubs, or to thatch their tops with fern, or other light covering; in order to prevent the blossoms from being killed, by the frost, during the months of Febru- ary and March. When the fruit is set, and the leaves are sufficiently long to cover it, such shelter ought, if the weather be warm, to be re- moved, towards the end of April, or early in May; by which expe- dient an abundant supply of almonds may be obtained for the desert, both in autumn and in the winter. The fruit of the almond-tree is chiefly va- lued on account of its kernels; it may be preserved either in dry bran, or in sand; but it ought previously to be dried, on shelves or boards in an open situation; as it is otherwise apt to become mouldy, and conse- quently the kernels will be unfit for use. ALMS-HOUSES are asylums for the support and maintenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or infirm persons, during their lives. When these institutions are of a private nature, and limited in their extent, they are certainly beneficial to society ; yet it may on the whole be doubted, whether suchpublic es- tablishments, especially as they are generally managed under the abso- lute controul of rapacious trustees, do not in a great measure tend to relax the springs of industry, and encourage habits of indolence. For. by accustoming people rather to resort to eleemosynary sources, than exert their own strength and abilities, they cannot fail to degrade the moral feelings of human nature, and to destroy that independence which constitutes its noblest sup- ports-See the articles Charity and Hospitals. A LO A L O 37 ALOE is a beautiful exotic plant, the flowers of which grow in um- bels on the tops of the stalks, are of an elegant red colour, and ap- pear in the months of August and September. It consists often spe- cies, all of which are propagated either by off-sets, or by planting the leaves. The proper earth for this vegetable, is one half of garden- mould, or fresh earth dug from a common; the other half consists of an equal proportion of white sea- sand, and sifted lime-rubbish. This mixture should be made, at least, six or eight months previous to its use. The common aloe will live in a dry green-house in winter, and in summer may be placed under shelter, in the open air ; but should have very little water, and none on the stem of the plant; the other species require to be kept in an airy green-house, in which there is a stove to make a fire in cold wea- ther. Among the Mahometans, and especially in Egypt, the aloe is held in high estimation, and even dedi- cated to religious offices. These superstitious people believe, that it prevents evil spirits from entering their houses: for this purpose, both Christians and Jews place it over their doors; and whoever returns from a pilgrimage, exhibits it as an emblem of his having performed that holy journey. Its properties are various; and applied to numerous purposes, both medicinal and domestic. The leaves of the Guinea-aloe, as described by M. Adanson, in his voyage to Senegal, are employed in making very good ropes, not liable to rot in the water. Dr. Sloane describes two sorts of aloe, one of which is used for fishingUnes, bow-strings, stockings, and hammocks; the other produces leaves capable of holding rain water. In Mexico, there is a species of aloe called the Maguei, which is ap- plied to almost every purpose of life. Besides making excellent hedges and inclosures for their farms, its trunk serves as beams for the roofs of their houses, and its leaves instead of tiles. From this plant, the natives make their pa- per, thread, needles, and various articles of clothing, and cordage; while, from its copious juice, they extract wine, honey, sugar and vi- negar. Of the trunk, and thickest part of the leaves, when baked, they prepare an excellent dish. It is likewise employed by them in se- veral diseases, but especially in those t)f the urinary passages. In this country, aloe is princi- pally known as a medicine in the form of an inspissated juice, which consists of three sorts : 1. the Aloe pcrfoliata, or Socotrine Aloe; 2. the Hepatica, Barbadoes, or Common ; and 3. the Caballina, fetid or Horse Aloe. The first of these is the pur- est, and is brought from the island of Socotora, wrapt in skins. It is of a glossy surface, and in some degree pellucid, of a yellowish red colour,with a purple cast, and when reduced to powder, of a bright gold- en shade. In winter, it is hard and friable, but in summer pliable, and grows soft, when pressed between the fingers. Its taste is bitter, ac- companied with an aromatic fla- vour ; the smell is not unpleasant, and slightly resemblesthatofmyrrh. Aloe is considered as a good opening medicine for persons of a lax habit, and those whose stomach and bowels are loaded with phlegm or mucus, and dso for worms ; be- cause, while it carries off viscid 38 A L O AL O humours, it serves by its stimulat- ing qualities to strengthen and brace the system. When given in small doses of a few grains, repeated at intervals, it not only cleanses the alimentary canal, but tends also to promote the menstrual discharge in women : hence its use in the green sickness, and all female ob- structions. We must, however, observe, that, though it be a good stomachic laxative, it ought to be employed with great precaution, being an acrid and heating medi- cine, and therefore not proper in bilious complaints, or in a febrile state of the body. Its continued use sometimes produces the piles and habitual costiveness. When given in substance, without any mixture, it frequently adheres to the coats of the intestines, where it occasions griping and uneasiness : for which reasons, and in order to destroy its viscid properties, it should be pre- viously combined with some sapo- naceous or resolvent medicine, such as a small quantity of alkaline salts, the yolk of an egg, Castile soap, or mucilaginous vegetable extracts. We have purposely given a more minute account of the medicinal effects of this plant, than the limits of our work will admit, on similar occasions : this exception, however, has not been made with a view to encourage the sale of those aloetic preparations, so generally known and vended, under the name of "Anderson's Pills;" which, like most patent and quack medicines,have un- questionably contributed to increase the numberof patients among those credulous victims, who are frequent- ly obliged to seek relief in public dispensaries and hospitals. Con- vinced of the mischievous tendency thence resulting to the community, we devoutly hope that the wisdom of the legislature will, at length, be effectually directed to the suppres- sion of those destructive practices, the pretended success of which, we almost blush to say, is exultingly related in our daily prints ! With respect to the economical purposes to which the aloe may be rendered subservient, we shall in this place relate only the principal. It is asserted by an anonymous writer, in the Gentleman's Maga- zine for July, 1754, that a varnish made of the extract of the Hepa- tic aloe, turpentine, tallow, and white lead, or Spanish brown, when applied to the bottoms of ships, is the most effectual means of pre- serving them from the sea-worm : the discoverer remarks, that a plank covered with this mixture, was sunk with a proper weight and ropes, to- gether with another in an unpre- pared state, lx>th in an equal depth of salt-water, where the worm abounded ; and, upon raising them, after they had remained there from five to eight months, the former was perfectly sound and untouched, while the latter was eaten to a ho- ney-comb. This hint was adopted by a gentleman at Bermudas, who observed the inhabitants employ a few sliced leaves of the plants, from which the hepatic aloe is extracted, in addition to the oil and tallow, which are boiled together and used in careening their fishing-boats. Another valuable property of the horse-aloe, beside its being an ex- cellent purgative for horses, is its bitter principle, which renders it eminently useful in watery solu- tions, not only for preserving ten- der plants from the depredations of vermin and insects, but likewise for preventing putrefaction in certain vegetable and animal bodies, such as dried plants, stuffed birds, quad- ALO ALU 39 rupeds, Sec. Proper care, however, should be taken, that solutions or mixtures made with aloe be not exposed to be swallowed by dogs, cats, or other domestic animals, as to them the consequences woiddbe fatal. Several species of this useful plant have also been employed for manufacturing a cloth, resembling linen in its texture, and paper of various qualities. Clusius made shirts of it at Madrid, and Bour- GOiNG,in his travels through Spain, informs us, that the natives of that country manufacture their horse- bridles from the filaments of aloe- leaves. M in a si, an Italian, pro- duced from similar materials, dif- ferent kinds of coarse and fine paper. Lastly, we find, in the " Experi- ments and Observations" published by Poerner, a creditable German writer, in 1772, that a watery de- coction, made of the resinous gum of the aloe, without any farther ad- dition, produces a beautiful dark cherry-brown colour on woollen- cloth, by simple immersion. This fact may be easily ascertained by dyers. According to M. Fabroni, the leaves of the Socotrine aloe afford a beautiful violet colour, which re- sists the action of oxygen, acids, and alkalies. He directs the juice tube extracted from the fresh leaves, and then exposed to the air : thus, the liquid will become gradually red, and at length be converted into a deep violet purple which is pecu- liarly calculated for dyeing silk, a stuff that readily imbibes the colour without the aid of mordants. M. F. observes, that such juice may also be inspissated; in which state it forms a beautiful transparent colour for painting in miniature. Aiopecurus pratensis, L. Se«. Meadow Fox-tail. Aiopecurus agrestis, L. See Slender Fox-tail. Alsine media, L. See Common Chickweed. Althtea officinalis, L. Se« Marsh mallow. ALUM is a concrete salt, trans- parent, and of a very austere and astringent taste. It is in general a chemical preparation, being rare- ly found in a natural state, or freed from other ingredients. In Egypt, Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, Sec. it is said to be sometimes discovered in crystals. There are various kinds, but that which is called the Roman alum, is preferable to any other. This is usually to be found in small crystals, and of a reddish colour, probably owing to a small quantity of cala of iron, which, however, does not in the least impair its qualities...M The other kinds contain a propor- tion either of vitriolated tartar, or sal ammoniac. In medicine, it has been consi- dered as an astringent, and is of great service in restraining hemorr- hages, and other immoderate ser cretions. It is likewise externally used in lotions and eye-waters: and one scruple of burnt alum has been found beneficial in removing vio- lent colic>"pains arising from flatu* lency, bile, or great relaxation of the bowels; but in other cases it may prove hurtful, It is used for various purposes by dyers to fix different colours upon cloth; in the making of candles, to give them a gloss and firm con- sistence ; wood soaked in a solution of alum, does not readily take fire ; and paper impregnated with it, is the most proper for the preserva.- tion of gunpowder, as it also ex- 40 ALU ALU eludes the moisture of the air...... Tanners employ it to restore the cohesion of those skins which have been almost entirely destroyed by lime ; and vintners in fining their wines, Sec. Fishermen dry their cod-fish by means of it; and it is asserted, that bakers generally use it as an ingredient in bread : the tmth of this assertion, however, has been much questioned, and the sole reason ascribed for its use, is, that corrupt flour,being mixed with good, thus acquire a proper degree of cohesion, as the aluminous par- ticles equally pervade the whole mass and render it of a due con- sistence. Although some writers have maintained, that this styptic salt " is entirely innocent, and now seldom used" in the process of making bread, yet we have but too much reason to believe the contrary. The English translator of Tissot's excellent "Advice to the People in general," Sec. very pertinently re- marks, that the abuse of alum, and other pernicious materials, intro- duced by our bakers, may too justly be considered as one lamentable source of the numerous diseases of children. The Monthly Review- er of that book, for July 1765, adds, with equal justice, the following commentary: " Hence obstructions in the bowels and viscera, feeble- ness, slow-fevers, hectics, rickets, and other lingering and fatal dis- eases." To discover such unlawful prac- tices, requires no chemical skill: on macerating a small piece of the crumb of new-baked bread in cold water, sufficient to dissolve it, the taste of the latter, if alum has been used by the baker, will acquire a sweetish astringency. Another me- thod of detecting this adulteration, consists in thrusting a heated knife into a loaf, before it has grown cold; and if it be free from that ingredient, scarce any alteration will be visible on the blade ; but, in the contrary case, its surface, after being allowed to cool, will appear slightly covered with an aluminous incrustation. This me- thod, we understand, is generally preferred in the experiments made by country-justices. It deserves, however, to be remarked, that a very small proportion of alum, such as a few grains to a quartern-loaf, cannot be productive of any serious effects. In relaxed and scorbutic habits, or to those persons who are troubled with flatulency, bilious co- lic, and jaundice, such medicated bread may be conducive to the re- covery of health ; while in others, of a plethoric constitution, and a rigid fibre, it cannot fail to aggra- vate their complaints. In short, such addition to a common article of subsistence is, to say the least of it, highly improper, and ought not to be intrusted to the hands of a mechanic. One of the most important pur- poses, to which this concrete salt may be readily applied, is that of purifying and sweetening water that has become fetid and unfit for use. On long voyages, or at a dis- tance from clear rivers and wells, each gallon requires, according to its impurity, only from five to ten grains of calcined alum, and dou- ble or triple that proportion of pow- dered charcoal, in order to render the most offensive water perfectly sweet and pellucid: both ingredi- ents, however, ought to be preserv- ed in close vessels, or otherwise their efficacy will be considerably diminished. Alum has also been tried in the boiling of salt, to render it of a finu ALU A M B 41 eonsistence,but the good which was supposed to be derived from it, is now solely attributed to the effects of the slow and gentle heat, so that in this process it has of late been discontinued. The manufacture of alum was first invented in the year 1608, and greatly encouraged in England, by Lord Sheffield and other gentle- men of the county of York. King James the 1st assumed a monopo- ly of that article, and prohibited its importation. Beside the methods of detecting alum in bread, already stated, there is a chemical process, that consists in combining a little chalk with a small portion of aqua fortis and pouring the mixture on water, in which the suspected bread has been mmersed for some time. If there be any aluminous acid, its presence will become evident, by a gypseous or chalky mass deposited at the bot- tom of the vessel: in the contrary case no sediment will be formed. In October, 1794 a patent was granted the Earl of Dundonald for his method of preparing alum, vitriol of argil, and other saline sub- stances. He directs aluminous, vitriolic or pyrituous schist to be mixed with sea water, or with solu- tions of sea-salt, kelp, sandiver, soap-boilers ashes, or any saline matter, containing muriat of soda. The liquor resulting fromsuchmix- ture, is then boiled till it be suffi- ciently concentrated for crystaliza- tion ; after which it is mixed with a due proportion of alum-schist, clay or other argillaceous engredi- ent. The materials are next dried, pulverized, and submitted to the action of heat, till the muriatic acid 6e expelled : the result of these va- rious processes, is alum. The sub- stance remaining may, by repeated VOL. I. washing and drying be used as a pigment ; and, by collecting the muriatic acid in proper vessel.;, and combining it v ith volatile alkali, Lord D. procures sal awnvv.-rac...* A more diffuse accountof his inven- tions, is inserted in the 4th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts", &c. Alyssum sativum, L. See Gold of Pleasure. Amaranthus Blitum, L. See Small Red Blite. Amaurosis. See Gutta Se- rena. AMBER (Succinum) is a hard, bituminous substance, possessing a subacid resinous taste, and a fra- grant aromatic smell. It is the pro- duction of many countries, but the best sort is that which is found in various partaof England, especial- ly in the clay and gravel-pits be- tween Tyburn and Kensington, as well as behind St. George's hospi- tal, near Hyde-Park Corner, where fine specimens of this concrete are occasionally discovered. Prussia possesses it in great abundance, and the king derives from this ar- ticle alone an annual revenue of 26,000 dollars; on which account the late Frederic professed him- self to belong to the trade of amber- turner., . Those parts of the earth which produce this bitumen, are generally covered with a soft slaty stone, and abound with vitriol. Its most re- markable properties are, that it at- tracts other bodies to its surface, such as paper, hair, wool, &c and that it presents a luminous appear- ance in the dark. In its native form, under ground, it resembles various substances, such as pears, almonds, peas, Sec. but, when broken, leaves, insects, and other small objects, frequently appear inclosed : hence it has been supposed, that amber G 42 A MB AMB Was originally in a fluid state, or that from its exposure to the sun, it became softened, so as to be sus- ceptible to those impressions. As these insects are never found in its centre, but always near its surface, the latter seems the more probable conjecture. Animals of all kinds, are extremely fond of it, and pieces are frequently discovered in their excrements. Several centuries be- fore the Christian sera, it was in high esteem as a medicine; and Plato, Aristotle, and other writers, have commended its vir- tues : among the Romans it was valued as a gem, and in the reign of Nero,brought in immense quan- tities to the capital, where it was highly prized by the fashionable la- dies, who decorated themselves with trinkets made of that substance ; a custom which is still prevalent at Munster in Westphalia, and other catholic countries, where it is con- verted into amulets, crosses, Sec. As a medicine, amber is at pre- sent but in little repute, though it is still given in fiuor albus, hysteric affections, and in those diseases which proceed from debility. For- merly it was used in a variety of preparations, but of late, an aro- matic balsam, a powder, and an essential oil, are the only forms in which it is employed. Lastly, this bituminous matter Constitutes the basis of several kinds of varnish. It is used for the coat- ing of various toys, for staining the papier mache, and for the var- nishing of carriages ; for which last purpose, however, it is more pro- fitable to dissolve the gum copal. A method of making artificial amber has lately been discover- ed by Prof. Hermbstaedt, of Ber- lin. He placed rectified petroleum, about one line in thickness, on wa- ter, in a china saucer, which wa* exposed to the rays of the sun, for several months, beneath a glass- bell containing oxygen. At length, the petroleum had absorbed the oxygen and sunk a little beneath the surface: the glass was remov- ed ; when after pcuring off the wa- ter, and evaporating by a gentle heat, that part of the petroleum which retained its fluidity, the con- densed residuum was found to pos- sess all the properties of amber..... Such mode of preparing that valua- ble bitumen, however, would be too tedious to be generally adopted ; but Prof. H. from this ingenious experiment, justly infers, that am- ber originates from petroleum,oxy- genated and inspissated by its con- tact with the atmosphere, under the action of the sun. See Varn- ish. AMBERGRISE, or Grey Am- ber, is a solid opake, bituminous substance, of a greyish or ash co- lour, usually intermixed with yellow and blackish veins. This concrete is found floating on the sea, or thrown on the shores, and is pro- duced in the greatest quantity by the Indian Ocean. It has been sometimes also discovered by fish- ermen in the bellies of whales, in lumps of various sizes, from half an ounce to one hundred pounds in weight. Hence it is supposed to be an animal production. Clusius, however, asserts that it is an indu- rated and indigested part of the food collected by these fish, and forms a similar concretion with that of the bezoar found in the stomach of other animals. When pure, it sof- tens between the fingers; melts in- to an oil, in a moderate degree of heat, and, in a stronger one, proves highly volatile. Slightly warmed, it emits a fragrant odour, and when AMB A M M 43 set on fire, smells like amber. It dissolves, thougii with difficulty, in spirits of wine, and essential oils, but not in those which are expres- sed from vegetables, nor in water. In Asia, and part of Africa, am- bergrise is not only used in medi- cine, and as an article of perfumery, ■but also applied to the purposes of cookery, by adding it as a spice to several dishes. It is valued by the Turks as an aphrodisiac, and er- roneously supposed to promote longevity. It was formerly esteemed a cor- dial, and to be of great service in disorders of the head, and nervous complaints; but it now chiefly serves as an agreeable perfume, and is certainly free from many of those inconveniencies which usually ac- company substances of this de- scription.. Ambergrise may be considered as genuine, v/hen it emits a fragrant smell, on thrusting a hot needle in- to its substance, and melts like fat, of an uniform consistence. AMBURY, in farriery, signifies a tumour, or wart which is soft to the touch, and full of extrayasated blood. It is a disorder incident to horses, and may he .cured by the following method. Tie a strong hair-very tight round the part .affected ; and, after it has spontaneously fallen off, which usually happens in abouteight days, sprinkle powdered verdigiuse on the place, to prevent a return of the complaint. When, from its local situation, it cannot be tied, it may be either cut out with a knife, or burnt away with a sharp, hot iron ; or, where thiscannot be prac- tised with safety, for instance, in sinewy parts, it may be removed by applying oil of vitriol, or corro- sive sublimate to the tumour. Dur- ing the cure, the animal must be kept quiet, and free from every ex- ertion. AMMONIA signifies a salt, of which there are two sorts, the na- tive and the factitious. The for- mer, described by Pliny, and Dio- scorides, was generated from the urine of camels, in the inns, or cara- vanseras, where the pilgrims, re- turning from the Temple oi Jupiter Amnion, used to lodge ; whence it derived its name. Tjhe latter is a chemical preparation,formed either of the acetous or muriatic acids, combined with volatile alkali. A salt nearly of the same kind is thrown out by Mount Etna. The ancient sal amoniac was said to pos- sess the properties of cooling wa- ter, and dissolving gold. Great quantities of this concrete were formerly brought from Egypt, where it was originally prepared by sublimation, from the soot of animal dung; though at present we are principally supplied from our own manufactories, several of which are established in different parts of Britain ; but that in the vi- cinity of Edinburgh is one of the most extensive. Although the cheapest and most convenient method .of preparing it is not generally known, yet it is conjectured to be chiefly formed of a combination of sea salt and soot. It is commonly crystallized in the form of large> round cakes, and sometimes in conical loaves. The best sort is colourless, almost trans- parent, and free from visible impu- rities^ The taste of this salt is very sharp and penetrating- It dissolves in rather less than thrice its weight of water; and upon evaporating, a part of the liquor concretes agauj into thin shining spicules, or plates, like feathers. In frosty weatlier* 44 AMM A MM these are remarkably beautiful, and resembles trees, plants, Sec. Sal ammoniac, when pure, pro- motes perspiration, and in some cases, increases the secretion of urine. A drachm of it, dissolved in water, if the patient be kept warm after taking it, generally proves sudorific. By moderate ex- ercise in the open air, it benefici- ally operates on the kidneys; given in a large dose, it proves aperient; and in a still larger, acts as an emetic. As a cooling and diaphoretic me- dicine, the sal ammoniac dissolved either in vinegar and water, or combined with small doses of the Peruvian bark, has often been at- tended with the best effects, when taken in fevers, and especially in intermittents, after the intestinal canal has been properly evacuated. Mr. C. Lynam, a medical practi- tioner in the metropolis, has for- merly favoured the editor of this work with an account of a cheap and expeditious manner of saturat- ing the common solution obtained by dissolving this salt in vinegar, with fixed air, or carbonic acid gas; which is a valuable addition to that liquor. His method is in effect as follows; take one ounce of pure sal ammoniac, and one pint and a half of distilled vinegar; put the latter in a decanter provided with a close glass-stopper; then intro- duce the salt, previously broken into lumps, but not too small; as by plunging it too suddenly into the, liquor, the extrication of the gas would be too quick, and a quan- tity of it be dissipated. Next, the stopper of the bottle should be tied over with a piece of leather, and the whole be left undisturbed. It would farther be useful, to add, on (he top of the bottle, some weight or pressure, by which means the combination of the carbonic acid gas with the water v\ ill be greatly facilitated. After having stood a few hours, the ammonia will be dis- solved, and the carbonic acid ab- sorbed by the liquor. By this simple process, the ace- tated water of ammonia becomes strongly impregnated with fixed air, while it is almost entirely de- prived of that disagreeable taste which is peculiar to this medicine, when prepared in the usual way. Mr. Lynam speaks from expe- rience, of the superior qualities this preparation possesses as a febri- fuge ; beside the very great advan- tage, that it tends to keep the bow- els open, even under the immediate influence of opiates. It likewise, generally, agrees with weak and irritable stomachs, which can re- tain scarcely any other medicine. This salt has also been employed externally in lotions and embroca- tions, for scirrhous and other indo- lent tumours ; for removing warts and other excrescences, and in gar- garisms, for inflammations of the tonsils. Ammonia pura, or the caustic vegetable alkali, possesses uncom- mon alexiteric powers, in the cure of persons bitten by snakes, and other venomous animals. Sixty drops of it, sufficiently diluted with water, make a moderate dose, which ought to be repeated accord- ing to the urgency of the symp- toms. At the same time, the wound should be washed;..with a similar mixture. It is positively asserted, that such treatment has been attended with uniform success, when the patient was able to swallow the medicine. [Mr. John Williams in a late pub- lication speaks in the most positive AMM AMP 45 manner of the good effects of the volatile alkali, (spirits of hartshorn, orspiritsal ammoniac) in curing the bites of venomous snakes in the East Indies. The cure consists in the immediate application of a bandage around the limb bitten, in wash- ing the wound with volatile alkali, and in the repeated administration of the same medicine, in doses of from 30 to 60 drops, in water, every five, eight, or ten minutes, till the patient is completely re- lieved. Though the medicine is directed to be administered imme- diately, yet one instance occurs of its obviating the effects of a bite which had been inflicted more than an hour. Relief is given in a few minutes. As this remedy is kept in most families, an opportunity is afforded of trying its effects in the case of a bite of our American cro- ialus horridus or rattle snake.] [For a very interesting account by Dr. Mitchell, of the anti- pestilential quality of vol. alkali See the Medical Jitpuitory, parti- cularly vol. 4, p. 257.] AMMONIAC is a concrete, gummy-resinous juice, usually brought from the Ea,;t Indies in large masses composed of lumps or tears of a milky colour, but on exposure to the air, it quickly ac- quires a yellowish appearance. Hitherto we have no certain ac- count of the plant which affords this juice, but it has, and with.some probability, been asserted, that it is a species of the ferula, from another species of which is also produced the a. a f'atida....it is said to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the interior parts of Egypt. Tins !:um has a nauseous sweet- ish taste, succeeded by a sensation of bitter; and a smell somewhat re- sembling, but more grateful than, galbanum. When chewed, it sof- tens in the mouth, and becomes of a white colour. It may be partially dissolved, in water, or in vinegar, with which it assumes the appear- ance of milk, but the resinous part, amounting to about one half, sub- sides when suffered to rest. A si- milar composition, but much infe- rior in virtue, is frequently sold under the name of strained gum ammoniac. Those tears which are large, dry, and free from little stones, or other impurities, should be selected and prepared for in- ternal use; the coarser kind may be purified by solution and strain- ing, but unless this be carefully managed, it will lose a considerable portion of its fine and more volatile parts. In medicine, it is prescribed for removinc; obstructions of the abdo- minal viscera; in hy;,tjrical com- plaints occasioned by the deficiency of pxriocVcal evacuations, and in long ana. obstinate colics, proceed- ing from viscid matter lodged in the intestir.es. A solution cf it, in vinegar of squills, has proved of considerable service in tne humid chronic asthma of the aged and decrepid. The most convenient form for its exhibition,-is that cf pills; a scruple may be given every night, or oftener. Lxttrnslly it is used for softening ard ripening in- dolent tumours ; and with a mix- ture of squill vinegar, forms a plais- ter which has sometimes been suc- cessfully recommended for white swellings. A solution of it, in penny-royal water, is usur.il y kept in the shops, under the name of ammoniac milk. AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS are so called, on account of their living partly on land, and partly in the water. 46 A M P AMP We cannot, consistently with our plan, enter into a disquisition re- specting their nature and functions; and shall therefore content our- selves with observing, that in their structure, they are principally dis- tinguished from land-animals, by having red cold blood, and instead of lungs, either gills or branchix, as is generally observed in snakes, eels, and fish, which chiefly inhabit the water. Some times, however, they have the oval hole open be- tween the right and left auricles of the heart; and, in many, the arterial canal is also free. This is a dis- tinguishing character of the phoca, or such animals as enjoy their chief functions on land, for instance, ot- ters, beavers, frogs, crocodiles, some kiud of rats, birds, Eco. W'hile these remain under water, where they may safely continue for seve- ral hours, their respiration is inter- rupted; and the blood not finding a free passage through the pulmo- nary artery, rushes through the hole from the right to the left au- ricle, and partly through the arte- rial canal; having but a short course to the aorta, the largest of all the blood vessels, and thence circulating to every part of the body. But, on rising to come ashore, the blood makes its way again through the Jungs, as soon as the animal begins to respire. As in all land animals a large portion of the mass of blood conti- nually circulates through the lungs, which would be stopped, if the free access of air were excluded; so we find in fish a great number of blood-vessels passing through the gills, which must be perpetually wet, lest the blood should, in like manner, be checked, and conse- quently stagnate in its progress. Hence, when the latter are removed from their natural element, the branc/iite very soon grow crisp and dry, the vessels become corrugat- ed, and the blood finds no outlet; likewise,when land-animals are im- mersed under water, or in any other manner deprived of respira- tion, the circulation ceases, and the animal inevitably dies. Inquisitive physiologists have ad- vanced, that man may, by art, be rendered amphibious, and enabled to live under water, as well as the beaver, or turtle; because the foetus in utero lives without air, and the circulation is continued by means of the uval hole: if, therefore, this important opening* could be pre- served after the birth of the child, the same useful faculty might still remain. This proposition is plausible; and we do not hesitate to declare, that in a maritime country, such attempts ought by all suitable means to be encouraged: for the advantages re- sulting from a successful applica- tion of the theory, would indeed be incalculable. In its support, and as an instance of the wonderful power we possess over the organs of respiration, it may be urged, that expert divers feel no inconvenience from remaining for several minutes under water, at a considerable depth; that individuals affected with asthma (among whom the writer of this article is a living evidence) have by mere force of habit obtain- ed effectual and permanent relief in that distressing complaint, by ac- customing themselves from the commencement of it, to respire principally through the nostrils, whether in a waking or sleeping state ; and lastly, that none of the in- terior organs possess a flexibility AMP AMP 47 and power of expansion (unattend- ed with loco-motion) equal to those of respiration. After this short digression, we shall proceed to state the means by which that desirable faculty of re- spiring under water, may be ac- quired by the human subject. It should previously be remark- ed, that the lungs of the embryo are compressed during its confine- ment, so that the pulmonary blood- vessels are impervious, and conse- quently the circulation must take place through the oval hole, and the arterial canal before-mention- ed: hence the amphibious animal and the foetus in utero are so far analagous in their nature; and though this hole generally closes at an early period of infancy, yet there are instances, well attested by anatomists, where it has been occasionally found not quite closed in human subjects, who have died at an advanced age. There is, however, one material difference between them: the foetus never having respired, is sufficiently nou- rished by the maternal blood circu- lating through its whole body, which progressively grows, till its birth, without feeling the want of respiration during the whole period of pregnancy; on the contrary, ter- raqueous animals having respired from the moment of their birth, cannot support life for any length of time without it; because both the hole and canal above alluded to would be closed, or at least con- stricted in them, as is the case in land animals, if they did not in- stinctively, soon after the birth of the cub, instruct it in the exercise of that vital function. This is ef- fected, by frequently cany ing it into the water....a practice by which Hiose passages are kept open dur- ing life, and the creatures enabled to procure that kind of food which is designed for them by the provi- dential care of Nature. Thus we may easily conceive that, in infants, the oval hole, by proper expedients and persevering exertions, might, without much dif- ficulty, be preserved in an open state ; for instance, by gradually accustoming young children, soon after their birth, to suspend their breath once, or oftener in a day, increasing the duration of the ex- periment with every attempt, so that the blood may at length be di- rected to circulate through its ori- ginal passage, which, by several trials, cautiously repeated, would no doubt remain sufficiently lubri- cated, and never again be closed in the manner we generally find it in the deceased body. That these are rational, and, we may venture to add, well founded conjectures, few will dispute ; es- pecially if it be considered that or- dinary divers, without having been trained to this practice from early infancy, are capable of retaining their breath, and continuing much longer under water, than persons in whom that primitive organ of respiration, having never been ex- ercised, has become unfit to act as an useful substitute for the lungs, while immersed under water. Nay, there are well authenticated in- stances of persons who were in the full possession of the uncommon faculty here described : of others, we shall relate only that of a Sici- lian, named the Fish-Colas, who possessed it in so eminent a degree, " that he lived rather after the man- ner of a fish than a man," in con- sequence of having from his youth, and by an assiduous practice, suc- cessfully acquired the habit of living 48 AMP AMU in water, and thus effected a com- plete change of his physical nature. AMPUTATION is a term in surgery, and signifies the cutting off' a limb from the body. It is sometimes rendered necessary, when a part is so diseased as either to be wholly useless, or threatening danger, if art removed. The cases in which this operation is usually performed, are, severe, compound fractures of the bones, attended with splinters ; extensive lacera- tions, and contusions of wounds, with great loss of substance, and pouring forth a profuse discharge; wicie - spreading mortifications ; white swellings of the joints ; can- cers, or other incurable ulcers ; ex- ostosed,carious and distorted bones, &c. Sec. Amputation is one of the most important operations in surgery, and has lately been brought to the highest perfection. Previous to the invention of the tourniquet, and the method of securing the blood-ves- sels from hemorrhages, by liga- tures, it was rarely undertaken, and a great proportion of those who submitted to it, afterwards died. But in consequence of mo- dern improvements, there seldom happens more than one death in twenty or thirty cases. In per- forming this operation, some par- ticular cautions are necessary, viz. to make the incision at a proper place ; to save a quantity of skin and cellular substance, sufficient to cover the muscles and bone com- pletely, without being stretched ; to prevent hemorrhages ; to secure the arteries carefully, without in- cluding the nerves, or any of the contiguous parts ; and to prevent the retraction of the integuments. Where part of a limb is either car- ried off, or much shattered, it will be necessary to amputate above the diseased surface, to ensure a spee- dier and safer cure. Should morti- fication have previously taken place, every other remedy ought to be timely and vigorously employed, till its progress be arrested; the first symptom of which will be, an inflamed circle separating the dis- eased from the sound parts: as soon as this has taken place, no time should be lost in resorting to the operation, lest the patient suffer from the absorption of putrescent matter, which readily occasions a hectic fever. As the privation of a limb, and the great destruction of animal parts, are often attended with fatal consequences, nothing but extreme necessity, or the failure of all other means, can justify the choice of this formidable expedient. Some emi- nent authorities have altogether questioned its utility ; and M. Bil- guer, late surgeon-general to the Prussian armies, in his observations on this subject, declares, " that the cases in which amputation is ne- cessary, are less frequent than has hitherto been supposed." He says, that during the late war, it proved unsuccessful in a variety of instan- ces ; and that he himself had, with- out resorting to operations, cured many patients, whose limbs had been so much bruised and shatter- ed, that the ablestsurgeons thought it advisable to employ their instru- ments. See Tourniquet. AMUSEMENTS, may be divid- ed into public and private; and they are either of an active or se- dentary nature. The former usu- ally consist of balls, plays, enter- tainments, Sec. the latter, of the various diversions of cards, chess, back-gammon, and other games of chance or skill. AMU ANA 49 Those of an active kind ought always to be preferred, as they not only relieve the mind, when wearied with intense application, or de- pressed with grief; but by their agreeable variety,together with the advantages of air, exercise, Sec. they are highly conducive to health. •On this account^ they are particu- larly serviceable to such persons as are subject to nervous and hypo- chondriacal complaints, and to all those who lead a confined or se- dentary life. Private amusements, on the contrary, are principally em- ployed with a view to consume time, and frequently require more application than either study or bu- siness. Those amusements which afford the most violent exercise, and ought, therefore, to be pursued only by the healthy and robust, are hunting, shooting, cricket-playing, hand-ball, and similar games...... When these are undertaken with the necessary adaptation to the strength of the individual, they pro- mote perspiration and other secre- tions, expand the lungs, and give firmness and agility to the whole frame. SeeG a ming, and Theatre. With respect to the amusements of children, we shall here only re- murk, that they may be compared to the labours and pursuits of adults; and that their influence, as well on health, as on the future inclinations and desires of the individual, is much greater, and more perma- nent, than is generally supposed. Hence we should advise parents and guardians to encourage no games, or play-tilings, which have a tendency to impair the constitu- tion, or deprave the morals, of their offspring ; of this nature are, im- proper and unnatural postures, or gesticulations of the body; wanton jumping up and down high places; VOL. I. forcible exertions of muscular pow- er, by lifting great weights and carrying ponderous bodies ; the partial exercise of one arm or leg ; sedentary plays of long duration ; the standingfor hours on their legs; musical wind-instruments ; toys manufactured by common potters, or made of plaster of Paris ; drink- ing-vessels of lead, pewter, white iron, bell-metal, or earthen-ware imperfectly burnt and glazed ; play- things coloured or painted with noxious metallic preparations, such as verdigrease, orpiment, minium, as well as those devices and similar trifles produced by the confection- er, Sec. Sec. On this interesting sub- ject, which cannot fail to engage the attention of every judicious pa- rent, we presume to refer the reader to a work lately published, from the German of Dr. Struve, enti- tled, " A Familiar Treatise on i/ic Physical Education of Children;" with three Introductory Lectures, and Notes, by the Editor of this En- cyclopedia. [See also "Edg*.warth on Education" 2 vols.] Amygdalus. See Almond. [AN AG ALUS ARVENSIS, L. or, Co»»woM/>??;//.rmc/,has two strong varieties, a, Jiorc caruleo, b, finrv fihaniceo : these have been distin- guished by late botanists as distinct species, leaving the name aroensis for a, or calling it coerulea ; b, is their phcenicea. The coerulea 1 have not seen, the phoenicea is com- mon, perhaps a native. (Dr. Muh- lenberg in a' letter to the Editor.) This plant affords another in- stance among many others, with which the records of medicine, abound, of remedies obtaining a high character without the small- est pretensions thereto. Crowned heads and republics, have passed laws to preserve it from destruction* H 50 ANA AN C and learned doctors have celebrat- ed in classical Latin, its imaginary virtue in preventing the effects of the biteof mad dogs. Inthis country it has long been celebrated among the Germans, two of whom kept the same remedy a great secret. One of these persons, a Mr. Ket- terinc, of Dauphin County, com- municated the knowledge of the plant to the legislature of Pennsyl- vania last year. It failed in the case of a child of a citizen of Phila- delphia, and in that of a Mr. Hu- bs r of Lancaster, both of whom died last summer. To the latter it was given both as a preventive andas acure. The Rev.Dr.H.Muh- lenberg of Lancaster, who thought well of the remedy, nevertheless candidly informed me, the.t he heard of one case in which it failed...... Prof. Murrav, in his excellent \wovW,apparalus medicaminum, gives a long account of this plant, and of the authorities by which its cha- racter was supported, but he doubts its efficacy, andsays that J.Bauhan also disbelieved its supposed vir- tues. "At Viriscum too in the hands of the celebrated Roulet, it failed to save the life of a woman. At Marseilles there were two cases of similar failure, although other remedies against this dreadful dis- ease were prescribed at the s;.av,e time. Another case is recorded, where, notwithstanding the anagal- lis had been given, the hydropho- bia came on and proved fatal. To the celebrated Tissot aiso, after a laborious investigation, it appeared of a very doubtful nature." It ar- gues little short of madness to trust this remedy. The causes producing the repv.te of this and other nostrums for this disease, shall be fullydiscussechwhen we come to the article " Eiterfamad d:g."] Anarat. See Pine-Apple. ANCHOVY, or Clupca encrasi- colus, L. a small fish of the herring- kind, taken in immense quantities on the coast of the Mediteranean Sea, whence they are imported into Britain, in a pickled state. They are in general from 3 to 4 inches in length, have a pointed head, a, wide mouth, destitute of teeth, and the gums are uncommonly rough. According to Collins, these dimi- nutive fish are, likewise, found in abundance, on the western coasts of England and Wales. The fishing for anchovies is prin- cipally carried on during the night; when a light being affixed to the stern of a small vessel, the ancho- vies are thus attracted, and caught in nets. It is, however, asserted, that they are neither so good, firm, nor so proper for pickling, as those taken without this stratagem. After having secured these delicate fish, their heads are cut off; the intes- tines extracted; and the bodies salt- ed, and deposited in barrels. In the choice of anchovies, such as are small, round-backed, fresh pickled, white on the outside, and red within, deserve to be preferred ; because those of a flat, or large form, are frequently a spurious sort, called Sarclinias. Independently of these qualities, the pickle should possess a fine taste and flavour. Anchovies are variously prepar- ed : after boning them, and taking oft" the tails and fins, thev may either be eaten with oil and vinegar; or, by mincing them with pepper, Src. be formed into sauce for other fish. They are likewise packed in earthen vessels, closely covered, so as to exclude the air : by this sim- ple precaution, their flavour mav, for a long time be preserved. Lit the most effectual method of keep- ANC ANC 51 ing these fish in a concentrated state, is that of reducing the fleshy part to a soft pulp, of the consist- ence of butter ; and, after adding pepper or other spices, the extract of anchovies thus prepared, should be put in gallipots, first covered with a round piece.of fine writing paper, or hog's bladder; and then melted beef suet in a hike-warm state, must be poured over the whole, so as to leave about half an inch space between this air-tight cover- ing and the top of the vessel, which is again secured with strong paper. Anchusa sempervirens, L. See Evergreen Alkanet. ANCIENT LANGUAGES are those which are no longer spoken by a living people, such as the He- brew, Greek and Latin : they ge- nerally form a part of the education of those students who are intended for the learned professions. The utility of employing so much of the time of children at schools, in clas- sical pursuits, and the study of the dead languages, has been much questioned: upon this subject, a humorous writer thus expresses himself: "Who can patiently en- dure to see persons so studiously going back two thousand years, in search of that perfection which lies so plainly still before them ? To see men of sense and learning spending their whole time and at- tention about /£.ollc Digammas, the use of accents, or the meaning of a passage in Horace, whilst, at the same time, they are suffering the finest language in the world, their own, to lie entirely uncultivated, unless by the laudable and occasion- al efforts of some individual ? Had the same been practised by the Greeks or Romans....had they stu- died nothing but Egyptian hiero- glyphics, we might,atthis day, have been obliged to travel to the Pyra- mids to read the Classics, whilst all the letters in the world would have been nothing more than the ill-imi- tated forms of men, animals, imple- ments, Sec If we think that they did right, why do we not imitate their example ? What possible reason can be alledged why the En- glish might not, by similar care and attention, be made as good a language as either the Greek or Latin ? Had we the address of Swift, or Addison, what a peti- tioh might we draw up in favour of our poor mother tongue, setting forth the many hardships she has long endured ; the various insults and barbarous injuries she, from time to time, has suffered, and is still obliged to undergo, from the undutifulness of her own children," Sec. [See this subject fully and ably discussed by Dr. Rush, Miscella- neous Ess-ays: Philadelphia, 1798.] ANCIENT LEARNING sig- nifies a thorough acquaintance with the writings of the ancients. A very great and illiberal prejudice has for some time since existed, which has induced us to give a con- stant preference to the ancients, for their genius, as well as their virtue. Their innocence, courage, and skill in writing, have been extolled as superior to our modern acquire- ments, and proposed to us as a standard of real perfection. Few authors, indeed, have been suffered to wear their laurels during life ; these have been generally reserved, either to crown their statues, or en- twine around their tombs. Homei. , in his days, was considered as a mere ballad singer ; he is now a bard. Shakspeare lived a pre- carious hireling. Milton's divine poem lay long neglected, and was sold for c song. Ot way lived and 52 ANC AND died in a comer ; Cervantes pas- sed his days in poverty and obscu- rity, a living reproach to Spain; and the first of our English philo- sophers, the immortal Newton, was indebted to the officious k indness of a Barrow, to announce his me- rit to the world. Praise is slower than censure, because the former is retarded by envy and contention, which time alone, the final subduer of all things, can effectually remove. 'Tis the same in the moral as in the natural world: the sun exhibits the largest disk, when about to quit our hemisphere. The ancients have acquired a prejudged heredi- tary admiration,and their only solid grounds of preference are, that they had the good fortune to come first into the world. Thus, by the laws of primogeniture, the eldest son inherits the patrimony, to the de- triment of the rest of the family. It cannot, however, be disputed, that the ancient writers have left us performances which would re- flect the highest honour on any age, or nation ; but to allow them the merit of exclusive excellence, is injustice to their competitors. A principle of tenderness has been urged as a plausible reason for en- tertaining a partiality for the an- cients, and that the infant state of learning ought to experience the same flattering indulgence which is shewn to young children. The weakness of this plea is evident: and candour obliges us to declare, that it is equally unjust and impro- per to consider the Greeks and Ro- mans, with all their inaccuracies and defects, as perfect models of imitation. Many an ancient writer, whose real beauties have been just- ly admired, has also frequently been praised for his faults : thus tiis reputation has been sullied ; in- stead of being indebted to his pane- gyrists, he has excited doubts and censures, where he had least de- served them. The remarks made in the pre- ceding article, may with equal pro- priety be applied to the present subject: but we shall content our- selves with observing, that those persons who have imbibed an early prejudice for the learning of the ancients, are generally deficient in active discernment, and incapable of ascertaining the merits of modern improvements. ANCIENT TIMES are those- which refer to remote periods of antiquity. The degeneracy and corruption of modern times, as opposed to those of the ancients, have afforded a fruitful source of peevish invec- tive, and an endless cause of que- rulous complaint, to both the learn- ed and the illiterate. It has been the constant custom, at all times, to declare every succeeding age more wicked than the former; to represent the world as perpetually increasing in vice and folly ; to la- ment the good old days that are past, and to anticipate nothing but misery from the future. Yet, how- ever corrupt or vicious may be the age in which we live, let us but im- partially compare the history of past times with those of our own, and we shall find no great reason to unite in the general outcry : on the con- trary, it is highly probable, that our successors will attribute more virtues to us, than are possessed by themselves ; though, perhaps, nei- ther may be less virtuous, or more depraved, than the most celebrated nations of antiquity. [ANDROMEDA. Sorrel tree, Indian Pipe Stem, Wickie. An ex- tensive genus many species of which ANE ANE 53 abound in the United States, they occupy lands of similar soil and situation with the heaths in the old continent. He-whortleberry is the most common trivial name in the United States for all the species,be- cause they bear no berries, and re- semble the wortle berry bushes. They are all handsome flowering shrubs, the a. formosissima of Bar- tram or Indian pipe stem, is the most beautiful. It is an evergreen. The Creek Indians set a high va- lue upon the shoots two years old, for making their pipe stems, being very straight, and from 12 to 15 feet long. Dr. Barton in- forms us, that a decoction of the A. mariana, or broad leaved moor- wort, is used as a wash, in a disa- greeable ulceration of the feet at- tended with an intolerable itching, which is common among the ne- groes, of the southern states. The plant is there called " wickie". It is suspected to be poisonous, and Shoepf says, that it is hurtful to sheep: no doubt he spoke from the information of our farmers.] ANEMOMETER signifies a mechanical instrument for ascer- taining the power and velocity of the wind. Successful methods have been discovered to determine, with pre- cision, the various properties of the air, its temperature, humidity, and weight, by means of the thermo- meter, the hygrometer, and the barometer; but, till lately, no at- tempts have been made to ascer- tain the force of the wind. Seve- ral instruments for this purpose have, indeed, been contrived ; but they are in general more compli- cated, and less to be depended on, than the machine which we shall describe under the head of Ane- moscope. ANEMONE, or Wind-Flow- er, is the name of a plant chiefly distinguished on account of its beautiful flowers, which by the Greeks, were supposed not to open till the wind blows ; whence it has received its original name. Lin- naeus enumerates twenty-one spe- cies, of which the following five deserve particular notice, though the first of these is not indigenous. 1. Anemone pratensis, L. the dark-flowered, or Meadow Ane- mone, as described and represent- ed in Dr. Wtoodville's Medical Botany, vol. in. p. 400, plate 148.... It produces beautiful dark violet, or almost black flowers, which blow in March and April*, and never expand. In its recent state, the meadow- anemone is almost flavourless, though its taste, when chewed, is extremely pungent, and corrodes the tongue and fauces ; a property also manifested in a slight degree by the dried leaves. Hence we may conclude, that this plant possesses considerable medicinal virtues ; a supposition amply confirmed, though often contested, by various practitioners of great respectability. Chemists, however, have proved by experiment, that one of its con- stituent parts is camphor, which has been obtained in the form of crystals. Hence it has been suc- cessfully employed in the cure of chronic affections of the eyes, espe- * Some botanical writers confound this plant with the Anemone Pulsatilla, L, which. is a distinct species. The Anemone pratensis, L. is a native of Germany, where it flow- ers in the beginning of May : it was thence imported into England, and cultivated. in our gardens by the late, andjustly cekbrated,tMJLLER, about the year 1731. 54 ANE ANE cially in gutia scrcna, cataract, and opacity of the cornea. But, on ac- count of its singular efficacy, it has generall) been used in external applications, as an excellent aperi- ent, detergent, and vulnerary me- dicine, with whose virtues the an- cients were well acquainted, though they accounted for such effects from superstitious notions. The juice of the anemone root, chewed in small quantities, stimu- lates the salival glands, and fre- quently affords sudden relief in ex- cruciating tooth-ache, if it proceed from an acrimony or superfluity of humours, in phlegmatic habits..... When boiled in rich wine, and ap- plied as a cataplasm, it not only abates inveterate inflammations of the eyes, but also cleanses indolent and foul ulcers. Its leaves and stalks, slowly simmered in ptisan, and occasionally eaten, are said un- commonly to increase the maternal milk. If credit be due to the an- cients, thty also cure that frequent and destructive complaint of \oung females, called chlorosis; and, when beaten up with a mixture of bees-wax and turpentine, so as to form a pessary, tend to restore the cataminia. Vv'e doubt, however, whether the numerous other vir- tues ascribed to this vegetable, be founded on truth ; yet we believe that external applications of it, pro- perly repeated,especiallythe leaves, bruised together with marshmal- low root or other cooling herbs, may cure paralytic attacks in their commencement, herpetic eruptions, and even the leprosy ; though we would not rely upon its efficacy in true syphilis, in caries or mortifi- cation of the bones, and still less, in cases of melancholy, or mania. The dark violet leaves of this species, when boiled together with those of the Serratula tinctoria, L. or common saw-wort, and a pro- per addition of alum, afford, ac- cording to Prof. Pallas, an excel- lent water-colour for landscape and other paintings. 2. Anemone Pulsatilla, L. or Pasque Flower, so called because it generally blossoms about Easter, when it adorns some of our dry, chalky-hills. In April it bears beautiful bell-shaped flowers, of a purple or reddish colour. A de- scription and representation of it may be found in Sowerby's Eng- lish Botany, p. 4. 5....5 1. Although this species may not be possessed of healing virtues similar to the preceding, yet it is asserted that its flowers are of great efficacy in curing inveterate ulcers, in man and cattle. As it is a poisonous plant, the inhabitants of Kamtschat- ka use its leaves for staining their arrows; which unless the wound be immediately cleansed, and the communicated virus extracted by the mouth, are suid to prove inevit- ably fatal: in like manner, these un- tutored savages destroy the whales which frequent their coast. Both the flowers and leaves of this species are employed by fo- reign dyers for green colours of various shades. From the expres- sed juice of the leaves, a green ink may be prepared; and if the florets only be used, it wiil be a lighter shade, but from the whole flower, the colour will be much deeper.... Relying on the authority of Dam- bourney, we shall add, that animal wool previously immersed in a so- lution of bismuth, acquires a pleas- ing light vigogne colour. 3. Animone ncmorosa, L. or the Wood- Anemone; another wild sort, bearing only one white, or some- times purplish, flower on a plant. ....See Curtis's Flor. Loud. ii. 38. ANE In medicine this plant may be usefully employed as a substitute for cantharides, or Spanish flies ; for it produces not only a more speedy, but less painful effect. Its juice is so extremely acrid, that it has been justly suspected to occasion the dysentcryamong cattle, and inflam- . mation, accompanied with a dis- charge of bloody urine, in sheep. Hence the necessity cf guarding these animals against the cause of distempers,which are frequently so formidable in their consequences, as to deprive the unwary husband- man of a great portion of his most valuable live-stock. 4. Anemone ranunculoides, L. or the Yellow Wood-Anemone. See p. 5. Gerard's Herbal, 383. 1. On account of its corrosive acri- mony, the juice of this vegetable is also used by the inhabitants of Kamtschatka, for a similar delete- rious purpose as is mentioned of the second species. [ In the United States, we have, 1. Anemone Virginlana, 2. A. Pennsylvania, 3. A.Qninquefolia, 4. A. Thalictroides. This last grows near the city of Philadelphia in the woods, and de-erves to be cultivatedfor itselecrant simplicity.] ANEMOSCOPE, a mechanical instrument for determining the course and velocity of the wind..... That pint which exhibits the for- mer, or shews from what point of the compass the wind blows, con- sists of an index, moving round an upright circular plate, like the dial of a clock ; on which, instead of the hours, the thirty-two points of the compass are represented. The index which points to the divisions en the dial, is turned by a horizon- tal axis, having a trundle-head, at its out.vard extremity.' This trun- A N E 55 die-head is moved by a cog-wheel, on a perpendicular axis ; at the top of which is fixed a vane, moving with the course of the wind, and imparting 'motion to the whole ma- chine. The contrivance is extreme- ly simple, and requires in its con- struction only, thr.t the number of cogs in the wheel, and roimas in the trundle-head, be equal; because when the vane moves er.ti rely round, the index of the dial should also make a complete revolution. An anemoscope of this construction is placed in one of the turrets of Buckingham-house, the residence of iler present Majesty. The anemoscope invented by " Mr. Pickering, and published in the Philosophical Transactions,No. 473, is a machine four feet and a quarter high, consisting of a broad and weighty pedestal,apillar, attach- ed to it, and an iron axis, about half an inch in diameter, fastened into the pillar. Upon this axis turns a wooden tube ; at the top of which is placed a vane, of the same ma- terials, twenty-one inches long, consisting of a quadrant, graduated, and shod with an iron ring, notch- ed to each degree ; and a counter- poise of wood on the other, as re- presented in the figure. Through the center of the quadrant runs an iron pin ; upon which are fastened two small round pieces of wood, serving as moveable radii to des- cribe the degrees upon the quad- rant, and as handles to a velum or sail ; the pane of which is one foot square, made of canvas stretched on four battens, and painted. On the upper batten, next to the shod rim of the quadrant, is a small spring, which catches at every notch, corresponding to each de- gree, as the sail may be raised on the pressure of the wind, and thus 56 ANE ANE its falling back prevented, when the force of the wind decreases..... At the bottom of the wooden tube is an iron index, which moves round a circular piece of wood fastened to the top of the pillar, on the pedes- tal, where the thirty-two points of the compass are described. We have annexed a representation of this machine : a is the pedestal; b the pillar on which the iron axis is fitted ; c, the circle of wood repre- senting the points of the compass ; r, the wooden tube upon its axis ; f, the velum; g, the graduated quadrant; A, the counterpoise of the vane. The subjoined figure represents the velum, which may be taken off; a is the plane of the velum; b, the spring; cc, the wood- en radii; d, d, the holes through which passes the pin, in the center of the quadrant. This instrument serves the fol- lowing useful purposes. 1. Having a circular motion round the iron axis, and being fur- nished with a vane at the top, and an .index at the bottom, as soon as the artificial points described on the round piece of wood on the pil- lar are fixed to the corresponding quarters of the heavens, it faithfully points out the quarter from which the wind blows. 2. Being furnished with a velum, or sail, elevated by the wind, along the arch of the quadrant, to an height proportionate to the power of the column of wind pressing against it, its relative force and its comparative power, at any two times of examination, may be ac- curately taken. 3. By means of a spring fitted to the notches of the iron, with which the quadrant is shod, the velum is prevented from returning upon the fall of the wind; and the instru- ment, without the trouble of vratchr ing it, ascertains the force of the ANE ANE 57 highest blast, since the last time of examination. This machine may be confidently depended upon, as the velum is hung so nicely, that it is suscep- tible of the most gentle breeze, and will also describe the force of the wind in a violent storm. There is, however, reason to apprehend, that by exposing the anemoscope to all winds, especially to irregular blasts and squalls, for a length of time, it may become inaccurate. The ob- server ought, therefore, to take the tube with its vane and velum, in his hand, with a view to learn the force of the wind; and, after having made his observation, he should return with the machine into the house, till the violence of the storm sub- side. ANEURISM, in surgery, sig- nifies a throbbing tumor, occasion- ed by the dilation or rupture of an artery: it consists of three kinds, viz. the true or encysted, the false or diffused, and the varicose. The true aneurism, when situa- ted near the surface of the body, produces a tumor, at first small and circumscribed, but, when press- ed by the finger, it.manifests a dis- tinct pulsation. By degrees it in- creases, and becomes more pro- minent; still, however, the patient does not complain of any pain. As it grows larger, the skin turns more pale than usual, also more phlegmonous, or swollen, and at length assumes a livid and gangre- nous appearance. A bloody serum now oozes through the integu- ments; the skin cracks in several places; and the artery, being de- prived of the usual resistance, dis- charges its blood with such velocity, as to occasion almost instantaneous death. VOL. I. The false aneurism consists of a wound or rupture of an artery, and, by the extravasation of blood, pro- duces a swelling of the contiguous parts. If not improperly treated by constant and close pressure, it ge- nerally remains nearly of the same size, for several weeks. Instances have occurred, where the blood has diffused itself over the whole arm in a few hours; as, on the contrary, swellings of this kind have been months, nay, even years, in arriving at any considerable size. The varicose aneurism is that which arises from the puncture of an artery, and sometimes happens in blood-letting. This circumstance, it is hoped, will point out the ne- cessity of persons applying to regu- lar practitioners, who are acquaint- ed with the situation of the blood- vessels, and not employing, as is too frequently the case, ignorant and unskilful pretenders, for the performance of this important oper- ation : soon after the injury has been committed, the vein which immediately communicates with the wounded artery, begins to swell, and gradually to enlarge- Upon pressure, the tumor disappears,* be- cause the blood contained in it is pushed forwards in its circulation to the heart; and when large, there is a singular tremulous motion, at- tended with a hissing noise, as if air were passing through a small aper- ture. The causes which generally pro- duce aneurisms, are a peculiar pre- disposition of the arteries, when they are in a relaxed state; a par- tial debility of their coats; exces- sive bodily exertions; stooping,and lifting great weights; acrid matter contained in a neighbouring sore; intemperance, Sec. Where tliev 1 58 ANG A NG arise from any external accident, an operation may be attended with success; but, in all other cases, art can afford but little assistance. In a complaint of this nature, it is presumed that the earliest ap- plication will be made to profes- sional men; and as the narrow li- mits of this work do not permit us to enter into a more minute inves- tigation, we shall close this article with describing a new method of treating an aneurism, recommend- ed by Mr. Lambert, surgeon at Newcastle upon Tyne, in a letter to Dr. Hunter. This was suc- cessfully practised, by passing a steel pin, one-fourth of an inch in length, through the lips of the wounded artery, and then securing it in the same manner as in the operation for the hare-lip, by twist- ing a thread round it. It was per- formed on the 15th of June, 1763, and on the 19th of the following month, the patient was dismissed, perfectly well; the pulsation of that arni remaining nearly as strong as in the former. Anethum Foeniculum, L. See Common Fennel. ANGELICA, is a plant of which there are seven species, though only two of them may be ranked among the indigenous. 1. Angelica Archangelica, L. or the Garden Angelica, is a large umbelliferous plant. An accurate botanical description and delineation of it may be seen in Dr. Wood- ville's Medical Botany; vol. i. p. 138.pl. 50. The stalk of this magni- ficent plant, when properly cultivat- ed in a moist soil, rise to the height of seven or eight feet; its flowers are of a greenish white colour, or sometimes yellow. Every part of this useful vege- table, the root, stalk, leaves, and seeds, partake of the aromatic pro- perties ; whence the Germans de- nominate it angel-root, or breast- root, being one of the most spicy plants of European growth. Its resinous root, and the seeds, are chiefly esteemed in medicine, and the former, when fresh, affords by distillation a strong and fragrant spirit, and an essential oil, in the proportion of a whole drachm, and upwards, from one pound. A tincture made of one ounce digest- ed in twelve ounces of proof spirits, yields, on evaporation, two drachms of a very pungent and spicy ex- tract. This is generally preferred by the Medical College of Berlin; a valuable member of which, the late Dr. Gleditsh, gives the fol- lowing account of its effects: Fifteen grains of this extract, which are equal to one ounce, or two* table-spoonsful, of the tincture, diluted with water, and taken three times or oftener in a day, prove a gently stimulating medicine, well calculated to strengthen the solids, and especially serviceable for dis- pelling flatulency, removing pec- toral complaints, and affording ef- fectual relief in hysterics. The oily, spiritous and resinous part of it, tends to resolve viscid humours, while its gummy and balsamic constituents beneficially aqt on the fluids. Being very mild in its oper- ation, the angelica deserves the preference to many other roots of this nature, and may therefore be usefully employed in flatulent co- lics, obstructions of the breast, and uterus, malignant fevers,' and the true scurvy, in doses of two drachms in substance, conveyed either in tea, or mild wine. Exter- nally it may be applied to scorbutic gums; and, when boiled in water, it affords a good gargle for swell- ANG tngs of the throat and fauces, as well as for cleansing ulcers. It may farther be used with advan- tage in a bruised state, as an ingre- dient in cataplasms and fomenta- tions on the abdomen, to relieve painful distensions of the bowels, or to strengthen a weak and disor- dered stomach, if the patient at the same time pay proper attention to diet and regimen. 2. Angelica Sylvestris, L. or Wild Angelica, is a much smaller plant, of a thinner and less succulent stem than the former. It grows in marshy woods and in hedges, flow- ers in June or July, and is repre- sented in Gerard's Herbal,999. 1. This species, however possesses, but in an inferior degree, the medi- cinal properties of the preceding, which may always be more readily procured. Both the garden and wild an- gelica, delight in a moist soil; the seeds should be sown immediately after they are perfectly ripe. As the leaves of the young plants spread wide, and require much, ground, they should be transplanted at a considerable distance, when they are about six inches in height. Unless the roots be thoroughly dried, they are apt to grow mouldy, and be preyed upon by insects : hence the necessity of keeping them in a dry place, which should be frequently aired. It has been sug- gested, for the preservation of these useful roots, that they should be dipped in boiling spirit, or ex- posed to its steam, in a dry state. We believe, however, that this ex- pensive process may be rendered unnecessary, by gathering the root in a dry season, suspending it in an airy room, upon threads, and guarding against the attacks of ver- min. ANG 59 Cattle are exceedingly fond of eating the fresh spTing leaves of the wild angelica, which to them are a good cleansing and strengthening medicine : bees visit its white flow- ers, and extract from them a more balsamic honey. Hence its growth should be encouraged, and even artificially promoted, especially as it is one of those plants which have lately been used with success as a substitute for oak-bark, in tanning leather, and particularly in prepar- ing a kind of morocco from sheep, calf, and goat-skins. Lastly, Dambourney asserts, that, from the leaves of the last mentioned species, he produced a beautiful and permanent gold co- lour, in dying wool properly pre- pared by a solution of bismuth. [We have some species of An- gelica in the United States, a. spinosa, a. atropurpurea, or purple angelica, a. lucida, or shining, a. sylvestris, or wild angelica. The latter dyes a good yellow.] ANGER may be defined to be a violent passion of the mind, aris- ing from a sense of personal injury, and attended with an ardent desire of revenge. It is either deliberative or in- stinctive; in the latter case, it is tash and precipitate, and blindly operates, regardless of the present, or of future consequences; in the former, it anticipates the moment of revenge, and meditates retalia- tion. It is not always, however, a selfish passion, since it is as fre- quently excited by injuries offered to others as to ourselves, and is often the distinguishing character- istic of a susceptible and vigorous mind. Indulged to excess, and excited by every petty provocation, it be- comes habitual, and is sometimes 60 ANG ANG productive of the most fatal effects. Independent of its moral conse- quences, excessive anger produces spasmodic contractions, and stagna- tion in the liver and its vessels ; and, by these means, renders them schirrous, often generating stones and gravel in the gall-bladder and biliary ducts. When accompanied with affliction, it usually occasions paleness of the countenance, pal- pitation of the heart, faltering of the tongue, trembling of the limbs, and jaundice. When the hope of revenge is the predominant feature in anger, it causes violent commo- tions of the whole system, strong pulsation of the arteries, and a quick circulation; the vital spirits flow rapidly and irregularly through the whole body; the muscles are contracted, and some of them ap- pear almost palsied; the cheeks are flushed, the eyes sparkle with additional lustre, and the whole IVame feels unusual animation, and a desire of motion. Anger is particularly injurious to infants, who, from the sensibility of their frames, are extremely sus- ceptible of this passion, and are sometimes so severely affected as to die suddenly in convulsions, or to retain, ever after, an imbecility of mind and body, arising from its pov.erful impression. Persons of an irritable habit are more fre- quently liable to its attacks ; h^nce it generally appears in individuals who are troubled with nervous, hysterical, and hypochondrical com- plaints. Those of a hot and dry temperament, of strong black hair, and great muscular strength, are likewise much exposed to its in- fluence. We onght, as rational agents, to beware of encouraging such de- structive emotions; for it is certain. that men and women, possessing an irascible temper, generally die of pulmonary consumptions ; and young persons, especially females, should be informed, that indepen- pently of its moral turpitude, it de- forms the face, steals the rose from the cheek of beauty, and not only tends to extinguish the most tender affections, but sometimes even pro- duces aversion. On its first approach, persons subject to the invasion of this tur- bulent passion, should, as much as possible,divert their attention from the cause, by an application to some other object. A propensity to anger is increased by want of sleep, stimulant food, spices, wines, and such things as have a tendency to inflame the blood. Hence they ought to make use of diluent, aci- dulated, and gently aperient drink; and in every respect observe the most rigid temperance: they should allow themselves more sleep, em- ploy the luke-warm bath, and in- dulge in the eating cf fruit, butter- milk, whey, vegetable aliment, Sec. ...SeeGRiEF,PAssioNS,REv);NGE, Terror. ANGLING, among sportsmen, is the art of fishing with a rod, to which are fitted a line, hook, and bait. The season for this amuse- ment commences about the month of June, and the proper hours are, at the dawn of day, and about three o'clock in the afternoon ; at which times the fish, in ponds and small rivers, are accustomed to feed. Easterly winds aftbrd but little sport to the angler ; for those blow- ing from the south, are the most conducive to his purpose ; and a warm, but lowring day, is of all others the most propitious. A cloudy day following a bright moon- light night, is always an auspicious ANG ANI 61 omen ; as tne fish do not love to seek for food in the moon-shine, and are, therefore, always hungry the next morning. The observa- tion of small fish, confined in ajar, either refusing or taking food, af- fords a good criterion of the most convenient season. Upon taking his stand, the angler should shelter himself under some tree or bush, or remain at least so far from the brink of the water, that he may just discern his float; as the fish are timorous, and easily frightened away. The rod must be preserved in a moderate state, neither too dry nor too moist, as in these cases it will be either brit- tle or rotten. Various baits are used; such as worms, artificial flies, paste made of boiled cheese, beat up with powdered quick-lime, Sec. when these last are employed, it will be proper to cement them with a little tow, and rub them over with honey. The best method of using the fly, is down the current of the stream ; and half a dozen trials will be sufficient to determine, whether the fish will take or refuse the bait.....With respect to the ha- bitations most congenial to particu- lar kinds of fish, it deserves to be noticed, that bream are to be found in the deepest and most quiet places ; eels, under, the banks of rivers ; perch and roach, in a pure, swift stream ; chub, in deep, shad- ed holes ; and trout, in clear, rapid brooks. Situations abounding in weeds, or old stumps of trees, often harbour numbers of fish, which bite freely; but there is great hazard of breaking the line, or en- tangling the hook. The openings of sluices and mill-dams always in- vite them up the current, to seek for the food which is conveyed with the stream ; and angling in these places is generally successful....See Fishing. ANIMALCULE, in its general acceptation, merely signifies a little animal, but is usually applied to those living objects, which are in- visible to the naked eye, and can be discoverable only by the assistance of glasses. By the invention of the micros- cope, we have become acquainted with a variety of animals, which, from their minuteness, would other- wise have escaped our observation; and there is reason to believe that myriads of them exist, both in the atmosphere and on the earih,which elude the human eye, even when assisted by this instrument. They are of various kinds, and to be met with in different natural bodies. By the assistance of magnify ing glasses, they may be seen in water, vinegar, beer, milk, he. they are also found in corn, paste, flour, and other fa- rinaceous substances. In the year 1677, M. Lewen- hoeck first discovered their exist- ence in the human semen, and that of the lower animals ; their num- ber is inconceivable. On viewing with a microscope the milt or seed of a male cod-fish, he found them in such swarms, and of so diminu- tive a size, that he supposed 10,000 of them, at least, capable of being contained in the bulk of a grain of sand ; whence he concludes, that the semen of this fish produces more animalculx than there are found living persons in the whole world. They appear to be very vigorous and tenacious of life, as they continue to move long after the animal, from which they are taken, is . dead. They also have this peculiarity, that they are in 62 AN-I ANI constant motion, without interims- country in the late treaty of peace sion, provided there be sufficient with France. It is of a tender, fluid, in which they may swim. fleshy substance, which consists of Great numbers of animalcule, many tubular bodies, gently swell- some of which are of an oval ing towards the upper part, and figure, and others resemble eels, terminating like a bulb, or very are to be found in the whitish mat- small onion : its only orifice is in terthat adheres between the human the centre of the uppermost part, teeth; but they have never hitherto surrounded with rows of tentacles, been discovered, either in the blood, or claws, which, when contracted, -saliva, urine, bile, or chyie. appear like circles of beads. This Animalcule are generated by opening is capable of great exten- putrefaction, and are supposed to sion, and it is amazing to see what produce many diseases, such as the large fish some of them can swal- plague, typhus, marsh miasma, Sec. low, such as muscles, crabs, &c. The small-pox, measles, and other When the animal has scratched cutaneous eruptions, are also by out the fish, it throws back the many conjectured to owe their shells through the same passage. origin to'this source. From this aperture likewise, it pro- The existence of animalcule in duces its young ones alive, already the semen, has by several authors furnished with little claws, which been denied, and among others by they extend in search of food, as Mr. Needham, who, in an inqui- soon as they are fixed. At low ry into the generation or produc- water, they are found on the rocky tion of animals, observes that seeds coasts of Sussex and Cornwall, at- macerated in water, first disunite tached in the shallows to some solid into small, motionless, and ap- substance,, by a broad base, like a parently inert particles, but that sucker. This base is worthy of these afterwards possess power of notice....the knobs observable on it, motion, and seem alive, though in are formed into several parts, by its reality they are not so. He asserts, insinuating itself into the inequali- thatthere are no pre-existent germs ties of rocks, or grasping pieces of formed for the production of ani- shells, part of which frequently mals, or vegetables, but that mat- remain in it, covered with the ter, organized in a peculiar man- fleshy substance. By its assist- ner, in its minute assemblages, ance, they are enabled to preserve produces them. In this opinion themselves from the violence of he is supported by M. Buffon, the waves, and withstand the fury Reaumur, Maupertuis, and of a storm. Animal flowers very other French Naturalists.....See much resemble the exterior leaves Generation and Microscope. of the anemone, and their limbs ANIMAL FLOWER (Actinia are not unlike its shag, or inner Sociata) from its supposed property part. They are said to possess, in of stinging, was formerly called an extraordinary degree, the power Sea-Nettle, or Sea-Anemone, but of re-production, so that to multi- by late English writers has receiv- ply them at pleasure, nothing more ed its present name. This singu- is necessary than to cut a Single lar animal was found in some of the one into several pieces. islands, which were ceded to this ANIMAL FOOD. See Food. ANI ANIMAL KINGDOM, an ex- pression which includes all orga- nized living bodies capable of sen- sation and voluntary motion: and essentially differing from plants and minerals, which have neither organs of sense, nor the power of loco-motion. Another circumstance affords a criterion to distinguish animals from vegetables and fossils; which, in many instances, so closely border on each other, especially the two former, that naturalists have fre- quently hesitated, to which of these kingdoms certain marine productions, for instance, the po- lypus, may with the greatest pro- priety be referred.....See Vegeta- ble and Mineral Kingdoms. The circumstance alluded to is the following: 1. All bodies which grow from without, that is, derive their origin and increase in such manner as to approximate to themselves certain foreign and inert particles, and are incapable of motion, consequently inanimate, are called minerals or fossils. 2. Bodies having no aggregate form, but growing from within, being provided with certain tubes or vessels adapted to the circulation of fluids, which afford them nou- rishment and promote their exten- sion, may be said to enjoy a pas- sive life, and are therefore termed vegetables, or plants. 3. Living creatures which like- wise grow from within, and are en- dowed not only with those vessels, but also with organs of sense, the faculty of loco-motion, and the power of distinguishing one external object from another, yet do not en- joy the advantages of reason, are generally denominated animals. ANI 63 Hence arise the three divisions of natural bodies, consisting of the Animal, Vegetable, and Mine- ral Kingdoms. Although naturalists, in general, have included man in the first of these kingdoms, yet the propriety of this classification may justly be doubted. He possesses, indeed, organs and faculties in common with the brute creation, yet no in- stance has been discovered, which evinces that the inferior animals enjoy that noble and most import- ant of all the gifts of Providence, " reason." On account of this distinguish- ingxharacteristic, we are irresisti- bly induced to separate man from the ape, the elephant, the lion, and all irrational animals, over which no other than the reasoning faculty could confer upon us the exclusive dominion. Trusting, therefore, that naturalists will, without hesi- tation, agree with us in the neces- sity of rescuing the human race, however at present depraved, from the humiliating situation in which it is placed among the inferior ani- mals, we venture, with due defer- ence to their judgment, to exclude our species from the subsequent division of the animal kingdom, which consists of sixdistinctclasses. I. Mamillary Animals are furnish- ed with a heart of two ventricles and two auricles ; have a red, warm blood, breathe through lungs, pro- duce living young ones, and suckle them with their milk. II. Birds likewise have a heart of four cavities, red, warm blood, respire through lungs, deposit eggs, and are uniformly provided with beaks and wings. III. Amphibious Animals possess a heart, but it. has only one ven- 64 ANI AN I tricle and one auricle ; they have red, but colder blood than the lat- ter, and live alternately on land and in water. IV. Fishes have also a heart with two cavities, red, cold blood, are provided with gills, and can sub- sist only in water. V. Insects, or creatures, that have a heart with one ventricle, but no auricle; cold, and generally white blood ; are furnished with an- tenna, or feelers, on their heads, and undergo a change of their nature and appearance, previous to their dissolution. VI. Worms also have a heart with one ventricle, without an auri- cle ; cold, white blood ; are pro- vided with tentacula, or feeling threads, but undergo no change. Conformably to this division, we shall give a more or less detailed account of the different domestic and wild animals, which either from their peculiar nature, habits, and form, deserve to be noticed in this work, consistently with its original plan ; or which, in an eco- nomical view, contribute to relieve our necessities : while a more ac- curate knowledge of useful crea- tures cannot fail to improve the mind, and gratify the laudable cu- riosity of an intelligent reader. ANIMAL LIFE is that organ- ized principle which distinguishes animals from vegetables, and is susceptible of sensation and reflec- tion. Various conjectures have, at dif- ferent periods, and by eminent philosophers, been held respecting the nature and origin of this im- portant principle, but it still re- mains involved in obscurity. In a late Dissertation, addressed to the President and Fellows of the Col- lege of Physicians, Dr. Beattie resolves it into that inherent ten- dency to approximation and cohe- sion, in some parts of matter, and that resilition and elasticity in others, the source of which is yet undiscovered, and which is not deducible from any material, se- condary cause. As it was found that no animal could exist when suddenly deprived of large quanti- ties of blood, it was inferred that this fluid was the vital principle; an opinion, indeed, which was much strengthened by the injunc- tion of the Mosaic law, not to eat meat in which there was blood, " that being the life." A late ce- lebrated anatomist adopted this opinion, and boldly declared that the blood was alive. By some phy- siologists it has been conjectured, that the electric fluid is the source and principle of animal life : on the contrary, modem chemists maintain that it is conveyed by that elastic elementary gas, termed oxygen, or vital air, which accord- ing to their notions,is the true prin- ciple of vitality. Without entering into a minute investigation of these theories, it will be sufficient to state a few of the leading circumstances which accompany the progress towards animation. Heat is a material agent in the production and continuation of life, as is beautifully illustrated in the incubation, or hatching of an egg ; the progress of which towards ma- turity, is nearly as follows : On the first day, no perceptible altera- tion takes place ; on the second, the treadle changes to a pale yel- low colour; and every following day it becomes yellower, till at length it grows red, and afterwards of a deep blocd-colour, which soon thickens to a firmer substance; this ANI ANI 65 speedily assumes a form, which, wh«n it quickens into life, is nour- ished by the yolk., and laid in the white as in a bed provided for its accommodation ; thus it continues increasing, till it grows too large for its narrow bounds, when it bursts the walls of its prison, and comes forth a perfect anim.h ANIMAL MAGNETISM, or the art of curing diseases by the magnet, was invented by a German philosopher, named Father Hehl, of Vienna, who first applied it to medicine : but the noted Mesmer, a physician of the same city, by adopting his principles, and after- wards carrying them to a greater extent, has been generally consi- dered the author of this splendid, but fanciful system. The princi- ples of that delusive art, are de- scribed by him in the following manner....Animal magnetism is an Universal fluid, constituting an ab- solute plenum in nature, and the medium of all mutual influence, between terrestrial, animal, and celestial bodies. It is a most sub- tle fluid, capable of flux and re- flux, and of receiving, propagat- ing, and continuing all kinds of motion. The human body has poles, and other properties, analo- gous to the magnet and is subject- ed to its influence, by means of the nerves. The action and virtue of animal magnetism may be trans- ferred from one body to another, whether animate or inanimate. It operates at a great distance, with- out the intervention of any sub- stance ; is increased and reflected by mirrors; communicated, pro- pagated, and augmented by sound ; and may be accumulated, con- centrated, and transported. By means of this fluid, some nervous disorders are cured immediately, VOL, J, and others mediately: its virtues, in short, extend to the universal be- nefit and preservation of mankind. From this extraordinary theory, Mesmer fabricated a paper, in which he asserted tr.at ail diseases arise from one common source; that they may be removed by one mode of cure ; and that this cure consists in the application of ani- mal magnetism. The folly and credulity of the times soon gained partizans to this new and plausible theory : it became at length so po- pular and fashionable in France, that the jealousy of the faculty w as awakened, and an application was made to government* A commit- tee, consisting of physicians and members of the royal academy of sciences, of which the late illustri- ous Franklin was a principal member, was immediately appoint- ed, to enquire into its merits, and to ascertain its effects. The con- sequence of this examination was such as might have been anticipated by every rational mind. The spell was quickly broken, and the whole disclosed to be an artful imposition on the weakness and credulity of mankind. It is now almost uni- versally exploded, and treated with merited ridicule and contempt..... The practice, however, and sub- sequent detection of this wild, and visionary doctrine, have not been altogether useless, since to the philosopher, it has added one more to the numerous catalogue of the errors and illusions of the human understanding ; and affords a me- morable instance of the power of imagination.....See Electricity and Magnetism. ANIMAL MOTION : various conjectures have been broached with a view to account for the ori- gin of this important function in K 66 ANI A NI the animal economy: but, like most other springs of action, arising from a first cause, it is Only in a slight degree cognizable to our sen- ses, by its evident, mechanical, effects. Anatomists have, indeed, in their dissections demonstrated, that the contraction of the muscles causes motion, but by what peculiar pro- cess, or how produced, remains still doubtful, and involved in ob- scurity. Among other hypothesis advanced concerning animal mo- tion, there prevails an opinion that it is occasioned by an impulse or irritation of the nerves; which, communicating with all parts of the body, produce muscular contrac- tion, and consequent motion, either to a part or to the whole of the frame, in proportion to the force or frequency of the impression. The difficulty of comprehending, how mere impulse, or irritability of the nervous system, should alone be sufficient to produce such power- ful effects, as often follow muscu- lar contraction, has induced others, while they admitted this principle as a first cause of animal motion, to believe in the intervention of some other matter, which is the more immediate agent, in affecting a closer contract of the muscular fibres, and greater energy during the time of their contraction. The existence of such a subtle matter, as may be capable of per- forming these wonderful pheno- mena, has been considered as high- 4y probable ; and is supposed to reside in the medullary substance of the nerves. This opinion has, lately been in a great measure corroborated by the discovery of valves of various sizes attached to the nerves, which valves are found %i greater or smaller numbers, ac- cordingly as the animal is either of a quicker or slower motion.....See Muscles. ANIMAL ECONOMY, in its more extensive sense, implies an accurate and physiological know- ledge of the use, structure and component parts of all animal bodies; but is here intended, to signify only such a view of the hu- man system, as may afford the meansof preserving health, and pro- moting the useful purposes of life. The enjoyment of u a sound mind" in a healthy body, being the greatest of earthly blessings, a por- tion of the time and industry of every rational being ought to be employed in the acquisition of so desirable a state. For this purpose, nothing is more essential than a proper knowledge of the various branches of animal economy, by the assistance of which we are not only enabled to preserve ourselves in perfect health, but to remove, and frequently to obviate the attack of many disorders to which we are liable, and which, from our igno- rance and mismanagement, might otherwise be productive of the most fatal consequences. Animal economy, therefore, ought certainly to form part of a liberal education. It is not, how- ever, necessary, nor is it conveni- ent, that all persons should be mi- nutely instructed in the more ab- stract and difficult branches of medical or anatomical science; but an acquaintance with such familiar and practical parts as are of gene- ral use and application, should never be superceded by other less serviceable pursuits. ANIMATION, is that property which distinguishes living from dead or inanimate matter, and is frequently used to denote the prin- ANI ANI 67 tiple of life itself. Strictly speak- ing, however, it is that which im- parts energy and activity to the vital powers; as these may still continue, when animation is either suspended or destroyed. It is ca- pable of modification, and varies in its proportion at particular times, and in different persons. In a moral or intellectual sense, it denotes an elevated state of the mind, in consequence of the pre- dominance of some powerful pas- sion, such as love, anger, ambition, Sec. or the vigorous application of stimuli, such as wine, spirits, air, exercise, he. Of those causes which produce it in the highest degree, the chief and most essential is air;....given either in its purest state, or in cer- tain combinations with other gases, its effects are so singular, as to resemble those which were former- ly said to be produced by magic. Animation may be either dimi- nished, or suspended without in- juring or destroying the living prin- ciple. The former effect may be seen in those persons who have suffered from long and close con- finement in prisons, hospitals, crowded and heated assemblies, as well as in fevers, consumptions, and other chronic complaints. In these cases, a proper and moderate application of the necessary sti- muli, such as air, exercise, a nourishing diet, Sec. will generally accomplish, either its partial or complete restoration. Of the lat- ter, various instances have lately happened: persons who were ac- cidentally suffocated or drowned, have, by timely and proper means (particularly those recommended by that excellent institution, the Royal Humane Society), been suc- •essfully re-animated, when life it- self seemed on the eve of depart- ing. Among those causes which prin- cipally tend to preserve and increase animation, are temperance, gentle exercise, nourishing diet, wine, moderate gratifications, and con* stant activity, both corporeal and mental. V arious methods have, at differ- ent times, been recommended to restore animation when suspended, either from suffocation or drown- ing. In Spain, they first lay the body with its head downwards, near a fire, till it begins to feel warm, and eject water from the trachea, or windpipe; they then foment the whole breast, and seat of the heart, with spirits of wine, brandy, or bread dipped in strong wines. By these means, if the vital principle be not extinct, the circulation of the blood is usually restored....The French Academy advise tobacco-smoke to be forci- bly injected into the anus and lungs, after which a vein to be opened in the arm and foot: it is asserted, that by this method, per- sons who have lain many hours under water, have been happily re- suscitated. In the Journal Historique sur lea mutieres du terns, for Dec. 1753, a case is related by Dr. Du Mou^ lin, who succeeded in recovering a young woman, after she had lain for several hours under water. All pulsation having ceased, he consi- dered it as a desperate case, and was induced to try a method he had frequently observed to be suc- cessful with flies and other insects, which, when drowned or apparently dead, had been revived by half burying them in ashes or salt. He accordingly ordered a quantity of dry pot-ashes to be strewed, ahpuj 68 ANI ANI three inches deep, on a bed: upon this layer bis patient was placed, and another, about two inches in depth was spread over her. The head was covered with a cap con- taining some of these ashes; and a stocking filled with the same ma- terial was placed round her throat. Blankets were then laid on the bed; and in half an hour her pulse began to beat; after which she quickly recovered, If pot-ash can- not be readily procured, dry salt may be used as a substitute. In Russia, the common people are frequently deprived of sensa- tion, by pestilential vapours arising from the following cause. Persons of rank, in that country, have dou- ble windows to their houses in winter, but those of the poorer classes are only single, During frosty weather, an incrustation is formed on the inside of those win- dows, from a condensation of the breath, perspiration, he. of a number of persons living together in the same room. This'mephitic crust is mixed with the noxious fumes of candles, and of the oven with which the chamber is heated. When a thaw succeeds, and this plate of ice is converted into water, a deleterious principle is disen- gaged, which produces effects si- milar to those arising from the fumes of charcoal. The method of recovering persons affected by this effluvia, is as follows: they are immediately carried out of doors, and placed on the snow, with no other covering but a shirt and linen drawers. Their temples, and the region of the stomach are then well rubbed with snow ; and cold water and milk is poured down thtir throats. The friction is continued till the livid hue of the skin disappears, and the surface acquires its natural colour. In cases of apparent death, from drowning, it is necessary to rub the breast and temples for a consi- derable time with salt, and all the other parts with warm cloths. Bladders nited with warm water, or bricks heated and wrapped in flannel, should be applied to the soles of the feet, under the arm- pits, and between the thighs. The head should be covered with blan- kets, to preserve the lungs from too sudden an ingress of the air, on the renewal of respiration. When symptoms of returning ani- mation appear, a few ounces of blood may be taken from the arm. Farther directions for the ma- nagement of bodies in that unfor- tunate situation, we propose to communicate under the articles of Drowning, Suspension by the cord, Lightning, 8cc. As a proof of the success which has attended the exertions of medi- cal men in this country, who have liberally co-operated with the be- nevolent design of the Royal Hu- mane Society, under the immedi- ate patronage of our august Sove- reign, we shall adjourn this sub- ject, in the words of our wor- thy friend, the philanthropic Dr. Hawes, a gentleman whose inte- grity and disinterested activity de- serve'equal commendation: " Ani- mation (says this noble veteran), has been given to thousands since 1774, the birth of our life-saving labours." ANISE,or Pimpinella, in botany, is an annual, umbelliferous and aromatic plant, of which there are ten species. The Common Burnet Saxifrage, or the Pimpinella Saxifraga, L. grows ANI ANI 69 on a dry, calcareous, gravelly soil, blossoms in July and August; and is described in Dr. Withering's Arrangement of British Plants, p. 311, and Lng. Bot. T. 407. Every part of this useful plant has a fragrant smell and taste, and is subservient to many beneficial purposes. The white root of the burnet- saxifrage is of a very hot, pungent, bitterish taste, which may be en- tirely extracted in rectified spirits of wine, and affords a medicine of great efficacy in scorbutic and cu- taneous disorders in general, but especially for dropsical and asthma- tic complaints, in which it has been administered by the great Boer- h aave, with singular success. Al- though he directs it to be taken on- ly in a watery infusion, yet we would prefer the tincture, as pos- sessing in a superior degree the me- dicinal virtues of the root. In short, the physicians of Germany fre- quently prescribe it in cases where emollient, resolvent, detergent, diu- retic, and stomachic remedies are indicated, as well as for removing tumors and obstructions in the glands. Frederic Hoffman asserts, that this vegetable is an excellent medicine for promoting the men- ses ; while other writers recom- mend it in all cases where pituitous humours are supposed to prevail, such as catarrhal coughs, hoarse- ness, and hvimid asthma, but particularly in a symptomatic sore throat, called the mucous quinsy. There is a variety of the burnet- saxifrage growing wild in Branden- burg h, and denominated by Els- Holz, a Prussian botanist, the Pimpinella coerulea or the blue pimpinella; as it differs from the former only, by yielding a blue colour in rectified spirit, a similar oil on distillation, and a fine blue juice on expressing the fresh root. For this reason, we have men- tioned it, as it may probably afford a proper substitute for ind.go, in remote places where that cannot readily be obtained. The young leaves and shoots of this species are very palatable, and are eaten as sallad : small bunches of them tied together, and suspend- ed in a cask of table-beer, or ale, impart to it an agreeable aromatic taste ; and, it is affirmed, that they likewise tend to correct tart and spoiled wines, which, by this sim- ple expedient, nay be restored to their forii.er briskness. As the herbs of this plant are acknowledged to be a very whole- some fodder for cows, to increase their milk, and to preserve them against epidemics, we presume to recommend its culture to the far- mer and grazier. The Great Burnet-Saxifrage, or the Pimpinella magna, L. delights in shady places, en a calcareous soil, also flowers in July and August ; and is describee'1 by Wi- thering, i# 313, and &ng. it,'. T. 408. It is stated to possess properties similar to the fornnr, though cat- tle refuse to browze vn. on it, on account of its haid stalks, which often attain the height ci ;ourfcet. The Dwarf Burnet--ax iYage, or Phn; inrlla dicica, L. only grows on hilly pastures and cn'carecv s scils, for instance, on St. V incent's Rock, near Bristol, and above Uphill, in Somersetshire. It bears flowers in May and Tune; is described by Withering, p. 313 ; and delineated in Gerard's Herbal, 1054. 3. I 70 ANN Its properties are not sufficiently ascertained ; but being a dwarfish plant, the two preceding species in every respect deserve the prefer- ence. ANNEALING, by artificers call- ed nealirg, is a part of the process of making, or finishing, glass ; and consists in placing bottles and other vessels, while not, in a kind of oven or iurnacc, where they are suffered gradually to cool. The difference between unan- neai-id, and annealed glass, is very remarkable. When a glass vessel thai has not undergone this process, is broken, it often flies into a small powder with a violence apparent- ly disproportionate to the stroke which it received. In general, it is in greater danger of being broken from a very slight blow, than from a more considerable one. Such a vessels will often resist the effects of a pistol bullet dropt into it, from the height of two or three feet, yet a grain of sand falling into it, will break it into small fragments. This sometimes takes place immediately on dropping the sand into it, but the vessel will frequently remain apparently sound, for several mi- nutes after ; when, without the least touch, it will suddenly fly to pieces. If the glass be very thin, this effect does not take place ; and, on the contrary, it seems to possess all the properties of such as are annealed. Glass is one of those bodies which increase in bulk, on passing from a fluid to a solid state. When it is allowed to crystalize regularly, the particles are so arranged, that it has a fibrous texture ; but, when a mass of melted glass is suddenly exposed to a cold temperature, the surface crystalizes, and forms a firm shell round the interior fluid ANN parts, by which they become solid, and are prevented from expanding. By the process of annealing, the glass is preserved for some time in a state approaching to fluidity ; the heat increases the bulk of the crys- talized part, and renders it so soft, that the internal fibres have an op- portunity of expanding and forming a regular crystallization. A similar process is now used for rendering kettles, and other ves- sels of cast iron, less brittle ; which admits of the same explanation as that above stated. The greater number of metals diminish in bulk when they pass from a fluid to a solid state. Iron, on the contrary, expands. ANNUITY implies a sum of money payable yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly, to continue for a cer- tain number of years, for life, or for ever. An annuity is called an arrear, when it continues unpaid after it becomes due ; and is said to be in reversion, when the purchaser, upon paying the price, does not immediately enter upon possession: the annuity not commencing till some time after. The interest upon annuities may be computed either in the simple or compound manner. But the latter, being most equitable, is ge- nerally preferred. In the first class, viz. in those which extend for a limited period, the principal considerations are, the annuity, rate, and time being given, to find the amount, or sum of yearly payments, and interest. These are readily ascertained, by a series of algebraical calculations. In freehold estates, the principal circumstances to be attended to,are: 1 • The annuity or yearly rent. 2. The price, or present value; and* ANN ANN 71 S. The rate of interest. The value of life-annuities is de- termined by comparative observa- tions and calculations derived from the bills of mortality. Several computations have been made for this purpose ; the most esteemed of which are those by Dr. Hal- lky, Mr. Simpson, and M. De Moivre. Breslaw, the capital of Silesia, being a central place, and not much crowded, was fixed upon by Dr. Halley, who had recourse to the bills of mortality, when he com- posed his table. He selected 1000 persons, all born in one year, and observed, how many of these re- mained alive every year from their birth, to the extinction of the last; and, consequently, ascertained the number which died in each year, as follows: Age l Persons I living. Age Persons living. 1 1000 24 573 2 855 25 567 3 798 26 560 4 760 27 553 5 732 28 546 6 710 29 539 7 692 30 531 8 680 31 523 9 670 32 515 10 661 33 507 11 653 34 499 12 646 35 490 13 640 36 481 14 634 37 472 15 628 38 463 16 622 39 454 17 616 40 445 18 610 41 436 19 604 42 427 20 598 43 417 21 592 44 407 22 586 45 397 ,23 579 46 387 Age. l ei^.ns ii.'Hig. 377 Age. i crsoiio living. 47 70 142 48 367 71 131 49 oo7 72 120 50 346 73 109 51 335 74 98 52 ■ 324 75 88 53 313 76 78 54 302 77 68 55 292 78 58 56 282 79 49 57 272 80 41 58 262 81 34 59 252 82 28 60 242 83 23 61 232 84 20 62 222 85 15 63 212 86 11 64 202 87 8 65 192 88 5 66 182 89' 3 67 172 90 1 68 162 91 0 69 152 As there is allowed to be a greater disparity between births- and burials in the city of London, than in any other place, Mr. Simp- son selects 1280 persons, all born in the same year, and records the number remaining alive each year, till none be left, in order to form a table particularly suited to this po- pulous city. The following is Mr. Simpson's. table on the bills of mortality, at London: Age. Persons living. Age. I Persons, living. 0 1 2 3 4 1280 870 700 635 600 5 6 7 8 9 580 564 551 541 532 72 ANN ANN Age. i:_i:?ons living. Age. Persons living. 10 524 53 180 11 517 54 172 12 510 55 165 13 504 56 158 14 498 57 151 15 492 58 144 16 486 59 137 17 480 60 130 18 474 61 123 19 468 62 117 20 462 63 111 21 455 64 105 22 448 65 99 23 441 66 93 24 434 67 87 25 426 68 81 26 418 69 75 27 410 70 69 28 402 71 64 29 394 72 59 30 385 73 54 31 376 74 49 32 367 75 45 33 358 76 41 34 349 77 38 35 340 78 35 36 331 79 32 37 322 80 29 38 313 81 26 39 304 82 23 40 294 83 20 41 284 84 17 42 274 85 14 43 264 86 12 44 255 87 10 45 246 88 8 46 237 89 6 47 228 90 5 4 8 220 91 4 49 212 92 o 50 204 93 2 51 196 94 1 r.c, 188 ">5 0 jju.t these tables, however per- fect t.bey may be in themselves, must be considered only as proba- ble conjectures, founded on the usual period of human life, which is estimated as follows : 1. The probability that a person of a given age may live a certain number of years, is measured by the proportion which the number of persons living at the proposed age bears to the difference between the said number, and that of per- sons existing at the given ages. Thus, if it be required to know what chance a person 40 years of age may have to live seven years longer, the reader should refer to Dr. Halley's table, and from 445, the number of persons living at 40 years of age, subtract the number of persons living at 47 years of age, and the remainder, being 68, will be the number of those who have died dur- ing those seven years. The proba- bility, that the person in question will live these seven years, is in the proportion of 377 to 68, or nearly as 5-| to 1. By Mr. Simpson's table, the chance is somewhat less than that of 4 to 1. If it be desirable to ascertain the year, which a person of a given age has an equal chance of attain- ing, the inquirer ought to find half the number of persons living at that given age, in the tables; and the year required will appear in the column of ages. The premium of insurance upon lives may also, in some degree, be regulated by these tables, as follows: The chance which a person of 25 years has to live another year, is, by Dr. Halley's table, as 80 to 1 ; but the chance that a person of 50 years has to live a year long- er, is only 30 to 1 , and conse- quently, the premium for insuring the former ought to be the pre- mium for insuring the latter for one year, as 30 to 80, or as 3 to 8. ANO ANO 73 Life-annuities are commonly bought or sold at a certain number of years' purchase. The value of an annuity of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cant, interest, is about 121. 10s. or twelve and a half years' purchase. Among those who have written on this subject, none is more de- servedly celebrated than Dr. Price, the author of Observations on Re- versionary Payments, Annuities, he. published in 1771 ; and his curious remarks on this subject, inserted in the LXVth vol. of the Philos. Transactions, for 1775, p. 424, are well worthy of perusal and attention. In our opinion, life annuities, when granted by individuals whose property is already involved, or who by such an expedient injure the just expectations of their rela- tives, ought not to be connived at in a well-reguJated state....Viewed in a commercial light, this species of gambling, in a certain degree, resembles the furious rage for the hazard or pharo-table ; to which all those adventurers and avaricious money-lenders generally resort, who are anxious to amass large sums of money, which, by mo- derate legal interest, could not be realized. ANODYNE, is a term applied to medicines which have a tendency to assuage pain. This desirable purpose may be attained in three different ways : 1. By paregorics, or such remedies as are calculated to ease pain; 2. By sojicrifics, which relieve the patient by causing arti- ficial sleep ; and 3. By narcotics, or such as stupify, by their action on the nervous sytiem. This division, though sanctioned by general authority, is very im- perfect ; and we shall attempt to VOL. I. explain the subject in a manner, perhaps, more consonant with just principles of animal economy....not from the result, but from the cause by which a proper application of anodynes induces certain changes in the human body. In order to give a distinct view of the subject, we shall arrange them under three classes ; namely, I. Such remedies as tend either to remove the offending cause, or prevent the part affected from re- ceiving a sensible and painful im- pression, viz. in consequence of the amputation of a limb; the draw- ing of a tooth ; the burning of parts cither by the cautery, or by means of a red-hot iron; the ap- plication of the tourniquet, a tight ligature, compresses, ike. To this class also belong opiates, and other stupifying medicines, administered for the suspension of pain; but which may be justly termed, " poi- sons of the sensitive faculty." How- ever liberally others may explain the effects of opium on the organs of the mind, we cannot avoid ob- serving, that its operation on the sensorium commune'is always attend- ed with violence, and that so pow- erful a medicine ought not to be in- trusted to the hands of those who are but little acquainted with its nature. Nay, we are of opinion, that even medical men cannot be too careful in its exhibition ; but far from wishing to deprecate the use of this invaluable drug, which cannot, in the present state of me- dical science, be excluded from the list of medicinal substances, we shall here venture to suggest a few ideas respecting the propriety, and great- er safety, of its external use. In very painful wounds, excruci- ating rheumatism, contractions, and paralytic aflections arising from 74 ANO AN O frequent spasms and strictures, the external use of opium is both safe and beneficial, especially if com- bined with antispasmodic and emol- lient remedies, such as camphor, lint-seed oil, marsh-mallows, Sec. These alone are frequently suffi- cient to relieve distressing pain, without the assistance of anodynes property so called; as the latter generally determine the circulation of blood towards the head, and oc- casion giddiness, stupor, and a re- laxation of the nerves. With the above additions, however, opium may be advantageously employed in the form of baths, fomentations, ointments, cataplasms, and parti- cularly in clysters.....[See the arti- cle Abdomen, p. 5. laudanum."] When the pain is in the interior organs, and its seat cannot be pre- cisely ascertained, or when it arises from causes which neither the pa- tient nor physician can discover, we would prefer the following ano- dyne linimer.t, a timely application of which has frequently procured immediate, relief: take one ounce of the dried leaves of the common henbane, or four ounces of the green plant, and haif a pint of sweet olive oil, digest them near a fire for a few days, then express the leaves through a coarse piece of linen, filter the decoction, and preserve it in a vessel closely stopped. This preparation, if ap- plied warm, or rubbed into p-dnful parts, has, according to our own experience, proved of singular ef- ficacy. II. Those remedies which are calculated to change, suppress, or evacuate the material cause of pain, and are therefore the most rational, though, unfortunately, not always within the reach of the medical practitioner. Thus, if the intes- tinal canal be obstructed, or the stomach clogged with acrid matter that cannot fail to produce violent colics, and other disorders, the principal aim will be to evacuate it by purgatives, or emetics, and thereby not only cure the com- plaint, but, at the same time, save the patient's life, which, by means of opiates, given either by the mouth or clyster, without such previous evacuations, would be ex- posed to imminent danger. Hence we are induced to express our opi- nion decidedly in favour of those who, from a conviction of the great importance of the trust reposed in them, seriously hesitate to employ anodynes, so long as there is a pos- sibility of dispensing with such precarious remedies. But, in cases where the morbid matter cannot be expelled, a skilful practitioner will endeavour, at least, to deprive it of its activity, or to neutralize it, while in the human body. In this man- ner, pains arising from acrimonious humours, are relieved by drinking bland, diluent, and saccharine liquors; from intestinal worms (though resisting every vermifuge), by remedies which destroy them before they are carried off by the feces ; from a pleurisy, by such means as resolve the stagnant fluids, and promote their circula- tion through the constricted capil- lary vessels ; from stones in the bladder, if they be too large for expulsion, by the use of lime- water, which tends to blunt their edges, Sec. These illustrations, however, might be accompanied with a variety of practical hints and precautions, if we did not intend to reserve such observations, till we have occasion to treat of the different acute and painful diseases, under their respective heads. ANO ANO 75 111. The last class of anodynes comprehends all those which, by exciting impressions and represent- ations of a different kind, either counteract or subdue the pain. These are generally resorted to, when neither the affected organs can be locally relieved, the mate- rial cause removed, nor the senses stupified by narcotics. Hence phy- sicians are frequently obliged to employ such expedients as may suppress the partial affection, by exciting feelings of a different na- ture, and perhaps to a more intense degree than those occasioned by the original complaint. These re- medies, however, require equal in- genuity and precaution. Thus, for instance, violent head-ach, tooth- ach, pains of the breast, he. may be alleviated by blisters, or cata- plasms made of onions, garlic, mustard-seed with vinegar, horse- radish, and similar stimulants ; rheumatic and gouty affections, by early friction with flannel, which for many reasons, is preferable to a flesh-brush. All these applications, nevertheless, ought to be maturely considered, previous to their use, with respect to the place,strength, and duration, of the stimulus. To this class may also be referr- ed, diversions of the mind; incli- nations and passions artificially ex- rited, in order to direct the atten- tion of the patient to a different ob- ject : such expedients are frequent- ly of excellent service, especially in chronic diseases, and to invet- erate hypochondriacs. In a similar manner, terror and anger some- times instantaneously suppress the painful sensations of gouty and rheumatic patients. Thus, the pleasures of conversation, a coun- try-life, theatres, music, dancing, hunting, and similar amusements, are often more effectual anodynes than wine, brandy, or laudanum : the former agreeably cozen and delude the mind; the latter al- ways, sooner or later, aggravate the complaint. Having given this concise view of the subject, we shall add only a few general observations relative to the manner of determining, whether, and when a patient may with safety resort to anodynes ; be- cause, in this place, we cannot en- ter into particulars, which it would become necessary to repeat, when treating of those substances them- selves. If a person be suddenly seized with violent pains, the cause or source of which cannot be clearly ascertained, it will be of the first consequence to inquire, whether the patient be at the same time subject to febrile heat, accompa- nied by an unusual determination of blood towards the head, and a strong, full pulse. In such case, if the pain should not abate on the friction of the parts affected, or on plunging the legs in warm water, it would be proper to take a few ounces of blood from the arm or foot. In many instances of acute pain, however, the pulse is con- siderably depressed, and the circu- lation of the fluids in general so languid, that the extremities ap- pear rather pale and cold ; yet, under these circumstances also, it may frequently become necessary to bleed the patient without delay, in order to restore an uniform action of the vessels ; a point to be determined by the judicious practi- tioner. From whatever cause an internal or deep-seated pain may arise, it will always be useful to allow the patient considerable portions of di- 76 ANO ANO luent drink, such as luke-warm water mixed with a fourth part of milk, or decoctions of barley, blanched oats, rice, he. to admi- nister emollient clysters, consisting of six parts of warm water, two of oil, and one of soft sugar; to wrap the suffering part in soft flannel, or, if it can bear the application of heat, to cover the whole with a common poultice, made of the crumb of bread boiled in milk, with the ad- dition of a little sweet oil; to place the patient, if his peculiar situation and circumstances admit of this practice, in a tepid bath, of a tem- perature not exceeding 98° of Fah- renheit; end, lastly, if none of these expedients should afford the desired relief, to resort to opium, or laudanum, as the last resource : one grain of the former, or twenty drops of the latter, with a proper quantity of diluent beverage, is generally a sufficient dose, to per- sons not accustomed to its use. But let us here observe, that even in very desperate paroxysms of pain, there is no necessity of giving an indiscriminate preference to opium, till every other method has been previously tried: thus, for instance, the most excruciating head and tooth-ach, have often been sudden- ly dispelled, by applying horse-rad- ish in fresh shavings, or bruised garlick, between two fine pieces of musiin, to the bend of both amis, or the Lams. Another simple remedy, of equal efficacy, in periodical head-achs, especially in the morning, is a thin piece of fresh lemon-peel freed from the soft fibrous part, and plac- ed on each of the temples, before the volatile oil be evaporated..... These external applications are perfectly safe; for, as their action is confined to the part which they stimulate, they occasion a degree of irritation different from the ori- ginal complaint, and thus produce a cessation of pain.. In the last-men- tioned case, we would also recom- mend the timely application of a few leeches, either to the temples, or rather to the lateral part of the neck, behind the ears, where the effect is almost instantaneous. Lastly, opium may be called an almost divine remedy, when judi- ciously administered, in gan- grenes, after painful amputations, fractures of bones, and, in short, every operation attended with spasms and great prostration of strength; but especially in diseases of the eyes, such as the cataract, or gutta serena. [The apprehensions expressed by Dr. Willich, with respect to the bad effects of anodynes are in a great measure groundless; and the substitutes he recommends, will do more injury than the opium, by their inefficacy in relieving the system from violent pain, which an anodyne might soon dispel. Thus in very violent colics it is always more advisable to take an anodyne, when first seized, and afterwards to purge, and bleed, if necessary.... (See Golic.) In the head-ach also, commonly termed nervous, but which most frequently is caused by affections of the stomach, 15, 20, or 30, drops of laudanum,taken on the first attack, will nine times out of ten, remove the disease, which, with any substitute, might be protracted for two or three days; a cup of coffee, without sugar will relieve the sickness and unplea- sant sensations which commonly follow the use of opium. It must be acknowledged, however, that cases often occur where anodynes cannot be safely given internally, ANO ANT 77 in consequence of the derangement they create in the system; in such cases, opium may be safely appli- ed externally, in the form of lauda- num, with great advantage ; or the following prescription may be used: Take opium, in fine powder, half a drachm. Camphor, four grains. Hog's fat, four scruples. Olive-oil, one drachm....Mix. This mixture may be rubbed on the inside of the legs and thighs, as often as the symptoms require. In the course of this work, the va- rious cases in which anodynes may be given with safety, shall be point- ed out.] ANOTTA, is an elegant red colouring substance, prepared from the pellicles, or pulp, which sur- round the seeds of the Arnotto Tree, or Bixa, L. a native of South America. According to La bat, the Indians prepare an anotta far superior to that imported into Britain : it is of a bright, glossy, red colour, little in- ferior to Carmine. For this pur- pose, instead of steeping and fer- menting the seeds in water, they rub them with the hands, previ- ously immersed in oil. till the pel- licles are separated, and reduced to a clear paste ; which is then scraped off with a knife, and ex- posed on a clean leaf in the shade, where it is gradually dried. Anotta is chiefly used for im- parting to wool or silk a deep, though not permanent, orange hue. Considerable quantities of this dyeing drug are likewise em- ployed in the colouring of Ch eese ; and also as an ingredient in var- nishes, for communicating an orange shade to the simple yellows. From the wax or pulp, in which the seeds of the arnotto-tree are in- closed, the Indians and Spaniards prepare a cool, agreeably rich cor- dial, which they mix with their chocolate, for improving its fla- vour, and heightening its colour. The roots possess nearly similar properties, but operate more pow- erfully by the urinary passages.... they are employed by the natives in broths, and answer all the pur- poses of the pulp, though in a weaker degree. ANT, or Formica, in zoology, is a genus of insects belonging to the sixth class of the animal king- dom. The characters of this insect are, that there is a small scale be- tween the breast and belly ; and the joint is so deep, that the animal appears as if it were almost cut through the body. The females and the neuters, or working ants, which have no sexual characteris- tics, are furnished with a secret sting; and both the males and fe- males have wings, but the neuters have none. There are eighteen species, which are in general dis- tinguished by their colours. These insects cohabit in nume- rous parties, and maintain a sort of republic, not unlike that of the bees. Their nests are in the form of an oblong square, and contain paths which lead to different ma- gazines. Their method of con- structing these habitations is truly wonderful. Some of the ants are employed in making the ground firm, by mixing it with a kind of glue, to prevent its crumbling, and falling upon them: others may be seen gathering several twigs, which they use for rafters,by placing them over the paths to support the co- vering : they lay others across, and 78 ANT ANT npon these, rushes, weeds, and dried grass, which they form into a double declivity, and thus conduct the water from their magazine. For provisions they secure every thing which, to them, is eatable, and we may often observe one loaded with a dead fly, sometimes several together with the carcase of a may-bug, or other large insect; and, if they cannot transport it, they consume part of it upon the spot, at least so much as may re- duce it to a bulk adequate to their strength. They lay up hoards of wheat and other corn: and, for fear it should sprout from the moisture of their subterraneous cells, they gnaw off the end which would produce the blade. It is re- markable, that if one ant meets another which is loaded, it always gives way, or will help it, if it be over-burthened. Indeed, the strength of this little animal is astonishing, as one of them will frequently drag a burthen many times heavier than itself! On depriving a mouse or other little animal of its skin, and placing it on an ant-hill, in a little box, perforated in several parts, so as to admit a free passage for the ants, it will be found, in a few days, con- verted into the most perfect skele- ton. The ant deposits her eggs in the manner of the common flies, and from these eggs are hatched the larve, a sort of small maggots, or worms without legs; which, after a short time, change into large white aurelia, or chrysalids, usually call- ed ant's eggs. Although ants are considered as injurious to husbandry, by making their hills, and impairing the grass upon pasture land, yet they are unjustly reproached with damaging fruit-trees. In Switzerland, they are made subservient to the de- struction of caterpillars, by hang- ing a pouch filled with ants upon a tree, whence they are suffered to make their escape, through an aperture, and over-run all its branches, without being able to reach the ground, as the trunk has been previously smeared with wet clay, or soft pitch, in consequence of which, impelled by hunger, they fall upon the caterpillars, and de- vour them. Ants have also been successfully used in medicine. By distillation, they afford an acid liquor, which, when mixed with brandy, is by many considered as a strengthen- ing nervous cordial; they have also been added to warm baths, when used for the gout and sprained limbs. We shall now proceed to state several methods of destroying this numerous insect. The most simple of these is, to pour boiling water into the apertures of their hillocks. By mixing soot with cold water, and pouring it at the roots of trees infested by them, they will speedily be destroyed. Besides that already mentioned, there is another simple expedient, to prevent them from descending a tree which they visit. Nothing farther is required than to mark with a piece of common chalk a circle round its trunk, about two feet from the ground, and about an inch or two in breadth : as soon as the ants arrive at this ring, not one will attempt to cross it. This cu- rious experiment, however, should be performed in dry weather, and the ring must be renewed, when partly washed off by rain. The small garden-ants,which are supposed to devourtheyoungshoots of fruit-trees, may be destroyed, ANT ANT T9 by placing among them a number of large ants, which are commonly found in the woods ; as there pre- vails between these two species of insects so strong an antipathy, that the larger sort attack the smaller, and never relinquish the combat till they have extirpated, or driven their antagonists from the neigh- bourhood. Mr. Clutterbuck, jun. of Watford, washed the walls of his hot-house with a painter's brush, dipped in a solution made of four ounces of sublimate, in two gallons of water; and since that application, neither the red spider, against which this remedy was employed, nor ants have made their appear- ance. One of the most effectual me- thods of dispersing these trouble- some insects from plantations and gardens, we believe, is that men- tioned in the Encyclopedia Britan- nica ; on the authority of which we shall communicate it to our readers : " A small quantity of hu- man feces, when placed in their hills, will not only destroy great numbers, but expel the rest from their habitations." A new method of exterminating these insects, is recommended by Mr. Forsyth ; with a view to pre- vent them traversing walls, and in- juring fruit. He directs a hole to be drilled in the ground, with a sharp-pointed wooden stake, close to the side of the wall, and at such depth as the soil will permit. In consequence of the earth being stir- red, the insects will be induced to move about: the sides of the hole are then to be made smooth, so that the ants, on approaching the edge of the orifice may fall in, and be unable to climb upwards. When a considerable number i* collected at the bottom, water may be poured on them, and thus thousands may be drowned. Great numbers may likewise be killed by strewing a mixture of quick lime and soot, along such places as are much fre- quented by ants : they may further be banished from trees by scatter- ing a little pulverised Staves-acre on the ground, around their stems: but, where it is practicable, it is best to open the nest of these insects, and throw in them a piece of quick lime with a sufficient quantity of water for slacking it; when the heat, together with the suffocating air thus evolved, will certainly destroy them. Ant dope. See Deer. Anthemis. See Chamomile. Anthericum. See Spiderwort. ANT-HILLS are so well known, that they require no additional de- scription to that given under the article ANT....They are very inju- rious to dry pastures, not only by wasting the extent of soil which they cover, but by impeding the scythe at the time of mowing, and yielding a poor food, pernicious to cattle. The manner of reducing them, simply consists in cutting them into four parts, from the top, and then digging deep enough to take out the core below, so that when the turf is replaced, it may be somewhat lower than the level of the rest of the land: thus the place will be more wet, and the ants prevented from returning to their former situation. The earth taken out should be scattered, or removed to a considerable distance, lest they might collect it, and soon form another hill. This useful kind of work ought to be performed in winter; for if, at that season, the places be left open, the frost and succeeding rains will destroy those 80 ANT ANT ants which are in the lower part of their habitation. In Hertibnbhire and Somersetshire, a particular kind of spade is used for this pur- pose ; its blade is very sharp, and so formed, that the whole edge describes about three-fourths of a circle. St. Anthony's Fire. See Ery- sipelas, or Rose. [ANTHRAX, or Carbuncle....A large inflamed painful tumour; it commonly seizes the backs of old people. Several cases of this com- plaint have occurred in Philadel- phia within a few years past. I have seen a dreadful case in which the muscles of the back were as completely laid bare, as if dissected by a surgeon's hand. It was cured by the late eminent Dr. J. Jones of this city, by emollient poul- tices frequently renewed, bark, wine, and generous diet duly regu- lated, and opium : and by removing the mortified edges when their se- paration from the living parts did not go on fast enough, or when the edges of the sore were left with large flabby irregular lips which gave room for matter to lodge and prevented a reunion. The dis- charge of matter was very great, to prevent the smell of which a large cloth dipped in brandy was put over the dressings, and frequently re- newed. See another case described by Dr. Jones in the transactions of the College of Physicians of Phila- delphia. As a violent inflammation is al- ways the first symptom, might not the application of twenty or thirty leeches to the part, prevent the pro- gress of the disease ? They might be renewed if jnecessary.] Antlioxanthum odoratum, L. See Sweet-scented Spring-grass. AnthyHis vulneraria, L. See Kidney-vetch. ANTIDOTES, are medicines w hich prevent or cure the effects of deleterious substances, either taken into the stomach, or externally ap- plied to the human body. Of those poisons which general- ly prove mortal, when swallowed, the principal are, arsenic, corrosive sublimate, glass of antimony, ver- digrease, and lead. Mineral poi- sons apparently attack the solid parts of the stomach; and, by eroding its substance, occasion death. Antimonials rather injure the nerves, and destroy by produc- ing convulsions. Most vegetable poisons seem to operate in this manner; but fatal accidents more frequently happen from the former. In the year 1777, M. Navier advised large quantities of milk to be administered to persons who had swallowed arsenic ; a metal, the virulence of which is effectually counteracted by this liquid, as it allays the irritation of the viscera, and prevents the inflammation of the intestines. The patient is af- terwards directed to take a drachm of the liver of sulphur, in a pint of warm water; but when this can- not be procured, he may substitute a gently alkaline lixivium, or soap- water, a solution of iron in vinegar, or any other acid, or even a por- tion of ink, if nothing else can be readily procured. The cure may be completed by the constant use of milk and warm sulphureous wa- ters....See Arsenic. The remedies most suited to ob- viate the effects of corrosive subli- mate, are different preparations of the liver oi sulphur, which decom- poses or resolves the mercurial salt; and, by the addition of the alkali ANT to the acid, forms an inoffensive neutral salt. Acids, therefore, even of the mildest kind, are fatal, if ap- plied to counteract this poison, as they render it more active : thus, even lemonade, or treacle, are per- nicious, as they contribute to in- crease pain and danger. Common salt dissolved in water, readily pre- cipitates the mercury, and thereby greatly abates its virulence. This article being always ready, it ought to be resorted to preferably to any other : especially as, when taken in a large quantity, it operates as an emetic, or carries off the mercury by stool. Volatile and fixed alkaline salts and spirits, also precipitate mer- cury, such as spirits of hartshorn, or sal ammoniac, salt of tartar, wormwood, Sec. but, as these can seldom be obtained on an emer- gency, the following articles may be substituted, viz. pot-ashes dis- solved in warm or cold water, but the lixivium should not be too strong. When pot-ashes are not at hand, warm water may be strain- ed through ashes of bean-stalks, broom, straw, or any other vege- table that can be most readily burn- ed. White or black soap should be injected by way of clyster, and like- wise dissolved in all the water that is drunk. Those poisons which may be called culinary, are perhaps the most destructive ; because they are generally the least suspected. No Vessels, therefore, which contain copper in their composition, should be used in cookery, &c. In cases where the poison of verdigrease has been recently swallowed, eme- tics should first be given, and af- terwards cold water gently alkalis- ed, ought to be drunk in abund- ance. VOL. U ANT 61 Though lead may not be consi- dered as corrosive poison, its ef-> fects are nevertheless deleterious, and may be corrected by the re- medies already suggested, namely, by drinking large quantities of aci- dulated liquors, or solutions of the liver of sulphur, and completing the cure by gentle laxatives; but, in the commencement of the com- plaint, drastic purgatives should be carefully avoided. The poisonous effects of mineral acids may be counteracted by the administration of calcined magne- sia. M. Desgranges relieved a soldier in the agonies of death, who had swallowed a glass of the sul- phuric acid, or oil of vitriol, by prescribing the following antidote, viz. a dram and a half of the car- bonate of magnesia (magnesia usta aerata,) dissolved in a tea-cupful of pure water. This dose pro- duced excessive vomiting. He re- peated the magnesiain the quanti- ty of half a dram every half hour, giving at intervals a solution of gum-arabic and sugar till the cure was accomplished. ' To obviate the ill effects of opium, emetics should be given as speedily as possible. If the first symptoms only appear, which are the same as those of intoxication, the following emetic will be of ser- vice, viz. Simple spearmint water and oxymel of squills, of each one ounce, and half a scruple of ipeca- cuanha : frequent draughts of wa- ter-gruel should be given, to assist the operation. If the poison has been swallowed in a liquid state, which may be ascertained from the smell of the first discharge, four or five vomitings may be sufficient; but if in a solid form, two or three more must be procured, by giving fresh doses. Should the symptom's M 82 A N T ANT continue violent, it will be neces- sary to increase the quantity of the medicines, in proportion to the ur- gency of the case, and the strength of the patient. The principal ob- ject to be kept in view, according to Dr. Seaman, of New-York, is, to produce such a degree of irrita- tion, as may counteract the narcotic effects of this deleterious drug.... Hence it is very useful to stimulate the nostrils with spirits of hartshorn, and to apply friction with salt over the whole body. [The Editor has known copious bleeding save a per- son, who was labouring under the effects of a very large dose of laud- anum.] Lemon juice, a solution of white vitriol, and other acid substances, have long been considered as effec- tual antidotes against opium ; but they do not afford sufficient secu- rity. As we seriously advise all per- sons in this unfortunate situation, immediately to avail themselves of medical assistance, it would be needless to expatiate farther on the subject: we ijhall only observe, that there is a remedy at once sim- ple and effectual for all kinds of poisons, to be found near every cot- tage, as well as in the palaces of the great. This is pure water, which, when taken at an early pe- riod, and in sufficient quantity, has the beneficial tendency of diluting and neutralizing most of the poi- sons introduced into the stomach. With respect to those vege- table substances which sometimes, though rarely, require antidotes, we shall in this place mention the fol- lowing : 1. Camphor; 2. Arnica, or German Leopard's bane; 3. Cocculus Indicus, or India beiTy ; 4. Gamboge ; 5. Datura stramo- nium, or Thorn-apple; 6. Vera- trum album, or White Hellebore ; and 7. M'zereum, or Spurg Olive. Against the violent operation of these medicinal drugs, Professor Hueeland, of Jena, at present physician to the King of Prussia, has from experience found, that the first is most effectually coun- teracted by taking internally pro- portionate doses of opium; the se- cond, by the copious use of vinegar; the third, by moderate portions of camphor ; the fourth by swallow- ing alkaline solutions in water; the fifth, by either vinegar, or the acid of lemons; the sixth, by strong decoctions of coffee; and the seventh by camphor. There are, however, many other vegetable, animal, and mineral sub- stances, sometimes taken by mis- take, or administered from malig- nant motives, and the fatal effects of which may be obviated by a timely use of their respective anti- dotes....In order to conclude this article, within its due limits, we are obliged to refer the reader to the following heads, where he will find each subject discussed as it occurs in the order of the alphabet, viz. Balsamine Seeds, Cassava, Co- loqxjintida, water-crowfoot, Wild Cucumber, BeardedDar- nel,Euphorbium,Spanish Flies, Foxglove, Glass,Gypsum, Hel- lebore, Hemlock, Henbane, Lead, Leadwort, Lime, Loe- sters,PutridMe at, Metallic, Pointed Substances, Muscles, Deadly Nightshade, JVux vomi- ca, Oysters, Meadow Saffron, Saltpetre, Scammony, Sow- bread, Stavesacre, Wolf's- bane, and Poisons in general. ANTIMONY is a heavy, brittle semi-metal, composed of long bright streaks, resembling needles, of a dark lead colour, and without ANT ANT 83 taste or smell. It is found in Ger- many, France, and also in Eng- land. The impurities which are found in the foreign sorts, are of the infusible stony kind, and are extracted by melting the antimony in vessels, the bottoms of which are perforated with small holes, so that the lighter and drossy matter rises to the surface, while the more pure and ponderous sinks, and is receiv- ed into conical moulds. This mine- ral, when analyzed, is found to con- sist of a metal united with common sulphur. [It is found in nature in the metal- lic state ; in the state of calx miner- alized, most generally with sulphur, called, Crude Antimony,. a. Native Antimony, usually mix- ed with iron and arsenic. It con- tains so large a proportion of the latter, that by fusion with sulphur, the product resembles realgar,or red arsenic, found in a matrix of calca- reous spar or limestone. b. Muriate of Antimony, more rarely occurs....White antimonial ore : combined with muriatic acid, of a greyish white colour, found in oblong, rectangular four-sided la- minae. c. Sulphurised Antimony....Its co- lour is bluish or steel grey, cor- responding to that of the common antimony of the shops, which is in- deed nothing else than this ore se- parated from its impurities by means of fusion. It is of metallic lustre, and often variegated on the surface. It occurs in lumps, interspersed, or more or less crystalized. In the mass its texture is either compact, granular or foliated, more common- ly, however, divergingly striated, or fibrous; when crystalized, its form if determinate, is that of com- pressed hexahedral prisms, with •btuse tetrahedral pyramids, which are either comparatively large, massy, and longitudinally grooved, or more frequently in lengthened needle-like, or capillary prisms di- verging from different centres and variously decussating each other. It is opake, brittle, very easily scratched with a knife, sometimes so soft as to soil the fingers....gives a blackish powder: it is very easily fusible, giving out a white sulphur- ous smoke ; on the dissipation of its sulphur by a more gentle heat it leaves grey verifiable oxyde, equivalent, according to Bergman, to about 74 per cent, of reguius.... It is frequently found in limestone, indurated clay, and iron pyrites, but most commonly associated with different forms of quartz.... The French reguius of antimony according to the experience of Messrs. Binny and Ronaldson of this city, is 15 per cent, better for types than the English. Antimony being of very great use in medicine and the arts, particularly in the very important manufacture of types, which are now made by the above mentioned ingenious men, in every respect equal to those im- ported, it would be of immense consequence to discover a mine of antimony in the United States.... A few years since, a large lump of this metal was brought to an apo- thecary of this city, to sell for plumbago, or (black lead) Dr. Sey- bert analyzed it, and found it a rich ore of antimony. The apo- thecary now forgets whence the specimen came. Antimonial Wine, is prepared by simply infusing either the crocus or ant. vit. in wine : from ten to fifty or sixty drops of which are usually prescribed as an alterative and diaphoretic. In larger doses, it acts as a diuretic and cathartic; 84 ANT ANT and three or four drams prove, in general, violently emetic. For this last purpose, it has been frequent- ly employed in madness and apo- plexy, It is, however, a very uncer- tain medicine, because the more acid the wine, the stronger will the tincture prove. Hence scarce- ly two preparations of antimonial wine, are of equal strength: ten drops from one shop will sometimes vomit more than a tea-spoonful from another shop. It ought to be given up, and tartar emetic in mi- nute doses, substituted.] Dr. James Walker, late sur- geon to the navy, gives a remark- able account of the effects produced by a large quantity of antimonial wine. Having ordered some whey, in consequence of a cold, that wine, in a mistake, was used instead of Lisbon. Of this whey, he drank a full English pint, in which was con- tained not less than a gill and a half of antimonial wine; but, instead of producing the effects which might naturally be expected, it was attended with an unusual propensity to sleep, with a lassitude and numb- ness of the limbs. His two medi- cal pupils, who had eaten the curd, were affected in a similar manner. He consequently asks, "Whether, if its emetic quality be destroyed by its combination with milk, and exchanged for that of a narcotic kind, some useful hints might not be drawn from this case, and intro- duced into medical practice?" An improvement in the prepar- ation of the antimonial powder, which is substituted in regular pharmacy, fcr Dr. James' Fever Powd: i.s, has lately been proposed to the Royal Society, by Mr. Che- venix. He directs equal parts of phosphat of lime and pulverized alo-aroth to be dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of mu- riatic acid; some caustic ammonia must then be mixed with distilled water, and the muriatic solution dropped gradually into the mixture: the result of such combination will be a copious white precipitate; which, by washing and drying, is rendered fit for use. This medi- cine, has already been administered, by some eminent practitioners; and according to the account of Mr. C it possesses the valuable properties of the antimonial powder, though in a less concentrated form, so that the former may be exhibited in doses of less than eight grains, without exciting vomiting. ANTIPATHY, in physiology, is used to express the natural aversion which an animated or sensitive be- ing feels at the real or ideal pre- sence of any particular object.... Such are the reciprocal hostilities subsisting between the toad and the weasel; between sheep and wolves, and the aversion of particu- lar persons against cats, mice, spi- ders, &c. This prepossession is sometimes so violent as to induce fainting, even upon beholding their natural enemies. Most animals likewise evince a remarkable antipathy to the sight of the blood of their own species. To explore this subject, without prejudice, it will be necessary to exclude those antipathies which are not authenticated, such as those be- tween the weasel and toad, which can be extinguished or resumed at pleasure; or those, the causes of which are evident.,..we shall then be inclined to admit but a very in- considerable number. The aversion which prevails be- tween the sheep and the wolf, can- ANT ANT 85 not certainly be called an antipathy, as its origin is obvious; the latter devours the former, and every ani- mal naturally shuns pain, or de- struction. From similar causes proceeds that dread which many persons feel of serpents and rep- tiles. During the period of infan- cy, pains are taken to impress the mind with the frightful idea that these animals are of a venomous nature, and that their bite is mor- tal. Such apprehensions are ag- gravated by the relation of dismal tales, which often make a lasting impression. When others, at their approach, have exhibited symptoms of terror, we have been persuaded to avoid them ; and hence it is not surprising that we should entertain an aversion for such objects. Our emotions at the sight of what we fear, being excited . while we are unprepared, will be in proportion to the sensibility of our frame, and the irritability of our nerves. A person, who formerly had no dislike to particular objects, by as- sociating with those who are sub- ject to such idle fears, often ac- quires an unfavourable bias against things which, prior to those con- tagious examples, he beheld with perfect indifference. Thus, many evince an aversion to eels, which, however, arises chiefly from their resemblance to serpents. There areotherantipathies,which do not originate from the source of the imagination, but from some natural loathing, such as is often perceptible in children, for particu- lar kinds of victuals, which, though not distasteful, yet, from a weak- ness of the digestive organs, are disgorged as soon as swallowed. A:itipathics,'m general, owe their origin to objects which are con- ceived to be dangerous; to a terror of imaginary disasters; to a squeam- ish delicacy; and of a rooted dis- like to things supposed to be detri- mental. Those of children are to be conquered by teaching them the means of defence and security, or the methods of avoiding the influ- ence of noxious agents; and when age has strengthened the judgment, by demonstrating to them the na- ture and properties of those natural bodies, or phenomena, which they fear, they will thus gradually over- come their early prejudices and antipathies....See Sympathy. ANTIQUITIES, is a term sig- nifying those testimonies, or au- thentic records of the early ages, which are transmitted to posterity by tradition. The study of antiquities forms a very extensive science, including an historical survey of the ancient edifices, magistrates, officers, ha- biliments, manners, customs, cere- monies, religious institutions, &c. of the various nations of the earth. It is equally useful and interesting to the lawyer, physician, and divine. Antiquarian science may be di- vided into sacred and profane, pub- lic and private, universal and par- ticular. The antiquities of Greece and Rome attract the curiosity of every scholar; and though including the history of the Jews, Egyptians, Persians, Phoenicians, Carthageni- ans, and in short, every celebrated nation, they, by no means, contain the whole of this branch of learn- ing. For, if to the general be added a particular acquaintance with statues, bas reliefs, medals, paintings, and the venerable re- mains of ancient architecture, this aggregate information constitutes a very interesting and extensive sci- ence. 86 ANT ANT To acquire a knowledge of the works of sculpture, statuary, grav- ing, painting, he. which are called antiques, strict attention ought to be paid to the substance, on which the art has been practised : as wax, clay, wood, ivory, stones, marble, bronze, and every kind of metal: because, on comparing this with the subject, it frequently serves to discriminate the true from the coun- terfeit specimens. Many of our great antiquaries (who are not the most skilled in designing) frequently grant the pre- ference to the ancients, rather from prejudice than judgment. That striking peculiarity which to them appears so marvellous in the works of antiquity, is often a mere chi- mera: for most of the antique fi- gures and statues are totally vo;d of expression, and we can only fancy their characters. Y\ e are, however, greatly in- debted to the persevering exertions, and the laudable spirit of enquiry, which have lately been displayed by the Royal Antiquarian Society, in- asmuch as the members of that learned and patriotic body have in- dividually and collectively contri- buted to the acquisition of those \aluable materials which are now converted into their proper use..... Mr. Burgess, in his ingenious Es- say "On the Study of Antiquities," printed in 1783, justly observes, that "this study, once far removed from all the arts of elegance, is now become an attendant on the Muses, and a handmaid to History, Foetry, and Philosophy. Antirrhinum. See Snapdragon, Fluellin, and Toadflax. ANTISCORBUTICS, signify those applications and medicines which are found useful in the cure ©f the scurvy, such as pure air, gentle exercise, milk, vegetables, fruit, &c.....See Scurvy. ANTISEPTICS, a term applied to those substances which resist or check putrefaction. Numerous trials have confirmed Sir John Pringle'6 opinion of the antiseptic propertiesof alkaline salts, though they appear to be inferior to some resinous substances, and other vegetables. Thus myrrh, in a watery menstruum, has been found twelve times more antiseptic than sea-salt. Two grains of camphor were a better preservative of flesh than sixty grains of com- mon salt. An infusion of a few grainsof powdered Virginian snake- root, exceeded in antiseptic pro- perty twelve times its weight of chamomile flowers ; and the Peru- vian bark possesses nearly the same extraordinary quality. These balsa. mic vegetables are the more valu- able, as they are usually free from acrimony, and may be taken in much greater quantity than either spirits, acids, resins, or even neu- tral salts. To the class of antiseptics we may also add fermented liquors, acids, vinous spirits, and even those plants called ant-acids, which for- merly were erroneously supposed to accelerate putrefaction, particu- larly the scurvy-grass and horse- radish. Antiseptics are prescribed in all putrid and malignant diseases, though not without due precaution, as to the proper time for their exhi- bition, and the different stages of the disorder. Thus, for instance, bark is a specific in mortifications, or gangrene, when the vessels are relaxed, and the blood disposed to putrefy ; but will be unavailing, when the intestinal canal is ob- structed, or if there prevail a pre- ANX ternatural tension and fulness. In cases where astringent remedies cannot be employed with safoty, contrayerva, snake-root, camphor, &ic. may serve as excellent substi- tutes....[For an account of the anti- septic properties of alkaline salts, See the Medical Repository of JV. York.] See also Putrefaction. ANTISPASMODICS are those medicines, which are calculated to relieve persons afflicted with cramps, spasms, or convulsions : such are opium, Peruvian balsam* and the essential oils of different vegetables. The most speedy an- tispasmodic, with respect to its im- mediate effects, is doubtless the juice of the poppy ; but the Peru- vian balsam produces more per- manent benefit, and has frequently been of eminent service, after opium had failed to afford any relief. Essential oils act principally on some particular part, rather than on the system in general; and are seldom attended with any so- porific effects. But, beside these internal medicines, there are some which instantly remove spasmodic contractions by contact; for in- stance, cream, oil of almonds, and asses'-milk; white sulphur, sal ammoniac, nitre, 8cc. mitigate these painful complaints, by di- minishing heat. Where, however, spasms originate from inanition, and a defect of vital heat, the best antispasmodics are, valerian, musk, and castor; because these medi- cines tend to restore the animal spirits, and at the same time ope- rate as corroborants. ANXIETY, is that state of the mind in which it is uneasy about some future event; either from an apprehension of danger, or a soli- citude of being relieved from sus- pense. ANX 87 The causes of anxiety may be various ; but, in general they arise either from too long continued and forcible an impression of external objects, or a diseased state of the nerves, in which they are liable to be too powerfully affected by the usual action of such objects. Concerning the effects of this mental disorder on the human sys- tem, we agree in opinion with the late Dr. W. Battie, that they are particularly obvious from the spas- modic strictures which seldom fail to accompany persons subject to that afflictive passion ; hence palsy, asthma and similar complaints. When the body is thus constantly influenced by an excess of sensa- tion, it may be easily conceived that its consequences on a torment- ed mind, or deluded imagination, must frequently be serious and in- curable. Dr. Arbuthnot appears to con- found the cause, with the effect, of anxiety, when he advises to al- low febrile patients, troubled with anxieties, " a warmer regimen, af- ter the cold fit is over;" while he recommends " spices as useful, be- cause anxieties often happen by spasms, from wind." The futility of this advice is evident; for though aromatics, or carminatives, will un- doubtedly afford a temporary relief from flatulency, yet the cause will not only remain, but even be more deeply rooted into the system, by this mode of treatment. A more effectual remedy for ob- viating the causes of anxiety, in a heuhhy state of the body, is per- haps the following : When persons of a settled age are too anxious in all their expectations and under- takings, it will only be necessary to enlighten their contracted minds, by teaching them to form a proper 88 APE estimate of those things which, in a moral point of view, are of little consequence to human happiness. Thus instructed, they will learn more reasonably to appreciate their own merits; and, by comparing these with the frequent failure of success in others, who have ex- celled them in virtuous as well as in useful deeds, they will gradually be enabled to reduce their own ex- pectations to a proper standard. APE, in zoology, an animal of which we find more than fifty spe- cies ; it is more remarkable on ac- count of its peculiar instincts, bodily structure, and habits of life, than from either its dangerous or useful tendencies. Apes were formerly considered as a degenerated cast of mankind, because some of them, such as the troglodytes, or the African wood- man, and the ourang-outang, bear a great resemblance to the human form. These creatures, and espe- cially the former species, are grega- rious, inhabit the thickest forests, are from four to five feet in stature, very ferocious and strong, and do not hesitate to attack even men. Several of those audacious bipeds possess such a degree of muscular strength, that ten unarmed per- sons are inadequate to the task of reducing one of them to obe- dience. On a close examination of their external shape, however, and par- ticularly of the head, it clearly ap- pears that their structure is essen- tially different from that of our species. From the natural constitu- tion of their bodies, they are not only deficient in the organs of speech, but do not even display the sagacity of dogs, not to mention that dignified criterion between man and the inferior animals....reasoru APE As an instance of their deficiency of judgment, we shall only men- tion, that, notwithstanding their excessive fondness of enjoying the warmth and light of a fire in the woods, made by the natives, who seldom take the trouble of extin- guishing it, those whimsical imita- tors have not even the ingenuity of supplying it with fuel; and there- fore afford no proof of their reason- ing powers. Nevertheless, they are justly en- titled to the next place to man, when we consider some extraordi- nary qualifications with which they are preferably endowed. Of this nature is their uncommon talent of imitation, which to them, is so far from being advantageous, or con- ducive to their safety, that it is ingeniously employed for ensnaring them into captivity. Thus the In- dians wash their faces in the pre- sence of apes with water, for which they substitute a solution of glue, or gum arabic : on leaving the ves- sel with this seductive liquor, the animal, without suspicion, imitates the natives, and being neither sen- sible of the danger attending this experiment, nor the means of pre- venting the effect, its eyes are soon pasted up, and it is exposed to the mercy of its enemy. Besides making good use of their teeth and nails, apes defend them- selves with branchesof trees*! stones, and the like.....Their maternal af- fection is so great, that they fre- quently smother the dearest of their offspring ; and hence it has been proverbially applied to mothers who spoil their children, by excessive indulgence in the articles of food and drink. APERIENTS, in medicine, sig- nify those substances which possess a gentle, purgative quality, and fa- APO APO 8$ cilitate the circulation of the fluids, by removing obstructions.....See Laxatives. Aphanes Arvensis, L. See Pars- LEY-P1ERT. Aphernously. See Arve- nusly. Aphis. See Plant-louse. • APHORISM, is a term used to denote either an unconnected maxim, or a short pointed sen- tence, comprising much in a few words. It is at present chiefly used in medicine, and law: thus we say, the Aphorisms of Boer- haave, Hippocrates, of the Civil Law, he. It would be highly conducive to the progress of learning, if all ele- mentary works, which treat of any particular art or science, were written in an aphoristic form, so that every detached fact, or asser- tion, might be reduced to a dis- tinct proposition. Apium gravcolens, L. See Smal- LAGE. APOPLEXY is a disease in which the patient is suddenly de- prived of sensation, and incapable of voluntary motion. It is usually divided into two kinds, the sangui- neous and the serous. The symp- toms which distinguish the form- er are, a sound sleep, preceded by giddiness, and attended with snorting, noise in the ears, corrus- from a distortion of the mouth to- wards the sound side, a contraction of the tongue, and stammering of speech. The general cause of sanguineous apoplexy, is a plethoric habit, with a peculiar determination of blood towards the head. Whatever tends to accelerate the circulation, sucb as surfeits, intoxication, immode- rate exercise, and violent passions of the mind, may sooner or later occasion this disease. It seldom, however, occurs till persons have passed the age of sixty, and after a fulness of the veins has for a long time prevailed in the system. In many instances, it proves fatal on the first attack ; and few survive a repetition of the fit. Those who apparently recover, are frequently carried off, without being warned of its approach. The usual method of treatment consists in placing the body in an erect posture, and supporting the head in that situation ; in copious and repeated bleedings from the jugular veins and temporal arteries, cupping, and the application of blisters to the head, or between the shoulders. In the serous, or watery apo- plexy, the pulse is small and fee- ble, the complexion pale, and there is a diminution of natural heat..... Upon dissection, the ventricles of cations before the eyes, and redness *the brain have been found to con of the face. If any thing be put into the mouth, it is immediately returned through the nose; nor can it be swallowed unless the nostrils be closed, in which case there is danger of suffocation. If the patient appear insensible, there is but little hope of his recovery. Sometimes the consequence of this attack is hemiphlegia, or palsy of one side of the whole frame, which is evident VOL. I. tain a larger quantity of fluid than they ought in a natural state. This species is equally fatal as the other, and may arise from any cause which induces a debilitated state, such as mental depression, excessive study, long watching, Sec. In this alarm- ing complaint, bleeding cannot be attempted with safety: acrid, sti- mulating purgatives, and emetics, have been employed with a view to N 90 APO APO carry off the superabundant serum ; but, in debilitated habits, they are liable to strong objections. Vola- tile salts, cephalic elixirs, and cor- dials, are usually prescribed which, if a hemiphlegia supervene, may be aided by cathartics, and sudorifics, gentle exercise, especially in a car- riage ; blisters, and such other sti- mulating medicines, as are proper in paralytic affections. The opinion, that the immediate cause of apoplexy is an extravasa- tion of fluids, or a preternatural fullness of the vessels, has afforded a subject of much controversy among medical writers. To re- fute this conjecture they have quot- ed an instance of the hydroce- phalus, or dropsy of the brain, where the head was increased to more than double its natural size, without producing one apoplectic symptom. Le Cat, in his inge- nious Reflection, published in the Philosophical Transactions, relates, that, when he opened the head of M. De FREQuiENNE,late president of the Parliament of Paris, who died of an apoplexy, he found about a tea-spoonful of blood ex- travasated between the third and fourth ventricles of the brain: hence Le Cat deduces the impossibility of so trifling a quantity being capa- ble of pressing on the origin of the nerves, so as totally to interscept the course of the animal spirits. According to this writer, the ex- travasated blood, usually found in the brain of a person dying of an apoplexy, so far from being the cause of death, is an accident owinp; to the convulsive motions of the dura mater (a strong membrane, covering all the cavity of the cra- nium) as well as the vessels of the whole basis of the scull; and that, in general, it is occasioned by the matter of gout, or rheumatism, set- tling on this source of the nerves. The swelling and distension of the dura mater, causes a stagnation of the blood vessels of the brain, some of the weakest of which burst, while all the canals of the nerves become constricted and closed ; a circumstance which sufficiently ac- counts for the consequent fatal event. It will not surely be con- tended, that these ruptured vessels concur in the production of those spirits which impart motion to the heart, as it is well known that this organ receives the influence of nu- merous nerves at a time, all which ought to share in an accident con- sisting merely in the rupture of a capillary vessel. These reflections are here offer- ed, to repress that hypothetical con- fidence which many practitioners profess for their theories; and to discountenance the precipitate and excessive use of the lancet. This practice is plausibly suggested by an idea, that it is too great a pro- portion of blood which destroys the patient; but, besides that so ill- founded an opinion may prove fatal to those persons who are liable to apoplectic attacks, a prejudice in favour of the theory may prevent others from inquiring into the time cause, and discovering the reme- dies adequate to the cure of that fatal disorder. In Heister's Medical Observa- tions, a case is related, of a person who died of an apoplexy, in con- sequence of his being constantly exposed to the scent of three or four flower-pots of white lillies, which were kept in his chamber. This melancholy fact should deter those to whom *uch odours are APO APP 91 sensibly prejudicial, from continu- ing long within the sphere of their deleterious influence. [The distinction of this disease into sanguineous and serous, is now usually given up, and the gene- ral state of the system attended to, in forming our indications of cure. In nineteen cases out of twenty, the disease is attended with a full, strong, and slots pulse: and requires copious bleeding for a cure. The sooner bleeding is performed after the attack, the better. The quan- tity of blood to be taken away, must be in proportion to the vio- lence of the symptoms: but, in strong vigorous persons, accus- tomed to full living, from two to four pints may be safely drawn in the course of the first twenty-four hours, at two or more bleedings.... Powerful purges of jalap and calo- mel (15' of the former, and 10 of the latter), ought also to be given, and purging clysters frequently administered. The head must be shaved, and cold water applied to it by means of cloths. Cupping the head and back of the neck, is also pro- per to relieve the vessels, and may be useful, when general bleed- ing is deemed improper, owing to the pulse sinking: when leeches can be had they may be substituted. A blister applied over the whole surface of the head, is often of great service; it must be kept on twenty- four hours, and prevented from healing, by mixing some cantha- rides with the ointment used to dress the blister. All tight liga- tures must be removed from about his body, and the head well raised. The air of the room should be fre- quently renewed, and no persons admitted but those necessary to ad- minister to the sick. To prevent a a return of this disease, it will be highly necessary to guard against too much fullness in the system, by proportioning the quality and quantity of diet to the exercise taken; to avoid intense application of the mind to any one subject, great fatigue of body, violent anger, indigestible food, especially at night, and wet feet: As the disease seldom comes on without some premonitory symptoms, attention ought to be paid to them, and the proper remedies administered in time. These symptoms are a gid- diness, dimness of sight, head-ach, faultering of the tongue, or drowsi- ness. When any of these appear, some blood should be taker* away, a purge given, and low diet enjoin- ed until the danger be over. Nousual evacuation ought to be suppress- ed, without supplying its place by means of an issue in the arm....] See Dropsy of the Brain, and Epilepsy. APPETITE, in general, signi- fies the natural instinctive desire, by which the animal is led to pur- sue the gratifications of sense. In the present instance, however, we shall confine its meaning to the craving for food. In this respect the appetite of man may be divided in- to three different species , though that evinced by inferior animals is naturally simple, because it is not impaired by art. Thus, if children were never enticed by weak pa- rents, and ignorant nurses, to eat more than their own inclination di- rects them, or to partake of highly flavoured artificial dishes which sti- mulate the palate, and preternatu- ral])7 distend the stomach, there is every reason to believe that the fol- lowing classification would be un- necessary. 1. The natural appetite, which is contented, as well with the most 92 APP APP simple as the most compound and delicious dishes: such is that of country people employed in hard manual labour; of children who have not been mismanaged in the nursery; and of every rational per- son who is convinced of the advan- tages resulting to both mind and body, from a simple and a frugal diet. 2. The artificial appetite of the epicure, the hypochondriac, and the tipler; all may be ranked under the same class. It would be need- less to add in this place, any other remark, than that such an inclina- tion for sensual enjoyment remains only so long as the operation of these exquisite stimulants conti- nues. When the papillary nerves of the palate can be no longtr in- fluenced by such excitement, the sensualist loses his appetite, and is punished with all the concomitant Symptoms of indigestion. 3. The habitual appetite, though partly acquired is not liable to those serious objections which ap- ply to the latter species; nor is it attended with any other disadvan- tages than those arising from long fasting, or an undue .allowance of food on particular occasions. Thus after fatiguing exercise, when the fibres of the digestive organs are already weakened, and the circula- tion of the blood to those parts is unusually increased, the nourish- ment then received can be digested only with great difficulty, and to the detriment of the body. Want of appetite may proceed either from a defective energy of the stomach, originating more fre- quently from an immoderate quan- tity, than the improper quality of food ; or it nu.y be occasioned by the sympathy of other diseased parts, such as the liver, bowels, uterus, &c. or by intestinal worms, obstructions of the mesentery, and many other causes. Hence it will be understood, that there can be no specific remedy suggested to remove the complaint; but that the treat- ment must be regulated by the na- ture of the case, and the constitu- tion of the patient. In general, however, the following hints de- serve attention. W hen the stomach loathes wholesome food, and is troubled with habitual flatulency, and eructations, of a bitter, rancid, or saline taste, it should be previ- ously ascertained, whether an eme- tic be proper, or necessary, to eva- cuate its foul contents. Yet to determine this point, requires a de- gree pf skill and experience which few persons in common life pos- sess : on the other hand, the ad- ministration of a simple emetic may be attended with serious conse- quences. For this reason, we would previously recommend a change of air and diet; early rising in the morning ; gentle exercise ; absti- nence from all hot drinks, particu- larly tea, punch, and hot bioths, fat or hard meat, spirituous liquors, tobacco, Sec. to avoid the influence of depressing passions, such as ex- cessive grief, fear and anxiety; and, if this treatment, after having been rigorously pursued for several days or weeks, produce no change in the appetite, then to have re- course to gentle emetics, or rather to the operation of nauseating me- dicines. According to our expe- rience, the powder of ipecacuanha, in the smallest doses of a quarter or sixth part of a grain, in a little cold water, repeated every ten mi- nutes for two or three hours to- gether, before breakfast, stands eminently recommended in disor- ders of this nature, and has seldoia APP APP 93 failed to be of service to phlegma- tic or corpulent individuals, when continued for several mornings..... But if there appear to be great ful- ness of the stomach, or bowels, at- tended with the symptoms before described, it will sometimes be ne- cessary to give such an emetic as may, according to circumstances, at the same time relieve the bow- els. A mixture of two parts of ipecacuanha wine, and one part of antimonial wine taken in single tea- spoonfuls every quarter of an hour, w ithout any farther drink till it be- gins to operate, generally produces the desired effect. After the stomach and bowels have, by such, or similar means, been evacuated, it will be useful to strengthen the tone of the fibres, by drinking small draughts of cold chamomile-tea, or an infusion of quassia, or simple toast and water well prepared, which last may be justly considered as one of the mildest and most grateful corro- borants. An insatiable appetite may arise from two great a distention of the stomach in early infancy ; from an over-abundant secretion of the gas- tric or digestive liquor; from drinking large quantities of stimu- lating acid beverage, such as cyder, perry, butter-milk, &c. but espe- cially from a bad habit of fast eat- ing, without properly masticating hard substances. Hence the first maxim in diet should be, to eat slowly, in order to prevent a sudden distention of the digestive organs, and to allow sufficient time for the food to be duly prepared, and gra- dually mixed with the gastric juice. It would be superfluous to add any other suggestions, respecting the treatment and cure of this trouble- some complaint, which in the pre- sent times of frugality, cannot fail to find its own remedy. The appetite for certain whimsi- cal dishes, peculiar to "females in particular states of the body, be- longs to the articles, Green-Sick- ness and Pregnancy. APPLE-TREE, the common, or Pyrus malus, L. is too well known in this country, to require a minute description. It frequently grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet, and produces a consi- derable variety of fruit. Botanists are of opinion, that the wilding, or crab-apple of the woods and hedges, is the original kind, from the seeds of which the apple now cultivated was first obtained. The varieties of this species are multiplied to some hundreds, in different places, all having been first acpidentally procured from the seed or kernels of the fruit, and then increased by grafting upon crabs, or any kind of applenstocks. Notwithstanding the numerous sorts, not above forty, or fifty, are reared in the nursery. Their fruit arrives at full growth in successive order, from July to the end of Oc- tober, but comes to maturity only after gathering ; and several of the winter kinds, may be preserved for many months. Apples serve as excellent fruit for the dessert, the kitchen, and for making cyder. The following, which are most esteemed for eat- ing, are ranged according to the successive order in which they ripen: the white junicating, marga- ret apple, summer pearmain, sum- mer queening, embroidered apple, golden rennet, summer white cal- ville, summer red calville, silver pippen, aromatic pippen, la reinette grise, la haute bonte, royal russet- ing, Wheeler's russet, Sharp's rus- 94 APP APP set, the spine apple, golden pippen, nonpareil, and pomme d'api. Those for culinary use, are, the codling, summer marygold, summer red pearmain, Holland pippen, Kentish pippen, courpendu, Loan's pear- main, the French rennet, French pippen, royal russet, monstrous rennet, winter pearmain, pomme violette, Spencer's pippen, the stone pippen, and oaken pippen. Those most esteemed for making cyder, are, the Devonshire royal wilding, red-streak apple, whitesour, Here- fordshire under-leaf, John-apple, or deux ames, everlasting hanger, and gennet moyle. Among all the fruit growing in this country, says a celebrated bo- tanical writer apples justly deserve the preference. In raising these useful trees for orchards, or fields, whether for cyder or baking, the wild crab-kernels are the most suitable, as they yield hardy stocks, which are better able to endure cold and coarse lands, take firmer root and produce larger trees..... Where these seeds cannot be con- veniently procured, the kernds of common apples may be substituted, especially with a view of ingrafting them. Although the former do not bring forth trees bearing the same kind of apples, yet they thrive with- out grafting, and their hard fruit may, notwithstanding its astringent and acid properties, be advantage- ously converted into cyder. Culture....The method of propa- gating the cyder fruit-trees in He- refordshire, is by grafting. Very large, and even old trees, may be grafted, so as to bear fine heads of other sorts ; and thus they wrill produce a crop of fruit quicker than by any other method. New orchards are raised by planting well-grown crab-stocks, and graft- ing them the year after. If the trees are full sized, the tops of them must be cut off in winter, otherwise when grafted, they will, as it is termed, bleed so much, that the grafts will not suc- ceed. The trees should not be cut down to the trunk, but as many branches must be left as look kind above, where it branches out about the thickness of one's arm ; the tops of these must be taken off, about two or three feet above the part where they project from the trunk. Good crab-stocks, for rais- ing new orchards, generally cost from I s. 6d. to 4s. each, according to their quality. Linnaeus considers the" apple and the quince as species of the pear-tree, or Pyrus, all the varieties of which are hardy, and will suc- ceed in any common garden soil, if planted in a free situation. They are propagated by grafting and budding upon any kind of pear- stocks, occasionally upon quince, and sometimes upon white-thorn stocks. Apples of every kind may be reared in the manner above des- cribed ; and, according to Dr. Anderson, the pure paradise- stock is the best graft. They will not thrive, however, in a low and moist soil, where they are apt to canker, and speedily decay. In a friable loam, they generally prosper extremely well. Pruning.....If a tree be very old, and much incumbered, the stumps, with all the decayed, rotten, and blighted branches, should be care- fully removed : but instead of de- laying this operation till the trees become too old, it ought to be commenced even in the nursery, APP APP 95 and regularly continued; as, by the use of medications, the wounds will heal, without causing any blemishes. When the trees are so luxuriant, as not to bear those prolific spurs from which the fruit proceeds, the too abundant flow of their juices must be checked by the following method : the tops of most of the shoots are to be pruned off in Au- gust, the bark perpendicularly slitted in different places, and the trunk cut about one-third through with a saw, but so as not to injure the heart. For the first year, or two, after this experiment, the tree will not bear more fruit than usual, but afterwards its produc- tion will be adequate to every ex- pectation. From this operation, a still fur- ther benefit may be derived. When there is a superabundance of moist- ure, the trees are liable to be cover- ed with moss, which affords shelter for caterpillars and other insects ; but this process in a great measure cures it, especially if the moss be carefully scraped off, or rubbed with a coarse, wet cloth. The pruning of the tops diverts the channel of circulation, and ac- celerates the growth of the fruit- bearing shoots ; while the cutting of the trunk, across, moderates the great rise of nourishment, or sap. Thus the sawed part will overgrow in so complete a manner, that it cannot be discerned, except from the freshness of its bark. Apple Blossoms are, in some seasons, injured by the devastations of an uncommon number of in- sects, produced from a species of black flies which deposit their eggs in the bud, at its first opening ; and which, by feeding on the heart •f the bud, soon occasion it to con- tract, and drop. To remedy, this fatal effect, Mr. C. Gullett ad- vises to collect heaps of long dung, wet straw, weeds, Sec. to dispose them in different parts of the orchard ; and set fire to the heaps in that quarter from which the wind blows, so that the smoke may tho- roughly fumigate all the trees. Thus the insects, which are 'sup- posed to be brought by the wind, will be prevented from depositing their eggs. As very serious apprehensions were lately entertained in the cyder counties, that the moss growing on apple-trees, and the millions of insects which harbour in it, might be destructive to orchards, we shall here insert another remedy disco- vered by Mr. Tench of the Mi- nories : " Take a quantity of un- slacked lime, mix it with as soft water as your situation will furnish, to the consistency of very thick white-wash ; this mixture, with a soft paint-brush, apply to your ap- ple-trees, as soon as you judge the sap begins to rise, and wash the stem and large boughs well with it, observing to have it done in dry weather, that it may adhere and withstand rain: you will find, that in the course of the ensuing sum- mer, it will remove all the moss and insects, and give to the bark a fresh and green appearance, and that the tree will shoot much new and strong wood; at least, it did so in Nova Scotia. The trial is sim- ple, and can neither be attended with much expence, trouble, or danger." Injustice to Mr. Forsyth, His Majesty's gart> ner at Kensington, we cannot omit to mention his composition used for the same purpose, and, perhaps, of superior efficacy, if the nature of its ingre- 96 APP APP dients be considered: To one hun- dred gallons of human urine, and one bushel of lime, add cow-dung sufficient to bring it to the con- sistence of paint.....After having carefully brushed off all the moss, the infected trees should be anoint- ed with this mixture, about the lat- ter end of March; which simple precaution, it is said, fully answers the desired effect. Concerning the physical proper- ties of apples, it deserves to be stat- ed, that beside their arpmatic qua- lities, they are wholesome and lax- ative, when fully ripe. In diseases of the breast, such as catarrhs, coughs, asthmas, consumption, &c. they are of considerable service: for these beneficial purposes, how- ever, they ought not to be eaten raw, but either roasted, stewed, or boiled : they also may be usefully employed in decoctions, which, if drank plentifully, tend to abate fe- brile heat, as well as to relieve painful strictures, in pectoral com- plaints. With regard to their sensible properties, apples have been divid- ed into spicy, acidulated, and wa- tery. To the first class belong the various species of rennet, which possess a most delicate flavour, contain the least proportion of wa- ter, and, on account of their vinous nature, are not apt to excite flatu- lency. Pippens, on the contrary, though affording more nutriment than the former, are more fibrous, and consequently require a more vigorous stomach to digest them : hence they may be ranked under the second class. Lastly, those sweet and tender apples which are very juicy and palatable, are the least fit to be eaten in a raw state, unless with the addition of bread or biscuit: when baked, or dried in the open air, they make an ex- < cellent substitute for raisins or plums, in puddings, pyes, and other dishes prepared of flour. Sour apples may be uuich im- proved, both in taste and quality, by either baking, or digesting them in a close vessel by steam, over a very slow fire : thus the saccharine principle is disengaged, and they undergo a speedy and complete change. As apples are very liable to de- cay, especially in hard winters, va- rious methods of preserving them have been tried, with different de- grees of success. One of the best expedients to preserve them for winter use, is, to let them remain upon the trees till there be danger of frost; to ga- ther them in dry weather, and lay them in large heaps to sweat, for a month, or six weeks. At the end of that time, they should be care- fully examined, those which have the least appearance of decay re- moved from the others, the sound fruit wiped dry, and packed in large dry jars, and then closely stopped, in order to exclude the access of air. If this plan be properly follow- ed, the fruit will keep sound for a long time: it is, however, frequent- ly impossible to procure a sufficient number of jars for this purpose j hence, in considerable quantities, the following methods are general- ly adopted : In North America, as well as in Germany, apples are often pre- served during the most severe frosts, by placing them in an apart- ment immediately under the roof of the house, but without a fire ; a linen cloth being thrown over them. before the frost commences. Th's experiment, however, has not sue • ceeded in Britain. ' APP APP 91 In some parts, a coarse linen sloth is spread upon the floor of an Upper room, and a layer of apples is placed on it; this is covered with a cloth of a similar texture, on which another layer is spread, and again covered : in this manner the pile may be increased to any height, with alternate strata of linen and fruit; after wbich a cloth, of suffi- cient dimensions to communicate with the floor on every side, is thrown over the whole heap. This practice has been attended with success. Anothermethod is, to put a layer of apples, and a layer of dried fern, alternately in a basket, or box (the latter is considered the best, as it admits less air,) and cover them closely. The advantage of ft rn, in preference to straw, is, that it does not impart a musty taste. Apples, in small quantities, may be preserved for a greater length of time by the following, than by any of the before-mentioned pro- cesses.....First, completely dry a glazed jar, then put a few pebbles at the bottom, fill it with apples, and cover it with a piece of wood exactly fitted, and fill up the in- terstices with a little fresh mortar. The pebbles attract the moisture of the apples, while the mortar excludes the air from the jar, and secures the fruit from pres- sure. This useful fruit may likewise be occasionally preserved from frost, by placing one or two tubs, or pails of water, in the room where apples are stored, taking care daily to break the ice, and, if thick, to re- new the water, which, having a much stronger attraction for cold, protects the apples. Gathering.....This fruit should be ■gathered with the Itand, and care- TOL. I. fully placed in baskets; rejecting those which spontaneously fall, as unfit for long keeping. Moving the apples, in order to examine them whether sound, is likewise injurious to their preservation. [Apples abound in Pennsylva- nia, and in every state in the union except in the maritime dis- tricts of the Carolinas and Georgia, which are sandy and level, and the air replete with humidity....In Pennsylvania we have a very great variety of apples, many of which are equal in size, beauty and fla- vour, to any found in the world. Some begin to ripen in June, after harvest, and others ripen in succes- sion until frost. A particular ac- count will be given of the Ameri- can apples when we come to the article " fruit trees." A very interesting paper by W. Denning, Esq. on the subject of the alarming decay of apple-trees is inserted in the 1st. vol. of the transactions of the N. York Agricul- tural Society : from which it ap- pears, that on cutting down some apple-trees which were far decay- ed, he discovered two worm holes running perpendicularly from the tap root through the heart ; these holes were large enough to admit a pipe stem and reached about fourteen inches above the surface, and from each hole a worm was taken. In some trees eight or.ten holes were found. They resembled the peach-tree worm. Mr. D. proposes no remedy, but as it is probable that the worm first penetrates the tree from without, and then takes a perpendicular di- rection, the only way to save the tree will be : either to destroy the egg when deposited on the bark by the fly, by frequently washing the trunk during the summer with O 98 APP APP warm urine, or warm soap suds-; or to take out the worm at an early period When the worm has entered the tree, it may he dis- covered by uncovering the root, and searching for the spot where the gum' exudes: this will be found to- be the entrance of ths worm; to discover which a knitting needle must be used to perforate the hole. If the cavity be horizon- tal the worm may be easily bored out, but if the direction of the wound be round the root,the whole course of the worm must be laid open with a pointed small knife until it be discovered. The wound made, must be filled up by melted wax and oil, or by Forsyth's com- position. Several specic3 of cerambyx or goat beetle, likewise prove very destructive to apple-trees. They attack the trees about the surface of the earth. The female when in the perfect or beetle state lays her egg on the bark, where it is hatch- ed ; and,-gradually gnawing, the insect works itself inwards : as it increases in size and strength, it perforates the trunk, from side to side in various directions, which renders it porous and hollow ; the tree becomes sickly, the leaves small, of a yellowish green colour and blotched ; the extremities of the branches decay, and soon after the whole tree dies as it stands : at other times it breaks off even with the surface of the earth. Young trees attacked in this man- ner seldom recover, but after the trunk arrives to the diameter of 12 inch.es, they seem to be able to re- sist the assaults for some years lon- ger. The entrance of theinsect may be discovered by a powder like saw- dust issuing from the hole: this may be perforated, and the insect taken out: the wound made in the tree must then be carefully filled up. As insects have increased greatly since the lure's have been thinned by the increased number of sportsmen, and as we know that insects are the favourite food of al- most all kinds of birds, particular- ly of the smaller kind ; (See Bird), " let us" says the amiable Wti. Bar t r am "recall those benefactors, and put them again in possession of then' natural rights and privileg- es ; let them at least for a time be protected by law*"....Let- t® the Editor. Dr. Anderson describes an in- sest of the coccus tribe, that lives upon apple-trees, and throws out such a quantity of corlon-like mat- ter, as sometimes to cover eve- ry twig of the young trees. It communicates a corrosive ichor; that affects the tree, after the in- sect itself is removed, like a gan- grene ; so that the tree becomes blotched, uneven in the bark, and full of deep holes that soon pro- duce decay and death. When these insects are discovered, they should be rubbed off, and the limb covered with cow dung and urine by means of a paint brush. Dr. Mitchell, in the 1st. vol. of the transactions of the Agricul- tural Society of New-York, deF- cribes a phakeiia, or miller, which conceals itself during the day in holes, and spaces under the loose bark of apple-trees, and may be easily found by searching. The male has wings, hut the female ap- pears, to have none : They were seen as early as the 25th of March in the state of New -York, crawling towards the extremities of the twigs to deposit their eggs. Thus as soon as the leaves unfold and sprout forth, the worm bursts from the egg. The APP APP 99 insect preys upon the leaves, blos- eoms and fruit. The method of preventing the destruction caused by these millers, wiH be, to keep the female from ascending the tree: for this purpose the tree may be encircled by a streak of tar early in the spring ; but probably a more certain remedy will be found in the following ob- servations. A writer under signature " Via- " tor" who dates from Hartford County, August, 1792, and whose paper is preserved in .Carey's Ame- rican Museum, says, " Canker worms never destroy apple-trees which stand on a stiff clay, or in low ground, where water stands long in the spring. The reason for this is obvious. The canker- worm about the tenth of June de- scends into tiie earth, there to lie till the next spring, when the mil- ler (phalana) rises and ascends the trees. This worm is not strong, nor furnished with the necessary instruments for digging into a hard stiff' clay : of course it cannot bury itself in clay, and is not fond of gravel. The writer tnerefore pro- poses to lay a covering of stiff clay, round trees which stand on sand, or other iight earth. This cover- ing or layer, may be thrown upon the top of the natural soil, which may be renewed to the depth of a few inches. If the clay be laid on in summer or autumn, after the de- scent of the worm ; it may prevent •the miller from rising in the spring; if when the worm is upon the tree, it may prevent its finding a lodg- ing ; but as in the latter case, the worm might travel some distance beyond the limits of the layer, it might be better to form the lay- er round the tree after the descent of the worm in June." From some experiments of Dr. Mitchell, (Medical Repository v. 3.) it appears, that apple-trees may be barked with safety and in- deed apparently with advantage.... The farmers say, that taking oft'the hark will make old trees young again. By an extract from the Miscellanea Berolinensia, in the Medical Repos. v. 4. p. .102 ; the advantage of decorticating trees is confirmed. Whenever it .was ap- prehended, the growth of the trot: was impeded by a disease of the bark, the practice was to strip it off; a new and healthy bark suc- ceeded. Fear and cherry-trees were treated in the same way. The summer solstice was the period for performing the operation. Apple-trees have not succeeded so well, in the course of the last eight.or ten years, as formerly. Ber sides the worm, the decay may be owing to the winters becoming more mild, which occasions an ear- lier circulation of the sap, and thus disposes the fruit buds to be de- stroyed by late frosts; formerly, when the winters were cold and long, the vegetation was retarded until the danger of frost was passed..... Another reason may be, the neg- lect of pruning; for it is well known that this important operation is sel- dom performed upon our trees, and hence they are overgrow n with old and decayed wood, and after bear- ing thirty or forty years, they die, or cease to bear. In this situation are most cf the old orchards near Philadelphia, Those in the remote counties of the state, which have been recently planted, bear .well, but in a few years they will be in the same situation with the farmer, un- less attention be paid to them. Be- sides pruning, the moss should be rubbed off', and manure put round 100 APP APP the roots every year or two. This manure may consist either of well rotten stable dung, or the blood of all slaughtered animals, which is too commonly thrown away; or the black water from the manure heap,which is shamefully permitted to go to waste, though abounding with the very essence of the food of plants. The following directions are abridged from Mr. Forsyth's trea- tise on fruit-trees. Choice...In choosing apple-trees from the nursery, observe that they have strong,straightand clean stems. In heading old, decayed apple- trees, cut at the forked branches, as near as can be to the upper side of the fork, in a sloping manner, and round off the edges. Begin at the lower branches,and proceed up- wards, cutting from one to six joints or forks according to their strength. Cut away cankered parts: ....apply the composition to all the cut limbs, and finish with the ashes, and burnt bones. A tree thus prepared, will, in the course df three or four years, produce more and finer fruit than a maiden tree, that has been planted up- wards of twenty years. Never shorten theyoungbranches except they are very thin, when it will be necessary to do so, to fill the trees with young wood; nor prune any of the young shoots the second year (that is the year after they are cut,) as many of the eyes almost to the end of the shoot, v,;ll, if it be strong, become fruit- buds next year; and so on every year. In the month of May, in the first year after the trees have been so cut, it will be necessary to go over them, and rub off all ruperfiucus young shoots, leaving from three to six eyes on each shoot, according to the size and strength of the branch cut. These shoots will bear from three to four years, by which time they will be pretty much exhausted, by the great quan- tity of fruit produced from them; they should then be cut down to two eyes, to produce new wood. Mr. F. always leaves the branches of three different years on the trees, and thus keeps them in a constant bearing state, whereas, if left to na- ture, they would only produce a crop of fruit once in two or three years, as almost constantly happens in the United States. When the shoot has done bearing, cut it off, apply the composition imme- diately, and rub off the shoots where they are too numerous. Pruning....The best time to prune apple-trees in the United States, is in the month of March, The small shoots that cross each other, should be cut off, leaving the strongest to fill up .the tree, and make a handsome head. Grub up suckers from the roots. Pare away knobs where branches have been cut off, leaving the surface of the tree as smooth as possible ; and ap- ply the composition. Apple-trees which grow in low situations, or within fifty miles of the sea coast, and have not the soil tilled round them, are subject to be overgrown with moss, which in a few years, will cause the trees to become bark bound, and gready diminish their growth and produce. To cure these effects, and prevent their return, Mr. N. Ogden, of Flushing, Long-Island, keeps the ground of his orchard ploughed; and scrapes off the moss from the trunks and branches of the trees with a hoe or drawing knife, and then spreads over them a small APP APP 101 quantity of new, strong, soft soap, by means of a long haired brush.... The soap destroys the moss and softens the bark; and when washed off, by rain, acts as a manure to the roots. When Mr. Ogden began this process his trees were covered with moss, and old scaly bark, and bore bad crops; but, in two years, all the old bark dropped off, and the bodies became as smooth as a young poplar. The soaping may be done at any season, and re- peated if necessary. When the tree is bark bound, it will be neces- sary to slit the bark in two or three places down the bodies, observing not to let the knife wound the wood of the tree; the best season fortius work is early in the spring. Apple-trees raised from thepum- mice, if transplanted in time, nip- ping off the end of the top root, may be fit for grafting one or two seasons earlier, than if left in the place where sown. This obser- vation is the result of the expe- riments of the Agricultural Society of Nova Scotia. The following inestimable obser- vations were communicated to the Editor, by Mr. J.Cooper of New- Jersey, and will therefore command serious attention....They refer in part to subjects already mentioned, but it was deemed best to insert them unconnected with the obser- vations of others. " Experience for more than fifty years has convinced me, that altho' seedlings from apples will scarcely ever produce fruit in New Jersey, exactly similar to the original, yet many of them will produce excel- lent fruit: some will even be supe- rior to the apples from which the seeds were taken. This fact has led me to plant seeds from the largest and best kinds of fruit, and from trees of a strong and rapid growth; and to let all young trees bear fruit before grafting, which produced an uncommon strong shoot, or large rich looking leuf.... I have seldom known them fail of bearing fruit having some good quality ; at all events they make a stock to put any good kind on which may afterwards present itself." " In grafting or budding apple- trees, it is best to perform the operation within or near the earth, if of such kinds as produce an erect strong stem ; but on such kinds as incline horizontally, or small weak shoots, the preferable mode is, to insert the bud or graft high enough to form a top. " I have in numerous instances seen the stock have great influence on the fruit grafted thereon, in re- spect to bearing, size, and flavour; and, also, on the durability of the tree, particularly in the instance of a number of vandevere apple-trees, the fruit of which was so subject to the bitter rot as to beof little use. They were ingrafted fifty years ago, and ever since, these of thtm hav- ing tops composed of several differ- ent kinds, though they continue to be more productive of fruit than any others in my orchard, yet are subject to the bitter rot, the origin- al and well known affection of the fruit of the primitive stock. I have had frequent opportunities of observing the same circumstance, in consequence of receiving many scions from my friends, which after bearing I have engrafted, and the succeeding fruit uniformly partook in some degree of the qualities of the former, even in their disposi- tion to bear annually or biennially. " Pinning is an affair requiring great care and judgment, as the future prosperity of the tree great- 102 APP APR ly depends thereon. In the first place young fruit trees should not have the side shoots cut close to the stem, as the whole growth is thereby forced to the top, which soon becomes so weighty as to bend and spoil the tree. I have found it better to cut the ends of the side shoots so as to keep the tree in a spiral form which will en- courage the growth of the trunk, until it acquires strength to sup- port a good top. The side shoots may then be trimmed close. In forming the top, I have found it necessary to lighten the east and north-east sides, as fruit-trees gene- rally incline that way ; and to en- courage the branches on the oppo- site quarters to keep the sun from the trunk, -otherwise the rays of that luminary, when striking at nearly right angles will kill the bark, bring on canker, and ruin the tree. The best method that I have found to heal such wounds is a composition of resin, tallow, and bees-wax of a proper consist- ence to stick, applied after taking off the dead bark, and if suckers s'noot out below the wound, they ought to be trained so as to shade the affected part, until the braixhes above will answer the pur- pose. By these means I have re- covered many trees which would have perished if neglected....I also endeavour to prevent acute angles in any part of the tree, as the growth takes in bark which is the general cause of the branches breaking off or splitting from the weight of fruit or from high winds." APPLICATION, in a general sense, signifies the art of bringing things together, in order to disco- ver their mutual agreement or re- lation to each other. It is also fa- miliarly used to express the study or consideration of any subject, and includes the idea of assiduity and persevering attention. In the Economy of Human Life, we meet with the following short sentence, in praise of application : " Since the days that are past, are gone for ever, and those that are to come, may never appear, it be- hoveth thee, oh! man, to employ the present time without vainly re- gretting the loss of that which is past, or too much depending on that which is to come. This in- stant is thine ; the next is in the womb of futurity ; and thou know- estnot what it may bring forth." APPRENTICESHIP, is the binding of a person by covenant, to serve his master for a limited period, on condition of being in- structed in his trade or occupation. Its usual duration is for the term of seven years, after which the ap- prentice himself is entitled to be- come a teacher, and to engage pu- pils to serve under him. Apprenticeships were unknown to the ancients. The Roman law makes no mention of them; nor is there any Greek or Latin word which expresses the idea now an- nexed to this appellation. APRICOT-TREE, the Prunus Armeniaca, L. is a species of the plum, or cherry-tree. Although Linnaeus has reduced these dif- ferent trees to one genus, which he calls Pnn.us, yet we shall in this place enumerate only the varieties known under the name of apri- cot : 1. The male, or early apricot, which produces a small, round, reddish fruit; has more stone than pulp, ripens in July, and has but an indifferent flavour. As this tree blossoms early in spring, it is liable APR APR 103 tobe injured by night-frosts, against which it ought to be protected, by placing contiguous to it shallow vessels filled with water. 2. The white apricot is oblong, flat at both ends, and of a pale co- lour : its tree is not only less influ- enced by cold, than any other sort, but also bears fruit in greater abundance. 3. The orange apricot acquires, when ripe, a deep yellow colour, is distinguished by a sweet kernel, but its fruit is more fit for preserv- ing, drying, and using it in pas- try, than for the dessert. 4. The red apricot is of an oval size, its pulp likewise reddish and juicy, and the kernel sweet like a hazle-nut: the leaves of this tree are longer than those of any other variety. 5. The large, or Turkey apricot, exceeds in size and beauty all the other sorts, has a deep yellow pulp and sweet kernel,- but is not pro- ductive. 6. The Breda apricot, a native of Africa, is one of the finest and most delicious: its fruit is large and round, externally of a deep yellow, and internally of a golden, colour. Its kernel is the largest of the kind ; and if this fruit arrive at maturity in an airy situation, it de- ne rves an unqualified preference. 7. The Brussels apricot is of a middle size, somewhat oval; on its southern exposure red, with many dark spots, and greenish or deep yellow on the opposite side. Its fruit is firm, and of a delicious taste ; the skin is apt to burst be- fore the fruit is mature, and it sel- dom ripens until August or Sep- tember. Some amateurs even pre- fer it to the preceding species..... Lastly: 8. The peach apricot is more spherical and larger than any other species; while it possesses the sweetness of the apricot combined with the- acidulated vinous taste of the peach. This tree, however, requires a temperate climate, and will not thrive in the open air of this country. Culture.....All the varieties of apricot-trees have originally been raised from their stones: they were then propagated by budding or grafting on any plum-stock. The soil most congenial to their nature, is a rich black mould ; for they will not prosper in a loamy, sandy, gravelly, damp, or cold ground. As they are generally placed near walls, an eastern aspect will be the most eligible and pro- per, because they are apt to grow mealy, from the strong and con- stant heat of the sun, in a southern direction. In a luxuriant bottom, they may be planted at a distance of sixteen or twenty feet from each other ; but in an inferior soil, from twelve to fifteen. When transplant- ed in the month of October, no other branches ought to be pruned off, except such as cannot be fixed to the wall. After the tree has been properly set in the ground, its branches should be loosely tied, and the surface of the soil sur- rounding the stem covered with good manure, partly to prevent in- jury from frost, and to afford more, nourishment to the roots. Towards the end of February, or beginning of March, the branches must be untied, and the top of the tree cut off, while the operator's foot should be placed close to its trunk, and only four or five eyes are to be left above the place where it has been grafted: taking care that the ob- lique side of the cut be turned to- wards the wall. 104 APR APR During a dry spring, the roots may be occasionally watered, and covered with a little straw or grass plats, in order to protect them against night-frosts, and afford them additional moisture in summer. All the young shoots should be trained horizontally. About the end of September, the branches are again to be loosened, and pruned, so that two only may remain, one of a larger size, from eight to nine, and an inferior one, frcm five to six inches long. In the second summer, all the straight shoots ought to be remov- ed, as in the first, while the new sprigs are transversely fastened close to the wall, so that the trunk of the tree remain free : the prun- ing, however, should not be at- tempted later than in the course of April. About the 28th September, the young shoots are again to be dressed, as in the preceding year ; and the most vigorous left from eight to ten, but the weaker ones, only six or seven inches long. A similar treatment must be pur- sued in the third and following years. It deserves farther to be remarked, that apricots bear their buds and blossoms not only on the branches of the preceding year, but likewise on the young shoots and tops of these branches : hence the dressing of them, during slimmer, ought to be performed with addi- tional care. Uses....Yrom the vinous and sac- charine nature of this fruit we may readily conclude, that it is possess- ed of antiseptic, coolings and nu- tritive properties ; yet, unless fully ripe, it is apt to ferment and turn acid in weak stomachs, especially those of persons who are subject to flatulency and eructations : hence apricots ought to be eaten in mo- deration, with the addition of a lit- tle bread, and rather before, than after meals. In short, they are more useful to bilious and ple- thoric, than to phlegmatic and hys- terical individuals, or those trou- bled with hypochondriacal com- plaints. In France and Germany, the orange apricot is usually preserv* ed in a dry state, for the winter, when it forms a delicious ingredient in pyes, tarts, he. The kernels of several species' of apricots contain a sweet oil, on account of which they were for- merly, like sweet almonds, used in emulsions, and considered as vulnerary and anodyne: at pre-> sent, however, their use is confin- ed to external applications, in which the expressed oil of these ernels has sometimes been of ser- vice, for a contracted and chapped skin of the hands and lips, sore nipples, painful ears, and similar cases. [Dr. Willich recommends an easterly aspect for apricot trees : but in the United States, an east- erly, north, or n. easterly exposure is highly injurious to this fruit. Apricot trees should be screened by a high wall, fence, or building, from the winds of those quarters, otherwise the trees will not bear, though they may grow large. The best time for planting apri- cots, according to Forsyth, is in autumn, as soon as the leaf is ob- served to fall. Choose trees with the strongest and cleanest stems. The ground must be a light, fresh loam. When the trees are plant- ed, they should, by no means, be headed down till they begin to throw out fresh roots. Strong trees should then be cut a foot from the ground, and those that are weak AQU about half that length.....In back- ward seasons, they should not be headed down until the buds are fairly broken ; always observing to cut sloping towards the wall, and as near to an eye as possible, that the young leading shoot may cover the cut.....The shoots then thrown out, must be trained horizontally, to cover the wall, or attached to a railing near the border. The num- ber of shoots left out ought to be from three to six on each side, ac- cording to the strength of the main shoot, taking care to rub off the four right shoots all over the tree, except a few which may be want- ed to fill up the w all near the body of it. Apricots, and other stone fruits, thrive best in paved yards, or where the ground is permitted to remain undisturbed round theroots....They succeed no where better than in confined paved yards in our cities.] ' AQUA FORTIS, the nitrous acid of a certain strength, and so called from its dissolving power; but, when in a concentrated and smoking state, it is denominated spirit of nitre. It is made by dis- tilling equal parts of crude nitre with calcined vitriol ; or by care- fully mixing one part of oil of vitriol with nine of pure spirit of nitre.....See Acids. As this powerful liquid is used for various purposes in the arts and manufactures, but chiefly by dyers, brass-founders, hatters, he. great caution should be observed, both in preparing and employing it, be- cause it possesses a very caustic property, and its fumes are highly deleterious to the organs of respi- ration. Hence those artisans fre- quently become subject to convul- sive coughing and blood spitting, paralytic affections,trembling, pale- VOL. I. AQU 105 ness of countenance, loose teeth, the loss of smell and taste, and at length, pulmonary consumption. In order to prevent these fatal ef- fects, we seriously advise them to make use of oily and bland nourish- ment, and externally to secure the mouth and nose, by tying a hand- kerchief round those parts, while they are exposed to the fumes of this volatile acid. But in casualties where a person has, by mistake, swallowed a por- tion cf aqua-fortis, the following treatment will be the most proper for averting the imminent danger of suffocation. Immediately after the accident, luke-warm water ought to be drunk in the greatest possible quantity, even to the amount of several gallons, to weak- en the causticity of the poison. Next, a solution of half an ounce of salt of tartar, or clean pearl- ashes, in one pint of water, should be taken in about six or eight small draughts ; and as the effervescence thus occasioned in the stomach, greatly tends to weaken that organ, it will be necessary to make use of more water, and other diluent, oily, or mucilaginous drinks. We are of opinion, that a solu- tion of borax, or tincal, in the pro- portion of three drams to a pint of water, forms a more effectual anti- dote than the vegetable alkali; be- cause the former, by uniting with acids, causes no effervescence..... There are instances of persons having completely obviated the ill effects of this poison, simply by drinking small portions of sweet oil, frequently repeated, for three days successively. If, however, the sensation of a burning pain in the stomach and bowels should not subside, after plentiful vomiting, large draughts 106 A R A A R A of sweet cow's milk must be swal- lowed, with the addition of one drachm, or sixty diops of liquid tar- tar, usually called oil of tartar, to each pint. But previously to the expulsion of the poison by vomit- ing, or the neutralizing of it with alkaline solutions, neither milk, oily, nor saponaceous draughts can be taken with advantage. Hence these ought to conclude the cure ; during which the patient may fre- quently use gargarisms and clysters of the same liquids, which are di- rected to be taken internally. In- deed, after the poisonous fluid has left the stomach, and entered the intestinal canal, the principal be- nefit will be derived from emollient and balsamic injections. AQUA REGIA is a compound of the nitrous and marine acids, in different proportions, according to the purpose fcr which it is required; and usually made, by dissolving sal ammoniac, or common salt, in ni- trous acid. When the former is employed, the usual proportion is one of this salt to four of the acid ; but equal parts will be ncessary to dissolve platiiut. Aqua regia is used as a men- struum for gold ; it likewise dis- solves all other metals, silver alone excepted. The best kind for the above-mentioned purpose, is a pre- paration of three parts of the pure marine, with one of the nitrous, acid. One hundred grains of gold require for their solution, two hun- dred and forty-six of this mixture. Concerning the nature and cure of tiiose casualties which may arise from an improvident use of this powerful solvent, we refer to the preceding article. Aquilcgia. See Columbine. ARABLE LANDS, in general, are those naturally fit for tillage, or which may, by proper means, be prepared for the production of grain. The just proportion between ara- ble and pasture lands, has in this country, of late years, been much exceeded in favour of the latter...- It is asserted by competent judges, that though the prevailing rage for breeding cattle of the finest quality ; and to the greatest extent, has doubtless benefited the grazier, and the 'lord of the manor, yet this prac- tice must certainly be attended with disadvantages to the community at large. We cannot, in this place, enter into a minute discussion of this important subject; but it clear- ly appears, from the present prices of corn, when compared with those of animal food, that they bear no just proportion to each other. With respect to the general me- thods of improving arable land, we are induced to avail ourselves of the excellent remarks of M. Duha- mel, who maintains that it is much more profitable to increase the fer- tility of land by tillage, than ma- nure : 1. Because only a certain quantity of dung can be had ; the produce of twenty acres being scarcely sufficient to dung one ; whereas the particles of the earth may be pulverized and divided at pleasure : 2. Plants reared in dung, do not possess the fine flavour of those produced by a natural soil: 3. The plough not only separates the particles in a manner exactly similar to the fermentation occa- sioned by dung, but also changes their situation, by turning up the earth, and thus exposing the whole, at different times, to the influence of the sun, air and dews; all which greatly conduce to render it fertile: 4. Dung breeds and harbours in- sects, which afterwards feed upon AR A and spoil the plants. To remedy, this inconvenience, he recommends the following expedient: " Let a reservoir of quick-lime be kept in a very dry place. When you be- gin to make your dunghill, sprinkle each layer of dung with quick-lime, till the whole is finished. This lime kills most insects, perhaps en- riches the manure, anc; renders it more serviceable, It will likewise destroy the seeds of weeds, which are generally in dung, and hurt the wheat when they shoot up." Various methods of improving poor arable land, have been sug- gested by different writers. But as we consider old Duhamel's plan of ploughing, and then pulve- rizing the soil properly by the har- row, the most effectual, where suf- ficient manure cannot be procured, we shall t>nly relate two sugges- tions which deserve notice, chiefly on account of their originality..... John Mordant, in his "Com- plete Steward," published in 1761, advises a method of improving poor, worn-cut land, as he terms it; which not being an expensive one, may well deserve a trial: " A pound of turnip-seed sown, after harvest, upon an acre of light, sandy, or gravelly land, that is poor or worn out by over-ploughing, and where manure is'wanting- (the crop of which being ploughed i'i, when grown high,) will, in two months' time, die away and rot, and enrich the land, so as to prove as good a manuring as twenty loads of dung, or more, upon an acre".....p. 457. Another manner of recruiting worn-out land, is that proposed by Mr. Randall, in his "Semi-Vir- gilian Husbandry," which appeared in 1764. We likewise communi- cate it in the author's ow a words: A R A 107 " The loam, immediately after har- vest, is to be turned up ; and as we shall suppose it will' allow the ploughman to go very deep, this is a point to be obtained at any rate, for a worn out soi1. In order to effect this, one plough is to go the usual depth, and another plough to follow/ at the same depth, and in the same furrow, which will throw the mould over it, and bury the stubble. In this case, the field will lie under the advantage of being turned upside-down, as if it were double spitted, more than a foot deep, and the stubble will be soon- er rotted. When this is done, the harrows must make the ground as fine as the bad condition of it, or the season, will permit"....p. 12. We shall conclude this article with an useful hint, given by Mr. R. Price, of Knclne-rth, Herts, to the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce; respecting the damage done to arable land, by carrying off the small stones and flints from the surface, for the purpose of making turnpike-roads. This practice is highly detrimental to almost every kind of ploughed land, but particu- larly to what are called thin stapled, or light soils. Mr. Price justly observes, that " stones are of sur- prising and manifold uses : for in- stance, they greatly assist the plough in working the land ; they also prevent land of a binding quali- ty from running together, and hard- ening, like mortar in a wall; they screen the tender blade from blasts and blights ; they not only prevent the crop, where the staple is thin, from being scorched up in summer, but also the exudations of the earth iVo:n evaporating; and by that means greatly promote vegeta- tion." 103 ARC ARC It is almost superfluous to add, that this reasoning is equally appli- cable to fields and gardens.....See also the articles Husbandry, Lands, Soil, and Tillage. Arachis hupogea.....See Earth or Ground-Nut, and Choco- late. [ARALIA. Four species grow in the United States. 1. Aralia Spinosa, Angelica tree, prickly ash, tooth-ach tree. A decoction of its bark and root has often succeeded when taken inward- ly, in removing rheumatic com- plaints. It excites a gentle perspi- ration. The beiwes are used to put into a hollow tooth when ach- ing. A tincture of them in spirits is also used for the same purpose. 2. A racemosa, Spikeiiard, Wild- Liquorice, Berry-bearing ^....Par- kinson says, the berries are eaten in Canada, and both leaves and roots are used as sallads and pot-herbs, by the natives. 3. „■-/. nudicaulis, Sarsaparilla.... The roots are used as a substitute for sarsaparilia. A decoction is used in the country, for that erup- tive complaint called the shingles. It is also esteemed as a remedy to restore the tone of the stomach. 4. J. hispid-.....The root of this is highly emetic.] Archangel, LV#o<:"....See Wea- se r -Snout. ARCHERY, is the art, or exer- cise, of shooting with a bow and arrow. Among ancient nations, the bow was the principal instrument of war; and the skill of the archer of- ten dv-cided the fate of battles and of empires. The English were particularly expert in the use of this instru-* ment; and their ever memorable victories at the battles of Cressy and Poictiers, were chiefly ascribed to their valiant archers. James the First of Scotland, who had seen and admired the dexterity of English archers, and was him- self a skillful bowman, endeavoured to revive that exercise among his owm subjects, by whom it had been neglected; but the untimely death of that excellent prince, pre- vented the effectual execution of this useful project. In the time of Edward the Third, there was an act of parlia- ment, which obliged the English archers, even in times of peace, to erect butts in every parish, and to shoot on Sundays and holidays. By this constant practice, the Eng- lish armies possessed an exclusive advantage over their enemies. Charles the First of England, from a treatise entitled "The Bow- man's Glory," also appears to have been an archer. In the eighth year of his reign, he issued a commis- sion to the chancellor, Lord Mayor and Privy council, to prevent the fields near London from being so much enclosed, as "to interrupt the necessary and profitable exercise of shooting." The use of the long-bow continu- ed in estimation for more than two centuries after the introduction of gun-powder; which was probably owing to the weight and unwieldi- ness of muskets. The distance to which an arrow may be shot from a long-bow, de- pends, in a great degree, on the strength and size of the archer, but in general is reckoned from eleven to twelve score yards. Archers consider an arrow of from twenty to twenty-fourdrachms weight, to be the best for flight, or hitting a mark at a considerable distance; and yew, the best mate- ARC ARC 109 , rial of which they can be made.... The feathers of a goose are gene- rally preferred; two out of three are commonly white, being taken from the gander; the third is brown or grey; and this difference of colour informs the archer when the arrow is properly placed. The long bow is of the same height as the archer himself: and in Eng- land a peculiar method is practised, by drawing the arrow to the ear, and not towards the breast; which is doubtless more advantageous than that adopted among other na- tions. The force with which an arrow strikes an object, at a moderate dis- tance, may be conceived, from the account given by King Edward VI. in his Journal, where he says, that one hundred archers of his guard, discharged in his presence two arrows each; that they shot at an inch-board, and many of them pierced it quite through, though the timber was well seasoned. It may perhaps be a subject worthy the consideration of go- vernment, whether the revival of archery, by uniting military disci- pline with manly exercise, might not become an additional means, both of preserving health, and pro- tecting us against foreign enemies. According to Neade, an archer might shoot six arrows in the time of charging and discharging a musket; and an ounce of fire-work may also be discharged upon an ar- row, to the distance of 240 yards. The earliest histories of archery in England, are those by Ascham, who wrote his Toxophilus in the reign of Henry VIII; Mark- ham's Art of Archery, which ap- peared in 1634, and Wood's Bowman's Glory, in 1682 : but the latest, and most complete work on the subject, is, " An Essay on Archery," describing the practice of that art, in all ages and nations ; by W. M. Moseley, Esq. 8vo. pp.348. 7s. boards. Robson, 1792. In this classical treatise, the author considers bows, arrows, quivers, butts, targets, and cross-bows, un- der different'heads; and his ac- count is illustrated by plates. Ease and perspicuity ; richness without verbosity ; and elegance untainted with affectation, are the characters of this entertaining work. Archery continues to be prac- tised by the inhabitants of Geneva, and in many parts of Flanders. In Britain there are several societies of archers, the principal of which are the Woodmen of Arden, the Toxo- pholite, and the Royal Company of Archers of Scoiland....See also, Ar- row. ARCHITECTURE, a term which denotes the art of building in general, though chiefly applied to the construction of edifices ap- propriated to the purposes of civil life, such as houses, churches, halls, bridges, he. he. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity. All regular build- ings, however, hath, by several authors, been generally, and very plausibly deduced from the con- struction of the meanest huts. These were, at first, probably made of a conic figure, which is the simplest in structure, but being in- convenient on account of its in- clined sides, both the figure and construction of the huts were changed, by giving them a cubical form. At length, mankind insensibly improved in the art of building, and invented methods of rendering their habitations durable and hand- some, as well as convenient. They 110 ARC ARC deprived the trunks of trees of their bark, and other inequalities of sur- face, raised them above the wet, or humid soil, by means of stones, and also covered each with a flat stone, or slate, to exclude the rain. The interstices between the ends of the joists, were closed with wax, clay, or similar substances: the position of the roof was likewise altered ; and, as on account of its level surface, it was unfit to carry off the abundant rain-water, they elevated it in the middle, by placing rafters on the joists, to support the earth and other materials of the covering. From this simple con- struction, the orders of architecture undoubtedly took their origin ; for, when the rude builder began to erect stately edifices of stone, he imitated those parts which, from necessity, had composed the primitive huts. Thus, the upright trees, with stones at each end, were the origin of columns, bases, and capitals ; and the beams, joists, rafters, &c. which formed the co- vering, gave rise to architraves, frizes, trigliphs, cornices, Sec. Although the first buildings were rough and uncouth, because the artificers of those remote ages pos- sessed neither skill, experience, nor tools, yet, when by length of practice, certain rules had been established, and many new instru- ments invented, the art rapidly advanced towrards perfection: a variety of style, or different me- thods of building, were discover- ed, which, by succeeding genera- tions, have been held in the greatest esteem. The Egyptians, from the ear- liest ages of antiquity, have been considered as the inventors of arts; and, among other contrivances,may be numbered that species of o 'igi- nal architecture, in which the strength of the fabric was more re- garded than either its elegance, or symmetry. The Greeks, whose sublime and penetrating genius prompted them- to combine ele- gance with convenience, derived their first ideas of building from the Egyptians. The orders, as now executed by architects, are five, viz. 1. the Tuscan; 2. the Doric; 3. the Ionic ; 4. the Corinthian ; and 5. the Composite. The first, from its robust appearance, is used in works where strength and sim- plicity are the essential requisites ; the second is nearly similar to the Tuscan in strength, but is enli- vened by its peculiar ornaments ; the third is more delicate than »i- thtr of the former ; but the fourth displays more beauty and ornament than the others, and is therefore frequently used for the internal de- corations of stately rooms ; the fifth order is nearly the same as the Co- rinthian. In the 12th century, architec- ture revived, and experienced very great improvements, in conse- quence of the religious zeal of the clergy ; and, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the chaste style of the Greeks and Romans was displayed in Britain. For, though the Itali- ans for a long time maintained their superiority, in this as well as in other arts, over all the European nations, yet as men of genius from distant parts constantly resorted to Italy for the purpose of improve- ment, since that period architects have arisen in Britain, equal to any that ever appeared on the clas- sical ground of Italy. The latest and most splendid publication on this subject, which is intended as a Supplement to that ARC magnificent work, " Vitruvius Bri- tannicw," and which contains the studies of the most celebrated artists of the present day, is the following : " A Collection of Plans and Eleva- tions of modem Buildings, public and private, erected in Great Bri- tain, &c." It is engraved in aqua- tinta, from original drawings by G. R. Richardson, architect. Seven numbers, at 10s. 6d. each, are already published, and the whole ,is to be completed in ten such numbers. Another very useful work has lately appeared, under the title, " Hints for Dwellings, he." By D. Laing, architect and surveyor, 4to. 34 plates, 11. 5s. Taylor, 1800. It consists of original designs for cottages, farm-houses, villas, he. plain and ornamental: with plans to each, uniting convenience and elegance with economy. The Monthly Reviewers say : " We recommend the present work, as one of the best of that kind, to the attention of those who wish to amuse themselves with brick and mortar." Beside these, we shall mention the following architectural works, which reflect credit on the artists of this country: " The Rudiments of Ancient Architecture, he." royal 8vo. edit. 2d. price 6s. boards, published for Taylor, in 1794..... " Sketches in Architecture, ;" by J. So ane, architect, he. 54 folicfplates, 21. 12s. 6d. half bound, 1793....."A Treatise on the decorative part of Civil Architecture ;" by Sir Wm. Chambers, 8cc. edit. 3d. Imperial folio, price 31. 3s. Cadell, 1791. Architecture, being an useful and elegant art, is carried on in three different ways : first, for uti- lity ; secondly, for ornament; and, thirdly, for the construction of such ARG ^111 buildings as require the combined effect of both. Buildings of such a nature only, are compatible with our plan, and of these we shall give a more par- ticular account wider the article Building. Arctium. See Burdock. Areca. See Fasklnut, Cate- chu, and Cabbage-Palm. Arenaria. See Sandwort. Argemone. See Prickly Poppt. ARGUMENT, when applied to logic, signifies an inference drawn from premises, the truth of which is either indisputable, or highly pro- bable. In matters of literature, it denotes the abridgement, or heads, of a book, history, chapter, he. Considered in the former sense, in which it solely relates to reason, and to the investigation of truth, it is, in its principles, of a simple and homogeneous nature ; and re- quires no particular explanation. For, pleasure being the chief end of poetry, and persuasion that of eloquence, the real constitution of things is often perverted, or dis- guised, ;and compelled to adapt itself to the imagination and the passions ; but truth, being the ulti- mate object of argument, stands in need of no dazzling colours, or ther figurative language of rhetoric. It is not, however, unusual (both in private life and in the senate) to draw from an argument, a con- clusion very different from what it really implies. Cunning and bold disputants frequently avail them- selves of ambiguous expressions, which easily engender a confusion of ideas ; and thus the fallacy of their incongruous reasoning but too often escapes detection, as it remains involved in sophistical per- plexity.....For a farther considera- tion of this interesting subject, we 112 ARI refer our readers to the article of Logic, where it will be more ap- plicable than under the present. Aristolochia. SeeBiRTHWORT. ARITHMETIC, is a science which teaches the method of com- puting numbers, and explains their nature and peculiarities. At what time it was invented, is altogether unknown; though the four first fundamental principles, viz. addi- tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division, have always, in a cer- tain degree, been practised by dif- ferent nations. The Greeks were among the first who brought arithmetic to per- fection ; and they are supposed to have originally made use of pebbles in their calculations. The most complete method of numbering now used in this country, was in- troduced into Europe by the Ara- bians, when they were in possession of Spain. These people, however, acknowledged that they derived their information from the Indi- ans. How the latter became ac- quainted with it, we are entirely ignorant. The earliest treatises extant upon the theory of arithme- tic, are, the 7 th, 8th, and 9th books of Euclid's Elements, in which he treats cf proportion ; of prime and composite numbers. Nicoma- CHUS,the Pythagorean, also wrote concerning the distinction and di- visions of numbers into classes, as plain, solid, triangular, &c. in which he explained some of the leading peculiarities of the several kinds. As learning advanced in Europe, the knowledge of numbers also in- creased, and the writers on this subject soon became numerous. Ramus was the first who, in his Treatise on Arithmetic, published in 1586, used decimal periods, for ARI reducing the square and cube roots to fractions ; but the greatest improvement which the art of computation ever received, was from the invention of logarithms, the honour of which is due to John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, in Scotland, who published his disco- very about the beginning of the 17th century. Arithmetic may now be consi- dered as having advanced to a de- gree of perfection which, in former times, could scarcely have been conceived, and to be one of those few sciences which have left little room for farther improvement. It is, however, a serious and al- most general complaint, that few children, while at school, make any tolerable progress in arithmetic ; ahd that the generality, after hav- ing spent several years under the tuiton of a master, are incapable of applying the few rules which they may have learned, to the use- ful purposes of life. A little re- flection will suffice to convince us, that not much benefit is to be de- rived from the usual mode of in- struction. A few elementary prin- ciples are acquired by rote, and therefore quickly forgotten; be- cause the most essential particu- lars, viz. the reasons on which these rules are founded, and their extensive use in the various con- cerns of society, are generally omitted. Teachers, as well as writers, cannot be wholly exempt- ed from the charge of having, in some degree, contributed to this evil; for, by stating the rules with- out their corresponding reasons, they act upon mechanical princi- ples, and thus encourage the idea, that demonstrations in every in- stance are useless, and in some, im- possible. ARI ARClt 113 Every young arithmetician should remember, that before he forms any particular question or numeri- cal proposition, it is absolutely ne- cessary to consider whether the terms be directly proportionate to each other; for otherwise he will be liable to commit gross errors. Although in buying and selling, the price increases or decreases in the same relative proportion as the quantity of goods, yet in geome- try, natural philosophy, &c. those things which at first sight appear to be in simple proportion to each other, may, on a mature investi- gation, prove the contrary. Pre- viously, therefore, to the solution of questions respecting these sciences, he should be made acquainted with those elementry principles on which they are founded. Another material error commit- ted in the inferior schools, is the admission of boys under the age of ten or twelve, often for the sake of early fees, though they are inca- pable of being instructed by rea- soning with them. Hence we are decidedly of opinion, that this is one of the negative, modern im- provements ; and that the earliest periods of fixing the attention of youth on scientific objects, is, ac- cording to their individual capaci- ties, from the twelfth to the fif- teenth year of their age. Among the latest, and most in- structive works on this subject, we enumerate the following:...." An Introduction to Arithmetic and Al- gebra ;" by T. Manning, two vo- lumes, 8vo. 10s. boards. Riving- tons, 1798....." Arithmetical Ques- tions, on a New Plan ;" by WT. Butler, 8vo. edit. 2d. 4s. boards. Dilly, 1797....." The Arithmetician's Guide ;" by W. Taylor, 12mo. 2s. 6d. bound. Baldwin, 1788. tOL. u [To thislistmay be added Pike's Arithmetic, a work originally pub- lished in the U. States, and esteem- ed by competent judges, one of the best on the subject.] See also, Education and Blind- ness. Arnica montana, L.....See Ger- man Leopard's Bane. AROMATIC, an epithet given to such substances as yield a strong fragrant smell, and impart a warm taste. In this class are included the various spices, such as nut- megs, cloves, cinnamon, mace, Sec. Some of them have a sweet- ness mixed with their aromatic principle; such as the angelica root, anise seed, and fennel ; some are astringent, as cinnamon; others afford a strong mucilage, as the Cassia lignea ; and again, others a bitterness, as orange and lemon peel. The aromatic ingredient is ex- tracted in different proportions from various substances, by recti- fied spirits of wine ; though it is sometimes obtained by mere infu- sion with water. Aromatics form an useful and agreeable ingredient in many arti- cles of cookery, but especially in dishes prepared of watery and fla- tulent vegetables, of which they are the best correctors : they warm the stomach, and stimulate the whole system ; raise the pulse, and quicken the circulation. In cold, languid habits, and a relaxed state of the solids, they support the ani- mal spirits, or increase vital ac- tion, and promote the salutary se- cretions : but to hot, bilious tem- peraments, full habits, and inflam- matory dispositions, they are cer- tainly pernicious. ARQUEBUSADE WATER, a medicinal preparation, which ha?j 114 ARR ARR received this name, from its great efficacy in healing gun-shet wounds, though it is, at present, with more propriety, applied to bruises, tu- mors arising from blows, and par- ticularly to suggillated parts con- taining coagulated blood. Various- mixtures are used for this purpose, but according to our experience, the following deserves the preference, both on account of the easy manner of preparing it, and its superior virtues: " Take distilled vinegar and rectified spirit of wine, of each one pound and a half, double refined loaf-sugar, half a pound, and five ounces of com- mon oil of vitriol. This composi- tion may be applied to the injured parts in a cold or lukewarm state, and the compresses should be kept continually moist, for as soon as they become dry, the pain is liable to return. By its astringent pro- perty it contracts the skin ; and the sugar which settles on it, not un- like a coating of glue, ought to be carefully washed off every other, or third day, with Goulard-water. [The virtue of these healing w aters are more imaginary than real : for most wounds, nothing more is re- quired, than to join the separated parts, and bind them up in the ef- fused blood ; the separated vessels will soon unite. In warm leather, the parts may be covered with a cloth dipped in spirits or brandy.... No remedy, for a bruise, is equaV to an ounce of sal ammoniac dis- solved in a pint or a pint and a half of vinegar, with which tne parts must be bathed every hour, or oftener.] ARRACK, Arac, or R.ck, is a spirituous liquor imported from the East Indies, and used either as a cordial, or an ingredient in punch. It is obtained by d hit; Ha lion from rice, or sugar, fermented withth- juice of cocoa-nuts. Goa and Batavia are the chief places from which arrack is exported. At the former, there are three sorts, viz. the single, double, and treble distilled. The double is but a weak spirit, in comparison with that ob- tained at the latter place ; but, on account of its peculiar flavour, it is preferred to all the others. The arrack now in general use contains but a sixth, and some- times only an eighth part of alco- hol, or pure spirit. A spirituous liquor of this name is also extracted by the Tartars of Tungusia, from mare's milk, which is first suffer- ed to turn sour, and then distilled two or three times, between two close earthen pots* from which it runs through a small wooden pipe. It is possessed of the most intoxi- cating qualities ; so that, according to Professor Pallas, men, wo- men, and children,, frequently drink themselves into a semi-deli- rious trance, which continues for forty-eight hours- Various penalties are attached to the sale of arrack, without con- forming to the usual duties and regulations established by several acts of parliament, with which we shall not trouble our readers, but refer them to the statutes made concerning this article. Genuine arrack is said to possess balsamic, -oi.tening, and restora- tive properties, and to be less lia- ble to produce the usual inconve- niencies of other spirits. It is farther supposed to contain a fine subtile oil, so minute as to incor- porate readily with water: hence it is generally preferred in those cases, where repeated debauches have abraded the internal sides of the vessels. Persons who are un- ARR ARR 115 fortunately addicted to the use of ardent spirits, as well as those troubled with the gout or rheuma- tism, and who cannot comply with the rules of sobriety and temper- ance, may use arrack in preference to Hollands, or brandy. On ac- count of its strong empyreumatic oil, however, it is difficult of di- gestion, soon turns rancid, causes numerous obstructions, and is con- sequently injurious to individuals of lax solids, and thick or sizy fluids. Happy, therefore, are those who can entirely banish spirituous li- quors from their tables ; as, from their stimulating and pernicious qualities, they have destroyed in- calculable numbers of human be- ings....perhaps exceeding, in the aggregate, all the victur.s that ever fell under the combined scourges of war, hunger, and pestilence. ARRANGEMENT, a term which denotes a distribution of the various component parts of any whole, in a certain order, or pro- portion ; and refers either to sub- stance, time, or place. In the first instance, we may say, that the diversity observable in various co- lours is owing to a peculiar arrange- ment of those parts which reflect the light; in the second, that re- gularity and order inhuman trans- actions are the result of a methodi- cal distribution, or arrangement of time; and to explain the last, it may be said, that the -different genera and species of plants and flowers are, by botanists, arranged under their respective classes, and in their proper places. A happy arrangement of ideas, words, and sentences, forms one •of the principal beauties of a speech, or dissertation. The reverse im- plies confusion, which is frequently glossed over by a torrent of ambi- guous and flowery expressions, so that it requires no small degree of critical acumen, to distinguish the philosophical speaker from the ver- bose orator.....See Argument. ARROW, is a missive weapon of defence, used by archers. Its form is slender, pointed, and barb- ed.....Arrow-makers were denomi- natedfietchers ; men of considera- ble importance in the state. Arrow-heads and quarrels were required to he well boched or bras- ed, and hardened at the points with steel ; the finishing of wbich ap- pears to have been the business of the arrow-smith. A more particu- lar account of bows and arrows will be found under the title of Archery. ARROW-GRASS, is a plant of which there are three species ; but two only are natives of Britain, namely, the Trigloclun palustre, or Marsh, and the maririmmu, or Sea Arrow-grass. The former is fre- quently met with in marshy grounds, and the latter near the sea coafit, and in saline tracts. As they are eaten with avidity by sheep, for which they serve as as excellent and wholesome food, we presume strongly to recommend their culture. An additional mo- tive for the propagation of the ar- row-grass, may be suggested to the farmer and breeder of sheep ; be- cause it thrives extremely well in moist and swampy places, where few other vegetables -would grow. ARROW-HEAD, CoMroN,the Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. is one of those neglected plants, which, though growing wild in many parts of England especially on the banks o' rivers are not converted to any useful I'^vp-.^e: it is repre- sented in PI. 7. J. iglish Bot any,-a.8 ■'■,.. Tne root of tie arrow -head 'i 116 ARR ARR composed of numerous strong fi- bres, which strike into the mud; the foot stalks of the leaves are of a length proportionate to the depth of the water in which they grow; they are thick, fungous, and sometimes three feet high. Its sharp pointed leaves resemble the point of an arrow, and float upon the water. At the lower extremity of the root, there is always, even in its wild state, a bulb which grows in the solid clay, beneath the mud- dy stratum. This esculent root is industrious- ly cultivated in China and America, where it attains to the size of several inches in diameter; while in this country, of which it is a native, we suffer it to undergo spontaneous dissolution. As it constitutes a considerable part of the Chinese diet, no reason can be alledged why it should not be re- sorted to in times of scarcity when a poor cottager, in some parts of the country, might in one day, with his family, collect a sufficient quan- tity of these nourishing and palat- able roots, to serve them for a fort- night, as excellent substitutes for bread. With respect to the man- ner of dressing and preparing such vegetables, we shall give the neces- sary directions under the article Bread. The arrow-head requires a low, cold, marshy situation, and a clayey soil, where scarcely any other plant would thrive. Here it grows lux- uriantly, and produces an oblong, thick, bulbous root, which, from its mealy nature, may be easily con- verted into starch, or flour. Even in its raw and unprepared state, it affords a proper and wholesome food for horses, goats and hogs; though cows do not relish it..... There are two methods cf propa- gating this beneficial plant; either by the wild-growing fibres of the root, or by the seed; and we ear- nestly recommend its culture, from a conviction of its great utili- ty. In the present alarming crisis, we also venture to suggest the pro- priety and expediency of inducing the industrious poor to collect this and similar plentiful roots, and after washing, macerating them, and ex- pressing their starch, to mix it with other ingredients, in the making of bread. If persuasion and reason- ing do not avail, small premiums or rewards might be offered, to accom- plish so desirable a purpose. ARROW-ROOT,Indian, or the Maranta, a plant of v hich there are three species, the arundinacea, galanga, and comosa; all of them are herbaceous, perennial exotics of the Indies, and kept in our hot- houses merely for curiosity. The first of these species is the true starch-plant, and is likewise used by the Indians to extract the poison communicated by their arrows. Dr. Wright, of Jamaica, ap- pears to be the first who informed us that a decoction of the fresh roots makes an excellent ptisan in acute diseases. From an ingeni- ous pamphlet published in 1796, by Mr. T.Ryder, of Oxford-street, we farther learn, that one of his WTest-Indian patients, employed it as an article of diet, and since that period it has been very gene- rally used in families. The arrow-root powder unques- tionably yields a larger proportion of nutritive mucilage than any Eu- ropean vegetable, if we except the Salep-root; hence a single table- spoonful of either, makes a pint of strong and nourishing jelly, which affords a very proper food in acute diseases as well as in all those ARR ARS 117 complaints where animal food must be abstained from. It is there- fore to be regretted, that we cannot easily obtain this powder in a pure state, without paying the extrava- gant price of from five to ten shil- lings per pound; for in those shops where it is offered to sale at an inferior price of two or three shillings the pound, we have found by experience, that it is considera- bly adulterated. Mr. Ryder, before mentioned, has justly recommended the cul- ture of this root to the West-Indian Planters, and the new African Co- lonists, as an object of commerce, and the most eligible substitute for Starch, made of wheat: 1. Be- cause it would save annually 66,000 quarters of that valuable grain, in Great Britain alone, where the average quantum of starch made in the years 1793, 1794, and 1795, amounted to 8 millions of pounds weight, allowing one hundred and twenty pounds per quarter:...2. As the wholesale price of the arrow- root was, in 1796, fifteen pence a pound, and as one pound of its starch is equal to two pounds and a half prepared from wheat, its in- trinsic value would, by this com- putation, not exceed s*.r-pence per pound : whereas the average price of starch in Englandfor seven years (from 1789 to 1795) may be stated at nine -pence the pound. 3. As the arrow-root contains more soluble, gelatinous matter, occupying less space, being less enveloped in earthy particles and affording a purer farina than any other plant, it may be reasonably inferred, that the starch obtained from it must be of the finest quality; an opinion amply confirmed by three clear- starchers, who were, on this occa- sion, consulted by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu- factures and Commerce. [The arrow-root furnishes an ex- cellent remedy for the bowel com- plaints, which so commonly pre- vail in the United States, during warm weather, especially among children. The plants would thrive in the southern states, and ought to be introduced into them, by some of the numerous Americans who visit the West-Indies.] ARSENIC, an heavy, opaque, crystalline substance, which, on fracture, resembles sal ammoniac in a concrete state. Most of the metallic ores contain it in greater or less proportion, especially those of copper, tin, bismuth, and the fossil called cobalt, from which last it is extracted in Saxony, by a kind of sublimation. Its true nature is so little known, that che- mists have hesitated whether it ought to be ranked among the salts, or semi-metals; because it may, by various processes, be made to assume either a saline or metal- lic state. Hence, it has by many been considered as a mineralizing substance, which only tends to combine metals, and to give them a more perfect form. Nay, there are others, who have doubted whe- ther it be a simple body; and we well remember the assertion t f an ingenious lecturer on chm.stry and pharmacy in Edinburgh, who still flatters himself with the hope of being able,at sonic future period, to -demonstrate by experiment, " that arsenic is the true basis of silver." This semi-metallic concrete is very usefully employed in various branches of the aits and manufac- tures ; it is frequently added as an ingredient, to facilitate the fusion of glass, and to produce a certain 118 ARS ARS degree of opacity. Painters use two arsenical preparations,namely, the orpiment and realgar. A very beautiful green pigment may be precipitated from blue vitriol, by a watery solution of white arsenic and vegetable alkali: this, when prepared either with water or oil, affords a permanent colour. It is highly probable that, if arsenic were added to the paint used for wood, it might form an ingredient which would not be liable to be preyed upon by worms. But the practice of painting the toys of children with arsenical pigments, deserves severe censure ; as they are accustomed to put every thing into their mouth. In dyeing, it is likewise of great service. Combined with sulphur, it has the property of readily dis- solving indigo ; for which purpose it is used in the printing of calico, and other cloth. On exposure to the air, however, the arsenic is precipitated from this solution, and may be farther employed in pencil colours. Some dyers are said to understand the ait of imparting beautiful shades of colours to furs, by arsenical solutions. In rural and domestic economy, this concrete is also frequently re- sorted to with great .advantage, though not always with due pre- caution. Farmers dissolve it in lime-water, for steeping wheat, in order to prevent the smut; and it is likewise asserted, that the husband- men of Flanders and Germany use it for fertilizing the earth, by sprink- ling the soil with a solution of ar- senic in dung-v. ater. In medicine, it has long been known as the basis of the most * It is }-irsurrud, that the liquid medicim London, who positively maintains thatke ( sist of tpiutions made of this virulent semi celebrated cancer-powders, especi- ally those of Pluj.ket, Dr. Hugh Martin, and probably also, of Guy's. A weak solution of it in water, is directed by Dr. Way, of Wilmington, for effectually cleans- ing foul ulcers, and removing im- purities of" the skin: it is prepared by boiling one ounce of white arse- nic in two quarts of water to three pints, and applying it once or twice a day. When it is used for extract- ing, or discussing, cancerous or schirrous tumors, that are not ul- cerated, the above-mentioned Dr. Martin, a late physician in Ame- rica, previously ordered a blister of Spanish flies to be applied to the part, w ith a view to open the pores of the skin. But, as he prescribed it empirically, and indiscriminately in all cancerous cases, we wore not surprised to learn from his old professor,Dr. Benj. Rush, that his pupil has often been unsuccessful in the application of his arsenicated powder*. In the cure of agues, a solution of this mineral lu s been strongly recommended, and administered with success, upon the authority of Drs. Fowler, Arnold, Wi- th ERING,WlLL AN, M.VRSH, Pe AR- SON, and many other respectable English and foreign practitioners, who do not hesitate to prescribe it in doses, from two to twelve drops, once, tw ice, or oftener in the course of the day, according to the age, strength, and other circumstances of the patient. A preparation similar to that di- rected by Dr. Fowler, and called the white tasteless ague-drop, has lately been given with singular effi- cacy in the hooping-cough. We re- •is, now secretly exhibited by a physician in •ures cancers " b\ absorption," hkcvviiecoji- -metal. See Cancers. ARS ARS 119 late this fact upon the evidence of Mr. Crop, an eminent surgeon, of Barnet. Notwithstanding these remark- able and powerful effects of arsenic over the virulence of diseases, which appear to depend either on a speci- cific contagious miasma, such as is supposed to produce the ague and hooping-cough, or on a peculiar disposition of the fluids and solids, to undergo a certain degree of de- composition in' the living body, as is evident in carfcers, and other malignant ulcers-..we are, on the combined testimony of many me- dical practitioners, equally cele- brated for their extensive practice and 'erudition, as they are conspi- cuous for their professional zeal and integrity, irresistibly induced to declare our opinion, at least, against the internal use of this ac- tive and dangerous medicine. Of the numerous authorities which might be adduced in support of this declaration, we shall here avail ourselves only of the conclusive testimony of Dr. Black, the late professor of chemistry in the uni- versity of Edinburgh, who main- tains, that he has seen the internal exhibition of arsenic attended with fatal effects, such as hectics, he. qay, he declares, that though the extemal application of this sub- stance has, in some cases, proved successful, it has often, even in this way, produced dreadful conse- quences ; so that, far from recom- mending it internally, he reprobates even the external use of this preca- rious drug. Hence we hope to be forgiven by those worthy medical practitioners, from whom no slight moti\ es would induce us to differ : and unless it could be proved by a plurality of cases, that patients, af- ter the taking of arsenic to some extent, have not only recovered from agues, cancers, hooping- cough, &c. but that they have likewise attained to a considerable age, without ever having been sub- ject to paralytic, spasmodic, or phthisical disorders, we shall not be disposed to retract our opinion of its virulent and destructive ten- dency. Although we have deprecated the internal use of arsenic, both from the concurrent evidence of many other practitioners, and our own experience, yet we shall at- tempt to prove, that there is actu- ally less danger to be apprehended from those accidents, when this corrosive poison has by mistake, been swallowed, either in the form of a powder, or solution. And as it is frequently used for destroying rats, mice, and other troublesome animals ; for preparing sympathe- tic inks*, as well as for chemical tests ; to discover the adulterations of wines*, which have been sweet- ened by sugar of lead ; we cannot be too minute m laying down pro- per rules and directions for obvi- ating the dangerous effects of such casualties, as but too often occur among those who employ arsenical preparations, in a dry or liquid state, either for gratifying their curiosity by different experiments, or for other more useful purposes. Arsenic is one of the most sud- den and violent poisons we are acquainted with. Its fumes are so deleterious to the lungs, that the artist ought to be on his guard, to prevent their inhalation by the .* See the article Sympathetic Ins.. * So* Vv INK. 120 ARS ARS mouth; for if they be mixed and swallowed with the saliva, effects will take place similar to those, which follow its introduction into the stomach in a saline or dissolv- ed state; namely, a sensation of a piercing, gnawing, and burning kind, accompanied with an acute pain in the stomach and intestines, which last are violently contort- ed; convulsive vomiting; insatiable thirst, from the parched and rough state of the tongue and throat; hiccough, palpitation of the heart, and a deadly oppression of the whole breast succeed next; the matters ejected by the mouth, as well as the stools, exhibit a black, fetid and putrid appearance ; at length, with the mortification of the bowels, the pain subsides, and the fatal catastrophe terminates the sufferings of the patient. There are, however, cases on medical re- cord, in which, on dissection, nei- ther the stomach nor bowels, ac- cording to the testimonies of Drs. Metzger and Hahnemann, have been corroded, nor even injured; so that this poison may, in some instances, exert its action immedi- ately on the living principle.... Thus we find, in a case related by our late friend, Dr. Unzer, of Hamburgh, that a lady, who had only tasted a little arsenic, without swallowing a particle, was twelve hours after the accident thrown into the most convulsive spasms, and attacked with inflammatory pustules, not unlike the measles, covering her face, neck, and whole body, so that she recovered with great difficulty, and remained for several years in a miserable state of langour, and general debility. For these obvious reasons, artists exposed to the fumes or vapour of this volatile mineral, ought to be extremely cautious to preserve themselves from its influence on their mouth and nostrils, as well as from touchingit with their hands; for every external contact may be attended with serious consequences. Hence they should dress in thick and firm clothes, keep at a proper distance from the exhaling fumes, and cover the orifices of the face v ith a mask, made for the purpose* In their system of diet, we advise them to make use of a great pro- portion of bland and mucilaginous nourishment; such as fresh butter, pork, sweet-oil, milk, artichokes, and similar vegetables. With respect to the treatment of persons, after the inhalation, or swallowing of arsenic, we shall arrange the subject under three distinct propositions. I. When a large portion of arse- nic has been introduced into the stomach, or inhaled by the lungs : 1. Immediately after the acci- dent, brisk emetics; for instance, half a drachm of white vitriol, and, after it, plenty of sweet lintseed, or almond-oil, either of which is pre- ferable to olive-oil; or, if these be not at hand, large draughts of milk, barley gruel, or warmed beer, with a third part of oil, or butter, ought to be substituted, as soon as possible. To facilitate the operation, a strong feather should be dipt in oil, for stimulating the tonsils. If the throat be swollen and contracted, a surgeon ought to be instantly procured, for open- ing the gullet by means of a probe, or other proper instruments. 2. To neutralize and deprive this corrosive poison of its activity. according to Dr. Hahnemann, nothing is more efficacious than a solution of white soap in hot wa- ter, in the proportion of half a ARS ARS 121 pound of the former to a quart of the latter, which must be boiled, and the soap agitated until the whole is dissolved: when it may be sweetened with sugar. This preparation ought to be taken with- out delay, and so frequently as to repeat half a tea-cup full of it every five minutes, that the patient may swallow several pounds in the course of two hours. If hepatised water (prepared by pouring acids on the liver of sulphur, and satu- rating, with the ascending vapours, water contained in another vessel,) could be readily procured, it would, with the addition of one half of thick cream, be an excellent sub- stitute for the solution of soap. 3. To promote the evacuation of the poison by stool, clysters composed of the preceding liquids, and a third part of castor-oil, ought to be speedily administered, and the whole abdomen fomented with soap-water. 4. With a view to prevent local or general inflammation, beside the fomentations, cataplasms, luke- warm baths and clysters, it will, perhaps, be necessary to bleed the patient largely, but not without con- sulting medical men. II. When a person has been slow- ly poisoned, or has swallowed only a small portion of arsenic ; or, if the proper remedies should have been neglected for several hours. In these cases, the judicious practitioner only can decide upon the relative propriety and expe- diency of the preceding remedies ; but if a considerable time has elapsed since the accident happen- ed, it will be necessary to com- mence the treatment with purga- tive remedies, such as will at the same time lubricate the coats of the stomach, and the whole intestinal ■vol.. j. canal, while they tend to assuage the acrimony, and counteract the corrosive effect produced on the first passages. Of this nature is, in a pre-eminent degree, the castor- oil, combined with large draughts, either of the hepatised or soap^ waters. A strictly antiphlogistic regimen ought now to be pursued, together with the remedies proper to obviate inflammation, and after- wards a milk-diet, lintseed tea, barley-water, gruel, and infusions of different mucilaginous vegeta- bles, milk chocolate without spice, aided by the enjoyment of fresh and pure air. 111. Indications of cure, when the patient labours under a gradual and long-continued action of the poison ; or in the secondary stages of the two former casualties. The principal object now to be attained, is the destruction of poi- sonous matter in the second pas- sages, or to prevent its influence on the kidneys, biliary ducts, the organs of perspiration, Sec. To ascertain whether the virus has dif- fused itself through the system, the person's state of mind and body should be comparatively examined; whether the former be dejected, or the latter reduced to preternatural debility ; or whether any of the animal and natural functions be impaired. When there appears a blue ring round the eyes, and the lips exhibit a similar colour, we may conclude, that the devastation occasioned in the whole frame is considerable; and in such in- stances, Dr. Boerhaave advises to let the patient drink no less than twelve pints of luke-warm honey- water, in 2 4 hours, for 3 days succes- sively ; and to administer frequent clysters of the same liquid. By this simple treatment, he observes, all R 122 ARS ARS those painful and dangerous symp- toms, which sometimes afflict the victims of this poison through the remainder of their lives, have been effectually obviated. On the con- trary, M.NAviER,areputed French writer, on the effects of arsenic and its antidotes, recommends the method we have already pointed out, in propositions I. and II. af- ter which, he insinuates the pro- priety of re-commencing a milk- diet, and enjoins the patient to ab- stain from the use of all acid sub- stances, or liquors. In this opi- nion he is likewise supported by Dr. Hahnemann, who cautions the convalescent to be very atten- tive to his evacuations by-stool; which, so long as he is subject to griping pain, and strictures in the abdomen, constantly require to be aided by the mildest purgatives. Besides these, he may drink decoc- tions of the Lichen ulandicus, of the root called Poly gala senega, or of quassia-wood, which last is, of all other corroborant and astringent remedies, the least heating, and consequently the most proper to be taken. In order to prevent all the bad consequences resulting from this malignant poison, the patient may with advantage resort to the warm mineral, sulphureous waters, which he should not only drink plentifully but likewise bathe in them, espe- cially in the form of vapour. If such natural waters cannot be ea- sily procured, they may be artifi- cially substituted by medical men, who are, in general, perfectly well acquainted with their component parts, as well as the manner of preparing them. By their proper use, the unfortunate invalid may at length recover from that tremu- lutiug affection of the limbs, re- laxation, paralysis, convulsions, and other distressing complaints, which the improvident swallowing of arse- nic usually produces. From a multiplicity of instances related by Wepeer, Heer, Zitt- man, Ebell, and other writers, we have reason to conclude, that in our daily victuals, as well as by the use of glazed vessels, consider- able portions of lead and arsenic are taken into the stomach, and mixed with solid food ; though un- attended with danger or inconve- nience, except that of vomiting. Sometimes, however, when the digesting organs are in a languid state, the poison nnty lodge in the cellular membranes of the sto- mach and bowels, for several days or weeks, before it be evacuated. In such eases, the necessary con- sequences will be a slow hectic fe- ver, for which the physician, who is generally consulted in the secon- dary stage of the disease, can as- sign no cause. Lastly, we shall briefly mention, by what means and process it may, after death be discovered, whether a person have died from the poison of arsenic, though this knowledge properly belongs to the department of medical police or jurisprudence. 1. The contents of the stomach and intestines should be taken out, and washed in water. If any powder be contained therein, it should be allowed to separate ; and if this be arsenic, it will fall to the bottom. 2. Place the separated powder on a red hot iron ; and, if it eva- porate in a thick white vapour, without melting, there is reason to conclude that it is arsenic....this effect will take place with the for- tieth part of a grain. ART S. If this powder be mixed with charcoal, and emit an odour re- sembling that of garlic, we may also infer that it is arsenic. 4. The most convincing test of its nature is the following: in- close the mixed powder with the charcoal, between two small po- lished plates of copper (or between two perfectly smooth halfpenny- pieces,) the edges of which must be cemented with a lute made of two parts of fine sand, and one of pipe-clay. Fasten the plates with a thin wire, and expose the whole to a red heat: thus the arsenical powder will be metallized; and, penetrating the copper, a blackish skin will first appear upon it, which being rubbed off, the parts touched by the arsenical vapour will acquire a whitish or leaden colour. As this deleterious concrete fre- quently enters metallic composi- tions, especially those of copper and tin, it were much to be wished, that such compound metals could for ever be banished, at least from our kitchens.....See Copper, Lead Pewter, and Tin. ART, as defined by Lord Bacon is a proper disposal of natural ob- jects, by human thought and expe- rience ; so as to answer the several purposes of mankind ; in which sense the word Art stands opposed to Nature : it is also used for a system of rules, serving to facilitate the performance of certain actions, end is then opposed to Science, or a system of theoretical principles. Arts are generally divided into useful or mechanic, liberal or polite. The former consist of those in which manual labour has a greater share than intellectual exertion ; and by which we are provided with the necessaries of life ; whence they are denominated trades, as ART 123 baking, brewing, carpentry, he. The latter are snch as depend on the application of mental abilities, and the active powers of a fertile imagination. Of this nature are, poetry, painting, music, and the like. The progress of the arts and sciences towards perfection, is also greatly promoted by emulation. Mathematics, for instance, appear to be on the decline in Europe ; for, since the immortal Newton has far surpassed all the ancients, there appears to be little hope for the moderns, either of excelling, or equalling, his creative genius. In countries thinly inliabited, it is not uncommon to find one per- son exercising several professions, and this is productive, in some de- gree, of good effects. Various operations being carried on by the same individual, his mind becomes invigorated, because a combination of talents is required to perform (r j task ; but, when the mental powers are restricted to a single object, all thought and invention are excluded, and the operator is, in a manner, converted into a dull and inanimate machine. From the useful, naturally re- sulted the cultivation of the liberal arts. Persons who enjoyed every convenience from the former, turn- ed their attention towards the lat- ter : hence arose Sculpture, Sta- tuary, Painting, Literary Compo- sition, &c. The decline of the fine arts in Rome, is ascribed, by Petronius Arbiter to a cause which ulti- mately proves the destruction of mankind, wherever it prevails..... such is opulence, with its never- failing concomitants^ avarice and luxury. It has therefore been justly v remarked, by acute observers, that 124 ART during the rise and progress of em- pires, the military arts chiefly flou- rish ; when arrived at their height, the liberal arts ; and when in a de- clining state, the arts of luxury. The fine arts are only relished by persons of taste, who can spare large sums for supporting them : thus it will be found, that they sel- dom, or never, flourish in coun- tries where they do not obtain the liberal patronage of the sovereign, or men in power. On the other hand, the useful arts are always encouraged in every well regulated State. In short, the unexampled success of both, in Great Britain, may be justly attributed to the sanction and munificence which men of talents and genius (whe- ther natives or foreigners), uni- formly experience from the Sove- reign, as well as from the nobility, abnost witiiout exception. No na- tion can boast of a greater number of connoisseurs and patrons, in the wealthy classes of society, than the British. When the people are once rous- ed from their indolence and le- thargy, by whatever fortunate event or change of circumstances, the progress of the arts is gene- rally rapid. Prosperity, contrast- ed with former penury, creates in the mind a spring v Inch is vigor- ously exerted in new pursuits. The Athenians,while under the tyranny of Pisistratus, made but a mean appearance; but, on regaining their independence, were convert- ed into heroes. This prosperity produced its usual effects, and Athens became the chief theatre of the arts and sciences.....The Corsi- cans, when engaged in a perilous war for the defence of their liber- ties, displayed a vigorous national spirit: they foimded an universi- ART ty, a public library, and a public bank.....The Royal Society of Lon- don, and the Academy of Sciences in Paris, wore both instituted after civil wars, which had animated the people, and excited their activity and emulation. Democritus maintained, that men were indebted for the acquisi- tion of their arts to brutes; that the spider taught them weaving; the swallow, building ; the night- ingale, music, and so forth. [ARTEMISIA DRACUNCU- LUS, Estragon or Tarragon, Fr. Is frequently used in salads, espe- cially by the French, to correct the coldness of other herbs. The leaves make an excellent pickle : they have a fragrant smell, and aromatic taste. The use of them in Persia has ever been general, at meals, to create an appetite. The famous vinegar of Maille, in France, owes its superior flavour to this plant, which has not yet been found in this country. It is to be wished that some, of many Ameri- cans who visit France, would bring home this excellent plant, or, at least, the seeds of it with them. There are several other species of Artemisia.] Artemisia absinthium, L. See Mug wort. ARTERY, or a pulsating blood- vessel, is a cylindrical canal, con- veying the blood immediately from the heart to all the parts of the body. On examining the struc- ture of the largest of these ves- sels, such as the aorta, and the pulmonary artery, it may be dis- tinctly seen, that each is compos- ed of three coats; namely, 1. The external coat, which is of a cellular texture, loose on the outside, but growing progressively firmer to- wards the inner part; 2. A fibrous ART ART 125 spiral, or rather circular mem- brane, of a yellowish colour, and of which there are several strata, according to the size of the artery; 3. The innermost coat, or a thin, extremely smooth and transparent membrane, keeping the blood in its canal, which otherwise, upon the dilatation of an artery, would easily separate the spiral fibres from each other. From the trunk of every artery there arise branches; from these again extend ramifications of blood- vessels, which become progressive- ly smaller, so that their distribu- tion may be traced by the micro- scope, in more than twenty different divisions, nay, to an almost infinite number. The arteries, however, do not, as has been erroneously as- serted by several anatomical writers, become narrower, and as- sume a conic form in their continu- ed progress ; on the contrary, they seem uniformly to remain ci lindri- cal, insomuch that, in their rami- fications, a smaller cylinder always arise*, from a larger one, and where the former proceeds from the latter, it generally presents a slight swelling at this vascular joint, if this expression be admissible. The aggregate diameter of all the branches of one trunk is somewhat larger than that of the trunk itself; an observation which also applies to the veins. On account of their thicker membranes, the' arteries possess a greater degree of elasticity than the veins ; though the latter are more capable of resisting the me- chanical force of the blood, and are less liable to rupture. It far- ther deserves to be remarked, that, with the increase of years, the coats of the arteries acquire firm- ness, while those of the veins be- come weaker. This, in some mea- sure, accounts for the circumstance that persons, between the age of eighteen and thirty-five, are more liable to phthisical and other com- plaints, which depend chiefly on an increased action of the arterial system ; because, after that period, the arteries already possess suffi- cient vigour and firmness, to over- come the additional impetus of the circulation. Hence, too, we may comprehend why sthenic or in- flammatory diseases seldom occur at certain stages of life, when the whole system possesses that degree of re-action, which is necessary to maintain a due equilibrium between the animal and vital functions, as well as to resist the occasional im- pressions made on the body, by sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold, moist and dry air, he. All the arteries derive their ori- gin from the ventricles of the heart; namely, the pulmonary ar- tery from the right, and the aorta from the left; of which two the rest are branches. They terminate in veins, exhaling vessels, or anas- tomose Avith one another, that is, unite by inosculation. It is assert- ed by physiologists, that the circu- lation of the blood, its heat, red colour, fluidity, assimilation of food, &c. the conversion of fixed into volatile salts, and the per- formance of the different secre- tions, such as bile, urine, saliva, he. all must be attributed to the contractile power of the arteries and the heart.....See Assimila- tion, Bile, Blood, Chyle, Sa- liva, Urine, 8cc. It is farther worthy of notice, that an injury received by a very considerable vein, is not nearly so dangerous as that of a small artery, especially in the vicinity of the 126 ART ART heart.....(See Bleeding, or He- morrhage ;) and that single arteries sometimes become osified, or ac- quire a cartilaginous and bony con- sistence. In the larger ones, this phenomenon rarely occurs : yet a very remarkable instance of an os- sification of the aorta is recorded by the celebrated Dr. Zimmerman, the author of the classical treatises " On Solitude," and " On National Pride," in his excellent work " On Experience in Physic ;" which de- serves to be read and studied by every medical and philosophical in- quirer. Such preternatural produc- tion of bone is attributed to an abundance of earthy particles, which are, perhaps, generated by a too liberal use of tart wines, veal, potatoes, cheese, and all food that is hard and difficult of digestion. Fortunately, however, this fatal conversion of membraneous sub- stance takes place only at an ad- vanced age ; but then it affords little or no hope of prolonging the patient's Jife.....See Heart,Pulse, Veins. Arthritis. See Gout. ARTICHOKE, or the Cynara, L. though an exotic, is a plant well known. There are four species, but only two are reared for use, viz. the scolymus, or garden arti- choke, and the cardunculus, or cardoon, both of which are propa- gated by slips, or suckers, arising in spring, from the roots of the old plants. The slips should be taken from good plants in March, or the beginning of April, and set in an open quarter of the kitchen-garden, in rows at the distance of five feet from each other. By this process, artichokes may be produced in the autumn of the same year. The size of their fruit will gradually di- minish, after the third of fourth year, though the roots continue sound for several seasons. The cardoon, which is a hardy plant, may be propagated by seeds sown in March. As these plants are very large, they ought to be placed at the distance of several feet from each other; and thus crops of spinach, endive, cabbage, or bro- coli, may be raised between the rows. About the 28th September, the cardoons generally attain to a considerable size; the leaves of each plant should then be tied, that they may be hoed, for the purpose of blanching; which will require six or eight weeks. Thus the plants will be fit for use in Novem- ber or December, and continue the whole winter. Artichokes flourish best in a rich and moist soil; but if it be too wet, the roots are apt to decay in severe frosts. They have been used with advantage in the making of soda; and the leaves of the scolymus, prepared with bismuth, impart to wool a fine and perma- nent gold colour. ARTICHOKE, the Jerusalem, is a plant of the same genus as the sun-flower. It produces bulbs at its roots, has been long cultivated in gardens, as an esculent vegetable, and, except that it is watery and of a softer consistence, in many respects resembles the potatoe, but is not in such general esteem. This root, however, is much valued for feeding hogs" and store-pigs. Mr. Peters, the author of " Win- ter Riches," published in the year 1772, asserts, that from one acre of ground, he obtained between seventy and eighty tons of this root. He is of opinion, that seven acres will yield three hundred and ninety-six tons, which will keep one hundred swine for six months, ART ART 127 allowing each head fifty-six pounds per day, at an advance of value from ten to fifteen shillings, espe- cially if they be boiled with su.xt hog-wash. When these roots are given to horses, they should be washed, cut, and ground in an apple-mill : the proportion given at each time is eight pounds, with two ounces of salt, and a bite of hay, thrice daily. Another celebrated cultivator found the produce of this root to be about four hundred and eighty bushels Winchester measure, per acre, without any dung. Its chief recommendations are, the certain- ty of a crop ; its flourishing almost upon any soil; not requiring ma- nure, and being proof against the severest frosts.....The culture is the same as that of potatoes. [Artichokes succeed very well in this state, if left exposed to the winter months. When covered with straw in the autumn, they rot. The only precaution necessa- ry to take, is to dig a ditch round the plant, to prevent the water from injuring them. For this very useful information, the editor is indebted to Mr. Legaux,of Spring- mill. His artichokes were eight and nine inches diameter.....The seed was imported from Holland.] ARTICULATION, in lan- guage, is the division of sounds into distinct syllables; and consists in giving e\ery letter its due pro- portion of sound, so that the hearer may perceive and determine their number without difficulty; while he is enabled to ascertain the res- pective letters in every syllable. The late Mr. Thomas Sheri- dan, however, has endeavoured to prove, in his " Ccurse of Lectures an Elocution," published about the year 1752, that the English lan- guage is by no means calculated to answer the purpose of reading aloud to others. This strong- headed grammarian maintains, that as our written language has no vi- sible marks of articles, it is defec- tive in the most important requi- sites to a just delivery of speech. A just delivery, we are told, con- sists in a distinct articulation of words pronounced in proper tones, suitably varied to the sense and emotions of the mind; with due observation of accent; of emphasis, in its several gradations; of rests or pauses of the voice, in propeF places, and well measured degrees of time ; and the whole accompa- nied with expressive looks, and significant gestures. Of these es- sential characters, two only are at all regarded in the art of writing : namely,articulate sounds,or words, which are marked by letters; and stops, or pauses of the voice, which are denoted by little figures or ti- tles. But with respect to the other ar- ticles, of tones, accent, emphasis, and gesture, there are no visible marks to guide the reader : these, it must be allowed, are the sources of all that is pleasurable or forcible in delivery : and contain in them all the powers of impressing the mind, captivating the fancy, rous- ing the passions, and delighting the ear : and it must also be admitted, according to our author, that the articles most essential to a good delivery, have been entirely neglect- ed in the graphic art. Of the numerous instances of imperfect, or vitiated articulation, according to Mr. Sheridan, there is not one in a thousand which ari- ses from any natural defect or im- pediment. 128 A R T " To cure any imperfection in speech, arising originally from too quick an utterance, the most effec- tual method will be (Mr. Sheri- dan says), to set apart an hour every morning, to be employed in the practice of reading aloud, in a very slow manner. This should be done in the hearingvof a friend, or some person whose office it should be to remind the reader, if at any time he should perceive him mend- ing his pace, and falling into his habit of quick utterance. Let him sound all his syllables full, and have that point only in view, without re- ference to the sense of the words; for, if he is attentive to that, he will unwarily fail into his old habit:" on which account, that he may not be under any temptation of that sort, Mr. Sheridan would have him, for some time, read the words of a vocabulary, in the alphabetical or- der. In this way, he will soon find out what letters and syllables he is apt to sound too faintly, and slur over. Let him make a list of those words, and be sure to pro- nounce them over distinctly, every morning, before he proceeds to others. Let him accustom himself also, when alone, to speak his thoughts aloud, in the same slow manner, and with the same view. Otherwise, though he may get a habit of reading more slowly, he will fall into his usual manner in discourse : and this habit of speak- ing aloud, when alone, will not only bring him to a more distinct utterance, but produce a facility of expression, in which silent thinkers are generally defective.—See the articles Language, Reading, Speech. ARTIFICER is a person em- ployed in manufacturing any kind AR V of goods or wares, such as those of iron, brass, wool, he. By the English laws, artificers in wool, iron, steel, brass, or other metal, leaving the kingdom, and departing to a foreign country, with- out license, are liable to be impri- soned for three months, and fined in a sum not exceeding one hun- dred pounds. Those who go abroad, and do not return on receiving no- tice from our Ambassadors, are disabled from holding land by de- scent or devise; from receiving any legacy, he. and are deemed aliens. A penalty is also inflicted on those who seduce artificers to quit their native soil. ARTIST is an appellation given to a person skilled in some particu- lar art, such as that of watch-mak- ing, engraving, Sec. Evelyn informs us, that a pri- vilege is granted to artists at Vi- cenza, similar to the benefit of cler- gy in England ; by virtue of which, criminals adjudged to death are pardoned, if they can prove them- selves the most excellent and con- summate workmen in any art. ArtocarptK. See Bread-Tree. Arum. See Wake Robin. Arundo. See Reed. ARVENUSLY, or Pinus Cem- bra, L. is a species of pine, which is principally found in Siberia, and on the Alpine mountains. Its branches resemble those of the pitch-tree, which is commonly call- ed spruce-fir. The leaves are of a striated fonn, about three inches in length, and the fruit about the size of a large hen's egg, contain- ing kernels covered with a brown skin, which, when peeled, are as large as a common pea, white and soft as a blanched almond, and of an agreeable taste. ► ASA ASA 129 . The aruenusly is applied to va- rious purposes of useful and do- mestic economy. Its planks afford excellent wainscoting, flooring, and other materials for joiners ; are of a finer grain, more beautifully va- riegated, and of a more agreeable smell, than deal. The white wood has a very pleasant fragrance ; and when made into shelves, is said to possess the remarkable property of keeping away moths and other in- sects. It also furnishes excellent fuel for stoves, ovens and kilns; but is dangerous when used in grates, being liable to splinter, and throw out sparks to a considerable dis- tance. From the resinous parts of this tree, is distilled a fragrant oil, resembling in taste and flavour that of juniper, and possessing the same properties. An expressed oil is also obtained from the fruit, which, on account of its balsamic nature, has been recommended in consump- tive cases ; and the kernels are em- ployed, by the Swiss, as a substi- tute for mushrooms, in ragouts, and sometimes form a part of their des- serts. The arvenusly is of a healthy and vigorous nature, and will bear removing, when young, even in dry and warm weather. It likewise grows in great abundance on the most mountainous and coldest parts of the Brianconnois, where the natives call it alviez. It bears some resemblance to the Canada, or Weymouth pine. This tree is the more valuable, as its timber is fit for the choicest furniture ; and from its enormous height and size, when full grown, it would make excellent masts...... As the culture of this remarkable tree in no respect differs from the other species of the Pine, we refer to that article. Wre have here subjoined a branch of the arvenusly, of a reduced size, to distinguish it from other species of the same genus. ASAFOETIDA, a gum-resin, so called on account of its offensive smell. It is obtained from the Ferula asafoetida, L. an umbelli- ferous plant, glowing wild in Persia; tlie root of which, on cutting it, exudes a milky juice : by evapora- VOL. I. tion, it acquires the consistence of wax, and a yellowish red colour..... We have seen fine specimens of this plant in the Botanical • arden at Edinburgh; and there is no doubt that it will bear the vicissitudes of our climate, in the open air; and S 130 ' * A S A that it is strongly impregnated with its peculiar juice. Although this nauseous drug pos- sesses a bitter and acrid taste, which is much stronger, when fresh, the Persians nevertheless use it as a spice with their food ; so that our epicurean imitators do not deserve the credit of original choice. Beside its aperient and resolvent properties, asafoetida is one of the most valuable medicines in spasmo- dic, flatulent, hysteric and hypo- chondriacal complaints, especially when they arise from obstructions of the bowels. But, as it is of a heating nature, it increases the cir- culation of the fluids, and ought not, therefore, to be employed ei- ther in violent fevers, or in consti- tutions liable to hemorrhages. On the contrary, where spasms and constipations have contributed to weaken the powers of nature, and the functions are in a languid state, it generally affords effectual relief; as it promotes digestion ; enlivens the animal spirits; and, by increas- ing the peristaltic motion of the in- testines, tends to open them in per- sons of an advanced age. In the spasmodic, as well as in humoral asthma, unattended with fever, it is an excellent remedy ; for, in the former, it counteracts the strictures of the respiratory organs ; and, in the latter, greatly facilitates expec- toration. The hooping-cough has been cured, and worms have fre- quently been expelled, by the con- joined administration of asafoetida, both by the mouth, and in the form of clysters. When given with the last mentioned intention, it is very usefully combined with jalap ; by the assistance of which, it possesses uncommon powers over the tape- worm, especially in adults. Thus, according to C. J. Mellin, an el- ASA derly lady was relieved of a formi- dable tape-worm, together with a considerable portion of coagulated and viscid matter, resembling a fishing-net, after making use of the following pills: Take asEtbti- da, half an ounce, powder of jalap tv/o drachms ; let them be mixed with any syrup, to a proper censist- ence for making sixty piiis : two of these are to be taken every morn- ing and evening, at first; but gra- dually increased to four or five, ac- cording to circumstances. ASARABACCA, in botany, the Asarum F.uropoeum, L. A good representation of it is given in Dr. Woodville's Med. Bot. PI. 86.... It produces large bell-shaped flow- ers of a dusky purple colour, and blossoms in the beginning of May. As a medicine, the different pro- perties of this plant render it an object of attention : hence Lin- naeus proposed it as a substitute for ipecacuanha ; and, according to Dr. Cullen, " the root, dried only so much as to be powdered, proves in a moderate dose a gentle eme- tic." But as the internal use of the asarabacca is precarious, the Lon- don College have justly rejected the root, and directed the leaves only to be employed as an errhine, or sneezing powder, with the addi- tion of one half of dried lavender- flowers. Thus carefully prepared and snuffed in small doses of a few grains, several successive evenings, Dr. Woodville says," it produces a pretty large watery discharge, which sometimes continues several days together ; and by which, head- ach, tooth-ach, opthalmia or in- flammation of the eyes, as well as some paralytic and soporific com- plaints, have been effectually re- lieved." That such is the effect of this powder, we have frequently asc observed from experience, though there is reason to doubt whether its action extends to palsy, as it more particularly affects the salival glands, which is obvious from the copious spitting it generally occa- sions, after being used for a few evenings. In farriery, the powdered root of this plant is given mixed with bran, to horses troubled with the farcy, or leprosy, in doses from one to two ounces....as likewise for worms in either horses or sheep. Dyers may also usefully employ the fresh leaves or roots of the asa- rabacca, for producing first an ap- ple-green, and by boiling them still longer, a light-brown colour, on wool prepared with bismuth. These experinLents are related by Dam- bourney, whose work we first quoted, p. 19. [Several species grow in theU. S. 1. A. Canadense....or, Canadian, A. called, also, wild ginger. 2. A. Vir;dhici'.m....oY, sweet scented, A. or, catsfoot. These plants delight in a moist shady situation, and may be in- creased by parting the roots in au- tumn. Too much wet will rot the Canadian sort in winter. If the second species be too much expos- ed to the sun in summer, it seldom thrives well; it should therefore be planted in a border w here it may have only the morning sun....The juice of the fresh leaves, is eme- tic....The powder of this plant I have known to answer very good effects in cases of giddiness, unat- tended by too much fullness. It was used as a snuff. It certainly is an active plant, and deserves fur- ther trials.] Asarum. See Asararacca. ASC A RIDES, in zoology, be- long to the order of vermes, and are ASC 131 divided into two species: 1. the vermicularis, distinguished by a transverse mouth, and faint annular rugx, or folds. It is about a quar- ter of an inch in length, and is found in boggy places: in the roots of decayed plants ; and very fre- quently in the rectum, or straight gut of children and horses. 2. The lumbricoides, which is equal in length with the lumbricus terrcstris, or common earth-worm, but wants the protuberant ring towards the middle of the body, which is its only distinguishing mark. Its body is cylindrical, subulated at each extremity ; but its tail is somewhat triangular. This isthe worm which is most commonly found in human intestines, and its usual seat is the rectum. The symptoms are, an uneasiness and intolerable itching in the anus, which generally take place in the evening, and some- times prevent sleep. Thev are of- ten attended with so considerable a degree of heat, as to produce both an external and internal swell- ing in that intestine ; which, if not quickly relieved, bring on a tenesmus, or a frequent inclination to go to stool, accompanied with a mucous dejection. There are also frequent griping pains, in the low- er part of the abdomen, a little above the os pubis; if these be acute, they are succeeded by a bloody mucous discharge, in which these worms are often found alive. Mucus, or slime, appears to be the proper nest of the ascarides: in this they live, are nourished, and preserved unhurt, though sur- rounded with many other fluids, the immediate contact of which, would to them prove fatal. Purges, by lessening this viscous matter, never fail to relieve the patient; for those worms, which are not 132 ASC ASH expelled by the increased vermicu- lar motion of the intestines, for want of a proper quantity, languish, and at last die; as may be seen in those which are taken out of their mucus and exposed to the open air. Such purges, therefore, as act briskly, and can be conveni- ently repeated, for instance, purg- ing waters, and jalap, especially for children, two grains of which maybe mixed with sugar, and taken daily, are the most effectual. When the tenesmus, or mucous stools, are urgent and distressing, a clys- ter of warm milk and oil will af- ford immediate relief. The most useful purge, is cinnabar and rhu- barb, of each half a drachm, which, when taken, seldom fail to bring away a transparent mucus, con- taining many of those worms alive. Various other remedies have been employed in the removal of this troublesome complaint, of which quicksilver, calomel, and powder of tin, are the principal. The in- habitants of Jamaica are said to use the Geoffraea-inermis, or cabbage bark, with singular success. Dr. Duguid, a surgeon of that island, declares, that it is the most safe, and yet most powerful, vermifuge ever known, and that it frequently brings away as many worms by stools, as would fill a hat. He owns, however, that it sometimes produces violent effects, but these take place only, when it is used in the form of a strong decoction, in- stead of small doses of the pow- der. Yet we cannot, on this oc- casion, omit to warn every affec- tionate parent, against tampering with such powerful remedies as may prove destructive to their children ; nor to trust to the impudent asser- tions of daring advertisers of ver- mifuges....See Worms. [I have often used the Cabbage- tree bark as a vermifuge, and with success. When made into a syrup, its effects are less violent, and children take it more readily. To make this, boil one ounce and a half of the coarsely powdered bark, in a quart of water, for half an hour; then add the sugar, or give two table spoonsful every morning, sweetened. In powder, fifteen grains, with as much jalap, is a good purge. But, after all, re- peated experience has convinced me, that no remedy is so safe, so mild, or so certain, as calomel. Procure the medicine from an apo- thecary of character, give it in the dose suited to the age and consti- tution of the child, and keep him warm during the operation, avoid- ing cold and sour drinks, for two or three days, and no danger can ever attend the use of the remedy. Rhubarb, or jalap, may be mixed with the calomel, to quicken its operation.....A nausea, which some- times comes on during the opera. tion, maybe relieved by mint-water ....and an unnecessary purging may be restrained by two or three drops of laudanum. A child, be- tween the ages of two and four years, in general, may take from one to three grains at a dose, in syrup.] Ascites. See Dropsy. Asclepias. See Swallow-wort. ASH, or the Fraxinus, L. is a genus of which there are six spe- cies. Of these, the most useful is the common indigenous ash, or Fraxinus excelsior, L. which is well known to every rural economist. A plantation of these trees, when properly managed, seldom fails to prove of great advantage to the owner; for the underwood, which is fit to be cut every eight or ten ASH ASH 138 years, will produce a regular in- come, more than adequate to de- fray the rent of the ground, and other charges ; besides which, the trunk or stock preserved for tim- ber, will be worth forty or fifty shillings and upwards, per tree. It flourishes best in groves, but grows well in the rich soil of open fields: it also bears transplanting and lopping. In the north of Lanca- shire, in England, they lop the tops of these trees in autumn to feed cattle, when the grass is on the decline. The ash-tree delights in a rich, light soil; it attains its greatest height and perfection when at an age of from forty to fifty years. Although it also grows in wet and loose grounds, yet, when reared in these, its wood becomes less firm and durable. It prospers remarka- bly well on a white calcareous soil, and is also frequently found in a thriving state near brooks and rivulets. Planting.....The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. at London, considered the cultivation of the ash of so much importance, that, in the year 1779, they gave a premium of twenty pounds, and in 1780, their gold medal, to Mr. Day, of Fricndsbury, near Ro- chester, for an account of his suc- cessful method of rearing it. The whole is detailed in the firet vo- lume of their Transactions ; and we shall only observe,that Mr.Day is enabled to plant one thousand trees for two shillings : by his me- thod, fourteen acres, three quarters, and thirteen rod, out of sixteen acres, three quarters, and twenty- seven rod, are planted at the dis- tance of four feet, by two. To fill this extent of ground, there are required 80,682 plants: two acres and fourteen rod are planted at a distance of two feet, by eight inches, which takes up 66,400 plants. The reason for planting twice as thick one way as the other, is, that in such manner they are much easier to till. He has ascertained by experience, that there is an essential difference be- tween wild ash and those which are trained : hence he advises all the crooked ones to be rejected, and particular attention to be paid in getting the ash-keys. There is another advantage attending his plan, that potatoes may be planted between the rows. The emulation excited by the above and similar premiums, pro- duced such effects as might be ex- pected to result from so extensive and honourable a patronage. In the year 1790, the gold medal of the Society was adjudged to Lewis Majendie of Hedingham Castle, Esq. and the silver medal to H. G. Fausset, of Heppington, near Canterbury, Esq. The first mentioned gentleman planted on seven acres and twenty-one poles, of a principally loamy soil, the sur- prizing number of nineteen thou- sand trees, of four and five years old, at intervals of four feet. In a subsequent paper, Mr. M. recom- mends the soil to be completely trenched, previous to planting..... Mr. Fausset intermixed willow with his ash, and planted them at the distance of three feet and a half, in the proportion of three willows to one ash ; so that, on the decay of the willows, the ash plants remain seven feet asunder. The follow- ing is a sketch of bis method : the stars denote the ash, and the dots the willow-plants. 134 ASH ASH The ash when young, requires constant cultivation, for want of which it will be stinted in its growth, and often remain fortwen- ty years together without making any progress; it is brought forward much sooner, when sheltered by other plants. An improved method of plant- ing this tree, for hurdles, hoops, laths, fencing, and what is termed post and billet for collieries, is de- scribed by a correspondent in the fifth volume of the Papers publish- ed by the Bath Society. The leaves of the ash appear late and fall early : it is therefore unfit to be planted for protection or or- nament. Its timber ranks next in value to the oak ; and it ought, when sold, to be measured to a much smaller girth than either oak or elm. The wood of ash possesses the uncommon property of being al- most uniformly good, whether of young or old trees. It is hard, tough, and much used in making the different implements of hus- bandry, but particularly for hop- poles. Its ashes afford very good pot-ash ; and the bark is employed in tanning calf-skins. The seeds are acrid and bitter, and the leaves have been used for tine adultera- tion of tea. Poor people formerly derived considerable advantage by collecting them ; but we under- stand this practice has been prohi- bited, as it tends to diminish the revenue. We may, however ven- ture to say, that the leaves of the ash are as wholesome as those of the tea-tree : the latter, like most other evergreens, is of a doubtful, if not pernicious, quality, indepen- dently of the circumstance, that our teas may also partake of the fraudulent practice of the Chinese, to which most of their goods are liable. In rural economy, it has been as- serted, that the leaves of the ash impart a bad taste to milk ; and it is therefore seldom sufferedto grow in dairy farms. Those leaves, however, are eaten with avidity by horses, sheep, and goats, for which animals they are considered as good fodder. The bark of the common ash is used in dyeing. It is placed for some time in water, with a solu- tion of vitriol, by which the water acquires a black colour. The Mor- lachians boil the bark for the space of eight days, with the dross of iron, and, when the solution has grown cold, they use it for dyeing black. With cold water, the bark makes a lixivium, of a variegated colour, which displays azure and greenish shades ; but boiled water is not proper, as it renders the dye thick and brown. Warm water is preferable, as this produces a blueish lixivium, which imparts a fine blue colour to yarn, particu- larly if it has been previously dyed yellow. According to Dambour- ney, the fresh shavings of ash, give to wool, prepared with bis- muth," the true and permanent vigogne colour. [Several species of this highly useful tree, grow in the United States. 1. Fraxinus Americana Carolina, or red ash ; grows to the height of 30 feet, dividing into several branch- es, the small ones generally oppo- site, leaves composed of three or ASH ASH 135 four pair of lobes, terminated by an odd one, of a light green colour, and egg shaped and pointed. Their under surface covered with white downy hairs. 2. Fraxinus alba, or white ash ; 3. Fraxinus nigra, or black ash ; grows in moist places, covered with rough, light coloured bark, and sending out but few branches. 4. Fraxinus Pennsylvania, or Pennsylvania sharp-keyed ash. The ash is a large tree, the 2d and last species are much used by wheelwrights, carriage makers, for shafts, riinmers, wheels, axles, not being apt to split and scale, it is excellent for tenors and mortises. In England, the ash is felled from November to February : if it be done either too early in Autumn or too late in Spring, the timber will be subject to be infested with worms and other insects. Is there any differenceobserved as to the durabi- lity of the ash, when felled in dif- ferent seasons, in the U. States ? An answer is required. The ash is greatly cultivated in England, being easily propagated. Many hundred acres have been planted by individuals, within a few years past. The prickly ash is a tree of a different genus. See Aralia Spinosa.] ASHES, generally speaking, are the remains of bodies reduced by fire. These are vegetable, animal, and mineral ashes ; but the first only are strictly entitled to tiiat appellation. We understand, that the French have recently contrived a process of converting the ashes, or residuum of aninud substances, decomposed by burning them, into glass, similar to that which is pro- duced in the manufacture of this article, when siliceous earth and wood-ashes are the principal ingre- dients. This curious conversion of human bodies into a transparent and most beautiful metal, is an in- genious imitation of the practice frequently adopted among the an- cients, with a view to preserve the sacred remains of their revered an- cestors, or of persons of great worth and merit. But, whether such expedients, if they ever should be- come general, be compatible with the refined feelings of relations and friends in other countries, we sub- mit to the determination of our sentimental readers. If we may be allowed to express our opinion on so delicate a subject, the scheme may be a very economi- cal one, for saving the expences of an ostentatious funeral; and, as such we have mentioned it in this work: but we doubt whether there may be found many individuals in this country, except those few among the emigrees, who incline, or deserve, to receive the honours of combustion. Mineral bodies, when reduced by fire, are properly called Calxes, of which we shall treat under that distinct head. There is a great variety of wood- ashes prepared from different vege- tables. We have already described the properties of Alkalies (p. 29,) and shall at present observe, that vegetable ashes contain a great quantity of fixed sale, blended with earthy particles; and that from these ashes are extracted the fixed alkaline salts, called Pot-ash Pearl-ash, Barilla, &c. of the preparation, and properties of which, we propose to treat under their respective heads. Confining, therefore, our account to ashes, in their unchanged and crude state,. 136 ASH ASH we shall give the following descrip- tion of the different useful purposes to which they are subservient, in domestic and rural economy. About half a century ago, Dr. Francis Home, of Edinburgh, who may be considered as the ear- liest benefactor of the Scottish cot- ton manufactories, justly observed in an ingenious treatise, entitled Experiments in Bleaching, that the proper application of alkaline leys, is one of the most important and critical articles in the whole pro- cess of that art. This circumstance induced him to inquire, after the mathematical method of investi- gating truth, into the nature and composition of the several sorts of ashes used for this purpose. With due deference to the talents of his genius, that has apparently been misled on this early occasion, we cannot but regret that Dr. Home appears then to have been unac- quainted with a strict analytical and synthetical investigation of na- tural bodies ; a method which, we venture to say, might have enabled him to anticipate many of the sub- sequent discoveries, made in che- mistry by the French, Swedish and British philosophers of the anti- phlogistic school. He is, however, justly entitled to the praise and gra- titude of his countrymen ; among whom he greatly contributed to excite a spirit of research into the useful phenomena of natural bo- dies ; a spirit which has already proved highly beneficial to the community at large, and eminently conducive to the honour of that celebrated University, in which he is now the oldest professor.* In the treatise before alluded to, the author originally proposed the use of oil of vitriol, instead of the acids formerly used for bleaching linen, such as butter-milk, sour milk, infusions of bran, or rye- meal, he. kept for some days, till they acquire a proper degree of acidity. He proved by experi- ments, that the vitriolic acid is by no means injurious to the cloth; is les* expensive, more expeditious, and on all accounts equally, if not more, efficacious. Many and curious were the ex- periments which Dr. Home then instituted, on the different ashes; and from the result of which he concluded, that pearl-ashes contain a pure alkaline salt, with a small proportion of vitriolated tartar and absorbent earth. In the composi- tion of Russian and Swedish ashes, he discovered a considerable quan- tity of lime; a discovery which amply evinced the folly of an Act of the British Legislature, which prohibited the use of lime in bleaching. For though lime- water alone, greatly contributes to whiten cloth, yet it is apt to render it much weaker if not well washed out before drying ; but alkaline salts added to lime, diminish its power of weakening and corroding, in proportion to the quantity of these salts added to the lime. This observation suggested to him a hint of supplying the Muscovy ashes, at home, by a preparation which experience proved to answer all the intended purposes of those ashes. After repeated trials of dif- ferent proportions, the method of making this profitable substitute, consists in adding one-fourth of pot- ash dissolved in a little water, to three quarts of quenched lime. Whether this process has been * We believe he is near ninety years of age. ASH found generally successful, we have not been able to ascertain. In rural economy, ashes have, since the days of Virgil, been consider- ed as one of the best, and easiest, means of fertilizing land ; yet many objections have been started, by modem writers, against their use ; probably because they were indis- criminately employed for all kinds of soil, whether moist or dry, cold or warm, loose or clayey. Hence we need not be suiprized that agri- culturists .have differed in opinion on this subject. Without detaining the reader with speculations con- cerning the manner in which ashes act on the soil, in promoting its fertility, wre shall briefly observe, on the authority of the best writers, supported by experience: 1. That vegetable ashes, in ge- neral, are most effectual for ma- nuring moist, cold, boggy, marshy, or uncultivated soils. 2. That ashes are no less fit for manure, after the salt is extracted from them, than before; and, if there be any difference, it is in fa- vour of the washed ashes. An anonymous correspondent in the Gentl. .Mag. for June, 1766, appears to have derived the first hint respecting the advantages of peat-ashes in dressing land, and a method of preparing coal-ashes for the same purpose, from the Dic- tionaire E.conomique, or the Family Dictionary, translated from the French by the late Prof. Bradley, of Cambridge, and published in 1725. In this curious work, which equally abounds with excellent and frivolous remarks, we find the fol- lowing passage : '• Turf and peat ashes must needs be very rich, much after the same manner as burning of land." Perhaps it is in consequence of this-suggestion, that VOL. II ASH 137 we find in the Magazine before al- luded to, an account of too interest- ing a nature to withhold it from our readers. Peat-ashes, properly burnt, af- ford an excellent manure for both corn and grass-land ; but the most valuable are those obtained from the lowest stratum of the peat, where the fibres and roots cf tlie earth are most decayed. This will yield a large quantity of very strong ashes, of a colour, when recently burnt, resembling vermiilion, and of a very saline and pungent taste. Great care and caution should be used in burning these ashes, and likewise in preserving them for fu- ture use. The method of burning them is similar to that of making charcoal. After the peat is col- lected into a large heap, and co- vered, so as not to flame out, it must be suffered to consume slowly, till the whole substance is reduced to ashes. Thus burnt, they are found excellent in sweetening sour meadow-land, destroying rushes, and other bad kinds of weeds, and producing in their place great quan- tities of excellent grass. In some parts of Berkshire and Lancashire, they are considered one of the best dressings for spring crops. A very great improvement may likewise be made, and at a moderate expense, with coal-ashes, which, when properly preserved, are a most useful article for manure. By putting one bushel of lime, in its hottest state, into every cart-load of these ashes, covering it up in the middle of the heap for about twelve hours, till the lime be en- tirely fallen ; then incorporating them well together, and by turn- ing the. whole over, two or three times, the cinders or half-burnt parts of the coals, which instead T 138 ASH of being useful, are noxious to the ground, will be reduced to as hue a powder as the lime itself. For this purpose, however, the coal- ashes should be carefully kept dry : and, thus prepared, they are the quickest breakers and improvers of moorish and benty land. Professor B'ajley, in his dic- tionary before mentioned, farther observes, that soap-ashes are highly commended by Vi. Pratt, as be- ing, after the soap-boiler has ex- tracted them, eminently fructify- ing; and that the ashes of any kind of vegetables are profitable for enriching barren grounds, as they promote the decomposition of moss and rushes, in a very great degree. The best season for laying them, either for corn, pasture, or mea- dow, is said to be in the beginning of winter, in order that they may the more easily be dissolved by showers of rain. Having given this view of the subject, from the collective expe- rience of British writers, we shall also communicate a few practical facts, derived from authentic Ger- man authors. According to their experience, pot-ash is most usefully employed for correcting a sandy and loamy soil; the ashes obtained from the hardest woods, being the most be- neficial, and among these, the beech and oak are generally pre- ferred. A small addition of quick- lime to the pot-ash, tends consider- ably to increase its fertilizing pro- perty. The refuse of soap-boiler's ashes, is likewise used in Germany, with the best effect, when sprinkled, soon after sowing, either in spring or in autumn, as closely as possi- ble, over fields of wheat, rye, 9/