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\ SURGEON GENERAL'S OFFICE \
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  i
   i! 
 SIMPLIFIED  ANATOMY,
     FOR THS USE OF FAMILIES;
                   ASTD
THOSE WHO HAVE NOT THE ADVANTAGE OF A TEACHER})
                 IX WHICH
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM ARE
               EXPLAINED.
   ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS
OF THE BONES, MUSCLES, BLOOD VESSELS, NERVES, &C.
             TO WHICH IS ANNEXED,



                   BY
  DR. WIIililAlf ^SPIL,Ii^AX,
          OF MARYVILLE,  TEJYM
Impart it freely, or make use of' mine/' r/A \
If a better system's tiling
"....."".........TV
-<$£»»
\
Madisonville, Tcnn.
  PRINTED BY J. F. GRANT.
1835. 
  (Xj'Entered according to act of Congress in the year l«o5, bv
Doctor  William Spillman, in  the  Clerk's  office of the District
Court of the United States for the Districi of East Tennessee.
                                   WM.  C. MYNATT,
                    Clerk of the District of East Tennessee. 
                      -a©e-
   In presenting to the publick a new work, on  a sub-
ject upon whicn so much has  already  been  written;
I have assumed  it as granted, that it was necessary
to state candidly the reasons why I 'was  led  to  com-
pile, and publish the following paget>;  and  1.  There
has  been a  great many books published, and  circu-
lated for the purpose of instructing people in  general,
as it regards the symptoms of disease, and the mode
of administering medicine for the relief of the same:
—and, almost every family is  in possession  of such
books. How few derive any benefit from them, in con-
sequence of being unacquainted with the  construction
of the human system—the location of the different or-
gans.—and the parts liable to be affected by disease.
   This then is one strong reason why a simple, plain
anatomical work, adapted to the capacity of  common
leaders should be published.
   £.  The second reason is that the most of anatomi-
cal, and physiological works that have been previous-
ly published are so lengthy,  complicated, and full of
technical terms,  with explanations, that the  common
reader cannot be benefitted by them.
 .  With these considerations, together with many oth-
ers that might easily be adduced, I  have endeavored
to compile a work that will obviate the above  difficul-
ties.
   The difficulties with which I met myself, when  I first
commenced reading anatomical works, from  the fre-
quent use of technical terms, without an explanation,
caused me often to wish  for a simple,  plain  work on
that subject, such as was not too diffuse—not express-
ed in many words ;  but  comprised in so moderate a
compass as not to require any large expense, either of
money or time: and this I wanted to see in the plain-
est dress,  and in the most clear, easy,  and intelligi-
ble manner, that the nature of things would allow of. 
   There arc a great many books eiiciiu —
 and physiology, that are good, and useful,  to the sci-
 entiiic. and which reflect much credit upon their differ-
ent authors.   But  the query is, are they adapted  to
jthe capacity of common readers?  If then, the nega-
tive is put upon this question, the fact is at once estab-
Ilislied, that a work on anatomy suited to the capacity
 of people in general is needed.
\   Such a work  I  have aimed at in  the following pa-
; ges.  It is true, that many technical  terms are used,
,; but in most cases they arc followed by an explanation,
 or if not immediately explained,  an explanation can be
• found in the glossary at the sequel.
   I have now only to  add,  that I have  written and
 published this book because I believed that such an one
 was needed, and would be useful.
                             WM.  SMLLMAN.
   Marijville,  Tenn. June 1st, 1835. 
A.11TH ixatioss in general,
Vrticulations of the head with the vertebrae,
      "     "  "  vertebra with each other,
      "     "  "  lower jaw,
      i«     «  «  ribs,
      "     "  "  clavicle,
      i«     "  "  shoulder,
      »     "  "  elbow,
      «     ««  "  wrist,
      «     "  "  hand,
      "     "  "  fingers,
      »     «  "  hip joint,
      «     "  "  knee,
      «     «  "  ancle,
Abdwiucu,
Aorta,
Arteries table of
Absorbents,
Bones of the head,
   "   "  « face and jaws,
   «  «   « ear,
   '<  it   *t trunk or body,
   "  «•   " upper extremities,
   «t  <t   t« iQwer extremities,
Bone of the ear,
Bones table of,
Burs?e  mucosa,
Bladder urinary,
Blood vessels,
Brain, spinal marrow and nerves^
Cellular  membrane,
Explanation of plate I,
       t.    «    u  \iy
       u    «    ft m,
       tt    tt    « jy
       "    "    "  v,
General divisions,
    "    integuments,
Heart,
Intestixts,
Kidnies,
Ligaments,
Larynx,
Lungs,
Liver, 
1JN1I1SX.                         VI
 Mcscles in general,
     "    of the integuments of the cranium,
     ft    a  ft  eye lids,
     tf    tt  tf  eye ball,
     "    «  "  nose and mouth,
     "    "  "  ear,
     tt    ft  «  lower jaw,
     ct    <«  tf  forc part of the neck,
     "    between the lower jaw and os hyoides,
     "      «    "  os hyoides and the body,
     "    situated laterally between the lower jaw & bone XVI 92 i
     «     "     about the cavity of the fauces,
     «     "     on the back part of the pharynx,
     "     "     about the glottis,
     »     ft      ft   <f  anterior part of  the  abdomen,
     tf     tf      "   "  male organs of generation.
     "     of the anus,
     "     "   "  female organs of generation,
     "    situated within the pelvis,
     "  .    "      "    "-  cavity of the  abdomen,
    /'      " -  on the anterior part of the thorax,
     "      "   between the ribs, and within the thorax,
     "      "   on the fore part of the neck,
     "      "   on the back part of the neck,
     "    of the upper extremities,
     "    situated on the os humeri,
     "    situated below the elbow joint,
     "      "    on the hand,
     "    of the inferior extremities,
     "    situated on the thigh,
     "      "    "   "  leg,
     "      "    "   "  foot,
Mouth and throat,  cavity ot
Nerves table of
     "    spinal,
    "    cervicle,
    "    dorsal,
    "    sacral,
Omentum,
Organs of generation, male,
    "  "    "        female,
Pelvis in general,
Pharynx,
Pleura, form  of,
Pericardium,
Peritonium,
Panchreas. 
 YII            INDEX AND ERRATTA.

 Salivary glands,                                   142
 Stomach,                                            154
 Spleen,                                              163
 Skin,                                                202
 Teeth,                                              16
 Tongue,                                             141
^Throat,                                             143
 Tonsils,                                               "
 Thorax,                                             147
    "   form  of the cavity,                          148
 Trachea, or wind pipe,                                151




                   ERRATTA.
  In consequence of not being present  at  the time of the
 printing of the  following pages,  a number of typographical
 errors  have been made; some of which are here  corrected:
 there are a few others of less importance, which  the reader
 can correct himself.  For ex. u is frequently used  for n and
 oisa versa.                                     W.  S.   .
 Page 5pass squamosa 8c fiass fietrosa, readpars sqamosa iJfc
 On the same page, for hejoides, read hyoides.
 Page 7, 7th line from the bottom, for sefiimentum, read sep-
  tum.
 Page 22, 9th line from the bottom, for XVI. read XXVI.
 Page 2 for muscle III, read 111.
 Psge 29, 3d line from the top, forgives read joins.
 Page 31 4th line from the top, for back read beak.
 Page 37, 14th line  from the bottom, for when read  where.
 Page 43, 14th line from the top, for delloid read deltoid.
 Page 52, 12th line from the bottom, for for syncurosus  read
  syneurosus.
 Page 62, 4th line from the bottom,  for cravat, read curvat.
 Page 65, 4th line of the 3rd paragraph,  for fasciculi,  read
  fasciculi.
 Page 70, 11th line from the bottom, for fierosteum,  read  peri-
  osteum.
 Page 72,5th line from the top, for ilumero read numero.
 Page 90, 14th line from the top, for lip. of the tongue, ve&dtip.
 Same page 9th line from the bottom, the  same error occurs
  again.
 Page 92, 2d line from the bottom, for pas petrosa, read pars.
 Last line of page 90, & first of page 100,  for integuments of
  the penis, read body. 
VIII                   ERRATTA.

Page 103, 6th line from the bottom, for distention read distri
  button.                                               |
Page 105, 10th line from the top, for fifty, readfifth.      i
Page 108, 1st paragraph,  for Labisimus, read Lattisimus. \
Page 111 3d line from the top for covered read curved.
Page 161, 12th line from the bottom, for semen read serum.
Page 163, last line of the 2d paragraph, for splinic read splenic
Page 195, & last line, for esntient, read sentient. 
SYSTEM  OF  ANATOMY.
                PART FIRST.—OF BONES.

jL    Before entering into a description of the  Anatomy
1- of the human system, it probably would be necessary
 J to lay down in the  first place, the general divisions.
     1.  The cranium, or head;
 ■.   2. The trunk, or body;
 *■    3. The lower extremities, or legs and feet
 K
     Subdivisions.—The trunk or body,  is divided into
  two cavities:
     1. The cliesf. thorax, or brea'H;
     -2. The abdomen or belly:  those two cavities are
  divided  by  a  membrane, called  the midriff or dm-
 jiphragm.
    There arc also some  other  imaginary divisions of
.  the, trunk or body,  which, as they sometimes are  use-
  ful in describing the location  of organs, and  the  seat
  of disease,  I will here intirduce them.   Suppose a line
 , drawn from the pit of the stomach down the centre of
  the abdomen; a second one across the abdomen about
  two inches above the uvibilicus, or  navel; and a third
  one the same distance belowr.   We  will  then have the
  abdomen divided into six parts.   A part of each of the
  two upper portions, included between the ends  of the
  false  ribs on each side, and the centre of the abdomen,
  is termed the epigastric region;  and on each side of
  this are the right and left hypochondriac regions.  Be-
  tween the first and second transverse or cross   lines,
  and tw o inches on each side of the  navel, is called the
1  umbilical region; immediately below  is the jiyppogas- 
2          EXPLANATION OF PLATE  1ST.

trie region; on either side the  right and  left illiac or
lumbar region.
  Bones.—There are in the human system 248 bones,
63 of which are found in the head.   Plate first ex-
hibits most of the bones of the head, together with the
sutures.



       EXPLANATION Or PLATS  1.

A  The frontal bone.
a   Shows the serated edge which forms the  coronal su-
      ture.
b   The flatter part behind the eye, which is plain and
      hollow for lodging the temporal  muscle.
c   Is the acute angle of the bone, called the external
      angular process.
d   Is the prominence over the nose, called  t\\e frontal
      sinus, which the Surgeon avoids in trepanning.
B  The parietal bone.  The white semicircle line in
      which (B) stands, represents the  origin of the
      temporal muscles.
e   Is that part covered with the  thin  expanded ten-
      don  of the Occiptito-frontalis muscle; (Mus. J.)
f   The radiated surface.                           *
g   Points to a small hole  in the back part of tnis
      bone.
h   That part called the spinous process, under the cor-
      ner of which the dura mater runs.
C  A small part of the occipital bone.
D  ire temporal bone.
i   The thin upper edge, which  forms the  squamous
      suture.
k   The deep flat part, on which the temporal muscle ■ 
 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1ST.          3
1   The mastoid or mamilliary process, named from its
      resemblance to a nipple.
m  The styloid process.
d   The zygomatic process, which, joining with a sim-
      ilar process of the cheek bone forms, the zygo-
      ma, or arch.
o   The ring of the meatus auditorus externus, or out-
      ward ring of the ears.
p   A small hole, which, transmits a vein.
E  Os  mala, or bone of  the cheek.
q   The angular process of the cheek bone.
r   Zygomatic process of the cheek bone.
s   The origin  of  the  zygomaticus  Muscles; (see
      mus. 14 15.)
F  The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.
t   The lateral nasal suture, or part, where the bones
      of the nose,  are joined to the upper jaw bone.
G  The upper jaw bone.
H  The under jaw bone.   (H) is placed at the part
      called angle, into which the maseter muscle is
      fixed;  (Mus. 36.)
u   The coronoid or horn-like process.
v   The condyloid process.
1   Coronal suture, running across the  head,  joining
      the frontal to the parietal bones, extending from
      ear to ear, it joins  the squamous suture at the
      temple.
2   Lamdoidal suture, joining the occipital to the par-
      ietal bones.
3   Sagittal suture, joining the parietal bones to each
      other.
4  Temporal or squamous suture,belonging chiefly to the
      temporal bone, so called, because  the  temporal
      and parietal bones lie over each other like scales.
w  Additamentum sulurae squamosae or supplement to 
4
BONES OF THE  HEAD.
       the Squamous suture, lying between the occipital
       and paiietal bones.
 5   Sphenoidal suture;  It joins the wing of the sphe-
       noid bone, to the  temporal, frontal, and parietal
       bones.
 6   Transverse suture;  It runs across the face, through
      the middle of the eye sockets, and over the root
      of the nose.
 7   Zygomatic suture.

                     —••*« ©»*«••—

      BONES OF THE CRANIUM OR HEAD.

   I. Os  Frontis, or bone of the forehead.   A shell
like bone reaching  from its upper edge downwards so
as to include the upper part of the  eye  socket, and
backwards on each side to the temples.  The particu-
lar parts of this bone, are,
   1. Superciliary ridge.  Immediately above the eyes
on which the eye brows  are placed.
  2. Superciliary hole.   (A hole on  the ridge last de-
scribed, which gives passage to the  frontal nerve.
  3. Foramen orbitale interims.   A hole in the internal
pari of the eye socket, which also transmits a nerve.
  4. Angular process.   The orbilary  or  superciliary
ridge,  ends  by two processes, which  forming the an-
gles of the eye are named the angular processes.  The
frontal bone has 4 angular processes.
   1. The two internal angular processes,  forming the
internal angles of the eye; and 2 the two external an-
gular processes, which form the external angles of the
.eye.
  5. Nasal point or process.   The nasal or  nose pro-
cess is a small sharp pi'ojecting point, occupying the
space between the two external angular processes. 
               BONES OF  THE HEAD.             5

   6. Temporal ridge or  spine.   Extending from the
 external angular process, backwards and upwards.
   II.  Os ParietalE,   (or  parietal  bone.)   The
 bones which form the walls on each side of the  head.
 They are of a quadrangular, or square form.  These
 bones enter into the formation of the coronal, sagittal,
 lambdoidal,  and squamous sutures, (see plate 1.)
   The parietal bones are joined together by the sagittal
 suture to the sphenoid,  and  temporal bones,  by the
 lambdoidal, and to the frontal by the coronal suture.
   III. Ossa Temporatia. or temporal  bones.   They
 are situated on each side of the head and are divided
 into three portions, one of which from its connection
 withothc" bones, is called pass squamosa (i. e.) lie over
 each other like scales;  the second'pass petrosa or os
 petrosum from its irregularity and hardness; and the
 third is called mastoidcan angle, it is thick and hard,
 and  is divided into cells,  ibrnr ,g those caverns  which
 arc supposed to be chiefly useful in  reverberating the
 sound.  The other particulur parts cf these bone3 are,
   1. Zygomatic process.  It arises broad and flat be-
 fore the car; grows gradually  smaller as  it stretchers
 forward to reich the  cheek bone, to  which it is joined
 by a short suture.
  2,  Styloid process, so named because it resembles a
 stylus av point,  with which the ancients engraved their
 writing on tables  of wax.   It stands obliquely  out
 from the basis of the head, and is behind  the jaws.   It
gives origin to  a ligament that supports the os hejoi-
des or bone of the tongue.
  3.  Mastoid process, or conical nipple-like bump, like
the thumb; it projects from under the ear, and is easi-
ly felt with the  finger.
  4.  Auditory process.  The outer margin of the hole
of the ear. 
6             BONES OF THE  HEAD-

 "IV.  0s'6ccipitis.  This bone  is- situated  on the
back part  of the  head, is  very thick,  and uneven.
This borte supports  the back part of the brain,  con-
tains the cerebellum or  lesser brain,  and transmits the
spinal  marrow.
  This bone is  united to the parietal, temporal, and
.sphenoid bones___The;different  parts of this bone  are,
  1. Perpendicular external spine;   An irregular spint,
or ridge in the middle of the bone.
  2. Superior transverse syine, or  ridge  across this
bone, at the upper part.
  5. Inferior transtersc spine, or ridge across this bons
at the lower part.    These  ridges give  origin and  in-
sertion to several muscles.
   -. Posterior tuberosity.   The part where the superi-
or :ra?i7i'crsc spine crosses the  perpendicular spine or
ridge,  is thus named.
   5. Cuneiform process, or wedge-like process.   That
part of the  bone which lies in  the  carter of the base
of the skull, and is joined to the sphenoid  bone.
   6. Condyles.  Two small oval processes, or .button
like projections, which stand off from the side, a little
 back from the forepart of the foramen mapnim or great
 hole.
  M Tubercles.   On the lower- part of the cuneiform
 c/ocess, there are two tubercles, for the attachment of
 muscles.  Near the  condyle and  immediately behind
 $&foramen lacerum, there is a tubercle for the attach-
 ment of another muscle.
   8. Foranr.u  magnum,  or  great hole of the  head.
 ■which transmits the spinal marrow, or continuation ot
 the brain.
    9.  Foramen  condijlmdeum anterius.   A hole  at  the
 fore part of the root of  either condyle.  It transmits
 the great lingual nerve. 
BONES OT THE  HEAD.
  10. Foramen condyloideumposteriu-s.   A small hok
immediately behind the condyle.  A vein passes through
this hole.
  11. Foramen lacerum.   Formed  by the  occipital
and temparal bones.   It sometimes is divided into two
openings,  by a small point.   This hole also transmits
a nerve,  which goes  down  to  the heart, lungs and
stomach.
  V.  Os ethmoideum.  This,  of all the bones  of
the human system is the most curie;'.;-.   It is exceed-
ingly light and spungy, and  consists of many convo-
luted plates, (i. e.) rolled or folded together,  forming a
net-v.ork. like a honey-comb.  Thi3 bone is curiously
enclosed in the os  frontis,  (bone of  the forehead,) be-
twixt the  orbitary plates of that bone.
  This bone is connected to the  front:-1!, sphenoid and
vomer bones.   The divisions  or parts of this bone
are,
  1.   Cribriform plate.   This plate is exceedingly thin,
lies horizontally over the root of the nose, and fills uv
the space between the two orbitary plates of the fron-
tal bone.
  2.   Cristagali.   A  small perpendicular projection.
somewhat like a cock's comb, but very  small, stand-
ing directly upwards from the middle of the cribriform
plate, and dividing  that  plate so that one  olfactory
nerve lies on each side of this process.
  3.   Nasal plate or process.  That part of  the eth-
moid  bone which  forms part of the sepimentum or par-
titionvfhicli divides the nostrils.
  4.   Labyrinths.   The side parts of the ethmoid bone
consist of .small cells communicating with each other,
which are called  labyrinths.   These  cells are closed
externally by  a plate called,  os planum (i. e.) plain and
smooth. 
 8            BONES  OF THE HEAD.

   5.  Superior spongy bones or processes.   From each
 of these labyrinths, there hangs down a spongy bone in
 each nostril.   They are each rolled up like a scroll of
 parchment, and are covered with a sensible membrane,
 to which the olfactory nerves  arc  attached alter they
 depart from the cribriform plate.
  6. Os planum or orbitar plate of the ethmoid  bono.
 It is  of a  quadrangular form, is  very  smooth, and
 forms a great part of the eye socket, lying in  its in-
 ner side.
  VI. Os Spiienoides,  or  sphenoid  bone,  which
 completes the cranium, and  closes it below.  It  is also
 named cuneiform, or wedge-like bone, from its being
 enclosed in the very base of the skull.  This  bone is
 united to fourteen distinct bones. It is very much sha-
 ped like a hat, for which reason it is often named ptery-
goid bone; its  temporal process being  like extended
 wings, its pterygoid process  like feet;  its  middle like
the  body and head of a bat.  Its wing like processes,
 are in  the  hollow  of the  temple,  forming   part
 of  the squamous suture,  and also  composing  part
 of  the  eye  socket;  its pterygoid  processes,  hang
 over the roof of  the mouth,  forming  the back  of
 the  nostrils;  the  body is the very center  of the
 skull.   The parts of this bone which are referred to in
 other places, arc,
  1. Temporal procc?,?, often called aim or wings.  It
 is situated in the temple, to  form part ol  the hollow of
 the temple; and the wings of  the sphenoid bone meet-
 ing the frontal ,parietal, and temporal bones, by a thin
 scaly edge, they form part  of   the  squamous  suture,
 forming a smooth surface for the temporal muscles to
 play upon.
  2.  Orbital process.  That part  of the sphenoid bono
 which forms the outside of the eye socket  It is also
 called orbitar plate. 
BONES OF TUE  HEAD.
9
    5.  Cerebral fossa.  That portion of the wing which-
 runs backwards, and receives the  middle  lobe of the
 brain is thus called.
    4. Temporal fossa.  That part of the sphenoid bone
 which receives the temporal muscle.
    5. Styloid process.  A small point projecting from
 the basis of the skull, just within the  condyle of the
 lower' jaw.
    G. Transverse spinous process.   A portion of  tie-
 less wing,  called ingratias, which projects  laterally
 into a point, is thus named.
   7. Pterygoid processes.  They are four in  number.
 two of which arc on each side.   They  are those pro-
 cesses on which the bone naturally stands, and which,
 when we compare it with a bat, represents the  legs;
 one of each side is named external, and the other is na-
 med internal pterygoid process.
   Each external pterygoid  process is thin and broad,
 and extends further backwards.  Each Internal ptery-
 goid process is taller and more slender and not so broad.
 It  has its end rising higher than the other, and tipped
 with a small hook, named the  hook of the pterygoid
 process.
   8. Clinoid processes.  They are four in number sur-
 rounding the sella turcica;  two of  which are named
 from their position anterior, and the other two posteri-
 or.  They are small  bumps, rather sharp:  the two
 cnUvd anterior, terminate in two flat points projecting
 backwards; the other two are round, or knotty at their
 points, projecting forward, towrard the anterior clrno id
process.
  9. Tuberculum olivare.    An eminence between the
anterior clinoid process and before the sella turcica.
  10. Sella  turcica ephippium, or Turkish Saddle.   A
cavity in the sphenoid bone,  containing  the  pituarij 
10       BONES OF THE FACE AND JAWS.

gland.   It is surrounded by the four clinoid processes.
  There are many other holes, and parts of this bone
which are worthy of notice, those wishing further in-
formation can find it in Bells' or Wister's anatomy.
     BONES OF THE  FACE AND JAWS.

  VII.  OSSA MAXILLARIA SUPERIORA, or Upper jaw
bones.  The upper jaw bones are of considerable size,
forming, as it were the bones of the face. They send
a large  branch upwards, which forms the sides of  the
nose; a broad plate goes backwards, which forms  the
roof of  the palate.  There is a circular projection  be-
low, which forms the  alveoli, or sockets of the teeth.
These processes,  together with the  cavity  of these
bones, deserve particular notice.
  The surface or plates of this bone are these: exter-
nal or malar; the  superior or orbital;  the internal, or
nasal; the inferior or palatine surface.
  The upper jaw  bones are attached forward and up-
wards to the nasal and frontal bones; at the sides to the
cheek bone,  and in the orbit it is connected with  the
ethmoid bone; towards the nasal cavities,  it has  the
vomer, palate bones,  and lower spongy bones  attached
to it; and at  the back part it touches  the sphenoid
bone.  The parts to he noticed of this bonq, are,
  1. Nasal or nose processes,  which extend upwards
to form  the sides of the nose.   It  is arched outwards
to give the  nostrils shape.
  2. Internal ridge.  On  the inside and root  of  tire
nasal process,  there  is   a  rough  horizontal ridge,
which is named internal ridge,  aud which gives  at-
tachment to the fore part of the spongy bone.
  3. Orbitary plate.   That  part  of the bone  which 
         BONES OF THE FACK AND JAWS.        11

 forms the roof to the antrum maxillare, and serves as
 a floor for the eye to roll upon.
   4. Malar process.   That part of the bone which
joins to the cheek bone.
   5. Alveolar process.   That part of the jaw bone in
 which the teeth are inserted.
   6. Palate process.  That part of the bone which di-
 vides the nose from the mouth, forming the roof of the
 palate, and the floor or  bottom of the nostrils.
   7. Nasal spine or ridge.   Where the palate bones
 meet in the middle they form a ridge,  which is thus
 called, on  which  ridge the split edge  of the vomer,
 (bone  13) or partition of the nose, is planted.
   9. Antrum maxillare, commonly called antrum High
 morianum, after  its discoverer.   The palate plate
 makes the floor  of the  antrum; the orbitary  process
 makes its roof; the cheeks,  from the  sockets  of the
 teeth to the lower part of the eyes, form its  walls or
 sides.  This cavity is lined with a membrane, subject
 to inflamation, and swelling, which very much deforms
 the face, but may be relieved by extracting the second
 or third of the grinding teeth.
  VIII.  Ossa malorum.   These  are the prominent
square bones which form the upper part of the cheeks.
They are situated close under the  eyes, and make
part of the orbit.   Each of these bones have three sur-
faces to be considered.  One of these is exterior, or
outward  surface,  and is somewhat convex.   The se-
cond is the upper surface, and  is concave, serving to
form the lower and side parts of the orbit or eye sock-
et.   The third is the posterior or back surface, which
is very unequal and concave, for the lodgment of the
temporal muscle, (mus. 35.)
  Each of these bones have four processes.
   1.  Upper orbitary  process,   Running upwards to 
12       BONES  OF THE PACE AND JAWS.

form part of the eye socket, the outer corner of the eye,  ,
and the sharp edge of the temple.
  2. Lower orbitary process.   That part which forms
the lower part of the eye socket, and  the  edge of tho
cheek.                                              i
  3. Maxillary process.  That part  which' forms the
broad and rough surface, by which  it is joined to the
upper jaw bone.
  4. Internal orbitary process.  That portion which
goes backwards to form part of the eye socket
  IX.  Ossa nasi,  or bones  of the  nose.   They are
each of an irregular oblong figure,  being broadest at  1
their lower ends, narrowest near the middle,  and lar-
ger again at the  top, where  the edge is rough and
thick, by which their connection with the frontal bone
is  very strong.  They are  convex externally, and
concave within.  They  arc enclosed by  a  branch of
the  upper jaw bone, which,   streching  upwards, is
named its nasal process: they lie with their edges un-   '
dcr it, in one part, and above  it, in another, in  such a
way that they cannot he easily forced in.   The lower
edge is rough, for the firm attachment of the cartila-
ges of the nose;  and their lowest point, on  that part
where the bones  of the  nose, and the gristles of the
nose are joined, is the most prominent part of the nose.
 The only point resembling a process in these bones is.
that rough ridge formed by their union, which projects
towards the cavity, to give attachment to the nasal
plate of the ethmoid bone.
  X.  Ossa evguis.  So named from its being of the
size and shape  of the nail  of the  finger.   They are
situated on the  internal  side of the orbit of the eye,
between the os planum of the ethmoid bone, and the
nasal process of the upper jaw bone.  Each of  these
bones  are joined above to  the frontal bone;  behind 
        BONES OF THE  FACE  AND  JAWS.        13

to the os planum; before and below  to the upper jaw-
bone.
  The Unguis, is very  thin  and delicate, sometimes
not thicker than a thin sheet of paper.  It is this bone
which is pierced in the operation of the fistula  lachry-
malis, a disease of the laclirymal sack.
  This  bone is liable to  decay, which is perhaps, the
nature of all thin bones,  for as they have  no marrow,
they must depend entirely on the  periosteum or  mem-
brane which surrounds the bones, for their blood-ves-
sels, of which, they are no sooner deprived, than they
die.
  XI. Ossa palati,  or palate bones:  These  bones
form the back part of the roof of the  mouth,  extend-
ing  from it along the external sides of the back open-
ing of the nose,  into the orbits of the eyes.
  Each bone may be considered as follows;
   1.  Pedate plate, or process of the palate bone.  This
process, lies horizontal in the same level w ith the palate
process of the upper jaw-bone, which it resembles in its
rough and spinous surface.
  2.  Pterygoid process:   A small projecting  point of
the palate bone,  just behind the last grinding  tooth,
touches the plerijgoid process of the sphenoid bone; from
which circumstance it is called pterygoid process of the
palate bone.
   3. Nasal plate, or  process:  This is a thin single
plate, running perpendicularly upwards from the pal-
ate; and lies upon the side and back part of the nos-
trils, so as to jbrm their  opening backwards into  the
throat;  it is so joined to the upper jaw-bone, that it lies
there like a sounding board upon the.antrum maxillare,
(see hone VII part 9,) and completes that cavity form-
ing the thin partition between it and  the  nose.
   4. Orbitary plate, or process: That part of the na-
       B 
   14       BONES OF THE  FACE  AND  JAWS.

   sal plate which enters into the orbit, and enlarges into
   an irregular knob,  of a triangular form is called, orbi-
   tary process.
    XII.  Ossa spongeosa, or tubinata inferiora, re-
  sembling a sponge.  They are two in number, situated
  in the under part of the side  of  the nose.  They are
  thus named to distinguish them from the upper spongy
  bones, which belong to the ethmoid bone.
    The ossa spongiosa, are convoluted, or rolled togeth-
  er, having such holes, cavities, and net work  as we
  see in raised bread.  They lie rolled up in the  lower
  part of the nose,  and are easily seen, either in the en-
  tire subject, or in the naked skull.  Their points formj
  that projection, which we feel with the finger  in pick-)
  ing the nose, which from the  indecency  of'the  prac-j
  tice, as well  as  the danger  attending  it  no person
  should ever be found at it; for in many instances, polyjri,
  of the lower spongy borfes, may be traced to hurts in-j
  flicted by the finger nail.
    Each of these bones is attached to the upper jaw-
  bone, near the transverse ridge, by a hook-like pro-
  cess.
    XIII. Vomer.  The  nose is completed by  the  to- j
  mer, which is named from its resemblance to a plough I
  share, and which divides  tire two  nostrils from  each
,  other;  it is a thin and slender bone, consisting of two
  plates, much compressed together,  very dense and
  strong, but still  so thin as  to be  semi-transparent. 1
  The plates of which the vomer is composed,  split orl
 part from each other at  every edge, so as to form a>
 groove on every side.
   1. On its upper part, or as we may call it, its  base,
 by which it is fixed to the skull, the vomer has a  wide
 groove, receiving the projecting  point of the ethmoid
 and sphenoid bones, so that it has a verv firm and  se- 
          BONES OF THE FACE AND JAWS.        15

 cure attachment, capable of resisting violent  blows.
   2. Upon its lower part, its groove is narrower, and
 receives the rising line in  the middle  of the  palate
 plate, where the bones meet  to form the palate  su-
 tures.
   3. At its fore part, it is united by a ragged surface,
 and by something like a groove to the middle cartilage
 of the nose.
   XIV. Os maxillje  inferioris, or  lower jaw-
 bone, which is formed like a horse shoe.
   The lower jaw is divided into the chin,  the base, or
 sides, extending backwards to the  angle,  and the up-
 right portion of the bone.   The  parts  of  this bone to
 be noticed,., are,
   1. Coronoid process, so called from its resemblance
 to a crow's beak.   This process is at the upper  end of
 the upright portion  of the jaw-bone, lying immediately
 under* the zygoma or temporal arch:
   2. Condyloid process;  The articulating process of the
 lower-jaw.
   The condyle, or articulating head, is not round, but
 flat,  of a long form, and set across the branch of the
jaw.   This process is received into a long hollow of
 the temporal bone, just under the root of the zygomat-
 ic process.
   3.  Alveolar process, or sockets for the teeth, resemb-
 ling that of the upper1 jaw.  When you have acquired
 their full size, the sockets are completely filled.  But,
in  the decline of life the teeth fall out, and  the sockets
are re-absorbed, and  carried clean away,  as  if they
had,never existed'
  4. Semilunar notch, the half-moon-shaped notch be-
tween the coronoid and condyloid processes. 
16
               OF THE TEETH.

  XV. Teeth.  There are thirty-two teeth in the
adult skull, sixteen of which are in each jaw.  These
are divided into classes, according to  their form and
use, as follows;
  1. Incisors, or front teeth: There  are eight incisor
teeth, four of which are in the upper, and  four in the  J
lower jaw.
  2. Cuspidati or canine teeth; They are four in  num-
ber, two of which are in the lower, and two in the up-
per jaw; they are situated between the fore, and grin-  >,
ding teeth.
  3. Biscuspides, or lesser grinding teeth:  They are  \
eight in number, four of which are in each jaw.   They
are  situated between the cuspidatit and large grinding
teeth.
  4.  Malares or grinding teeth;  There are six of these
in each jaw, one of which is equal to four of the second
class.



           BONE OF THE  TONGUE.

   XVI. Os hyoides, or bone of- the tongue:  This
 bone is situated at  the root of the tongue, between
 it  and the  larynx.    In  describing  this  bone  it
 may be distinguished into its body,  horns, and appen-
 dices.
    1. The body is the middle and broadest part  of the -.\
 bone,  so placed that it may be easily felt with the fin-
 ger in the fore part of the throat.
    2. The cornua, or horns, which are flat, and a little
 bent, are  considerably longer than  the body of the
 bone.  At the extremity of each of these horns, ther» 
               BONES OF THE EAB.              17

is a round tubercle, from which a ligament passes to
the thyroid cartilage.
  3.  The appendices, or small bones,  are two  small
processes, which in their size and shape, are somewhat
like a grain of wheat.   They rise up from the articu-
lations of the cornua,  or horns, with the body of the
bone,  and are connected on each side by a ligament to
the styloid processes of the temporal bone.
  The os hyoides serves to support the tongue, and af-
fords  attachment  to a variety of muscles, some of
which perform the motions of the tongue, while others
act on the lferynx and fauces.


            BONES  OF THE EAR.
XVII. Malleus, or hammer: a bone of the internal
ear is so termed from its  resemblance to a hammer.
] t is distinguished into a head,neck, & manubrium.
   ].  The head is round, and incrusted with a thin
cartilage, and annexed to another bone of the ear, the
incus, has a connection called ginglymus.
  2.  The neck is narrow, situated between the head
and manubrium, or handle; from which a long slender
process arises, which adheres to a furrow in the audi-
tory canal.
   3.  The manubrium or handle is terminated  by an
enlarged extremity,  and connected to  the membrane
of the internal ear, by a short coronoid process.
  XVIII.  Incus, so named  from  its likeness  to a
smith's anvil.  This is the largest,  and strongest of
the bones of the internal ear.   It is  divided into a bo-
dy, and two crura or origins.
   1.  The body is  situated anteriorly,  or behind, is
..ofV.Ar hrnaii and thick, and has two eminences, & two 
IB      BONES  OF THE TRUNK OR  BODY.

depressions, both covered with cartilage, and intended
for the reception of the malleus or hammer.
  2.  Its shorter crus, or leg extends  no farther than
the cells of the mastoid apophysis or process.
  3.  Its longer crus, or leg together  w ith  the manu-
brium, or handle of the  malleus, or hammer, to which
it is connected by a ligament, is of the same  extent as
the shorter; but its extremity is carried inwards to re-
ceive the os orbiculare, (bone 20,) by the intervention
of which it is united with the stapes, (bone  19.)
  XIX.  Stapes.   A bone  of the  internal  car, so
called from its resemblance to a stirrup.
  XX.  Os orbiculare.  A small bone of the inter-
nal  ear, not larger than a pin's  head.


   BONES OF  THE TRUNK OR BODY.
  XXI.  Vertebrae also called spine,  from •certain-.
projecting points of each bone, wliich  stand outwards'
in the back, forming a continued  ridge.   This  Ion0,
line consists of twenty-four distinct bones named ver-
tebae, from the latin  vertere, to  turn.   They conduct.
the spinal marrow, secure from harm, the whole length
of the spine,  and  support the  whole weight of the
trunk, head, and arms.
  1.   The body of the vertebrse is a large mass of soft
and spongy bone;  it is  circular  before, & flat on thei
sides.  It is hollowed into the form of a crescent be-
hind, to give the shape of that tube in which the spinal
■narrow is  contained.  The body is tipped with a har-
der & prominent ring above and below, as  a  sort of
defence;  and within the ring, the body of the vertebrse
is hollowed out into a sort of superficial cup,, which re-
ceives the ligamentous substance, by which the two next 
         BONES OF  THE TRUNK  OK BOHY.      19

vertebrae are joined to it; so that each vertebra goes
upon a pivot, and resembles the ball and socket joint.
  The body is the main part of the vertebra, to which
all the other processes are to be refered; it is the cen-
ter of the spine and bears chiefly the weight of the bo-
dy:  It is larger in the loins, smaller in the back, and
in the neck there is scarcely any body at  all, being
joined to each other chiefly  by the  articulating pro-
cesses.
  2.  Articulating or oblique process.  This is a small
projection, standing out from the  body of the vertebrce,
with a smooth surface, by which  it is joined to the ar-
ticulating process of the next bone.   The  upper ones
arc named t'.ie ascending oblique processes, and the two
lower ones are named the  inferior  or descending ob-
lique processes.
  5.  Spinous processes,  arc those which project direct-
ly backwards, the points of which form the ridge of
the back.
  The body of each  vertebra  sends  out  two arms,
which, meeting "behind, form an arch or canal for the
spinal marrow:  and from  the middle of   that arch,
and opposite to the body, the spinous process projects.
The spinous, and transverse processes, are as so many
levers by which the spine is to be moved.
  4.  Transverse processes.  These stand out from the
sides of the arms, or branches  which  form the arch.
They standout at right angles, or  transversely from
the body of the bone—these  processes serve for the at-
tachment of muscles, and also  as levers  to  assist i.i
the motion of the spine in general.
  The vertebra is divided into cervical, dorsal, and lum-
bar vertebrae.
  1   P.eriiir'nl i^Prtphrrp. t\r> hnnpa of the neck.  Th.CV 
tO       BONES  OF THE TRUNK  OR BODY.           ,

are seven in number. Their bodies are small, but of a '\
firmer texture than those of the back and loins.
  2.  Dorsal vertebrae, or bones of the  back.  They g
are twelve in number.   The bodies of these bones are .1
more flattened at their sides,  more convex before, and
more concave behind than the other bones of the back, i
To each of the vertebra of the back,  a right  and leifc, J
rib is  attached, not only to the body of the vertebrae,
but also to the transverse process,  by  a ligament.
  5.  Lumbar vertebra1, or five inferior or lower bones
of the spine.  They are larger than the dorsal  vertB- j
bra.  Their bodies are more prominent, and nearjy ofj
a circular form at their front part;  posteriorly, or be- 1
hind they are concave.                              1
  XXII.  Os  sacrum.  The os  sacrum, derives its
name from the circumstance of its being  offered in  sa-
cri' e by the ancients, or perhaps  from its supporting
> he organs of generation, which they considered as sa- j
cred.   Its shape has some resemblance to an irregular
triangle.  This bone is joined above to the last lumbar '
Vertebra; at its  sides, it is firmly united by a broad ■
irregular surface to the hip bone, and below to the  cs J
■■occyges (bone 23.)  In women this  bone is shorter,'^
and more curved than in men, by which  means,  the J
cavity of the pelvis is more enlarged.                 f
  XXIII. Os coccyges,  so named  from its resem- .
blance to the beak or bill of a cuckoo.  This bone is a
small appendage to the os sacrum, (bone 22,) termina-  i
ting with an inverted column: it contracts the lower
opening  of  the pelvis, so as to support  the rectum,  ,
bladder, and womb; and yet continues so  moveable in
women,  as to recede in time of labor.
   XXIV. Ossa innominata, or  nameless bones.
These are the two large irregular bones,  forming the
sides of the p"lvia yt»i<fl |)|yp "form so difficult to ex- 
          BONES OF THE TRUNK OR BODY.       21

 plain by one name, that it will be necessary to divide
 them into three parts,  and explain  each one  as three
 distinct bones, by the names of os ilium, os ischium, and
 os pubis.
   The os ilium or haunch bone, is that broad and ex-
 panded bone, on which lie the strong  muscles of the
 thigh,  and which forms the rounding viof the  haunch.
 The os ischium or hip  bone, is the lo^yest point of the
 pelvis, on which we rest in sitting.  The os pubis or
 share bone, is that part on which the privates are pla-
 ced.  All these bones  are divided in a  child;  they are
 united in the centre of the socket for the thigh bone;
 and we find in a child a thick cartilage or gristle in
 the center of the socket, which cartilage forms a prom-
 inent ridge of bone in the adult, to which a strong lig-
 ament from the caput, or  head of the thigh  bone is
 fastened.
   XXV. Os ilium,  or haunch bone,  so named from
: its  forming the flank.   It is the  largest part of the js
 iunominatum.   This bone rises upwards from the pel-
1 vis in a broad expanding wing, which forms the lower
 part of the cavity of the  abdomen, and supports the
 chief weight of the impregnated womb.   This flat part
 is named the ala, or wing;  while the lower, or round
 part, is named the body of the bone, where it enters in-
 to the socket,  and meets the other bones.
    1. Ala or wing, the flat part of the os ilium.
   2. Spine.  A  ridge of firm  bone,  situated on the
 edge of the circle of the wing.  In a child  this circu-
 lar ridge is a cartilage, but becomes ossified in riper
 years.  Tins spine or ridge gives origin  to  several
 muscles.
   3. Spinous procsss.   The two ends of the spine last
 described are abrupt, and the points formed upon it, are 
   22       BONES OF THE TRUNK OR  BODY.

   named spinous processes, of which there are two at its '
   fore,^ and two at  its back end.   The two  posterior or j
   bade spinous processes are close to each other,,and aref
   merely two rough*prejecting points near the rough sur-
   face, by which the os ilium is joined to the os sacrum J
   Where the spine terminates  in this  process the great!
   muscle of the hip,  the gluteus'maximus,  (mus.  170)]
   takes its rise.  The two anterior, or fore spinous pro-
   cesses are more (fistinct.  One of which is called the
   anterior superior spinous process, is the abrupt ending of
   the spine or circle, of the os ilium, with a swelling out;
   from which process two muscles 01 the thigh arise;
   (Mus. 176,  177,)'and also a ligament, which passing
   from the os ilium to the pubes, or  front point of the
   pelvis,  is called the ligament of the thigh.   The other^
   process called the inferior anterior spinous process is a
   small lump about an inch below the first one.  This
   process also gives origin to  a muscle of the thigh (musJ

     4.* Linea innominata.  The acute line, which is thui
   named, is seen upon the internal  surface of the bonejfl
   divides the ala, or wing, from that part  which  forms!
 , the true pelvis.  This  line composes part of the  brim]
   of the pelvis,  and distinguishes the cavity of the pel-1
   % is,  from the cavity of the abdomen.                *
     XVI. Os ischium, or hip bone.   This bone is pla-
   ced perpendicularly under the os ilium, and is the low-
   est point of the pelvis upon  which we  sit.  It forms
   the  largest share  ofUhe socket, in  consequence of
;  .which,  the socket is named  acetabulum ischii, as pecu*|
A.  liarly belonging to this bone.  The  parts of this bonei
   to he noticed, are,                                  I
     1. Body.   This is the uppermost  and thickest part"
   of this  bone, which helps in  forming the socket 
          BONES OF THE TRUNK OR BODY.       23

   2. Spinous process.  This process  arises from the
 body of the ischium and projects backwards, pointing
 towards the os sacrum, and receives the uppermost of
 the two long ligaments, which, from their passage be-*-J.
 twixtthe ischium and sacrum, are named sacra-sciatic. ■$#:
   3.  Sacra-sciatic hole.  A semi.circle of the ischium.
 just below the joining of the ilium with the sacrum, is
 thus named.
   4.  Tuber, or round knob.  This is the part on which
 we rest.   This bump is a little flattened where we sit
 upon it.   It is the mark by which the  lithotomist  di-
 rects his  incision,  cutting exactly  in the middle,
 betw ixt the anus  and this point q£ the 'ischium.
   5.  Cervix.  A smooth  surface between the  tuber
 and socket of  the hip joint.  This smooth surface is a
 little depressed and covered Avith a cartilage which al-
 lows the tendon of the obturator  (Mus. 34,) to  move
 easily.                . i
   6. Ramus, or branch.' tTIus portion of the ischium.
 rises  obliquely upwards and forwards, to join a like
 branch of the  pubis.   This branch, or  army as it is
 called, is flat,  aud is turned a little forwards and back-
 wards; so that one edge forms fhe arch/of the pubis,
 while the other edge forms} the margin of the thyroid
 hole.          \
   XXVII. Os pubis, or  share'bone, is the last and
 smallest piece  of the os innominatuin,  and  is named
 from the mons veneris (or triangular eminence immedi-
 ately over the middle of tbye os pubis of Avomen, that is
covered with hair) being placed on it.  It forms the up-
per, or fore part of the pelvis, and completes the brim
of the pelvis.  The parts  of this  bone  to be noticed,
are,
   1. Body.  The body of the  os pubis is thick  and
strong, and forms about one fifth of the socket of the 
S4       BONES OF THE TRUNK OR  BODY.

thigh bone.  It is not only the smallest, but the shaP
lowest part of the socket.
  2 Ramus or branch; The ramus is that more slender
part of the pubis, which, joining with the branch of the
ischium, forms with it the arch  of the pubis, and the
edge of the thyroid hole.                           •.
  3. Lineainnominata.   On the middle of the pubes!
there is a process which  is frequently called tuberous
angle: from this process there are two ridges traced:
one goes to meet the line on  the  ilium,  forming the
brim of the pelvis; the  other goes down towards the
edge of the thigh socket; these ridges arc called linea
innominata.

           THE PELVIS IN GENERAL.

  There are other purts  of the pelvis which are wor-
thy of  a notice  in this place as they will frequently be
referred, to. ,They are,
   1. Promontory of the sacrum.   This is  the projec-
tion formed by tfce lowest vertebra of the  loins, and
the upper point of the os sacrum.                    '
  2, Hollow of the sacrum.   This is  all that  smooth
inner surface^ which gives out the great nerves for the
legs of the pelvis.
  3. Lesser, angle.  This is a short turn in the sacrum
near where it is joined with the os occygis.
  4. Crest of the pubes.   This is  a short  ridge, or
edge of the bone over the joining of the symphysis pu-
bes.
   5. Postcriar symphysis of 'the pelvis.  The part where
the os sacrum is  joined  with the os ilium is thus na-
med.
   6. Anterwr symphysis of the pelvis.   The front part
where the two share bones are joined is thus named.
   7. Acetabulum, so  named  from its resemblance to  a 
          BONES OF THE TRUNK OR BOBY.       25

 measure which the ancients  used for vinegar.  The
 hollow or socket for the thigh bone,  composed of the
 ilium, ischium and pubes.  On the lower part of the
 margin of this socket there  is a deficiency of  bone
 which, however, is made up by  a ligament, and yet
 not so perfectly, but that dislocation of the head of the
 thigh bone sometimes takes place in this direction.
   8.  Brim of the  pelvis. The  brim of the pelvis is
 that oval ring, Avhich parts the  caAity of the pelvic
 from the cavity of  the abdomen;  it is formed by con-
 tinued line along the upper part of the sacrum, the mid-
 dle of the ilium, and the upper part of the crest of the
 pubes.   This circle of the brim supports the impreg-
 nated  womb, keeps it up against the pressure of labour
 pains.
   9.  Outlet of the pdvis.  The  outlet  of  the pelvis,
 is the loAver circle, composed by the arch of the pubes.
 and by the sciatic  ligaments, which is wide and capa-
 ble of being dilated, to permit the delivery of the child's
 head to press so sudenly, and Avith such a iolence upon
 the soft parts, that the perenium, or part  between thy
 anus and organs of generation Is torn.
   10.  Thyroid hole.   The thyroid hole is that remark-
 able vacancy in the bone, which  perhaps lightens tha
 pelvis, or perhaps allows the soft parts to escape from
 the pressure during  the  passage  of  the head of  tin*
 child.
   XXVIII.  Os pectoris, or sternum.   The breast
 bone.  The breast bone is  an oblong  squared bone,
 which lies on the fore part of the breast, over the heart.
 and which, with the ribs and spine form the cavity ol
 the thorax.   At each upper corner, it joins  the collar-
 bone, laterally, or on each side, several of the ribs i*: *
attached  by cartilages or gristles.
         e 
26       BONES OF THE TRUNK OR  BOD?.

  In a child the sternum consists of eight distinct pie-
ces, which fasten together  in the progress of life, and
which, in old age are firmly united in one.  In the mid-
dle stages of life, we find three pieces in the sternum,
two  of  which,  are  properly bone,  and the third  re-
mains a cartilage until old age, and is named ensiform
cartilage, from its sword like point.   It is attached to
the lower end of the sternum.
  1. Triangular portion, or upper part of the sternum.
This part of the sternum is large, roundish, or rather
triangular, resembling a heart  on playing cards: it is
about two inches in length, and an inch and a half in
bredth.   The apex or point of the triangle, is pointed
downwards, to meet the second  bone of the sternum.
The base of the triangle, which is uppermost, towards
the throat seems a little hollowed, for the passage of
the trachea or  wind-pipe.   On each upper cornei',  it
has a large articulating hollow, into which the ends of
the collar bones are received.   The first rib',  together
Avifh one half of the head of the second, is articulated
to the side part of this bone.
   2.  The second, piece of the sternum, is of a squared
form, very long and flat, composing  the chief length
of the  sternum; for the first  piece  receives  only the
cartilage of the first rib, and one half of the  second;
but this long piece receives on each side or  edge of it.
the cartilages of eight ribs; but as the three lower car-
tilages  are run into one, there  are but five  sockets or
 marks  in it.
   3.  Ensiform cartilage.  This  cartilage is  attached
 to the  lower end of the sternum, or  breast  bone, and
 extends downwards between the false ribs, giving sure
 origin, and great power to the muscles  of the abdo-
 men. 
         BONES OF THE  TRUNK  OR BODY.       27

   XXIX. Costje, or ribs.   The ribs are the long
 eurved bones, which arc placed in an oblique direction
 at the sides of the thorax, or breast.   Their number
 is twelve on each side, seven of which are  called true,
 and five false ribs.  The use of the ribs is to give form
 to the thorax, to coATr and defend the lungs, and heart,
 and also to assist in  breathing, by yielding,  and  re-
 turning again when the muscles cease to act.
   The ribs are in general, of a  flattened  form,their
 flat and smooth sides, being turned towards the lungs.
 But this flatness of the ribs is not regular; it is con-
 torted,  as if the rib had been  taken by each end, and
 twisted: the meaning  of  which  is, to accomodate  the
 flatness of  the rib to the form which the thorax assumes
 in all its degrees of elevation;  for when the rib rises,
 and during its  rising through all its degrees of eleva-
 tion, it still keeps its  flat side  towards the lungs.  Al-
 though the rib is  of a flat form, yet it is a little round-
 ed at its upper  edge,  and  sharp at its lower edge.   Oh
 each rib we find the following  parts:
   1. Head or round knob by which it is joined to the  .
 spine.   The head of each rib has but  a small articula-
ting surface;  but that smooth surface is double, or looks
two Avays.  The head of tlie rib is not implanted into  <
the side of one vertrebra, but rather  into the intervert-  1
ebral substance,  consequently, the head touches two of  »
the vertebra,  therefore all the vertebrae of the back
bear the the mark of two ribs  except the first and last.
   2. Cervix, or  neck.  The  neck  of  the  rib  is the
smallest part, immediately before the head.  In this  .j
part the rib is small and round.                        [
   3. Tubercle, or bump.   This bump is situated about  i
an inch from the head, and is the articulating surface,  *
by which it touches and turns upon the transverse pro
i 
 Z'$     BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.

 cess of the Arertebra below.
  4. Superior tubercle.   This is situated just above the
tubercle last explained, but has nothing to do with the
joints: it is intended merely for  the attachment of tho
 ligaments and muscles from the spine which suspend
 and move the ribs, and for the attachment of the  ante- .
 rior slipes of the longisimus- dorsi.  (Mus. III.)
  5. Angle.  The angle of the rib is often mentioned,
 being a common mark of surgical operations.   There
 is a flatuess of the thorax behind, forming the breadth
of the back;  the sharpness where this flatness begins
to turn  into  the roundness of the chest, is the  place
called the angles of the ribs.   In these angles the sa-
cro-lumbalis (Mus. 100) is inserted.
  G. Motion of the ribs.  By the motion of the ribs,
the thorax is alternately dilated, and diminished in ca-
 pacity, the lungs thereby having their play.  A rib
 has two  motions;  1:4. It:; hack end rises and  falls,
the centre of  motion being in the articulation with the
spine.   2nd.  It moves on its OAvn axes; a  line drawn
through the two extremities, is the centre of its motion.
The first motion, enlarges and diminishes the diameter
of the thorax, from the spine  to the breast bone.   The
second enlarges the lateral or side diameter of the tho-
 rax.  By understanding the motion of the ribs, we can
 more  easily determine when a rib is broken,  or dislo^
 rated.
  BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.

  XXX.  Clavicle, or collar hone,  so named from
its resemblance to an ancient key.   The  clavicle is
placed at the upper part of the breast; it extends across 
      BONES OF  THE UPPER  EXTREMITIES.    29

from the tip of the shoulder, to  the upper part of the
breastbone;   it is a  round  bone,  flattened towards
the end, which gives the  scapula or shoulder blade; it
is curved like an  italic /, having one curve turned to-
wards the breast.   This bone is useful as an arch sup-
porting the shoulders, and preventing them from fall-
ing forwards upon the breast.   The end of the collar
bone next the breast bone is round and flat,  or button-
like, the articulating  surface is triangular, and is re-
ceived into a suitable  hollow on  the upper piece of the
breast bone.  The outer end of the clavicle is flattened
as it approaches the shoulder blade, and the edge of
that flatness is turned  to the edge of the flattned acromi-
on, or process of the shoulder blade, so that they touch
but in one single  point; this outer end of  the  collar
bone, and the corresponding point of the shoulder blade,
are flattened, and covered Avith a cartilage. The  mo-
tion at this point is Aery slight and insensible.   This
bone is liable to  be fractured, and requires some care
and management to set it fight.
   XXXI.  Scapula, or shoulder blade.  This bone is
of  a triangular figure, situated on the upper and back
hart of the thorax, and is joined to the collarbone and
os humeri, or bono of  the arm.   The parts-of this bone
to be noticed  are,  1st, Superior cosla, or  rib  of the
scapula.  The edge or angle of the scapula is  thus
 named. On this upper edge there is a notch, through
 which a nerve, and sometimes an artery passes, named
semilunar notch.
   2. Inferior casta, or lower edge of the scapula.   It
gives origin to two small muscles.
   3. Glenoid or articulating cavity.    The cavity or
socket, which receives the head of the arm bone is thus
 named.
   The shoulder blade towards this paint terminates ia
        c* 
 30    BONES OF THE  UPPER EXTREMITIES.

 a flat surface, not more than an inch in diameter, very
 little hollowed, scarcely receiving the head  of the os
 humeri, or bone of the arm, wliich is rather laid upon,
 thansunk into it: it is deepened a  little by a circular
 gristle, wliich tips the edges  or  lips  of this articula-
 ting surface, but so little, that it is still very shallow
 and plain, in  consequence of which  luxation is very
 common in the shoulder joint.
   4. Neck of the scapula.   Immediately behind  the
 glenoid cavity, is a narrow part called the neck.
   5. Spine of the scapula, is that high ridge of bone
 which runs the whole length of its surface, and divides
 it into two parts, for the origin of the infra and supra
 spinatous  muscles, (Mus.  125,  126.)  This ridge is
 high and very sharp, standing up in one place  to  the
 height of two inches.  It is flattened  at  the top, and
 with edges, which, turning a little towards either side,
 gives ri.-c totAvostrong/aace or tendenous membraneaM
 which go from the spine, to the upper  and loAver borM
 ders; so that by these strong  membranes, the  scapukM
 is divided  into two  triangular  cavities.   The spineB
 traverses the avIioIc of the  hack of the scapula.       '*
   6. Acromion process.   The spine beginning  low at
 the basis of the scapula, gradually rises as it advances '
 forwards, till it terminates in that high point or prom-
 ontory which forms the tip  of the  shoulder,  which
 overhangs and defends the  joint.  This high point is
 named the acromion  process.   The acromion prevents.
 luxation of the shoulder joint upwards, and  is so far
part of the joint,  that when it is full under the  acrom-
 ion, the joint is safe,  but when it is hollow, sotbatthe
 points of the  fingers can be pushed  under the  acromi-
 on process, the shoulder is  luxated, or out of joint.
   7. Caracaid process.    This process arises from the
 neck of the scapula,  almost from the  border of th« 
       BONES OF THE  UPPER EXTREMITIES.    31

socket.  It is a short,  thick,  and  crooked proeess,
standing directly forwards; and which,  turning for-
wards with a crooked and sharp point, somewhat like
the back of  a crow, is thence named  the caracoid pro-
cess.   This  process  also guards and strengthens the
joint, and serves for the attachment  of three different
muscles, (Mus. 93, 130,  132.)
  XXXII. Os humeri, or shoulder bone.   This is a
long cylindrical bone, situated between the elbow joint
and shoulder blade.  In order to distinguish this bone
from the bones of the arm  beloAV  tie  eib.w joint, it
will hereafter be  called  the  upper bone of the  arm.
The parts of this bone, are,
  1. Head.   The head of this bone is very large,..and
of a very regular circle.  This head  is articulated to
the shoulder  blade.
  2. Neck   The neck of this bone  is nothing  more
than a roughness, close to the head, to winch; the cap-
sular ligament is attached.
  3. Ttiberosities.  The tuberosities  ci" the  os humeri
are two small bumps, Avhich stand up at  the  upper end
of the  bone, just behind the head.  The upper one  of
these is called the greater, & the IoavSi-, lesser tuberosi-
ty.   Muscles 125 & 6 are inserted into the greater tu-
berosity, Avhilethe lesser only receives Muscle 131.
  4, Groove.  The groove is situated between the two
tuberosities;  in it the long tendon of the biceps muscle
of the  arm runs.
  5. Ridges.   On the outside of the groove there is a
long ridge for the insertion of  a  muscle, and on the
out  side another  one for the  attachment of musch*
103.
  6, Condijles. The os humeri at  its lower part chan-
ges its form,  is flattened and spread out to two inches in
Breadth; where there is formed on each side a sharp; 
32      BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.

projecting point called condyles, for the origin of mus-
cles.
  7. Articulating surface..   The  articulating  surface
which stands between these condyles,   forms a  more
strict hinge than can be easily conceived, without ex-
amining it.   The joint consists of two surfaces; first,
a smooth surface, upon which the ulna, or bone of the
lower arm moves, as on a hinge; and seeondly, of a
small knob upon the outside,  trochlea or pully, which 'I
has a neat round surface, upon which the face or socket
belonging to the button-like end of the radius  or bone
of the lower arm rolls.  Those two surfaces are call-^
ed, the one the small head, and the other the cartilagin-'|
ous pully, or trochlea of the humerus.  Belonging  to
this joint, and within its capsular ligament, there are^
two deep hollows, which  receive certain processes of
the bones of the fore arm, one deep hollow on the fore *
 part of the humerus, and just above its  articulating
 pully, receives the coronoid,  or  horn like  process of
 the ulna or bone of the fore arm; the  other  receives <
 the olecranon, or that process of the ulna which forma '
 the point of the elbow.
   XXXIII. Ulna, or large  bone of the fore arm.   It*
 is smaller and shorter than the one last described, andj
 becomes  gradually smaller, as it descends to the wrist,;!
 and is of a triangular form.   The  parts of this bone,;
 are,                                                '
    1. Sigmoid cavity.   The part of  this bone which
 forms the hinge-like joint with  the upper  bone of the
 arm is named greater sigmoid cavity, close  to this is j
  a second cavity called lesser sigmoid cavity, wliich re-
  ceives the upper end of the radius, (bone XXXIII.)
    2.  Olecranon.   The olecranon,  is  a large  hump,
  which forms the extreme point of  the elbow.  It is a
  iarge strong process, answering two purposes; first, a& 
       BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.       35T

a long lever for the muscles which extend, or  make
straight the fore arm; and second, when the arm is ex-
tended, as in pulling, it checks into its place, and takes
such a strong hold upon the hinge or joint from luxa-
tion forwards,  or from straining any of tire ligaments
attached to the joint.
  3. Coronoid process.   This  process stands up per-
pendicularly from the upper or fore part of the bone.
It forms the fore part of the sigmoid cavity,  and com-
pletes the hinge.  The coronoid  process is useful, lika
the olecranon, in giving a fair hold and larger lever to
the muscles, and to secure the  point;  for the arm being
extended, as in pulling the olecranon, prevents luxation
forwards; the arm again being  bent,  as in striking,
the coronoid process prevents  luxation backAvards,  so
the joint consists of  the olecranon and coronoid pro-
cesses, as two guards, and of the sigmoid cavity or hol-
rjoAv of articulation between them.
'  4.  Tubercle,   Or, the root of the  coronoid process.
there is a rough tubercle  for the attachment of the
rbrachialis interims, (mus. 133.)
  5. Lower head.   The ulna grows gradually smaller
ns  it descends  towards the  Avrist, and terminates  al-
Iraost in a point, which is named  the lower head of the
ulna.  This head is  received into a hollow on the sido
of the radius.
  6.  Styloid process: Below the lower head of the ulna.
it ends towards the little finger, in a  small rounded
i point, which is named the styloid process of the ulna.
  XXXIV.* Radius.   The second bone of the for*
arm. which has gotten its name  from its supposed  re-
rsemblance to the spoke of a wheel.   Like the  ulna, it
is of a triangular figure, but it differs from that bone in
nigrowing larger as it descends, so that its smaller part 
 54       BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.

 answers to the larger part of the ulna and  vice vem
 The radius is the bone to which the wrist is attache*
 it lies along the outer edge of the  fore  arm,  next  t
 the thumb; and being, like the ulna, of a  triangula
 form, it has one of  its angles or edges turned toward
 the ulna to receive the interosseous ligament.  The part
 of this bone, are,
   1.  Upper head.   It is of a round, flatfish,  and but-
 ton-like shape,  and so lies upon the lower  end of tin
 humerus, and upon the coronoid process of the  uln*
 that it is articulated with both bones.
  2. Neck.   Immediately beloAV the head, is a narrow-
 ness,  or  straitening, called  the  neck  of the  radius;
 round this neck there is a collar or circular ligament,
 named  the coronary ligament which keeps the bom
 securely in its place, turning in this ligamentous boni
 like a spindle in its bush or socket;  for the radius ha
 two motions, first accompanying the ulna in its move-
 ments of flexion and extension;  and secondly, its owi
 peculiar rotation, in  which  it moves  and turns tk
 wrist.
  3.  Tubercle.   Immediately under this neck, and jit
 beloAV the collar of  this bone, there is a  promirwi
 bump, like a flattened button, fastened  upon the sidei
 the hone, which is the point into Avhich Muscle 1321
 inserted.
  4. Lower  head.   The lower  head  of  this  bon
 swells out, broad and flat, to r eceive the hones of tb
 wrist.   The two largest bones of the wrist, the scad
aides and lunare, which ft rm  a large ball, are recent
 into the lower head of the radius:  the impression whid
 these two bones make is pretty deep, and somewhat <
a boat-like shape; whence it is called the scaphoid cat
ity  of the radius.
  5, ScapMd cavity.   This cavitv of the radius fom 
       BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.     35

the joint with the wrist;  but  there  is another small
cavity on the side of the radius, into which, the lesser
head of the ulna is reeeiAed, and this is enclosed in a
proper and distinct capsule.
  XXXV. Carpus, or wrist.   The wrist is composed
of eight small bones disposed  in two  rows;  one of
which rows is  attached to the bones of the fore arm,
and the other to the bones of the hand.   These bone*
are named from their figure.    In describing them, I
Bhall mention them as beginning Avith the  row next to
the arm, and with the external bone of each row.
  The bones composing the first row, are,
'  1.  Os scaphoides; the boat-like bone.   It is one of
\he largest bones of thcAvrist, and is Avorthy of notice,
lot because it is the largest, but because it forms the
:hief part of the joint of the Avrist: it is this bone which
 s received into the scaphoid cavity of the radius.
1  The points of this bone to be remembered, are,
E  A.   The  round  surface, coAered with cartilage,
unooth, iinsAvering to the cavity in the head of the ra-
lius.
   B.   The  hook-like, or  projecting process,  which
 orms one of the corner points of the wrist, and gives
 lold to one corner of the ligament  Avhich binds doAvu
lthe tendons  of the Avrist.
   C.   There  is  also a furroAv for the  capsular liga-
ment, the cavity from which this bone takes its name.
;and by which it is articulated  Avith the trapezium and
trapezoides.
i   D.  On its inner  surface, there is a cavity for the
os magnum.
   2.  Os lunare.   So named from one of its sides being
somewhat of the shape  of a half  moon.  This  bone
takes an equal share in the point with the scaphoid bone
jThe chief marks of this bone, are, 
$6      BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.

   A.  The surface ol a semilunar shape, on the radial
side.
   B.  The comrex surface  for  articulation with  tlw
radius.
   C.  The ulnar surface for articulation with the ot
cuneiforme.
   D.  The hollow surface for articulation with the at
magnum.  The central bone of the  second row.
   3. Os cuneiforme, or Avedge-like bone.  The side of
this bone forming the upper part of the wrist is broader
than the point towards the palm of the hand, from av Inch
circumstance it has taken its name: but it is chiefly so
called from its situation, it being closely wedged in  be-
twen the lunare and pisiform bones,
   4. Os pisiform.  This is a small, neat,  and round
bone, named sometimes orbiculare, or round bone,  but
oftner pisiform, fron  its resemblance  to a pea.  It is
placed upon the cuneiform bones standing off from  tlw
wrist into the palm  of the hand, so as to be the most prom-,
inent of all the corner bones.  This  bone is the point J
into Avhichthe ligament of the Avristis implanted:  the
muscle 142 one of  the strong muscles for  bending  <!.■*
wrist, is inserted into it.
   Bones composing the second row.
5.  Trapezium. This bone has four  unequal sides and
angles  in its back part, from  which it has  got its name.
The parts to be noticed of ibis bone, are.
   A.  The great socket, or rather the trochlea, for  tns
thumb, and as the thumb stands off from one side of tl.*
hand this socket is  rather on  one side.
   C. There is also a little process which mikes one of
the corner points, and  stands  opposite to the  hook ol
the cuneiforme.
   6.  Trapezoides.  This bone is so named from  th« 
        BONES  OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.    3

 irregular quadrangular figure of its back part.   This
 bone has five articulating surfaces.
   7.  Os magnum;  so named from its great size when
 compared with others.  It is placed in the  Center of
 the upper row; has  a long round head, w hich is joint-
 ed with the socket formed with the os lunate and scuph-
 aides; on the radial surface, the magnum is articulated
 with the trapexoides;  on the ulnar  surface  Avith the
 unciform bone; on the  further  surface it has three
 planes, and receives the whole head of the metacarpal
 bone of the middle finger, and part of the  metacarpal
 bone of the fore finger and of the ring finger.
   8.   Os unciforme, or hook-like bone, is named from
 a hook-like process, which  projects towards the palm
 of the hand.  It  is a large squared bone, possessing a
 process of long, flat, firm bone  called  unciforme,  or
 hook-like, which  projects into the  palm of the hand,
 giving a  firm origin to the great  ligament by which
 the tendons of the wrist are bound  down.
  All these bones of  the carpus,  or wrist  when  they
 are joined to each other, are covered Avith a smooth ar-
 ticulating cartilage, are bound to  each  other  by  all
 forms of cross ligaments,  and are  consolidated, as it
 were, into one joint.
  XXXVI.  Metacarpus, or bones  of  the hand,
 situated between the Avrist and fingers.   The metacar-
 pus is composed of four bones,  upon Avhich the fingers
 are articulated.   Each  of these bones  are long  and
 round, with their  ends larger than their  bodies.  The
 upper end which is termed its base, is flat and oblong,
 inclining somewhat to the Avedge-like form, without  a-
ny considerable head, or cavity, howeAer it is some-
what hollowed,  for the articulation  with the carpus or
Vrist 
38    BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

  The lower ends are raised into large oblong smooth
heads, the greatest extent of which,  is forwards from
the axis of the bone.  At the fore part of each side of
the root of each of these heads, one or two tubercles
stand out, for fixing the ligaments that go  from  one
metacarpal bone to another, to preserve them from be-
ing drawn asunder.  Around the heads  a rough ring
may be seen, for the attachment  of the capsular liga-
ments of the first joints of the fingers.
  XXXVII.  The thumb and four fingers are each
composed of three bones, the  regular arrangement of
which has obtained for them  the name  of  the three
phalanges.



 BONES OF THE  LOWER EXTREMITIES.

  XXXVIII.  Os femoris, or  thigh bone.   Tin
thigh bone is a very large, strong  bone.  It is nearlj
cylindrical in the middle, and slightly curved.  The
upper extremity is a spherical head, connected to the
body of the bone by a  neck;  the  lower extremity  is
much larger than the body,  and is formed  into  two
condyles.
   The parts of this bone, are,
   1.  Head.  The head of the thigh bone is the most
perfect of any in the human body,  its circumference is
a very regular circle, of which the head contains near-
ly two thirds; this head is completely received into its
socket, which is not only  deep in itself, and very se-
cure, but it  is further deepened by the cartilage which
borders it, so that it is  naturally the strongest joint in
all the body;  but among  other securities  there is a
round ligament which is attached to a pit in the center 
      BONES  OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.     39

of this head,  and  fastened  to the middle of  the
socket.
  2.  Neck.   The neck  of the thigh  bone is more
than an inch in length, and is thick and strong, which
it should be from the great weight which it  sometimes
has to bear.  It is long, that it may alloAV the head to
be set deep in the socket,  and  standing  up from the
shoulder of the bone, to keep  its motions  wide, free
and  unembarrassed  by the pelvis;  for  without this
great length of the neck, its  motions  would  have
been  checked by the edges of its own  socket.
  3.  Trochanter major.  This process is situated at
the upper  end of the thigh bone, and  may be  easily
felt outwardly, being that great lump which we feel in
laying the hand upon the haunch.  This  bump repre-
sents the direct end of the thigh bone,  while the neck
stands off from it at one side.   On the upper and fore
part of this process,  are two surfaces for  the insertion
of muscles 171 172.
  4.  Trochanter minor, or lesser trochanter.  This is
smaller and more pointed, rising on the  inner side of
the bone,  situated under the root of the  neck.   This
eminence is also for the attachment of muscles.
  5.  Inter-trochantal line.  Between the greater and
lesser trochanters there runs  a rough line, wliich is
thus named.  The capsular ligament is attached to this
line, and also muscle 175.
  6.  Linea aspera.   The linea aspera is a rising or
prominent line, very rugged and unequal, which runs
all down the back part of the thigh.  It begins  at the
roots of the two trochanters, and ends  in the tubercles
at the lower end of the bone.
  7.   Condyles.  The condyles are the  two tubers,  in-
to which the thigh  bone swells out at its lower part 
40     BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

There is a gentle and gradual swelling of the bone*
then an enlargement into two broad and  flat surfaces,
wliich are united with the next hone  in forming the
joint of the knee.
  XXXIX.  Tibia,  so named from its resemblance
to a pipe: the upper part of the tibia, representing the
expanded or trumpet-like end, the lower part represen-
ting the flute end of a pipe.  The tibia,  on its upper
end, is flat and broad, making a most singular articu*
iation with the thigh bone; for it is not a ball and sock-
et, like the shoulder or hip  joint,  nor a hinge  joint,
guarded on either side v.ith projecting points, like the
ancle.   There is no security for the knee joint, by the
form of its bones, for they have plain flat heads,  nice-
lylaid upon  each other.  It is only by the number of
its  ligaments, that the knoe joint is strong.
  The parts of this bone, are,
  1.  Upper head.  The upper head  of the tibia is
thick anil spongy, in which there are  two  broad and
.superficial hollows, as if impressed,  when soft, with
the marks of the condyles of the thigh bone.  A high
ridge rises between these tAvo  hollows  so as to be re-
ceived into the interstice, or space between the condyles,
on the back part, which is  the highest point of the
ridge.
  2.  Tubercle,  This is situated  on the fore part of
the tibia, just beloAV  the knee.
  3.  Lower head.   The lower head  of the tibia com-
poses the chief parts  of the  ancle joint.  The  lower
head of the tjibia is smaller than the upper, in the same
proportion that the ancle  is  smaller  than  the  knee.
The pointed part of this head of the  tibia represents
the mouth piece or flat part qf the pipe, and constitutes
the bump of the inner anclex  On one side of the low* 
        BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.       41

 er end of the tibia,  there is a deep hollow, like an im-
 pression made with the point of the thumb, which re-
 ceives the lower end of the fibula.
   XL.   Fibula ;  so  named from  its resemblance to
 a Roman clasp.  This  is a  small bone  placed on the
 outside of the leg,  opposite to  the  external  angle of
 the tibia, the shape of it is irregular.
   This bone has no connection with the knee joint, but
 Is  useful in strengthening the leg, and in forming the
 ancle joint
   The parts of this bone, are,
   1.   Upper head.   The upper head of the fibula is
 rough on the outer surface, for  the insertion of a liga-
 ment, and muscle   184;  smooth, and  with cartilage
 within;  and  is laid upon a plain smooth surface, on the
 side of the tibia a little below the knee joint, and is
 there closely confined by ligaments.
   i.  Lower head.   The lower head of the fibula is
' broad and flat, and is let pretty deep into a socket on
 the side of the tibia; together, they form the ancle-joint
] for receiving the bones of the foot.   The extreme point
 of the thin extremity, gives  attachment to the outer lig-
r ament of  the joint, and  is sometimes called the coro-
 noid process.
   XLI.  Patella, or knee-bone.  The knee-pan, or
 cap, as it is sometimes called, is  a small thick  bone, of
 an oval, or rather of a  triangular form.   The basis
 of this rounded triangle is  turned upwards to receive
 the four great muscles which extend the legs, the apex
Lor pointed part of this triangle is turned downwards,
 and is tied by a very strong ligament to the bump or
 tubercle of the  tibia, just under  the knee.   The outer
 surface is rough, the inner smooth, and divided by a
'ridge into two unequal parts;  round the margin of the 
42      BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

bone, there is a slight depression for the attachment of
the capsular ligament, by which, it is closely cornier
ted to the tibia.
   The patelais useful as a  lever,  acting as  a  pully,
which is a species of lever, gliding upon the fore part
of the thigh bone, upon the smooth  surface  which is
between the condyles.
   XLII.   Tarsus,  or instep.  The instep cosists of
seven bones; viz:
   The astragalus, os calcis naviculare, cuboides,  cunei-
forme externum,  cuneiforme medium,  and cuneiform in-
ternum.
   The  astragalus is  the  uppermost of these  bones.
The os calcis is  below7 the  astragalus, and forms the
head.  The os naviculare is in the  middle of the  in-
 ternal side of the instep.   The- os cuboides is  the most
 external of the row  of four hones,  at its  fore  part
 The cuneiforme externum is placed at the inside of the
 os cuboides.  The cuneiforme bones; and the external
 cuneiforme is at the internal side of the foot
   1.  Astragalus.   This is the largest and mostremak-
 able bone of the  tarsus or instep.   The  semicircular
 head of this bone forms a curious and perfect pullv,
 which is covered with a  smooth lubricated  cartilage,
 and received deep between the tibia and fibula, and rolto
  under the smooth  articulating  surface of the  latter,
  which, being suited to this pully of the astragalus, with
  something of a boot like shape,  which is often  named
  the scaphoid cavity.  The different points of this bone,
  are:
    A. Superior surface agreeing with the scaphoid cav-
  ities of the tibia.
    C.   Internal articulating surface for the maleus in-
  tenuis, or internal  ancle. 
       BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.     43

  D.   External articulating surface, for the extremity
of the  fibula.
  E.   Inferior and posterior articulating surface with
the body of the os calcis.
  F.   Inferior and anterior surface, articulating also
with a corresponding surface of the os calcis.
  G.   Deep fossa, or  depression, dividing these two
inferior articulating surfaces, for the lodgment  of the
ligament which unites this  bone  to the os calcis.
  H.   The ball or  anterior articulating surface which
enters into the socket of the naviculare.
  I.   A furrow for the attachment of the capsular lig-
ament.
   J.   On the inside of the  bone is a  hollow  and a
rough protuberance for the attachment of the deltoid
ligament, which comes down from the tibia.
   2.   Os calcis.  This is a large irregular bone;  it is
 the tip or end of the  arch, formed  by the  tarsal and
metatarsal bones, and is situated posteriorly,  or behind,
 forming the  heel.
   The processes of this bone, are,
   A.  Great process.  This is  an irregular surface.
 on the highest part of the projection  backwards,  to
 which a tendon is fastened.
   B.  The loAver and hack part of the bone  is rough,
 for the attachment  of the  cartilagenous and cellular
 substance in which it rests.
   C.   An irregular articulating surface, or rather two
 surfaces covered aa ith cartilage, by which this  bone is
 joined with the os  cuboides.
   D.  A  groove situated on the outside of  this bone,
 which transmits the tendon of muscle 191.
   E.   Tubercle.   This is  situated  internally,  and
 gives attachment to a ligament, which supports the
 lower part of the ball of the  astragalus. 
 U     BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

  3.   Os naviculare, sometimes  called os scaphoides.
from its partial resemblance to a boat; it is articulated
as follows:
  A.   The concave side  which looks backwards is
deep,  and receives the head of the astragalus.
  B.   The flat side which looks forward  has not so
deep a socket, but receives the  three cuneiform bones,
upon a surface rather plain and irregular.
  C.   At the inner and lower part of this bone there
is a tubercle, for the attachment of a ligament.
  4.  Os cuboides.   The  os cuboides is  named  from
its cubical figure, and is next to the astragalus  in size.
This bone is situated between the third cuneiform bone
and the os calcis.  It forms a complete arch, within an
arch, which gives at once a degree of elasticity and ot
strength to the instep.  The fore point of this bone is
divided into two surfaces, for the metatarsal bones.  At
the  lower surface of this bone  there is  a groove  for
transmitting the tendon of muscle 191.  This bone is
laid on the cuneiforme medium, and  joins it to the es
calcis.                                              I
  5.  Cuneiform bones, are so named because they  re-
semble wedges, being laid to each other like the stones
of an arch.   The most simple arrangement is 1, 2, &
S; counting from the side of the great toe, towards the
middle of the  foot.
  A.   The first, is called cuneiform  magnum, or ex-
ternum, on this bone the  great toe is placed  or take*
its origin; it has its sharp edge turned upAvards; it is
much larger than the other.
  B.   The second, cuneiform minimum or internum* '
This bone is situated between the other two; and is th«
smallest
  C.   The third, is called cuneiform medium.   Thi* 
       BONES OF THE  LOWER EXTREMITIES.    43

 hone is so named because it is a medium size between
 the greatest and smallest.   These cuneiform bones re-
 ceive the great toe, and  the two next to it  The fourth
 and fifth toes are implanted upon the os cuboides.
   XLIII.  Metatarsus.  So named from its being
 placed upon the tarsus;  it consists of five bones, which
 extend between the tarsus and the  proper bones of the
 toes.
   1.   The  metatarsal  bone of the  great toe is the
 shortest, thickest, and strongest.   It has the  greatest
 weight to sustain.
   2.   The  metatarsal bone of the second  toe is  the
 largest of the five, and  is supported by the os cunei-
form medium.
   3.   The  metatarsal bone of third  tee, is the second
 in length, and is supported  by the os cuneiform medi-
 um.
   4.   The  metatarsal bone of the fourth toe  is nearly
 as long as  that of the third, and is articulated to the
 os cuboides.
   5.   The  metatarsal bone of the little toe is much
 shorter thai that of  the fourth.  This bone  is partly
 articulated to the os cuboides.
   When standing the fore ends of the metatarsal bones,
, and the os calcaleis, are  our only supporters, it is there-
 fore necessary that they should be very strong.
   XLIV.  Toes.  The last division of the foot, con-
 sisting of three bones in each toe excepting the great
 toe which has but two;   these bones are  disposed in
 rows, and are named  the first, second,  and third plia-
 langes, or ranks of the toes.  It would  be a Avaste of
 time and expense for nothing to give a minute descrip-
 tion of these small bones.
   XLV..  Sessamqih  bones* so named  from their 
46     BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

resemblance to the seeds of the  sesamum.  They are
small bones, about the size of half a pea.  They are
most commonly found at the second joint of the thumb,
and of the great toe;  and are placed in pairs, especial-
ly at the great toe, betAveen the tendons  of the flexor
muscles and the bones.   In the joints of the thumb and
toe, they appear to be very analagous to  the patella or
knee pan.
  The following is a table of all the bones in the hu-
man system. 
A   TABLE   OF  BONES.
                                      Frontal,
                                      Parietal,
                                      Occipital,
                                      Temporal,
                                      Ethmoid,
                                      Sphenoid,
                                      Superior Maxil.
                                      Jugale,
                                      Nasal,
                                      Lachrymal,
                                      Palatine,
                                      Inferior sponga,
                                      Vomer,
                                      Inferior Maxil.
                                      Incisors,
                                      Cuspidati,
                                      Molar es,
                                       Hyoides,
                                      Maleus,
                                      Incus,
                                       Stapes,
                                       Orbiculare,
                                      Vertebra?,
                                       Sacrum,
                                       Cocyges,
                                       Sternum,
                                       Innominata ossa,
                                       Clavicle,
                                       Scapula,
                                       Humeri  os,
                                       Ulna,
                                       Radius,
                                       Carpus,
                                       Metacarpus,
                                       Phalanges,
                                       Femur,
                                       Patella,
                                       Tibia,
                                       Fibula,
                                       Tarsus,
                                       Metatarsus,
                                       Phalanges,
Sesamoid bones of the thumb and  gTeat toe,

                                       Total.
Bo»E« OP THB C1J.3II7X  OB 9KT7U..
Bones of thb face.
DEHTIS OR TESTH.


BoWE OP THE T0JT6CB,
Bowes op the eak.
BoKEI OP THB TEUNK,
Boxes of the  cpper extrbxities.   ■<
Bowes oP thb lower bxtrkititibs.
 1
 2
 1
 Z
 1
 1
 2
 2
 2
 2
 2
 2
 1
 1
 8
 4
20
 1
 2
 2
 2
 2
 24
  1
  1
  1
  2
  i
  2
  2
  2
  2
 16
 10
 28
  2
  2
  2
  2
 14
 10
 28
  8

243 
EXJPLJJUYJITIOJV  OF  PJL&Tm ».

    A Front  Viewr of the Xttale Skeleton.
A  The os frontis.
B  The os parietala.
C  The coronal suture.
D  The squamous part of the
     temporal bone.
E  The squamous suture.
F  The Zygoma.
G  The mastoid process.
H  The temporal process of the
     sphenoid bone,
4   The orbit.
K  The os malx.
L  The upper Jaw bones.
M  Its nasal process.
N  The ossa nasi.
O  The os ungu«.
P  The lower jaw.
Q,  The teeth.
R  The sever cervical vertebra.
S  Their transverse processes.
T  The 12 dorsal vertebrx.
tJ  The five lunar vertebrae.
V  Their transverse processes.
W The upper part of the os
     sacrum.
X  Its side parts.
V  The os ilium.
Z  Its Crest or spine.
a  The anterioi spinous process.
b  The brim of the pelvis.
x.  The iacheatic notch.
d  The os ischeum.
e  Its tuberosity.
f  Its spinous process.
g  Its crus, or root.
h  The foramen thyroideum.
i  The os pubis.
k  The symphysis pubis.
1  The crus pubis or origen.
m The acetabulum.
r»  The seventh or last true rib.
x>  The twelfth or last false rib.
$  The upper end of the ster-
      num.
q  The middle piece.
r  The cartilage ensiformis.
s  The clavicle.
t  Internal surface of the scapula
u  Its acromion.
v  Its caracoid process.
w  Its neck or cervix.
x  Its glenoid cavity.
y  The os humeri.
z  Its head.
1  Its tubercle.
2  Its internal tubercle.
3  Its groove.
4  Its condyle,
5  Between 4 & 5 its trochlea.
6  The radius.
7  Its head.
8  Its tubercle.
9  The ulna.
10 Its coronid process.
11 to 18 The carpus composed
    of several bones.
19 The five bones of the  mete-
    carpus.
20 The two bones of the thumb.
21 The three bones of each fin-
    ger.
22 The os femoris.
23 Its head.
24 Its cervix or neck,
25 The trochanter major.
26 The trochanter minor.
27 The internal Condyle.
28 The external condyle.
29 The rotula or knee pan-.
30 The tibia.
31 Its head.
32 Its tubercle.
33 Its spine.
34 The internal ancle.
35 The fibula.
36 Its head.
37 The external ancle
38 The astragalus 
p   11
 
 
EXPLANATION  OF PLATES  2 & i.       49
39 The cs calcis.            43 The two  bones  of the
40 The cs naviculare.            great  toe.
41 The three ossa cuneiforme  44 The three bones of each
42 The fi ve bones of the met      s.nall  toe.
    atarbus.
                   1 'i»8Q9*«".


EXPEAJYJiTIOJV  OF IPMjJITE  3.
Front  View.
AA Therssa parietala.		f	Seventh or last true rib.
B	The s.igital suture.	g	Twelfth or last false rib.
C	The lainbo'.d suture.	h	The clavicle.
F	The mastoid process of	i	The scapula.
	the temp. bone.	k	Its spine. .
G	Theosmalx.	1	Its acromion.
H	The palati plates of the	m	Its cervix er neck-
	upper j iw bones.	n	Its superior costa or rib.
I	The lower jaw.	o	Its posterior costa.
K	The teeth of both jaws.	p	Its inferior costa.
L	The 7 cervical vertebrae.	q	The os humeri.
M	Their spinous processes.	r	Radius.
N	Their transverse and ob-	s	Ulna.>
	lique processes.	t	Its olecranon.
O	The last of the 12 dorsal	u	Bones of the carpus.
	vertebra:.	V	5 bones of the metacarpus
Q	The transverse processes	w	2 bones of the thumb.
R	The oblique processes.	X	3 bones of each finger.
S	The spinous processes.	y	2 sessamoid bone* of the
T	The upper part of theos		thumb.
	sacrum.	z	Os fern oris.
U	The posterior holes for	1	Trochanter major.
	nerves, &c.	2	Trochanter minor.
V	The under part of the os	3	Linea aspera.
	sacrum.	4	Internal condyle.
w	The os coccygis. %	5	External condyle.
X	Os ilium.	6	Semilunar cartilages.
Y	Its spine or crest.	7	The tibia.
Z	Ischiatic notch.	8	Internal ancle.
a	Os Ischium.	9	Fibula.
U	Its tuberosity.	10	External ancle.
c	Its spine.	11	The tarsus.
d	Os pubis.	12	The metatarsus.
c	Foramen thyroideum.	13	The toes.
E 
 
PART  SECOND.
   OP ARTICULATIONS, LIGAMENTS, BURSAS, MU-
                     COSA];, &C.

   The skeleton is composed of a  great number of
 bones, which are all  so admirably  constructed,  and
 with so much affinity to each other, that the extremi-
 ties  of each bone is perfectly adjusted to the end of
 the bone with which it is connected.   This connection
 is termed their articulation,  of which, anatomists dis-
 tinguish four kinds; the first is  named diarthrosis; the
 second synarthrosis:  the  third ssynvphysis,  and tho
 fou rth, amph yarthros is.
   I.  Di arthrosis.   A free, moveable connection of
 bones.   This genous has four species, viz:
   1.  Enthrosis.  A ball and socket joiut, in which the
 round head of one bone is  received into a cavity of an-
 other, so as to admit of  motion in every direction; as
 the hip joint.
   2.  Antherodia.   A  moveable connection of bones,
 in which the head of one bone is received into the su-
 perficial  cavity of  another, so as to admit of motion in
 every direction, as the head of the os humeri, or upper
 bone of the arm. with the glenoid cavity ol the scapu-
 la, or shoulder blade.
  3.   Ginglymus.   A hinge joint,  which  admits of
 flexion and extension, as the  knee and elbow joint.
  4.   Trochoides.   A moveable  connection of bones,
in which one bone rotates or turns upon  another; as
the first vertebra of the neck  upon  the odontoid, or
tooth-like process of the second.
  II.  Synarthrosis.  An immoveable connection
of bones, in which  they are united together by an 
$2              ARTICULATIONS.
immoveable union    It  has three  species,   viz:
  1.  Suture;   To join together.   The word suture -p-\
is applied to bones where they are  joined together by .
a dentiform or tooth like margin; as in the bones of the
head.
  2.  Harmonia;  To fit  together.  An immoveable
connection  of bones,  in which bones are connected to-
gether by means of rough margins, not dentiform; in
this manner most of the bones of the face arc  connect-
ed together.
  3.  Gomphosis; To drive in a  nail.  A species of
connection of  bones, in which one bone is fixed in ano-
ther, like a nail in wood, or as  the teeth in the alveoli
of the jaws.
   III.   Symphysis; To grow together.   A connec-  j
tion of  bones, in which they are united by  means of an  I
intervening body.    It comprehends  three species,  j
viz:                                               J
   1.   Synchondrosis.  A connection of bones, in which'J
one bone is united with another by means of  an inter-
vening  cartilage; as the vertebrie, and the  bones of
the pubes.                                          j
   2.  Syncurosis.  A connection  of bones, in which
one bone is united td another by means of an  interven- ]
ing membrane.
   3.   Syndesmosis.   A connection of  bones, in which I
one is united to another by a ligament, as the radiu9 |
with the ulna,
  IV.  Amphiarthrosis.  A  connection  of bones
partaking  both of diarthrosis and  synarthrosis, which
admits only of an obscure motion, as in the wrist and ]
ancle.
  The surfaces  of bones which form the moveable ar-
ticulations  are covered with cartilaginous matter, and 
articulations.
S3
 are retained in their relative situations by ligaments,
 which are exterior to the cavities  of the articulations,
 and placed in such situations that they permit the  mo-
 lions of which the joints are  calculated  to perform,
 while they keep the respective bones in  their  proper
 places.  They are invested in a particular manner by
 a thin delicate membrane, which in some joints as those
 of the hip and shoulder seems to be  the internal lami-
 na, or layer of a stronger  ligament  called the capsu-
 lar ligament: and in  all other joints, the knee for ex-
 ample, appears to be  independent of any other struc-
 ture.  In such cases,  the capsular ligament, or synoval
 membrane as it is sometimes called,  forms a complete
 sack or bag, which covers the articulating surface of
 one bone, and is reflected from it to the corresponding
 surface  of the other; adhering firmly to each of the
 articulating  surfaces, and extending loosely from the
 margin of one surface to that of the other.
  The sygnoval membrane,  or capsular ligament sup-
 plies  the place of pcricJiordrium, (a membrane that cov-
 ers a cartilage) to the cartilages of  the joint,  and of
 pcriostum to those surfaces of bones with which it is
 connected.  This membrane secretes, or effuses from
 its  surface,  a liquor  called synovia  or joint water;
 which is particularly calculated to lubricate parts that
 move upon each other.
  There are in many of the joints masses of fat. which
 appears to project into the cavity, but are  exterior to
the synoval membrane, and covered by it;  as the vis-
eera in the abdomen  are covered by the peritoneum, or
membrane.   These masses  of fat are generally situ-
ated so as to be pressed gently, but not bruised by the
motions of the bones.
  These masses have been considered  as synovial
       i;» 
54                ARTICULATIONS.
glands; but they do not appear like glands;  and it is
probable that the synovia is secreted by the whole in-
ternal surface of the membrane.
  The synovial membrane, like the other parts of the
joint, is insensible, or at least sensibility is very weak
in a sound state,  but extremely painful when infla-
med.
  The  membranes, cartilages, and ligaments of the
joints, are slow in entering into action, but once exci-
ted, they continue to act with a perseverance quite un-
known in any other part  of  the system.  The diseas-
es  to which the joints are subject, are  numerous.^-
They are subject to dropsical effusions; they  are sub-
ject to  gelatinous concretions; they  are  subject to
 slight mflammations, to suppuration or pus, to coroswns  {
 or eating away the cartilages, suppurations and morti-
 fications of the more  softer  parts.   Rheumatism is an
 inflammation round the joints, with  a slight effusion,
 which is soon absorbed.  Chronic  rheumatism is a te-
 dious and  slow inflammation, with gelatinons effusions
 round  the tendons, and swelling, and  lameness  round
 the joints.   Gout, in the joint, is a high state of inflam-
 mation with a secretion of earthy matter into its cav-
 ity.   There are many  other diseases to which  the
 joints  are subject, as  whitlow, white swellings,  &c.



 OF PARTICULAR  ARTICULATIONS.

       THB COHlTKCTIOir OF THE BEAD WITH THE TERTEHBB.

    The condyles  of the occipital bone, and the corres-
 ponding cavities of the atlas, or upper vertebra, are
 covered with  cartilage.   The condyle and  cavity on
 each side are covered with  a capsular or synovial lig- 
ARTICULATIONS.
55
ament; at this joint the nodding  motions of the head
is performed.
  The atlas so rests upon the second vertebra, or as it
is called  vertebra denta, that all the turning motions
are performed at that point, so that  it requires two
joints for the head to perform its various motions.
  These joints are held together by various ligaments,
the description of  which would be of but little  use  to
the readers of this volume.

     Articulations of the vertebrae with each other.

  The bodies of all the  vertebrae, except the atlas, are
connected to each other  by the intervertebral  cartilag-
inous matter, which unites them very firmly,  allowing
at the same time some  motion, in  consequence of its
elasticity  and  compressibility.    This connection  is
strengthened by two ligaments, which extend the whole
length of the spine, from the  second vertebra  of tho
neck to the os sacrum, together with various other lig-
aments.

           Articulation  of the Lower Jaw.

   The glenoid cavity of the temporal bone,  with the
 tubercle before it, and  the condyle of the  lower jaw,
 are covered with  cartilages.   And to render the mo-
 tions of  this joint easy  and free,  a moveable  cartilage
 is placed between them, which  being flexible,  is ac-
 commodated to the convexity of the  condyle and hol-
lowness of the glenoid cavity,  and also  to the figure
of  the tubercle to which it is extended.
   This joint is completed by  a capsular  ligament of
 the common form, which arises from  the  neck  of the
condyle, and which is so fixed into the temporal bone
            „ ...AWT* 
J*               ARTICULATIONS.
as to include both the proper socket and the root of thf
zygomatic process.
  The strength of this joint not only  depends  upon
its ligaments, but upon muscles 35, 37, & 8, which an
inserted close round the joint.

     THE LIGAMENTS OF THE LOWER JAW, ARE,
   1  Capsular ligament.
   2  Ligamentum cartilaginis intermedin.
   3      "      maxillae lateral externum.
   4      "        "    lateral internum.
   5      "      inter maxillum.
   6      "      processum styloideum.

  The lower jaw is subject to dislocation, by blows,
yawning, fits, &c. and is  known by  an inability to
shut the mouth, and the projection of the chin.  Before
attempting to reduce this joint, the muscles should be
relaxed,  which  may  be  done by  applying flannels
wrung out of warm water for fifteen or twenty min-
utes;  if  much swelled,  it will require  a longer time.
After the muscles have become relaxed, seat the  pa-
tient in a chair, and let his head be  supported against
the breast of an assistant.  You may then push your
thumbs between the teeth and cheeks until they  reach
the upright portion of the hone, while with the fingers
outside, you grasp the bone, which  is to be  pressed
downwards and backwards,  while at the same time
the chin  is to be raised and pushed backwards; if this
process is rightly performed there will be no difficulty
in reducing it.
  I have succeeded in reducing the jaw,  when  dislo-
cated, after the muscles were properly relaxed, by in-
troducing the fore finger of each hand and pushing the
■pright portion of the  bone  backwards, bearing  the
chin up at the same time with my thumbs. 
Articulation of the Ribs.
   The ribs have two joints, and a hinge-like motion,
 rising and falling alternately, as we draw in orletout
 our breath.  The two joints of the ribs are thus secu-
 red; first,  the proper head  of the  ribs being  hinged
 upon the intervertebral substances, and touching two
 vertcbrse, it is tied to the bodies of each by a regular
 capsule or synovial ligament.  The back of  the rib
 touches the fore part of the transverse process, and is
 articulated there;  consequently there is a small capsu-
 lar ligament belonging to this joint also.   These joints
 arc secured by several ligaments.
   The ribs are also fixed into the breast bone by their
 cartilages, each of which has a round head, a distinct
 socket, a regular  capsule,  and ligaments which hold
 them firm to  their places.  There are six ligaments
 which bind a rib to the spine, and three at the breast
 bone.
!
             Articulations of the Clavicle.

   The connection of the clavicle  with the breast bone
 resembles  that of  the lower jaw—and temporal bone.
[A moveable cartilage is placed  between the articula-
 ting surfaces.  This cartilage  is   thin and of a  mu-
'cous nature, and is moveable in some degree,  vetit is
'fixed by one edge to the head of the clavicle.
   This joint is closed in a strong  capsular ligament,
'consisting first of a bag, and  then of the outer order
 of fibres, which go out  in a radiated  form, upon the
'''surface of the breast bone.  The  clavicle is also tied
'to the first rib by a broad ligament called rJu)mboid lig-
^ament.
3  This bone is subject to dislocation and fracture.  Tfc 
58
ARTICULATIONS.
reduce it, seat the patient  in  a chair,  and  place a
compress of linen under  his  arm.   His  arm being
bent  at right angle at the elbow, is now to be brought
down to  his side, and secured in that position by along
bandage, which is to be passed over the arm of the af-
fected side and round the body.  The fore arm is to
be supported by a sling.  It takes this bone from four
to live weeks to unite.

     Articulations of the Os Humen and Scapula.

  The spherical portion of the upper extremity of the
upper bone of  the arm, is tho first which is received in
the glenoid cavity of the shoulder blade, both of wliich
arc covered with cartilage.
  The glenoid cavity of the shoulder blade  being of
itself small,  when  compared  with  the  head  of the
sho'.il.ler bone is greatly enlarged  with the cartilage
that lines  the  cavity,  together  with the  tendons of
muscles which  are there inserted, and the capsular lig-
ament which covers this joint.   This joint is  held in
its proper situation by the  capsular ligament, which is
blended with an external stronger ligament, together
with the muscles and their tendons,  which are situated
about this  joint.   The ligaments of this joint ari
eight.
  Dislocations of the shoulder arc the most common
of all accidents of the kind.   It is very easily known
by the deformity of the joint, and the head of the bone
being found in  some unnatural  position.   To reduce it,
seat tiic patient on a chair, place one hand on the prom-
inent  part of the shoulder blade, just above  the spot
where the, head of tic bone should  be,  while with the
other  you grasp the arm above the elbow and  pull it
outwards. 
ARTICULATIONS.
59
   A better plan is to let one extend the arm, and ano-
 ther place the head  of the  bone, this will  be easier
 done, after the muscles  have been relaxed with warm
 water.

              Articulation of the Elbow.

   The  elbow-joint is formed by three bones;  the hu-
 merus, radius, and idna; the surfaces of these bones,
 where they move upon each  other, are  covered with
 cartilage.  The motion of the ulna  and radius on the
 os humeri is  that of flexion and extension.   The head
 of the radius performs a part of a revolution, nearly
 on its own axis, without moving from the depression
 in the side of the ulna, with which it is in contact.
   The  synovial  or capsular ligament  adheres very
 firmly to the surface, covered with cartilage on each of
 the bones, and is reflected from the margin of the sur-
 face of one bone,  to that of the others.  As  the prin-
 cipal motion  performed in this joint is hinge-like, so,
 the principal ligaments are on the si!es.
   The ligaments of this joint are five.
   This joint is sometimes dislocated backwards.  When
 this is the case,  seat the patient on a chair, let one per-
 son grasp the arm near the shoulder, and another th«
 wrist, and forcibly extend it, while you  interlock the
: fingers of both hands just above the elbow, and  pull it
(backwards,  remembering that  whatever  degree  of
 force is required,  should be applied in this direction.
   When this joint is dislocated laterally or sideways;
,to reduce it,  let one pull at the wrist, while another se-
 cures the arm above, then push the bone into its  place,
 either inwards or outwards, as may be required. 
40               ARTICULATIONS,
              Articulation of the  Wrist*

  The structure of the wrist is  very complex.  It
consists of three articulations, which arc contiguous to
«ach other, viz:
  1,  That of the ulna and radius.
  2.  That of the radius and first row of the bones of
the wrist.
  S»  That of the first and  second  row of the bones
of the wrist with each other.
  A long convex head is formed  by the upp?r  surface
of the scaphoides and lunare, and a portion of the upper
surface of the cuneiform bone.   This head is covered
with a cartilage, which is so uniform that the different
bones cannot  be distinguished from each other.  The
lower end of the radius is articulated  with  this head,
hut does not cover the whole of it;  a portion of this
head is therefore under the ulna, but not in  contact
with that bone.  The lower end of tlie ulna  is  in con-
tact with the  upper surface of the above named  cartil-
age, but is articulated to the side of the radius.
   A synovial membrane covers the articulating  head
formed by the three  bones of the wrist, and is  reflect-
ed from the margin  of their cartilaginous surface, to
the cartilage  at the end of the radius.  A fold of this
membrane passes from the head  of the wrist, at th«
junction of the scaphoides and lunare, to the opposite
part of the cartilage of the radius, and has been called
the mucous ligament.
   The surfaces, by which the first and second  rows of
the bones of the wrist are articulated with each other,
are very  irregular, and being so closely connected with
each other, that the name of joint can hardly  be ap-
plied to them.   They are rather fixed than  jointed to
*ach other.   The first row is united to the second, by 
ARTtCtJtsA'WOU*!.                fit
a general  and distinct capsule,  in addition to which
each single bone is tied to the next adjoining bone by a
regular capsular ligament  within,  and by flat  crosf?
ligaments without, or rather by many bundles  of liga-
ments, which cross each other  in a  very complicated
manner.   The ligaments of the wrist are nine in  num-
ber.

   Articulation of the Carpal and Metacarpal bones.

  The metacarpal bones, or  bones between the  wrist
and fingers, are connected to the last row of the wrist
by surfaces which are covered with cartilages, and
supplied with synovial or  capsular ligaments, as the
most of moveable  articulations are; but the ligaments
which connect these bones  do not permit much motion
between them.  The irregularity of the articulating
surfaces of the metacarpal bones of  the fore and mid-
dle finger, also contribute  to restrain their motion; ac-
cordingly these two bones  move less than the other two
bones of the hand, the  surfaces of  which  are  better
adapted for motion.

             Articulation of the Fingers.

   The first joint of the fingers have a  large  synovial
or capsular ligament, which covers the head  of the
 metacarpal bone,  and  corresponding  cavities of the
 first bones of the  fingers.   The other joints of the fin-
 gers arc articulated in  a similar manner, all of  which
 ore secured in their proper places by ligaments passing
 from one bone to another.
   Dislocation of the wrist, fingers,  and thumb, are
 to be reduced by forcibly extending the  lower  extremi-
 ty  of the part, and pushing the bones into their prop- 
*2
ARTICULATIONS.
er place.   These accidents should be attended to with-
out delay, for if neglected, they shortly become irre-
duceable.

                   The  Hip Joint.

   The acetabulum, or cavity  for receiving the head of
the thigh  bone, is lined with cartilage, the brim  of
which is much  enlarged, and the cavity deepened, by
the  addition  of fibrous cartilaginous  matter,  which
forms a regular smooth edge.  The head of the thigh
bone is also covered with a smooth cartilage, having a
depression in the  center.   From  this depression a
/strong ligament arises, which appears to pass to a de-
pression in the center of the cavity, but terminates in
the lower edge of the cartilaginous ring  or margin.
This ligament allows the head of the thigh bone to rise
out of the cavity, but is probably torn in every luxa-
tion of the hip joint.
   The capsular ligament., which  contains these  articu-
lating parts, is  the strongest one in the  body.  It ari-
ses near the  basis  of the  cartilaginous  brim,  but it
does not adhere to  the cartilaginous edge;  and is  in-
serted into the thigh bone, near  the  roots of the tro-
chanters, so that it includes a large portion of the neck
of the bone.   There are five ligaments  united in secu-
ring the hip joint, but the greatest dependence is upon
the capsular  ligament.
  Notwithstanding the hip joint is the strongest one in
the body, it is sometimes dislocated.  When this acci-
dent happens, place the patient on his back upon a ta-
ble.   Take two sheets, and  fold them like  a cravat,
wliich are to be  passed between the  thigh and testicle,
on each side, one half of each sheet passing obliquely
over the belly to the opposite shoulder, while the other 
ARTICULATIONS.                63
 half passes under the-.back in the  same direction, the
 ends of which are to be fastened to something that is
 firm, or held by assistants.  The  thigh is  then to be
 steadily and forcibly extended, while you will be turn-
 ing and twisting the  limb to assist in dislodging it
 from its unnatural situation.  The  reduction  of this
joint should never.bc attempted until the parts are well
 relaxed, by the  application of cloths wrung  out of
 warm  water.

              Artiadation of the  Knee.

  The knee joint is composed of the thigh bone, tibia,
 and patella, or knee  pan, and  are  united by many
 ligaments, both  within and without the joint.
  This joint as it relates to  the bones  is  very weak.
 There is in this joint no fair cavity,  for  receiving the
 head of a bone as in the hip, no slighter ball and sock-
 et as in the fingers;  no strong overhanging bones, as
 in the shoulder, nor hook-like processes as  in the ulna.
The strength of this joint does not  depend  upon its
 bones, but upon the number, size,  and disposition of
the great ligaments with which  its bones  are  joined;
 by virtue  of these ligaments it is  one of  the strongest
joints of the human body.  The  articulation  of this
joint has been described in the description of the bones
 of the thigh, leg, &c. (which see.)   The ligaments of
 the knee are fifteen.
  This joint is sometimes dislocated, but requires very
 little force to reduce it.   Sometimes the patella or knee
pan is dislocated, which will be easily known by its
unnatural situation.   To reduce it, bring the leg  in a
right angle with the body,  and with the hand  push it
to its proper place. 
64
LIGAMENTS.
              Articulation of the Ancle.

  It should  be observed that  the tibia and fibula are
so firmly connected with each other at the lower end,
that they may be considered as forming  but one mem-
ber of this joint.   They together form one cavity for
receiving the astragalus,  w ith two  projecting points,
the  fibula forming  the outer  ancle,  and the tibia form-
ing the process of  the inner  ancle.                *
  This joint is made strong  by the  lower heads of the
tibia aud fibula, which serve as guards to the foot, so
that when the ancle  is luxated these  bones are often
broken*.  This joint possesses a capsular  ligament,
together with several other ligaments, which assist in
strengthening it.   It is not  very common for this joint
to be dislocated; however,   should  it happen, let one
person hold the leg, and another extend  the foot,  while
you push the bone to its  proper place.   The joint is
then to be covered with compresses wet with vinegar,
and a splint applied to each side.   Accidents of this
kind are very  dangerous, and should receive prompt
attention.
  The other articulations of the foot have been noticed
in  the description of the bones of  the foot (which
see,)

                     —»•*»©*«<•—

       OF  PARTICULAR  LIGAMENTS.

  The following are some of the most important liga
ments of the human system, and which will frequent
ly be refered to in explaining the muscles. 
                   LIGAMENTS.                  63.

             Ligaments of the Scapula.

  1.  Triangxdar  ligament.   This  ligament  arises
broad from the external surface of the  caracoid pro-
cess, and becomes narrower where  it is fixed  to the
posterior margin of the acromion.  It confines the ten-
don of muscle 125, and assists in protecting the upper
and inner part of the shoulder joint.
  2.  Posterior ligament of the scapula.  This liga-
ment is sometimes  double, and is  stretched across  the
semilunar notch of the shoulder  blade, forming that
notch into one or two holes for the passage of the scap-
ulary vessels and nerves.   It also gives rise to part of
muscle 48.

            A Ligament of the  Fore Arm.

   3.   Interosseous ligament.  This ligament is  situa-
ted between the sharp ridges of  the radius and ulna,
filling up the greater part of the space between these
two bones, and is composed of small fasciculi, or fibrous
slips, which run obliquely  downwards and inwards,
Two or three of these, however,  go  in the opposite di-
rection; and one of them, termed obliqxie ligament and
chorda transversalis cubiti,  is stretched  between the
tubercle of the ulna and under  part of the tubercle of
the radius.  This ligament prevents the radius from
 rolling too much outwards, and  furnishes attachment
 for muscles.

 Ligaments retaining  the tendons  of the muscles of the
        liand and fingers in their proper-position.

   4.  Anterior annular ligament  of the wrist.  This
 ligament is stretched across from the projecting points
 of the pisiform and unciform bones, to theos  scaphoides. 
56                 LIGAMENTS.
and trapezium, forming an arch which covers and pre-
serves in their places the tendons of the flexor muscles
of the fingers.
   5*   Vaginal ligaments of the flexor tendons.   These
are fine membranes, connecting the tendons of mus-
cles 151 and 152; forming at the same time hursge mu-
cosae which surround the tendons.
   6.   Vaginal or crucial ligaments of the fingers. These
ligaments arise from the ridges on the concave side of
the hones of the fingers, and run over the tendons of
the flexor muscles of the fingers*   Upon  the body of
the phalanges, they are thick and strong, to bind down
the tendons; but over  the joints  they are  thin,  and
have, in some parts, a crucial, or transverse intersect-
ing appearance,  to. allow the ready motion of  the
joints.
   7.   Accessary ligaments of the flexor tendons  of the
fingers.  These are small tendinous ligaments, arising
from the first and second  phalanges  of  the fingers.
They run obliquely forwards within the vaginal liga-
ments, terminating in the tendons of the  two flexor
muscles of the fingers, and  assist  in  keeping them in
their places.
   8.  Posterior annular ligament  of the wrist.  This
is part of the apeneurosis or tendinous expansion of the
fore arm, extending across the back of the wrist, from
the extremity of the ulna and os pisiforme  to the ex-
tremity of the radius.  It is connected with the small
annular ligaments which tie down the tendons of Mus-
cles 141, 147 &  148.
  9.   Transverse ligaments.   These  are  apeneurotic
slips running between the tendons, near the heads of
the metacarpal bones, and retaining them in  their pla-
ces. 
LIGAMENTS.                  G?
       Ligaments of the fore part of the Thorax.

   10.   Membrane proper to the sternum.   This mem-
 brane is a firm expansion, composed of tendinous fibres
 running in different directions, and covering the fore
 and back surface of the breast bone, being compound-
 ed with the periosteum.
   11.   Ligaments of the Cartilago  Ensiformis.  This
 is part of the membrane last described, divided into
 two strong slips which run obliquely from the under
 and fore part of the second bone of the sternum, and
 from the cartilages of the  seventh pair of ribs to  be
 fixed to the cartilago ensiformis.  The ligaments cov-
 ering the sternum  serve considerably to strengthen
 that bone.

         Ligaments of the bones of the Pelvis.

   12.   Transverse ligaments.  These ligaments arise-
 from the posterior or back of the spine of the os ilium,.
 and run transversely.   One of these is fixed to the last
 vertebra of the loins, and the other to the first;  the
 other is fixed to the transverse process of the os sa-
 crum.
   13.   Hie sacral ligaments.   These arise  from the
 posterior or back spinous process of the os ilium, de-
 scending obliquely, and are fixed to the first, & fourth
 spinous transverse processes  of the os sacrum.
   These with the two transverse ligaments, assist in
 binding the  bones together, to wliich they are connect-
ed.
   14.   Sacro ischiatic ligaments.   These are situated
in the under and back part of the pelvis.  They arise
in common from the transverse processes of the os sa-
crum, and likewise from the  under and side part of
• -.=»*> 
69.                 LIGAMENTS.
that bone, and from the upper part of the os coccygis.
One of these descends obliquely to be fixed  to the tu-
berosity of the os ischium.  The other runs transverse.
ly to be fixed to the spinous process of the os ischium.
These two ligaments assist in binding the bones of the
pelvis, in supporting its contents, and in giving origin
to part of its muscles.
   There arc twTo membranous productions which are
connected with these ligaments, which are attached to
the os ischium, termed its superior and inferior apendi-
ces.
   The superior apendix, which is tendinous,  arises
from the back part of the spine of the os ilium,  and is
fixed along the  outer edge  of the ligament,  which it
increases in breadth.
   The inferior or falciform apendix, situated within the
cavity of the pelvis, the back part of which is connec-
ted with the middle of the large external ligament, and
the rest of  it extends round the curvature of the os is-
 chium.  These two productions assist the large exter-
 nal ligament, or the one which is attached to the tuber-
 cle of the os ischium, in furnishing a  more commodi-
 ous situation, and insertion of part of the gluteus max-
 imus, and obturator internus muscles.   (See mus, 84,
 & 170.
    1,5..  Langitiidal ligaments of the os cocygis.  These
 ligaments descend from those upon the dorsum of the
 os sacrum,  to be fixed to the back part of the os coccygis,
 The ligaments of this bone prevent it from being pull-
 ed too much forwards by the action of  muscle 85; res-
 toring the bone to its natural situation, after the muscle
 has ceased to act.
    16.  Ligamentous cartilage.  This cartilage unites
 the ossa pubis or share bones together, so as to admit
 of no motion, excepting in  the  state of  pregnancy* 
ligame!
69
when it is frequently found to be so softened as to yield
a little in the time of delivery.
   17.   Obturator membrane or ligament of the foramen
thyroideum.  This ligament adheres to the margin of
the foramen  thyroideum, and fills the whole of that
opening, excepting the oblique notch at its upper part
for the passage of the obturator vessels  and nerves.
It assists in supporting the contents  of the pelvis, and
in giving origin to the obturator muscle (mus. 84.)
   18.  Interosseous ligament of the  leg.  This ligament
fills the space between the two bones of the leg, like
the interosseous ligament of the fore arm,  and is of a
similar structure;  being formed of oblique fibres, and
perforated in various places for the passage of vessels
and nerves.  This ligament together with other uses*
serves for the origin of muscles.

           Ligaments of the Foot and Toes.

   19.   Annular ligament of the  tarsus. This is a thick-
ened part of the apeneurosis of  the leg, splitting into
superior and inferior portions,  which bind  down the
tendons of the extensors of  the  toes upon the fore part
of the ancle.
   20.   Vaginal ligaments of the tendons of tlie peronci
muscles.  These ligaments preserve the tendons in their
places, and are the bursae of these tendons.
   21.  Laciniated ligaments.  These arise  from  the
inner ancle, and spread in a  radiated manner, to be
fixed partly  in the cellular  substance  and fat, and
partly to the os calcis, at the inner side of the heel.
This ligament encloses muscles 139 & 195.
   22.   Vaginal ligament of the tendon of thefiexor lon-
gus policis.  This ligament  surrounds the  tendon  of
muscle 196 in the hollowT of the os calcis. 
70
LIGAMENTS.
   23.   Vaginal and crucial ligaments of the tendons of
the flexors of the toes.   These ligaments  enclose the
tendons on the surface of the bones  of the  toes, and
from their bursce mucosa'.
   24.   Accessary ligaments of the flexor tendons of the
toes.   These ligaments arise, from  the bones of the
toes, and are  included in the sheths  of the tendons in
which they terminate.
   25.   Transverse ligaments of the extensor tendons.
These ligaments run  between the  extensor  tendons,
preserving them in their proper places behind the roots
of the toes.



             OF BURS^E  MUCOSAE.

   The bursse mucosae, are little bags or sacks, placed
between the tendons and bones, where  there is much
friction.  These sacks are composed of proper mem-
branes, containing a kind of mucous fat.   The bursae
mucosae are of different sizes and firmness, and are
connected by the cellular membrane to articular cavi-
ties, tendons,  ligaments, or the penosteum.   Their use
is to secrete and contain a substance to lubricate ten-
dons, muscles and bones, in order to render their mo-
tions easy.
   The bursae mucosae is a  part of  natural  anatomy,
which is necessary for  the surgeon to be well  acquain-
ted with,  because after sprains and injuries  of that
kind, an effusion takes place in them,  presenting  a
puffy swelling  over the joint, not  easily understood
unless  we are  acquainted with  the situation of tha
bursae. 
Bursas Mucosal of the Head.
   1.   A bursa of muscle 9.   This  is situated  in  the
 eye socket.
   2.   A bursa of muscle 41.  This is situated in  the
 internal surface of the tendon of that muscle.
   3.   A bursa of mus.  55.   This is situated between
 the hook-like processes of the sphenoid bone, and  tho
 tendon of that muscle.
   4.   A bursa of muscle 47.   This  is  situated  be-
 tween the os hyoides and larynx.

        Bursai nmcosK about the Shoulder  Joint.

   5.   The external acromial.   This is situated under
 the acromion, between the caracoid process, muscle 129,
 and capsular ligament.
   6*   The internal acromial.   This is situated  above
 the tendons of muscles 126 & 127.
   7.   The caracoid bursa.   This is situated near  the
 root of the caracoid process.
   8.   The clavicula bursa.    This is found where  the
 clavicle touches the caracoid process.
   9.   The subclavian bursa.  This is situated between
 the tendon of muscle 92 and the first rib.
   10.   The caracd-brochial.  This is situated between
 the origin of muscle 130, and the capsidar ligament.
   11.   A bursa of muscle 91.  This  is situated  under
 the head of the humerus, between the internal surface
 of the tendon of  that muscle, and  another bursa pla-
 ced on the long head of the biceps muscle.
   12.   An external bursa of muscle  128.  This  is sit-
uated under the head of the os humeri, between it and
the tendon of that muscle.
   13.   An internalbursa of muscle 128.  This is found 
73
BURSJE MUCOSJE.
within the muscle where the fibres of  its tendons di-
verge.
   14.   A bursa of muscle  103.    This is situated be-
tween the tendon of this muscle  and the os humeri.
   15.   llumero bicipital bursa.   This is  found in the
gheth of the tendon of the biceps.

             Bursoe near the elbow joint.

   16.  The radio-Mcipital.  This is situated  between
the tendons of muscles 132, 133, and  the anterior tu
bercle of the radius.
   17.   The cubito-radial.   This is  situated between
the  tendons of muscles 134, 146,  and  the  ligament
 common to the radius and ulna.
   18.   The aconeal bursa.  This is situated between
 the olecranon  and tendon of muscle 135.
   19.   The capitulo-radial bursa.   This  is situated
 between the  tendons of muscles  138,  139, and the
 round head of the radius.

       Bursal on the inside of the  Wrist and Hand.

   20.   A large bursa, for the tendon of muscle 153.
   21.   Four short bursa.   These are situated on the
 fore part of the tendons of muscle 151.
   22.   A large bursa.  This  is situated  behind the
 tendon of muscle 153, between it and the fore part of
 the radius, capsular ligament of the wrist and os tra
 pezium.
   23.   A large bursa behind  the  tendons of muscle
 152,  and on  the fore part  of  the  end of the  radius,
 and fore part of  the capsular ligament of the wrist.
   24.   An oblong bursa.  This is situated between the
 tendon of muscle 144 and the os trapezium. 
73
  25.  A very small bursa.  This is situated between
the tendon of muscle 142, and the os pisiforme.

    Bursoe on the back part of the  Wrist and Hand.

  26.  A bursa, between  the  tendon of muscle 147,
and ihe radius.
  27.  A large bursa, between the tendons of  muscles
137 & 138.
  28.  A bursa, at the insertion  of muscle 138.
  29.  An oblong bursa.  This is situated on the ten-
don of muscle 137.
  30.  A bursa between the tendons of the 'extensors
of the fore, middle and ring fingers.
  31.   A bursa for the extensor of the little finger.
  32.  A bursa  between  the  tendon  of Muscle 141,
and ligament of the wrist.


              Bursas near the Hip Joint.

  33.   The Ileo-puberal.   This  is situated  between
muscles 89, 90, and the capsular  ligament of the hip.
  34.   The pectineal.   This is  situated between the
tendon of muscle  167  and the thigh bone.
  35.  A small bursa,  situated between  muscle 172,
and the great trochanter.
   36.  A bursa of muscle  171,  situated  between its
tendon and the great trochanter.
  37.   Thegluteo-fascial.   This is situated  between
muscles 170 and 179.
   38.   The  tubcro-ischiatic bursa.  This is  situated
between muscle 84, the posterior spine of the ischium,
and its tuberosity.
  39.   The obturatory bursa. This is situated  between
muscle 84 6c 174 near the capsular ligament of the hip.
       G 
74
BURS.2E MUCOSA.
   40.  A bursa of the semi-membranosu.   Ths is situ-
 ated under the long head of muscle 184.
   41.  The gluteo trochanteral bursa.   This is situa-
 ted between the tendon of muscle  89  and the  root  of
 the great trochanter.
   42.  Two gluteofemoral bursce.   These are situa-
 ted between the tendon of muscle 170,  and os femoris
 or thigh bone.
   43.  A bursa of muscle 175, situated between it and
 the little trochanter.
   44.  The iliac bursa.  This is situated between the
 tendon of muscle 90, and the little trochanter.

          Bursce mucosae, near the Knee joint.

   45.  The supra-genual, which adheres to the tendons
 of muscles 178, 179, and 180, and the fore part of the
 thigh bone.
   46.  The infra-genual bursa.  This is  situated un-
 der the ligament of the patella or knee pan.
   47.  The anterior genual.   This is situated between
 the tendon of muscle 177, and the internal and lateral
 ligament of the knee.
   48.  The posterior genual.  This is situated between
 the tendons of muscles 183, 186, the capsular ligament,
 and the internal condyle.
   49.  The popliteal.  This is situated  between the
tendon of muscle 185, and the external condyle of the
thigh bone.
   50.   The bursa of muscle  184.    This  is situated
between the tendon of  that muscle, and the external
lateral ligament of the knee.

                Bursce of the Foot

   51.  A bursa of muscle 189.  This is situated be 
tween the tendon of that muscle, the lower part of the
tibia, and capsular ligament of the ancle.
  52.  A bursa of muscle 193.   This is situated be-
tween its tendons, the tibia  and the ligament of the
ancle.
  53.  A bursa between the tendon of muscle 194, the
tibia, and capsular ligament of the ancle.
  54.  A bursa common to the tendon of muscle 196.
  55.  A bursa of muscle 190.   This  is situated be-
tween the tendon of that muscle, the  tibia and astra-
galus.
  56.  Five bursce of the flexor tendons of the toes.
These begin a little above the first joint of each toe,
and extend to the root of the third phalanx or bone of
the toe.
  The surgeon  who makes himself acquainted  with
the anatomy of the bones, together with the origin and
insertion of the different  muscles, will  have  but  little
difficulty from this  brief description of the situation of
the bursce mucosa?, to determine on their relative situa-
tions. 
 
        SYSTEM  OF  ANATOMY.
           PART THIRD.—OF MUSCLES.

  The parts that are called muscles, consist  of dis-
tinct portions of flesh, susceptible of contraction and
relaxation;  the motions of which, in  a natural and
healthy state, are subject to the will, and for this rea-
son they are  called  voluntary muscles.   Besides these
there are other parts of  the body, that owe their power
of contraction to their muscular  fibres:  thus the  heart
is a muscular texture, forming  what  is called the hol-
low  muscle;  and the urinary bladder,  stomach, and
intestines, are enabled to act upon their contents, mere-
ly because they are provided with  muscular  fibres;
these are called involuntary muscles, because their mo-
tions are not dependent on the will.   The  muscles  of
respiration being in the same measure influenced  by
the will, are  said to have a mixed motion.
   The names by which the voluntary muscles are dis-
tinguished,  arc founded on their size, figure,  situa-
tion, use, or the arrangement of their fibres,  or their
origin and insertion; but besides these particular dis-
tinctions, there arc certain general ones that require
to be noticed.   Thus, if the fibres of a muscle  are
placed parallel witli each other, in a straight direction,
they form what anatomists term a rectilinear muscler
(i. e.) a muscle consisting of straight lines; if the fi-
bres cross and intersect each other,  they constitute a
, compound muscle;when the fibres  arc disposed in the
manner of rays, it is termed a  radiated muscle;  when
they are placed oblique with respect to the tendon, it is
denominated a peniform muscle.  Muscles that act in
 opposition to eachjtfh|jrj are «*Ued antagonists; thus 
78
MUSCLES.
 every extensor has a flexor for its  antagonist.   Mus-
 cles that concur in the same action are termed congeneres.
 Muscles being attached to the bones,  the latter maybe
 considered as lever$ that are moved in different direc-
 tions by the contraction of those organs.   That end of
 the muscle which adheres to the most fixed part is usu-
 ally called the origin;  and that which adheres to the
 more moveable part, the  insertion.   In  almost  every
 muscle, two kinds'of fibres are distinguished;  one is
 soft,  of a red color,  sensible, and irritable,  called
fleshy fibres; the other is of a finer texture, of a white
 glistening color, insensible,  without irritability, or the
 power of contracting, and named tendinous fibres. The
 tendinous fibres are occasionally intermixed, - but  the
 fleshy  fibres  generally  prevail  in the  belly,  or
 middle part  6f  the muscle, and the tendinous ones
 in the extremities.   If these tendinous fibres are form-
 ed into around slender cord,  they  are termed the ten- J
 don, or what is vulgarly called the leader of the mus- J
 clc; on the other hand, if they are spread into a broad I
 flat surface, it is termed an aponeurosis.              '1
   The fibres that compose the body of a muscle  are
 disposed in fasciculi, or bundles, which are easily dis-
 tinguishes by the naked eye;  but these bundles  are di-
visible into smaller ones, and so on ad infinitum. Each
muscle is surrounded by a very thin  and delicate cov- '
cring of cclular  membrane,  which  encloses  it as it
were in a sheth, and dipping down into its substance,
surrounds the most lr.inute fibres we are able to trace,
connecting them  to each  other,  lubricating  them by
kv ; ns of the fat  wThich its cells contain in  more or less'
quantity in difTerent subjects, and serving as a support
to the blood vessels, lymphatxk, and nerves, wliich are
so plentifully distributed through the muscles.
  Anatmoists have distinguished three kinds of mus- 
                     i/f CfSt'JMJSi" -«                 79

cular motions;  namely, voluntary,  involuntary, and
mixed.   The voluntary r-iotions of muscL;;.  are such
as proceed from an immediate exertion of active pow-
ers of the will: thus the mind directs the arm to be
raised or depressed, the knee to be bent, the tongue to
move, &c.  The involuntary motions of muscles  are
those which are performed  by organs,   seemingly of
their own accord, without any  attention of the mind,
or ■consciousness of its active powers, as the  contrac-
tion and dilation of the heart,  arteries,  veins, absorb-
ent?, stomach, intestines, 6cc.   v he mixed motions are
those which are in part under the  control or"  the will,
but which ordinarily act  without being conscious of
their acting; this is perceived in the muscles of respira-
tion, the intercostals, the abdominal muscles, s.nd  the
diaphragm.
  When a muscle acts, it becomes shorter and thicker;
both its origin and  insertion  arc drawn towards its
middle.  The sphincter muscles arc always in action;
and so likewise are  antagonist muscks, even  when
they seem at rest.   When  two antagonist  muscles
move with equal force, the part which they are design-
ed to move remains at rest;  but if one of the antago-
nist muscles remains at rest, while the other acts,  iiu
part is moved tow ards the center of motion.
  The most of anatomical writers have arranged mus
cles according to their several uses;  but the method
here adopted, is the order in which they  are  situated,
beginning with those that are placed nearest the  skin,
and proceeding from these to the muscles that  are more
deeply seated.
  The muscles are all in pairs, except muscles 1,  19,
59,  Gfi, 67, 75, 80, 81, and  86, and are estimated at
one hundred and ninety-eight pairs, making in all four
hundred and five. 
tO                  MUSCLES.
  MUSCLES OF  THE INTEGUMENTS OP
               THE  CRANIUM.

  1.  Occipito frontalis.  This is a single, broad,  di-
gastric  muscle,  that  covers  the  cranium, pulls the
skin of the head backwards, raises  the eye-brows up-
wards, and at the same time, draws  up and wrinkles
the skin of the forehead.   This muscle arises from
the back part of the occiput, (bone IV)  goes over the
upper part of the os parietale,  (bone 11) and os fron-
tis, (bone  I) and is inserted into the skin of the eye-
brows, and muscle  3.
   2.  Corrugator supercilii.  This  is a small muscle
situated on the forehead.  It arises fleshy from the in-
ternal angular process of the os frontis, (bone I) above
the joining of the os nasi, (bone IX) and nasal process
of the upper jaw bone, from thence it  runs outwards,
and a little upwards;  and is inserted  into  the inner
and lower fleshy part  of muscle 1, where  it joins with
muscle  3, and extends  outwards as far as the middle of
the ridge on which  the eye brows are placed.  When
one muscle acts, it draws towards the other, and  pro-
jects over the inner canthus or corner of the eye.  When
both muscles act, they pull down the skin of the fore-
head, and make it  wrinkle,  particularly between the
eye brows.

              Muscles of the Eye Lids.

   3.   Orbiadaris palpebrarum.  A muscle common to
the palpebrse or eyelids.  It arises from  the orbitar
process of the upper jaw bone, and from a tendon near
the inner angle  of  the eye; it then runs a little down-
wards,  then outwards, over the upper part of the cheek,
below the eye socket, covering the under eye lid, and
surrounding the external angle, thence over the  ridge 
                     rfWHttflc

above the eyes towards the inner angle, where they in-
termix witl* those of muscle 1, and 2; then/ covering
the upper eye lids, they descend to the inner angle op-
posite to its lower origin, and is inserted into the na-
sal process of the upper jaw bone*  The use  of this
muscle is to shut the eye, by drawing both eye-lids.
close together.
   4.  Levator palpebral superioris.   A muscle of the
upper eye-lid, that opens the eyes, by drawing the eye
lids upwards.  It arises from  the upper part of the
foramen opticum, or hole  which transmits the  optic
nerve, and is inserted by a broad  thin tendon, into the
cartilage that supports, the upper eye-lid..

               Muscles of the Eye-Ball.

   5.   Rectus superior oculi.  The uppermost straight
muscle of the eye.  It arises from the upper  part of
the foramen opticum, or hole which transmits  the op-
tic nerve, and is inserted into the upper and fore part
of the sclerotic membrane by a broad and thin tendon..
Its use is to raise the globe of the eye.
   6.   Rectus inferior oculi.   This muscle-arises from
the lower part of the foramen opticum, oi> hole which
transmits the optic nerve, and is inserted opposite to
the inner angle of the eye.   Its use is to turn  the eye
towards the nose.
   7.   Rectus internum oculi.   The internal straight
muscle of the eye.  It arises from the inferior part of
the foramen opticum,  or  opening which transmits the
optic nerve, and  is inserted into the sclerotic mem-
brane,  opposite the inner angle.   Its use is to turn
the eye towards the nose.
   8.   Rectus externus oculi.  The outer straight mus -
cle of the eye.  It arises from  the long  partition be- 
82                  MUSCLES.
tween the foramen opticum, or opening which trans-,
mits the optic nerve, and foramen lacerutit, another o-
pening for nerves, and is inserted into the sclerotic mem-
brane, opposite to the outer angle of the eye.  Its use
is to move the eye outwards.
  9.   Obliquus superior oculi.   An oblique muscle of
the eye.  It arises like the straight muscles of the eye,
from the edge of the  foramen opticum,  or  opening
which  transmits the optic  nerve,  between muscles 5
and 7; from thence it runs along a portion of bone V
to the upper part of the  orbit,  where  a cartilagenous
trochlea or pully  is fixed to the  inside of the  internal
angular process of bone I, through which its tendon
passes, and runs a little  downwards and  outwards, to
be inserted into the membrane with the others.  Its use
is to roll the  globe  of the eye,  and turn the pupil
downwards and outwards,
   10.   Obliquus inferior oculi.   This muscle  arises
by a narrow beginning from the outer edge of the or<
bitar process  of the upper jaw-bone, near its  junction
with the lachrymal bone, and running obliquely  out.
wards, is inserted  into  the  sclerotic membrane of the
eye.   Its use is to draw the globe of the eye forward^
inwards, and  downwards.

           Muscles of the Nose and Mouth.

   11.   Levator labi superioris alceque nasi.  A muscle
of the mouth and lips.  This muscle arises by two dis-
tinct origins;  the first, broad and fleshy,  from the ex-
ternal  part of the orbitar process of the upper  jaw
bone;  the second  from the nasal process of the upper
jaw bone,  where it joins with bone I.   The  first por«
lion is  inserted into the upper lip, the second  into the
upper lip and outer part of the ala nasi or wing of tha 
                    MUSCLES1."" '               83

nose; Its use is to raise the upper lip and  spread  the
nostrils.
   12.  Levator libi superioris proprius.   This muscle
arises  immediately under the eye socket; it is broad at
its origin; it lies fiat, and runs obliquely  downwards
and inwards, and is inserted into the filtrum or gutter
in the middle of the upper lip.   Its use is  to pull  the
upper lip and septum or division of the nose directly
upwards.
   13.  Levator anguli oris.  A muscle situated above
the mouth.  It arises thin and fleshy from the hollow
of the upper jaw bone, near the root of the socket of
the first grinder tooth, and is inserted into the angle of
the mouth and under lip,  where it joins with its antag-
onist.  Its use is to draw the corner of the mouth  up-
wards, and to make that part of the cheek  opposite to
the chin prominent as in smiling.
   14.  Zygomaticus major. This muscle  arises from
bone VIII, near the zygomatic suture, and is inserted
into the angle of the mouth.  The use of  this muscle
is to draw the corner of the mouth and under lip  to-
wards the origin of the muscle,  and make the cheek
prominent as in laughing.
   15.  Zygomaticus minor.  This muscle arises from
the upper prominent part  of bone VIII, or  cheek bone,
above the origin of muscle 14; and descending oblique-
ly downwards and forwards, is inserted  into the up-
per lip, near the corner of the mouth.  Its  use is to
draw the corner of the mouth obliquely outwards and
upwards towards the external angle of the  eye.
   16.  Bucinator; so named from its use in forcing
the breath in sounding a trumpet  This is a large flat
muscle, that forms the walls of the cheeks.  It arises
tendinous and fleshy, from the lower jaw,  as far back 
*4
MUSCLES.
.;•-•,*'
as the last grinder tooth; fleshy from  the upper jaw,
"between the last grinder teeth and pterygoid  process
of bone VI, and is inserted into the angle of the mouth.
Its use is to draw the angle of the mouth backwards
and outwards,  and contract  its cavity, pressing the
cheek inwards, by which, the food is thrust  between
the teeth.
   17. Depressor anguli oris.   This muscle  arises
broad and fleshy, from the  under edge of the lower
jaw, at the side of the  chin, and is inserted into the an-
gle of the  mouth, joining with muscles 13 and 14.  Its
use is to pull down the corner of the  mouth.
   18. Depressor labi inferioris.  This muscle arises
broad and fleshy, frow the under part of the, lower jaw
next to the chin, running obliquely outwards, is inser-
ted into the edge of the under lip, extends along one
naif of the lip, and is  lost in the red part.  Its use is
to pull the under lip and the skin on the side of the
chin downwards, and a little outwards.
   19.  Orbicularis oris.  A muscle of the mouth, for-
med in a great measure by those of the lips; the fibres
of those of the upper ones descending, and those of the
lower ascending, and decursating or  crossing each oth-
er at the corner of the mouth,  they  run along the lip
to join those of the opposite side, so  that the fleshy fi-
bres  appear to surround the mouth like a sphincter.  Its
use is to  shut the mouth, by contracting and  drawing
both lips together, and to contract all the muscles  that
assist in forming it.
   20.  Depressor labii swperioris  alceque nasi.   Tha
muscle arises thin and fleshy, from the upper jaw borie,
immediately above the joining of the gums of the two
fore teeth, and the tooth next to them;  from  thence it
runs up under part of muscle 12, and is inserted into 
                      M?.fc?LE9.                   85

 the upper lip and root of the ala nasi, or wing, or side
 part of the nose.   Its use is to draw the lip and  ala
 nasi downwards and backwards.
   21.   Constrictor nasi.  This muscle arises by a nar-
 row beginning, from the root of the ala nasi, or wing
 of the  nose, and  spreads  into a number of thin sepa-
 rate fibres, w hich run up along the cartilage in an ob-
 lique manner towards the  ridge of the nose, where it
joins with its fellow, and is inserted into the anterior
 extremity of the os nasi or bone of the nose, and nasal
 process of the upper jaw-bone.   Its use is to press the
 wings, or sides of the nose inwards;  but, if the fibres
 of muscle 1, which adheres to it, act, it then draws the
 sides outwards.  It also corrigates,  or wrinkles the
 skin of the nose, and  assists in expressing certain pas-
 sions.
   22.   Levator libii  inferioris.   This  muscle  arises
 from the  lower jaw,  at the roots of the fore teeth, and
 is inserted into the under lip and skin of the chin.   Its
 use is to pull the parts into  which it is inserted  up-
 wards.

                 Muscles of  the Ear.

   23.   Superior auris.  kVThis muscle arises broad and
circular from the expanded tendon of muscle 1, and is
 inserted into the back part of the antihelix,  or inner
circle of the external ear.    Its use is  to  lift the car
upwards.
   24.   Anterior auris.   This muscle  arises from the
%ygoma or cavity under the zygomatic process of bone
III, and is inserted by a tendon into  that eminence on
the helix  or external  ring  of the  ear, which divides
the concha, or cavity  of the ear.
   25.  Posterior auris.   This muscle  arises from the
       u 
86
MUSCLES.

external and back part of the mastoid process of bone
III, and is inserted into the septum or division, which
divides the concha, (cavity) and scapha or  depression
between the external and internal ring or circle of the
ear.  Its use is to draw the ear backwards, and stretch
the cavity.
   26.   Helicis major.  This muscle  arises from the
upper and acute part of the external ring  of  the ear,
and is inserted into its cartilage, a little above the tra-
gus, orsmall eminence of the external ear that is cov-
ered with hair.   Its use  is to depress the  part of the
cartilage of the ear into which it is inserted.
   27.   Helicis minor.   This muscle arises lower than
the one last described, and is inserted into the crus of
the external ring of the ear, opposite to the concha or
hollow of  the e;-r.  Its use is, to assist in contracting
 the external car.
    28.  Tragicus.   This  muscle arises from the mid-
 dle of the concha or hollow of the ear to  the  root of
 the tragus or small eminence, into the tip of which it
 is inserted.  Its use is to drawT the point of the tragus
 a little forward.
    29.  Antitragicus.   This  muscle  lies  on  the anti-
 tragus or eminence of the outer ear, opposite the tra-
 gus, running  up to be inserted  into the edge  of the
 concha or cavity of the ear, at the notch on the  termi-
 nation of the helix or external ring.   Its use is to turn
 up the tip of the antitragus a little outwards, and to de-
 press the antihclix or inner ring of the ear towards it,
    30.   Transversns auris.  This muscle runs in scat-
 tered fibres on the back part of the ear, from the prom-
 inent part of the concha or cavity, to the outer side of
 the antihclix or internal ring of the ear.
    31.  Laxator tympani.   A muscle of  the internal
ear, that draws the maleus  or hammer obliquely for- 
MUSCLES.                  87
wards, towards its origin:  consequently the membrana
tympani or membrane that  lines the internal cavity of
the car, is made less  concave, or is relaxed.
  32.  Membrana tympani.   This membrane  which
lines the cavity of the drum of the ear is possessed of
muscular fibres.   It  consists of  six lamina or  lay-
ers.
  33.   Tensor tympani.   A muscle of the internal car,
which pulls the malms or hammer, and muscle 32, to-
wards the petrous or rough, hard portion of the tempo-
ral bone, by wliich means the membrana  tympani is
made more concave and tense.
   34.   Stapedius.   A muscle of the internal ear, which
draws the stapes,  (bone XIX) obliquely upwards to-
wards the cavity  of the ear, by which the back part of
its base is moved inwards  and  the  front  part out-
wards.

             Muscles of the  Lower Jaw.

   35.   Temporalis.  This muscle arises fleshy, from a
semicircular ridge of the lower and side part of bone
II, from part of bone III, from  the external angular
process of bone I, from the temporal process of bone
VI, and from  a tendinous expansion  which covers it;
from tbese different origins the fibres descend in a ra-
diated  manner,  and  are inserted, by a strong tendon
into the coronoid  process of  the lower jaw.   Its use is
to pull the lower jaw upwards, and press it against the
upper,  at the same time drawing it  a  little back-
wards.
   36.   Masseter.  This muscle arises, by strong, ten-
dinous, and fleshy fibres, which run in different direc-
tions, from  the upper jaw-bone,  where it joins bone
VIII, and from the inferior and  anterior part of the 
 88                  MUSCLES.

 zygoma; the external fibres standing backwards, and
 the internal forwards.   This muscle is inserted into the
 angle of the lower jaw, and from that upwards to near
 the top of its coronoid process.  Its use  is  to pull the
 lower jaw upwards, and by means of its  oblique des-
 enssation, a little forwards and backwards.
   37.  Pterygoideus externus.   This muscle arises from
 the external plate of the pterygoid process of bone VI,
 and from the root of the temporal process  of the same
 bone, and is inserted  into a cavity of the neck  of the
 condyloid process of the lower jaw.  Its use is to  pull
 the lower jaw forwards, and to the opposite sides; and
 to pull the ligament from the joint, that it may not he
 pinched during these motions: when both  muscles act
 the fore teeth of the under jaw  are pushed forwards be-
 yond those of the upper.
   38.  Pterygoideus  internus.   This   muscle  arises,
 tendinous  and fleshy  from the inner and upper part
 of the internal plate of the pterygoid process of  bone
 VI,   filling all  the space between the two plates,  and
 is inserted into the angle of the  lower  jaw internally.
 The  use of this muscle is  to draw the jaw upwards;
 and obliquely towards the opposite side.

        Muscles about the fore part of the neck.

   39.  Platysma  Myoides.  This is abroad thin mus-
 rle, situated on the side of the neck, immediately un
 der the skin.   It arises by a number of slender flesh)
 libres, which all unite to form  a  thin muscle, running
 obliquely upwards  along the side  of the neck, adher-
 ing to the skin, and  is inserted  into the  lower  jaw.
 Its use is to assist muscle 17 in drawing the skin of the
cheek downwards,  and when  the mouth  is shut, it 
MUSCLES.                  89
draws all that part of the skin, to which it is connect-
ed, below the lower jaw upwards.
   40.  Slcrno-Cleido-mastoideus.   This  muscle aris-
es by two distinct origins: the front part arises tendin-
ous and fleshy, from the top of bone XXVIII. near its
junction with  bone XXX;  the posterior or back part,
arises fleshy,  from the upper and fore part of bone
XXX; both of those unite a little above the  anterior
articulation of lone XXX, to form one muscle, which
runs obliquely upwards and outwards, & is inserted, by
a thick strong tendon, into the mastoid process of bone
III.  Its  use is to turn the head to one side, and bend
it forward.

    Muscles between the lower jaw and os hyoides.

   41.  Digastricus.   This muscle arises, by a fleshy
belly, intermixed with tendinous fibres, from the fos-
sa or depression at the root  of the mastoid process of
bone III. and soon becomes tendinous; runs downwards
and forwards: the tendon passes through muscle 55, it
then  is fixed by a ligament to bone XVI; and having
received from  that bone an addition of tendinous and
muscular fibres, runs obliquely forwards, turns  fleshy
again, and  is inserted into the lower and fore edge of
the chin or that part of the lower jaw thus termed.  Its
use is to  open the mou*h,  by pulling the lower jaw
 downwards, and  backwards; and when the  jaws arc
 shut,  to raise bone XVI,  and consequently  the pha-
 rynx, or muscular bag, or swallow as it is commonly
 called, upwards, as in degulgitating or swallowing.
   4-2.  Mylo-nyoideus.  This muscle arises, from all
 the inside of the lower jaw,  between the last grinder
 tooth and the middle of the chin, where it joins with
 its fellow and is inserted into the lower edge of  the 
90                  MUSCLES.
 basis of bone XVI.   Its use is to pull bone XVI.for-
 wards, upwards, and to one side.
   43.  Genio  hijoides.   This muscle  arises,  from a
 rough protuberance in the middle of the lower jaw in-
 ternally,  or on the  inside of the chin, and is  inserted
 into the basis  of bone XVI.  Its use  i j to draw this
 bone forwards to the chin.
   44.  Genio-hyo-glossus.   This muscle arises, tendin-
 ous,  from a rough  protuberance in  the inside of the
 middle of the lower jaw; its fibres run like a fan, for-
 wards, upwards and backwards, and  is inserted into
 the whole length of the tongue,  and base of bone XVI,
 near its cornu or horn.   Its use is to draw the lip of
 the tongue  backwards into the mouth,  and  middle
 downwards; and also to draw the  root of the tongue
 and bone XVI forwards,  and  to thrust the  tongue
 out of the mouth.
   45.  Hyo glossus.  This  muscle arises, broad and
 fleshy,  from parts 2, and 3, of bone XVI;  the fibres
 run upwards and outwards, and are  inserted into the
 side of the tongue.   Its use  is  to pull the tongue in-
 wards and downwards.
   46.  Lingualis.   This muscle arises, at the root of
 the tongue, and runs forwards between muscles 44 and
 45, and is inserted  into the lip  of the tongue,  along
 with part of muscle 5£.,  Its use is to contract the sub-
 stance of  the tongue, and bring it backwards, and to
 elevate the point of the longue.

  Muscles situated behveen bone XVI and the trunk.

  47.   Sterno-hyoideus.   This muscle arises, thin and
fleshy, from  the cartilagenous extremity of the  first
rib, the upper  and inner part  of the breast bone, and
from the collar  bone where it joins  with the  breast 
MUSCLES.                  91
bone, and is inserted into the base of bone XVI.   Its
use is to pull bone XVI downwards.
  48.   Onw-hyoideus.   This  muscle arises,  broad,
thin,  and fleshy,  from the  upper rib or costa of bone
XXXI  near the  semilunar notch,  and from the lig-
ament that runs across it, thence ascending obliquely,
it becomes  tendinous below  muscle 40;  and, growing
fleshy  again, is inserted into  the base  of bone XVI
near its  cornu or horn.   Its use is to pull bone  XVI
obliquely downward.
  49.  Sterno-thyroideus.   This muscle arises, fleshy,
from the whole of the upper edge  of bone XXVIII,.
opposite to the cartilage of the first rib, from  which
it receives  a small  part of its origin, and is  inserted
into the surface of the rough line at the external  part
of the lower edge of the thyroid cartilage, a cartilage
which forms a part of the larynx.   Its  use is to draw
the larynx  downwards.
  50.   Thyro-hyoideus.  This muscle arises from  the
rough line, opposite to the one  last described, and is
inserted  into part of the basis, and almost all  of the
cornu or horn of bone XVI or bone of the tongue.  Its
use is to pull bone  XVI downwards, or the thyroid
cartilage upwards.
  51.  Crico-ihyroideus.   This muscle arises from th»
cricoid, or ring-like cartilage of the larynx, and is in-
serted by two portions;  the first, into the lower part of
the thyroid cartilage, or portion of the larynx; second,.
into the inferior cornu or horn.  Its use is to pull for-
wards and depress the thyroid, and to elevate and draw
back the cricoid or ring-like cartilage of the larynx. 
92                   MUSCLE8.
Muscles situated latterally between  the  lower jaw and
          bone  XVI, or bone of the Tongue.

   52.   Stylo-glossus.  This muscle arises, tendinous
and fleshy, from the styloid process, and  from a liga-
ment that connects that process to the lower jaw, and
is inserted into the root of the tongue, runs along its
side,  and is lost near its point.  Its use is to. draw the
tongue sideways and backwards.
   53.  Stylo-hyoideus.   This muscle arises by a round
tendon, from the middle and inferior part of the sty-
loid process of bone III,  and  is inserted into  bone
XVI, at the junction of the base and cornu or horn, Its
use is to pull bone XVI, to one side, and a little  up-
 wards.
    54.   Stylo-pharyngeus.   This muscle arises fleshy,
 from the root of the styloid process of bone  III,  and
 is inserted into the side of  the pharynx orswallow, and
 thyroid cartilage upwards.  Its  use  is  to dilate and
 raise the pharynx or swallow,  and  thyroid  cartilage ]
 upwards.
    55.   Circumjkxus.  This muscle  arises from the
 spinous process of bone VI, and from some other parts
 near to it; it then passes over the hook of the internal
 plate of the pterygoid or wing-like process of bone VI,
 by a round tendon, which soon  spreads into a broad
 membrane, and is inserted  into  the  velum pendulum
palati, or soft part of the  palate, and  the semilunar
 edge of the palate bone.  Its use is to streach the vel'
 um or upper and back part of the mouth, on each side
 of the root of  the  tongue, and  to  draw  it  down-
 wards.
    56.   Levator palati.  This muscle arises,  tendinous
 and fleshy, from the extremity of the  pas petrosa, or
 hard portion of bone III,  and is  inserted into the whole 
jBVSCles.                  93
  length of the palate, as far as the root of the uvula, or
  small fleshy conical substance, hanging in the middle
  of the palate over the root of the tongue;  where it u-
  nites with its fellow.  Its use  is to draw  the velum,
  veil, or palate upwards and  backwards,  so as to shut
  the passage from the fauces or cavity behind the tongue
  into the mouth and nose.

     Muscles  situated about the cavity of  the Fauces.

    57.   Constrictor isthmi faucium.  This muscle ari-
  ses by a slender beginning, from the side of the tongue,
  near its root; thence running upwards  within the an-
  terior arch, before the amygdala or tonsil glands of the
  throot, and is inserted into the middle of the palate  at
  the root of the  uvula,  or conical  substance hanging
'■  over the root of the tongue.   Its use is to draw the pal-
  ate towards the root of the tongue, which  it raises at
  the same time, and with its fellow, contracts the pass-
  age between the two arches,  by which  it shuis the
  opening into the fauces or cavity behind the tongue.
    58.   Palato-pharyngeus.   This  muscle arises by a
  broad  beginning, from the middle of the palate, at the
  root of the uvula or conical eminence hanging over the
  root of the tongue, and from the tendinous  expansion
  of muscle 55, and is inserted into the upper and back
  part of the thyroid cartilage or  part of the cartilage
  which  forms the larynx.   Its use is to draw the uvula
  and palate downwards and  backwards;  at the same
  time pulling the thyroid cartilage and pharynx or swal-
  low upwards, and shortening it.
   58.  Azygos uvula.    This  muscle   arises  fleshy,
 from the extremity of the suture which joins the  pal-
 ate bones, runs down the whole length   of  the palate
 and uvula, adhering to the tendon of muscle 55, and i* 
94
MUSCLES.
inserted into the point of the uvula, or  conical, fleshy
substance that hangs down  at the root  of the tongue.
Its use is to raise the uvula upwards  and  forwards;
and also to shelter it.

   Muscles situated on the back part of the pharynx.

   60.   Constrictor pharynges superior.   This  muscle
arises from the  cuneiform  process  of bone  IV,  from
the pterygoid process of bone VI; from  the upper and
under jaw, near the roots  of the  last  grinder teeth;
and between the jaws; it is continued with muscle 16,
and with some fibres from the root of the tongue, and
from the palate,  and is inserted into  a white line in
the middle of the pharynx or swallow, where  it joins
 with its fellow, and is  covered by the following mus-
 cle.  Its use is to compress the upper part of the phar-
 ynx, and to  draw it forwards and upwards.
    61.   Constrictor pharijngis  medius.   This muscle
 arises from the appendix of bone  XVI, from the corno
 or horn of that bone, and from the ligament which con-
 nects it  to the thyroid cartilage, or portion of the larynx;
 the fibres  of the superior  part running  obliquely up.
 wards,  covering a considerable part of the muscle last
 described, and terminating in  a point,  is inserted into
 the middle of the cuneiform process of  bone IV. before
 the foramen  magnum, and joins to its fellow  at a white
 line in the middle and back part  of  the pharynx.  Its
 use is to compress that part of the pharynx  which it
 covers,  and  to draw it and bone VI, upwards.
    62.  Cms  r'ctor pharyngis  inferior.   This muscle
 arises from the side of the thyroid cartilage, and  from
 the cricoid, or  ring-like cartilage, and is inserted into
 the white  line in the  middle of the  larynx,  where it
joins with its fellow; the superior fibres running oblique* 
                      Muscles.                   95

 ly upwards, while the inferior fibres run  more trans-
 versely; and covering the beginning of the asophagus.
 Its use is to compress that part of the  pharynx which
 it covers, and to raise it  with  the larynx a little up-
 wards.

 Muscles situated about the glottis or opening of the lar-
            ynx at the bottom of the tongue.

   63.  Crico arytcenoideus posticus.  This muscle ari.
 ses fleshy, from the back part of the cricoid cartilage,
 and is inserted into the  back part of the  base of the
 arytenoid cartilage, a cartilage which forms part of the
 larynx.  Its use is  to open the rima glottides,  or open-
 ing of the larynx, through which the air passes in and
 out of the lungs,  and, by pulling back the arytenoid
 cartilage,  to stretch  the ligament,  so as to make  it
 tense.
   64.  Crico arytcenoides lateralis.   This  muscJe ari-
 ses fleshy, from the cricoid or ring-like cartil.igc of the
 larynx, and is inserted into the side of the base of the
: arytenoid cartilage near the muscle last decribed.  Its
 use is to open the rima glottides, or opening of the lar-
 ynx, by pulling the ligaments from each other.
■-  65.  Tt'iyreo arytcenoidens.  This muscle arises from
«the under and back part of the  middle of the  thyroid
xartilage. and running backwards and a little upwards,
, along the side of the glottis, is inserted into the aryte-
noid cartilage.  Its use is to p ill  the  arytenoid carti-
 lage forwards, nearer to the middle of Vic thyroid, and!
[consequently to shorten and relax the  ligament of the
 larynx.
1  66.  Arytenoideus  obliquus.    This  muscle arises
icfrom the base of one  arytenoid cartilage,  and  is inser-
ted near the tip of the arytenoid cartilage.  It3 use  is
.. «**-•* 
96                   MUSCLES.
 to pull the two arytenoid  cartilages  towards each oth=
 er.
   67.  Arytcenoideus transversus.  This muscle arises
 from the side of one arytenoid cartilage, and from near
 its articulation with the cricoid. The fibres run straight
 across, and are inserted, in the same manner into  the
 other arytenoid cartilage.   Its use is to shut the rima
 glottides or opening of the larynx, by bringing the two
 cartilages, with the ligament, nearer one another.
   68.   Thyro-epiglottideus.  This muscle arises by a
 few pale separate fibres, from the thyroid cartilage, and
 is inserted into the epiglottis, or cartilage situated at
 the root of the tongue, that shuts the passage  into the
 glottis as in  swallowing.   Its  use is to draw the epi-
 glottis obliquely downwards;  or, when both  act,  di-
 rectly upwards; and at the same time, it  expands  the
 soft  cartilage.
   69.  Arytceno-epigloUideus.  This  muscle arises by
 a number of small fibres, from the side and upper part
 of the arytenoid  cartilage;  and  running along  the
 outer side of the external rima  or opening, is inserted
 into the epiglottis  along with the former.  Its useisto
 pull the  side of the epiglottis towards the external rima
 or opening;  or, where both act,  to puil it close upon
 the glottis.

 Muscles situated about the anterior part of the AMorm

   70.   Obliquus descendeus  externus.   This  muse!*
 arises by eight*different heads,  from the  lower edge.
 of an equal number of the lower ribs,  at a little dis-
tance from their cartilages: it always intermixes, in a
serated or saw-tooth manner, with portions of muscle
94, and  generally  to  muscles  91, 95,  96, and tf-
From these origins the fibres run obliquely downward' 
                      MffSTLES.                  97

I' and  forwards,  and soon degenerate into a  broad and
 thin  aponeurosis, which terminates in the linea alba or
 tendinous expansion, extending from the ensiform car-
i tiiage to the os pubis.  The  linea alba  is  formed by
: muscles 70, 71 & 72: about an  inch above  the  pubes,
r tiie fibres of this aponeurosis separate  from each other
 so as to form an aperture, called the abdominal ring,
jthis  ring or opening is of an oval figure,  and  serves
j, for the passage of the spermatic chord in males, and of
s the round ligament of the uterxis in females, and is of
 a larger size in women than in men.   The two tendin-
. ous portions, which, by their separation, form this ap-
 erture, are called the columns of the ring:  the fibres of
.this  muscle cross each other immediately  below this
 opening, and are fixed to theos pubis (bone XXVII.)
HThe  use of  this muscle is to draw down the ribs in ex-
 piration, or that part of respiration, in which the air
 is thrust out of  the lungs; to bend the trunk or body
' forwards when both  muscles act, or to bend it  to  one
 side, when either act singly;  it also raises the pelvis
 obliquely  when the ribs are  fixed;  it supports and
 compresses the abdominal viseera, assists in evacuating
' the urine, and fseces or stools; and is likewise  useful
 in parturition.
   71.  Obliquus ascendeus internus.  This  muscle a-
 rises from the spine of bone xxv, from bone xxn & the 3
 lowerlumbar vertebrae; &Poupart's ligament, or liga-
 ment extending from the upper & front surface of the spi-
 nous  process of bone XXV, to the crista or upper part
 of bones XXVII, at the middle of which we find the
 round ligament  of the uterus in women,  and spermatic
 chord in men, passing under the thin edge of this mus-
cle.  From these different origins,  the  fibres  of this
muscle run  in various directions;  those of the upper
portion ascend obliquely forwards;  the middle ones be- 
$8                  MU8CLES.
come less and less oblique, and at length run in ahor*   [
izontal direction, and those of the anterior or fore por-
tion extend  obliquely  downwards.    The   first  of
these are inserted, by very short, tendinous fibres,' in-   3
to the cartilages of the third, fourth and fifth false ribs;
the fibres of the  second, or middle portion,  form a   i
broad tendon, which after being inserted into the low-
er edge of the cartilage of the second false rib, extends   l
towards the  linea alba,  (see mus. 70)  and separates in-
to two layers,  the upper layer joins the tendon of mus-
cle 70,  and  runs over the two upper thirds  of muscle
73,  and adheres to the fore surface  of the  tendon of
muscle 72, and is  inserted into the  cartilage of the
first of the false, and last of the true ribs,  and like-
wise into the linea alba.  The fibres of the portion ari-
 sing from ihe spine of bone XXV, and Poupart's liga-
 ment likewise from a broad tendon which is inserted
 into the fore part of the pubes.  This  muscle serves
 to assist muscle 70; but seems to be better  calculated
 than that  muscle  to draw  the ribs  downwards and
 backwards.
   72.   Transversalis abdominis.   This  muscle ari-
 ses tendinous, from  the cartilages of the seven low-
 er ribs; by  a broad thin tendon, from the transverse
 process of the lower  vertebra of the back, and the
 four upper vertebrae   of the loins;   fleshy,  from the
 whole  spine of bone XXV, and  from  the tendon of
 muscle  70,  where it intermixes with some of the fibres  |
 of muscle 71, and is inserted into  the cartilago ensi-
 formis,  and  into the whole length of the linea alba, (see
 mus. 70) excepting its lowermost part.   Its use is to
 support and compress the  abdominal  contents, for
 which purpose it is well adapted.
    73*   Rectus abdominis.   This muscle arises by two 
                     MUSCLES."*""**               99

heads,  from the ligament of the cartilage which joins
the two ossa pubes to each other;  runs up the  whole
length  of, and parallel  to the linea alba, growing
broader and thinner as it ascends, and is inserted into
the cartilages of the 3 lower true ribs. Its use is to com-
press the forepart, but more particularly the lower part
ol the belly;  and to bend the trunk forwards, or to raise
the pelvis.
   74.  Pyramhlalis.  This  muscle  arises along  with
muscle 73, and running upwards, is inserted  by an
acute termination, near half way between bone XXVII,
and the umbilicus, into  the  linea  alba (see  mus. 70)
and inner edge of muscle 73.  Its use is to assist the
lower part of  muscle 73.
     Muscles about the Male Organs of Generation.
   75.'   Dartos,  so  called from  its raw appearance.
The part under the scrotum, or common integuments
which  covers the testicles, is possessed of muscular fi-
bres, by which,  the skin of the scrotum is corrugated
and relaxed.
   76.   Cremaster.  This muscle arises from muscle
71, near the junction of bones XXV,  and  XXVII,
over which part it passes, after having passed through
the abdominal ring;  (see muscle  70;) and then  it de-
scends upon the spermatic chord, & is iuserted into the tu-
nica vaginalis or membrane which covers the testicles,
upon which it spreads and is insensibly lost  Its use is
to suspend and draw up the testicles, and to compress
them in the act of coition.
   77.   Erector penis.   This  muscle arises tendinous
and fleshy, from the tuberosity ef bone XXVI,  and
runs upwards, embracing the whole crus or root of the
penis,  and  is inserted into a strong tendinous mem-
brane that covers the corpora cavernosa or integument 
100
MUSCLES.
  of the penis.   Its use is  to compress the root of the
  penis, by which the blood is pushed from it into the
  fore part of the corpora cavernosa, and the penis  is by
  that means more completely  distended.
    78.   Adcelleratorurince.   This muscle arises fleshy,
  from muscle 80 and membranous part ef the urethra
  or urinary canal; and  tendinous, from the root of the
  penis, and is inserted  into a line in the middle of the
  bulb of the urethra, where it joins with its fellow, bj
  which the bulb is completely enclosed.   Its use  is to
  drive the urine and semen forwards, by grasping the
  bulb of the urethra, to push the blood towards its cor-
 pus cavernosum and the glans, or head of the penis, by
  which it is extended.
    79,   Transversus perinei.   This muscle arises from
 the tough fatty membrane that covers the tuberosity of
 boneXXVI; from thence it runs transversely inwards,
 and is inserted into  muscle 78,  and into that part of
 the sphincter ani or muscle 80,  which covers the  bulb
 of the urethra.   Its use is to dilate the bulb, and draw
 the perineum and verge of the anus a  little outwards
 and backwards.


                 Muscles of the Anus.

   8o,   Sphincter ani.   This muscle  arises  from the
skin and fat that  surrounds the  verge of the anus on
both sides, nearly as  far  out  as the tuber  of  bone
XXVI;  the fibres are gradually collected  into an oval
form, and surround the extremity of the  rectum,  and
is inserted before, by a narrow point into the perineum.
muscle 78 and  79; and behind,  by an acute termina-
tion, into the extremity of the os coccygis, or bone XXIII.
Its  use is  to shut the  passage through the  anus  intq 
MUSCLES.
101
 the rectum, and pull down the bulb  of the urethra, by
 which it assists in ejecting the urine and semen.
   81.   Levator #ni.  This  muscle arises  from bone
 XXVII within the pelvis, as far up as the upper edge
 of the foramen thyroideum, and joining of bones XXVI
 and XXVII; from  the thin tendinous membrane that
 covers muscle  84; its fibres ran down like rays from a
 circumference  to a center, and is inserted into muscle
 80, and  into the anterior part of the two last  bones of
 the os coccyges or bone XXII; surrounding the extrem-
 ity of the rectum, neck of the bladder, prostate gland,
 and part of  the vesiculm seminalis, or two  membran-
 ous receptacles, situated on the back part of the blad-
 der above  its neck;  so that its fibres behind  and be-
 low bone XXIII, joining it  with its fellow,  they to-
 gether very  much resemble the shape of a funnel. Its
 use Ls to draw tha rectum upwards after the evacuation
 of the fasces, and to  assist in shutting it;  to sustain the
 contents of the pelvis, and to help in ejecting the se-
 men urine, and contents of the rectum.

      Muscles of the Female  Organs of  General.

   82.   Erector clitoridis.   This muscle arises  from
 the crus  of bone XXIII internally,  and  in  its ascent
 covers the crus or root  of the clitoris,  as  far up  as
 bone XXVII, and is inserted into the upper part of
 the crus  and body of the clitoris.   Its use is  to- draw
 the clitoris  downwards and backwards;   and to make
 the body of the clitoris more tense, X)\ squeezing the
 blood into it, from its crus or root.
   83.  Sphincter vaginae.  This  muscle arises  from
muscle 80,  and from the posterior side of the  vagina,
 near the perineum;  from thence it runs  up the side of
the vagina, near the perineum; frorn thence it  runs up 
102                 MUSCLES
the side of the vagina, near its external orifice, oppo-
site to the nymphse,  or membranous fold of the vagi-
na, and covers the corpus cavernosum vaginae, or integ,
uments of the clitoris, and is inserteu' into  the origin
and body of the clitoris.   Its use is  to  contract the
mouth of the vagina, and compress its corpus caver-
noseum.

          Muscles situated within the Pelvis.

   84.   Obturator internus.  This muscle arises from
 more than one half of the  internal circumference of
 the foramen thyroideum, formed by bones XXIII, and
 XXVII.  Its inside is covered by a portion of muscle
 81;  and appears to be divided into  a number  of Jbssi-
 culi  or bundles,  which unite and form a roundish ten-
 don, that passes out of the pelvis, between the socro
 ischiatic ligament, (see ligament 14) and tuberosity of
 bone XXVI; where it passes over  the  capsular liga-
 ament of the thigh bone, and is inserted by  a round
 tendon, into the large pit at the root of the trochanter
 major (see bone XXXVIII.)  Its  use is to roll  the
 thigh bone obliquely outwards.
    85.  Coccygeus.   This  muscle arises tendinous and
 fleshy, from the spinous process of bone  XXII,  and
  covers the inside of ligament 14; from this narrow be-
  ginning,  it gradually increases to form  a thin fleshy
  belly,  intersperced with tendinous  fibres, and is inser-
  ted into the extremity  of bone XXII, and nearly the
  whole length of bone XXII.  Its  use  is to support
  and move bone XXIII forwards, and to tie it more firm-
  ly to bone XXII, 
MUSCLES.                  105
  Muscles situated within the cavity of the Abdomen.

  86   Diaphragma.  The midriff or diaphragm.   A.
muscle that divides  the thorax or heart  from the  ab-
domen or belly.   It is composed of two portions;  the
first and upper of these arises by distinct fleshy fibres,
from the cartilago ensiformis or part 3 of bone XXVI11,
and from the cartilages  of the  seventh, and of all the
inferior ribs in both sides.  The fibres from this semi-
circular origin, tend towards their center, and termin-
ate in a  tendon or aponeurosis,  which is termed the
centrum tendinasum, or  tendinous center of the dia-
phragm.   The second and lower portion arises from
the vertebrse of the loins by two productions, of which
that on the right  side comes from the first, second and
third vertebral of the loins;  that on  the left side is
somewhat  shorter, and  both these portions  join  and
•make the lower part of tho  diaphragm, which joins
its  tendons with the  tendon  of the upper portion, so
that they make but one  muscular partition.  The dia-
phragm is covered by the pleura on its upper side and
by  the peritonaeum on the lower side.   It is pierced in
the middle for the passage of the  vena  cava,  and i:i
its  lower part for the esophagus.  The diaphragm in
its  natural situation is concave on its lower, and con-
vex on its  upper  side; therefore when its fibres swell
and contract, it must become plain on both sides, and
consequently the cavity  of the breast is enlarged to.
give liberty  to the lungs to receive air in inspiration;
and the stomach  and intestines are pressed for the dis-
tention of  their contents; hence, the use  of this muscle
is very considerable; it is the principal agent in respi-
ration, particularly in inspiration; for when it is in ac
tion the cavity of the thorax is enlarged,  especially at
the sides where the lungjuare «hiefly situated;  and as. 
104                 MUSCLES.
the lungs  must  always be contiguous to the inside of
the thorax and upper side of the  diaphragm, the air
rushes into them, to fill up the increased  space.  In
expiration it is relaxed and pushed up by the pressure
of the abdominal mitscles  upon the viscera of the ab-
domen; and at the same time that they prss it upwards,
they pull down the ribs, by which the cavity of the tho-
rax is diminished, and the air suddenly pushed out of
tire lungs.
   87.   Quadratus  lumborum.    This muscle  arises
broad, tendinous, and fleshy from the back part of the
spine of bone 25, and is  inserted into the transverse
processes of all  the vertebra? of the loins, into thelow-
;T rib near the spine,  and by a  small tendon into the
last vertebra of the back.   Its use is  to move the loins
to one side, pull down the last rib, and, when  both
muscles act to bend the loins forwards.
   88.  Psoas parvus.  This muscle arises fleshy,from
the side of the two upper vertebrae  of the  loins, and
sends off a small long  tendon,  which ends thin and
flat, and is inserted into the brim of the pelvis,  at the
junction of the  os ilium and pubis.  Its use  is to assist
muscle 89 in bending the loins forwards,  and,  in cer-
tain positions, to assist in raising the pelvis.
   89.  Psoas magnns.   This  muscle arises  flesh}.
from the  side of the body, and transverse process  of
the last vertebra of the back;  and, in the same  man-
ner, from all those of the loins  by as  many  distinct'
slips, and is inserted tendinous,   into  the  trochantir'
minor; (see bone XXXVIII;) andfleshy into that bone,
a little below the same trochanter.  Its use is to bend
the thigh forwards; or, when the inferior  extremity i»
fixed, to assist in bending the body.
   90.  Iliacus internus.  This  muscle  arises  fleshy,
from the last vertebra of the loins, from  all the inner 
MUSCLES.
105
lip of the spine of bone xxv,  from the  edge of that
bone between its front spinous processes, and the ace-
tabulum, or socket which receives the thigh bone, and
from most of the hollow part of the os  ilium, and is
inserted along with muscle 89.   Its use is to assist that
muscle in bending the thigh, and  to bring it directly
forwards.

 Muscles situated on the anterior part of the Thorax.

  91.  Pectoralis  major.   This muscle arises from
the cartilagenous extremity of the fifty and sixth ribs,
where it intermixes with muscle 70;  from  almost the
whole length of the breast bone;  and from near half
of the front part of the collar bone, and is inserted by
two broad tendons, which cross each other at the upper
and inner part of the arm bone, just above the inser-
tion of muscle 129.  Its use  is to move the  arm for-
wards, and obliquely upwards, towards the breast.
  92.  Subclavius.  This muscle arises tendinous,from
,thc cartilage that joins the  first rib to  the sternum or
ireast bone,  and is inserted after becoming fleshy,  in-
;o the lower part of the clavicle, which it occupies from
.vithin an inch of the breast bone, as  far outwards as
o its connexion, by a ligament, with the caracoid pro-
cess of bone xxxi.  Its use is to bring that bone for-
yards and downwards.
  93.   Pectoralis minor.   This muscle arises tendin-
ous and  fleshy, from the upper edge of the third, fourth
,,nd fifth ribs,  near where they join with their cartila-
ges, and is inserted tendinous, into the caracoid process
f bone xxxi; but soon grows fleshy and broad.   Its
t se is to bring the scapula forwards and downwards,
nd to raise the ribs upwards.
.,  94.   Seratus magnus antic^^ This muscle arises 
106                  MUSCLES.
from the nine upper ribs by an equal number of fleshy
digitations, resembling the teeth of a saw, and is in-
serted fleshy into the whole base of the shoulder blade,,
(bone xxxi.)  Its use is to move bone xxxi, forwards;
and, when that bone  is forcibly raised, to draw up the
ribs.

Muscles situated between the ribs, andtvithin the thorax.

   95.  Intercostalis externi.  This muscle arises from
the lower edge of each superior rib, and running ob-
liquely downwards and forwards,  is inserted into the
lower edge of  each inferior rib, as far back as the spine,
The use of this muscle is to raise  the ribs equally da-
 ring inspiration.
   96.   Intercostalis  inlerni.  This muscle arises with
 the one last  described; and is inserted in like manner,
 and exercises the same office.
   97.   Triangularis.   This muscle arises fleshy, and
 a little tendinous, from all the length of  part 3 of bone
 xxviii, and from the edge of bone xxvin, or breast
 bone, from  whence its fibres ascend obliquely upwards,
 & outwards and is inserted by three triangular termw
 nations,into the lower edge of the cartilages of the third
 fourth, & fifth ribs.  Its  use is to depress the cartuV
 ges, and extremities of the ribs; and, consequently, t»
 assist  in contracting the cavity of the thorax.

 Muscles situated on the fore part of the Neck cfose to tin
                       Vertebrcp.

    pa.   Longus colli.   This muscle arises tendinow
 and  fleshy,  from the bodies of the three upper vertebra
 of the  back,  and from the  transverse  process  of th(
 third, fourth, fifth,  and sixth vertebra  of the neck
 #ear their roots, & is inserted into the fore part of thi 
MUSCLES.
ior
bodies of all the vertebrae of the neetc, by as  many
small tendons, which are covered with flesh.  Its use is
to bend the neck gradually forwards, and to one side.
   99.  Rectus capitus internus major.  This muscle a-
rises from the front points of the transverse processes
of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth  vertebra of the
neck, by four distinct beginnings, and is inserted into
the cuneiform process of bone rv, a  little   before the
condyloid process.  Its use is  to bend the  head for-
wards.
   100.   Rectus capitus internus  minor.   This  muscle
arises fleshy, from the fore part of the body of the first
vertebra of the neck, opposite to the superior oblique
process, and is inserted near the root of the condyloid
process of bone  iv,  under,  and a  little  farther out
wards, than muscle 99.   Its use  is to bend the head for-
wards.
   101.   Rectus capitis lateralis.   This  muscle  arises
fleshy,  from the front part of the point of the  trans-
verse process of the first vertebra of the neck,  and is
inserted into bone iv, opposite to the foramen stylo-mas-
toideum  of the temporal bone.   Its use is to bend the
head  a little to one side.

        Muscles on the back part of the Trunk.

   102.   Trapezius.  This muscle arises by a strong
tendon, from the lower part of the protuberance  in the
middle of bone iv, behind; and, by a thin membran-
ous tendon, from  the rough curved line  that extends
from the protuberance  towards the mastoid process of
the temporal bone, runs down along the  nape  of the
neck, and covers the spinous process of the upper ver-
tebra of the neck; but rises from the spinous process
of the two lower vertebras, and from the spinous pro- 
108                  Muscles*

cesses of all the vertebras of the back;  adhering, ten.
dinous, to its fellow, the whole length of its origin, and
is inserted fleshy, into the posterior half  of the clavi-
cle or collar bone; tendinous and fleshy, into the  aero-
mwm,(see bone xxxi part 6) and  into  almost all the
spine of the shoulder blade.   Its use is  to move the
shoulder blade according to  the three different direc-
tions of its fibres;  the upper descending fibres draw it
obliquely upwards; the middle transverse straight fi-
bres draw it directly backwards; and  the inferior as-
cending fibres draw it obliquely downwards and back-
wards.
   103.  Labissimns dorsi.   This muscle arises by a
 broad thin tendon from the back  part of the spine of
 bone xxv, from all the spinous process of bone  xxn,
 and vertebra  of the loins,  and from the seven lower
 vertebra of the back; also tendinous aud fleshy, from
 the extremity of the three  lower ribs,  a little beyond
 their cartilages by as many distinct slips, the inferior
 fibres ascend  obliquely, and  the  superior run tranr-
 versely, over the lower angle of the shoulder blade, and
 is inserted by a strong thin tendon, into  the fore part
 of the back edge of the groove between the two tuber-
 osities of the arm  bone.  Its use  is to  pull  the arm
 backwards and downwards, and to turn it about at tin
 shoulder joint.
   104.   Seratus posticus inferior.    This  muscle ari-
 ses by a broad thin tendon, in common with that of the
 one last describrd, from the spinous processes  of the
 two lower vertebra of the back, and from the three np-
 per vertebra of the loins, and is inserted into the low-
 er edge of the four lower ribs, at a little distance from
 their cartilages, by as many distinct fleshy slips.   Its
 use is to depress the ribs into which it  is inserted. 
                     MUSCLES*                  109

   105.   Rhomboideus.  This muscle is divided  into
two portions: the first arises tendinous, from the spi-
•nous processes of the five upper vertebrae of the back,
and is inserted into  all the base  of the scapula or
shoulder blade below its spine.  The second portion
arises tendinous, from the three lower vertebrae of the
neck, aw! is inserted into the base of the scapula or
shoulder blade, opposite to its spine.   The use  of this
muscle is to draw the shoulder blade obliquely upwards,
•and directly inwards.
   106.   Splenitis.   This muscle arises from the spi-
nous processes of the  four  or  five upper vertebrae of
the back; tendinous and fleshy, from  the. five inferior
vertebrae of the neck, and is inserted, into the five su-
perior transverse processes of  the  vertebrae  of the
neck: and tendinous and fleshy, into the upper part of
the mastoid process; and ridge of bone IV.  Its use is
to bring the head and upper vertebrae of the neck back-
wards and a little to one side:  and,  when both act, to
pull the head directly backwards.
   107.   Seratus supzrior portions.   This muscle  ari-
ses by a broad thin tendon,  from  the spinous processes
of the three last vertebrae of the neck, and the two up-
permost of the back, and is inserted into the second,
third, fourth, and fifth  ribs, by  as many fleshy slips.
Its use is to elevate  the ribs and dilate the thorax.
   108.   Spinalis dorsi.  This muscle arises from the
spinous processes of the two uppermost vertebrae of
the loins, and the three inferior of the back, by as  ma-
ny tendons, and is inserted  into the spinous  processes
of the nine uppermost vertebrae  of the back.  Its use
is to erect and fix the vertebrae, and to assist in raising
the spine.
   109.   Levatores costarum.  These muscles are divi-
ded into twelve distinct parts, or twelve parts on each
       j 
HO                  MUSCLES.
 side, making in all twelve pairs.  The first  of those
 arises from the transverse process of the last vertebrae
 of the nee!;, and goes down to be inserted into the first
 rib near its tuberosity;  and so all that follow arise from
 the transveise process, and go to the rib below, being
 very small and  tendinous at either end;  but the three
 last.or lowermost of these  arise from the second pro-
 cess above the rib to which  they  belong:  they pass
 one rib to go into the one  below  it:  they are conse-
 quently twice as long as the nine first are. 'Thus the
 levator es costarum are a succession  of small  muscles,
 for the direct purpose/of raising the ribs.
   110.  Sacrp lumbal™.   This  muscle  arises-tendin-
 ous without,  and flesh j  withiiy  from the side, and all
 ' >o  -i; inous processes of bone xxn; from  the posterior
 spine of bone xxv;  and from the roots of the transverse
 process of the vertebrae of the loins, and  is  inserted
 into  ill.the ribs, where  liioy . be.g.n to  be .curved for-'
 wards, by as inj.uy long and thin tendons.  Its use is
 to pail the ribs down, and assist '■ j erect  the  trunk of
 the bu<!  .
   111.  Lo^gisHimus dorsi.    TIi'i  muscle arises hi ,
 com 1.■> \ «vifh the one last described, and is' insrrted in-.l
 in .ill ihe Ircinsytrseprocesses  of  the  vertebrae ol  the" ]
 back, chiefly by  small double tendons;  also, by  a ten- '
 d'f.!"us and ucshy.slip, into the  lower  edge of all  the
 ribs, except the  two lowermost, at a little distance from
 their tubercles.
   112.   Ctmiplexns'.  This  muscle  arises from  the
 trausvcrse  processes of the  seven  upper vertebrae of
the back, and four lower of the neck,, by as many dis-
tinct tendinous origins; in its ascent it  receives a fleshy
slip from the spinous process  of the first  vertebra of'
the back.   From  these different origins  it runs  up- [
wards and  is every  where intermixed  with tendinous- 
MUSCLES.                  HI
 fibres, and is inserted tendinous and fleshy, into the in-
 ferior ed^r; of the.protuberance in the middle  of  bone
 iv, and into part of the  covered line  that  runs for-
 wards from that protuberance.  Its use is to draw the
 head  backwards, and  to one side; and, when both act
 to draw the he vt backwards.
   113.    Trachelo-mastoideus.   This  muscle  arises
 from t: • transverse processes of  the three uppermost
 vertebrae of the back,  and from tbe five- lowermost oi
 the neck,  and is inserte-i into the middle of the  poste-
 rior si<i«: of  the mastoid  process of bone iv, by  a thin
 t' n.don.   its use is to assist the muscle last described;
 hn\ pulls  the head more to one side.
   j.14.  levator scap  I.e.   This muscle arises tendin-
 ous and IKshy from  transverse  processes  of the five
 upper v?rt'-brae of the neck, by as many distinct slips,
 wv.ich soon unite to form a muscle  that  runs  down-
'Weirds  and  outwards,  and is  inserted fleshy, ini- the
 superior angle of the shoulder blade, i. Its use is (<>pull
 the shoulder Idaide upwards and a little forward-.
 u  115.  Semi -spinalis dorsi.  This muscle arises from
 the transverse processes of  the seventh, eighth,  ninth,
 and tenth vertebrae of the back,  by  as many distinct
 tendons, which soon grow fleshy, and then become ten-
 dinous ag'.'ui; and are inserted into  the  spinous pro-
 cesses of  ai) the vertebrae of. the back above the eighth,
 and into the two I >\verniost of the neck,  by as  many
 tendons.  Its use Li to extend-the pine obliquely back1
 wards.
   11G.  MuWfidus spinee.   This muscle  arises front
 the side and spinous processes of bone xxn, and from
 the back   irt of bone  xxv; from all the oblique and
 transverse processes of the vertebrae of the back, and
 from  those of the neck,  except  the  three first,  by as
 many distinct tendons, which soon  grow fleshy, and 
112
MUSCLES.
running in an oblique direction; are inserted by distinct
tendons, into all the spinpus processes of the vertebrae
of the loins, of the back, and of the neck, except the
first..  When the different portions of this  muscle act
on one side, they exjtend the back obliquely, or move it
to. one side;  but if they act together on. both sides, they,
extend the vertebrae backwards.
  117*  Semi-spinalis colli.  This muscle arises from
the transverse processes of the six uppermost vertebrae.
of the back;  by  as many distinct tendons  ascending
obliquely under the complexus,  (mus. 112,) and is in-
serted into the spinous processes  of all the vertebrae
of  the neck, except the first and the last.   Its use is to
extend the neck obliquely backwards.
   118.  Transversalis colli.  This muscle arises from
the transverse processes of the five uppermost verte-
brae of the back, by as many tendinous and fleshy ori-
gins, and is inserted  into the transverse processes of
all the vertebrae of the neck except the first & last. Its
use is to turn the neck obliquely backwards and, a little
to one  side.
   119.  Rectus capitus posticus minor.   This muscle
arises by a narrow beginning from  a  little protuber-
ance in the  middle of the back part of the first vertc-.
bra of the neck,  ascending obliquely outwards, and is
inserted tendinous and fleshy, into  bone iv, near the
mastoid portion of bone in.   Its use is  to turn the
head backwards,  and to assist a  little in its rota-
tion.
   120.  Obliquus capitus superior.   This muscle ari«
ses from  the transverse process of tire first vertebra
of the neck, and is inserted with muscle 119.  Its use
is to  draw the head backwards.
   121.  Obliquus capitus inferior.   This muscle arises. 
MUSCLES.
113
fieshy, from the spinous process of the  second  verte-
bra of the  neck, its whole  length; and, forming a
thick fleshy belly, is inserted into the transverse pro-
cess of the first vertebra of the neck.   Its  use is to
give a rotary motion to the head.
  122.   Scalenus.   It is   situated at the side of the
neck, between the transverse process of the vertebra-
of the neck, and the upper part of the  thorax.   This
muscle is divided into three portions; the anterior or
fore portion arises  from the transverse processes  of
the six inferior vertebrae of the neck, by as many short
tendons, and descending obliquely outwards, is inser-
ted tendinous and fleshy,  into  the upper side of the
first  rib, near its cartilage.  The middle portion ariT
ses by distinct tendons, from the  transverse processes
of the four last vertebrae of the neck, and descending
obliquely outwards and a little backward.:, is inserted
tendinous  into the  outer and upper  part of the  first
ril),from its root to within the  distance of an  inch
from its cartilage.   The third and  last portion arises
from the transverse processes of the.  second, third,
fourth and  fifth vertebrae of the neck, by distinct ten-
dons, and is inserted into the  upper edge  of the se-
cond rib, at the distance of about an inch  and a half
from its articulation, by a broad flat tendon.  The use
of  this muscle is to move the neck to one side, when it
acts singly, or to bend it  forwards when b« th muscles
act;  and when thoneck is fixed it serves to elevate the
ribs, and (Ulatethe  chest;
   123.  1 iterspinalis colli.  The  spaces between the
spinous processes of the vertebra; of the neck, is filled
up with fleshy portions; which arises double from the
spinous process of the inferior vertebrae of the neck:
 and ascends.to be  inserted  in  the same manner, into-
 the spinous processes - of the upper vertebrae of the.
        J* 
114                 MUSCLES.
neck.  The use of these fleshy bundles  are to draw
these processes nearer to each other..
   124.   Intertransversaiis*.  These are distinct bun-
dies of flesh, which are situated between the transverse
processes of the vertebrae of  the loins, back and neck.
They arise from the inferior transverse process,  and
are inserted into the superior.  Their uses are to draw
these processes towards  each other.    Those situated
in the back are rather  tendons than muscles, serving
to connect the spinal and transverse processes.

           Muscles of the Upper Extremities.

   125.    Supra-spinatus.  This muscle arises fleshy
from all that part of the base of the  shoulder blade
that is  above its spine; also from its spine and superi-
or costa or rib; passing under the acromion or process
of the shoulder blade, and adheres to the capsular lig-
ament of the shoulder joint; and is inserted tendinous,
into that part of the large protuberance on the upper
head of the arm bone.   Its  use is to raise the arm up-
wards: and, at the same time to pu'l the capsular lig-
ament from between the bones, that it may not be pinch-
ed.
   126.   Infraspinatus.  This muscle arises fleshy*
from all that  part of the base of  the scapula  or bone
XXXI, that is between its  spine and the inferior an-
gle; from the spine as far as the  cervix or neck of the
scapula or shoulder blade.    The fibres ascend and de*
scend obliquely towards a tendon in  the middle of the
muscle,  which runs forwards,  and adhevesto the cap-
sular ligament of  the shoulder joint,  and  is  inserted
by a short tliick  tendon, into  the upper and middle
part of  the large protuberance  on the- upper head of
the arm bone.   Its use is to.roll the os humeri or  arm 
                    MUSCLES.                 H5

bone outwards; to assist in raising, and supporting it
when; raised; and to pull the ligament from betweea.
the bones.
   127.   Teres Minor*  This muscle arises from all the
round edge of the inferior costa or rib of the scapula or,
Bhoulder blade, and runs forwards, attaching itself to
the capsular ligament of the shoulder joint, and is  in-
serted tendinous, into the back part of the large protu-
berance  on  the upper head of the arm bone, a little be-
hind and below  the termination of the muscle  last de-
scribed.   Its use is to roll the arm outwards, to draw
it backwards; and to prevent the ligament from  being}
pinched between the bones.
   128.   Teres major.   This muscle arises fleshy from-
 the lower angle of the shoulder blade, and from ail-
 that portion of its  inferior costa  that is  rough  and
 thicker than the rest;  its  fleshy fibres are continued
 over part of muscle 126, to which they firmly adhere,
 and is inserted by a broad, short, and thin tendon,  into
 the ridge of the inner side of the groove, near the up-
 per head of the arm bone.   Its use is to roll  the  arm
 bone inwards,  and to draw it  backwards  and  down-
 wards.
   129.  Deltoides.  This muscle arises fleshy, from
 all the back part of the  collar bone;  tendinous  and
 fleshy, from the spine  and  acromion of the  shoulder
 blade:  from these origins it runs in three different di-
 rections, (i, e.)  from the clavicle or collar bone out-
 wards  and downwards; from the spir.e of the scapula
 or shoulder blade outwards, forwards, and downwards,
 and  from the acromion, straight downwards;  and  is
 composed of a number of fasciadi or  bundles  which-
 form a strong fleshy muscle, that covers the front part
 of the shoulder joint, and is  inserted tendinous,  mW* 
 116                 MUSCLES.

 the rough protuberance in the outer side of the  arm
 hone, near its middle.   Its use is to pull the  arm di-
 rectly outwards and upwards,  and a little forwards or
 backwards, according to the different directions  of its
 fibres.
   "130.   Coraco-brachialis.  This  muscle arises ten
 d|nous and fleshy,  from the fore  part of the coracoid
 process of bone XXXI;  adhering, in  its'descent to
 the short head of muscle 132, and is inserted tendinous
 and fleshy, about the middle of  the external  part  of
 the arm bone, from thence it sends down a thin tendi-
- nous expansion to  the internal condyle at  the  lower
 end of the arm bone, (os humeri.)   Its  use is  to raise
 the arm upwards and forwards.
    131.   Subscapularis.   This  muscle arises fleshy,
 from all the base of the shoulder blade  internally, and
 from its. superior  and inferior costse  or  ribs, being
 composed of a number of tendinous and fleshy fas ciculi
 or bundles, which  make  prints on the  bone;  they all
 join together, and fill up the  hollow  of the  shoulder
 blade, and pa s over the joint, adhering to the  capsu-
 lar ligament, and  is inserted tendinous, into the upper
 part of the internal protuberance at the upper head  of
 the arm bone.   Its use is to roll the arm bone inwards,
 and to draw it to  one side of the body, and  to prevent
 the capsular ligament from being, pinched.

    Muscles situa.jd on the o.i humeri, or bone  XXXII.

    132.  Bvepsfiexorcubili.   This muscle as its name
 (biceps) pu ports  arises by two heads.  The  first and
 outermost head called longus, begins tendinous from
 the  upper edge of the  glenoid  cavity of the shoulder
  blade;  passes over the  head  of bone XXXII, within
  thejoint; and in its descent at  the outside-of the joint, id 
MUSCLES.                 117
 enclosed in a groove near the head of the arm bone,
 by a membranous ligament that proceeds from the cap-
 sular ligament and adjacent tendons.  The second, or
 innermost head, called, ferevis,  tendinous  and  fleshy
 from the coracoid process of the shoulder blade.  A lit-.
 tie below the middle of the os  humeri or  bone of the
 arm, these heads unite, and are inserted by  a strong
 round tendon, into  the tubercle on the upper end  of
 bone XXXIV (radius.)   Its use is to turn the hand su-
 pine (i. e.) the palm of the hand up,  and to bend the
 fore arm.
   133.  Brachialis.  This muscle arises fleshly, from.
 the middle of the os humeri or bone of the arm, at each
 side of the insertion of muscle 129,  covering  all the
 lower part of this bone, runs  over the joint,  and ad-
 heres firmly to the capsular ligament,  and is inserted
 by a strong short tendon,  into the coronoid process of
 bone XXXIII, (ulna).  Its use is to bend the fore arm,
 and to prevent the capsular ligament of the joint from
 being pinched.
   134.   Triceps extensor  cubiti.  This muscle as its
 name indicates (triceps) arises  by three different heads:
 the first called longus, arises somew hat broad  and ten-
 dinous, from the inferior costa or rib of the  shoulder
 blade, near its neck.  The second bead, called brevis
 arises by an acute, tendinous, and fleshy  beginning.
from the back part of the os humeri or bone of the arm,
 a little below its head outwardly.  The third, called
brachialis externus,  arises by an acute beginning, from
the back part of the osjtumeri or bone  of the arm.
These three heads  unite lower than the  insertion of
mnscle 128, and covers the whole of the back  part of
bone XXXII, (os humeri)  and  is inserted into  the ole-
crannon or process of the ulna bone XXXIII, and part- 
  118           t       MUSCLES.

  ly into the condyles of the os humeri or hone of the arm,
  adhering firmly  to the capsular ligament.  Its use ia
  to extend the fore arm.
     1*35.  Anconeus.    This muscle arises  tendinous,
«.-, from .the back part  of the external  condyb* of bone
  XXXII, or bone of the arm; it soon grows fleshy,  and
  is continued from the  third head of muscle  134, and is
  'inserted fleshy and  thin, into  a ridge on  The outer  and
  back edge of bone XXXIII,  (ulna,)  being  continued
  some distance below the olecranon or joint of the elbow,
  and covered  with a tendinous membrane.   Its use is
  to assist in extending the fore arm.

  Muscles, situated on  the Fore  An:i   or below the Elbow
                          Joint.

     136.   Supinator radii longns.   This  muscle  arises
  by. an acute  origin, from  the external ridge of bone
  XXXII, (os  humeri) above the ev:>. nal condyle, near-
  ly as fur i.p as the middle of that bone, and is inserted
  into the outer  side of   Hk- lower extremity of bone
  XXXIV (rat! s.)  Its use is to  roll  that  bone  out-
  wards,  and consequently the palm  of  the  hand  upr.
  wards".
     137.  Extensor carpi rad:alis longior.  This muscle
  arises  broad, t!>m,  and fleshy;.immediately below the
  one last described,  from  the lower part of the external
  ridge of bone XXXII, (os humeri.) above its cxternaj
  condyle, and  is inserted by a  round  tendon,  into the
  posteiior and upper part  of the metacarpal  bone  that
  sustains the fore linger.   Its use is to extend  and bring
  the hand backwards.
     138.  Extensor carpi radialis brevtor.  This muscle
  rarises tendinous, from  the external condyle of bone
  XXXII, (os  humeri,) and from the ligament that  con- 
 r„-ci< bone  XXXIV, (radius,) to it and runs along the
 outside of the radius, and is inserted by a  round ten-
 don into the upper  and back  part of the metacarpal
 bone that  sustains the middle finger.   Its use is to as-
 sist muscle 137.                           *
   139.   Extensor digitorum communis.  This, muscle
 arises by  an acute,  K-udinous.  and  fleshy  beginning,
 froni the external condyle of hone  XXXII, (os hume-
 ri : where  it adheres to muscle  146.   Itefore it passes
 under the external annular ligament  of the wrist,  it
 divides into four  tendons: and  uIi'*ut the fore  part of
 the metacarpal bones, they remit tendinous filaments to
 cj-.oh otiur.and are in.-.erted, into  the posterior part of
 all the bones of the four fingers, by at-ndinous etpan
 fiiovi.  Its use iH t» extend all the joints Of the fuiger^.
  140.   Extensor minimi digiii.  This muscle arises
 with the one last descried, and is  appropriated entire-
 ly to the extension-of the little  finger.  Some auatom-
 its have consHlerett 'J.i.s a.siip of muscle  1 ;;■.>.  but we
 find that it passes un.ier the annular ligament, of the
 wrist in a separate channel, which isagood reason ibr
 making it a distinct niusclc.
  141.   E.iiciJor carpi utnar'.s.   This muscle arises
 tendinous iVom the external con i} !c  of bone XXXII,
 (ok  hunuri) and fleshy  from the  middle of the ulna,
 where it passes over that bone,  -oid  is inserted'by a
 round tendon, into the posterior and upper part of the
 mnararpal bone that sustains the little-finger.'  Its use
 is to assist in extendigthc baud.
  142.  Flexor carpi  ulnaris.   This muscle  arii ^
 tendinous from the i ltrnal condyle  of bone. XXXII
 (os humeri.)   It  has likewise a fleshy beginning from
 the outer sideof the olecranon; between which,  and the
 condyle of bone XXXIII. (ulna) passes to the forearm;
and a number of its fleshy fibres arise from the  tendin-
K 
120                 MU8CLES.
ous membrane which covers the fore arm, and is inser-
ted by a strong short tendon into the os pisiforme or
bone iv of the carpus or wrist.  At a  little distance
from its insertion a small ligament is  sent  off to the
metacarpal bone that sustains the little finger.  Its use
is to assist in bending the arm.
  143.  Palmaris longus.   This muscle arises tendin-
ons,  from the condyle of bone XXXII, (os humeri) but
soon grows fleshy, and after a short progress, sends off
a long slender tendon, and  is inserted into the annu-
lar ligament of the wrist, and int) a tendinous mem-
brane that is expanded on the  palm of the  hand, na-
med aponeurosis palmaris; which,  ahovc begins at the
transverse annular ligament of the wrist;   and,  be-
low,  is fixed to the roots  of the  fingers.   Its use is
to bend the hand, and to stretch the membrane that is
expanded on the palm.
   144.   Flexor carpi  radialis.  This muscle  arises
tendinous and fleshy, from the internal condyle of bone
XXXII, (os humeri) and from the front part of the
-upper end of bone XXXIII,  (ulna)  where it firmly
adheres to muscle 145, and is inserted by  a flat ten-
don, into the fore and  upper  part of the  metacarpal
"bone, that contains the fore finger,  after running
through a depression in the os trapezium  or bosie 5 of
the carpus or wrist.  Its use is to bend the hand, and
to assist  in pronation  or turning the palm of the hand
downwards.
  145 •  Pronator radii teres.  This muscle arises from
all the internal condyle  of bone xxxri, (os humeri)
and tendinous from the coronoid process of bone xxxm,
(ulna)  and is inserted tendinous, and fleshy, into the
middle of the posterior part of bone xxxiv, (radius.)
Its use is to roll that bone, together with the hand in-
wairds. 
MitscLEs.         rf      121
  146.  Supinator radii  breves.   This muscle arises
tendinous, from the external condyle Of bone XXXII;
(os humeri) tendinous and fleshy, from the external and
upper part of bone XXXIII, (ulna,) and adheres firm-
ly to the ligament that joins these two bones  together,
and is inserted into the head*  neck, and  tubercle  of
bone XXXIV, (radius) near the insertion of muscle
132, and ridge running from that downwards and out-
wards.  Its use is to roll the radius outwards, and to
bring the hand supine, or the palm upwards.
  147.  Extensor ossis metucarpi pollicis manus..  This
muscle arises  fleshy, from the middle of the posterior
part of bone XXXIII,  (ulna) immediately below the
insertion of muscle 135, from the posterior part of the
the middle of  bone XXXIV, (radius,) and from the  in ■
terosseous ligament,  or ligament situated between the
radius and ulna, and is inserted by two tendons into the
os trapezium or bone 5 of the carpus or wrist, & back
part of the metacarpal hone of the thumb.   Its use  is
to  extend the metacarpal  bone of the thumb out-
wards.
   14b.  Extensor primi internodii.   This muscle ari-
ses fleshly, from the posterior part of bone  XXXlll,
(ulna) and from the ligament  that is situated between
ulna and radius, and is inserted tendinous, into the pos-
terior part of the-first hone of $ie thumb.  Its  use ."»
to extend the first  bone of the thumb obliquely oui-
wards.
   149.  Extcrsor secundi internodii.   This muscle ari-
ses by an acute, tendinous, and fleshy beginning, front
the middle of  the back part of bone xxxrrr  (ulna) and
from the interoseous ligament that is situated between
the ulna and radius; its tendon  runs through a small
 groove at the  inner  and back part of the  lower end of
 bone xxxrv(radius,) and is inserted  into the last bor;-2 
 122            '     MUSCLES.

 of the thumb.  Its use is to extend the last joint of the
 thumb obliquely backwards.
   150.   Indicator.   This muscle arisesby an acute,
 fleshy beginning, from the middle of the posterior part
 of the ulna, passes under the  annular ligament of the
 wrist, and is  inserted into the back part  of  the fore
 finger.   Its use is to extend the fore finger.
   151.   Flexor digitorum sublimis.  This muscle ari-
 ses tendinous, and fleshy, from the internal  condyle of
 bone XXXII, (os humeri, )tendinous from the  coronoid
 process of the ulna, near the edge of the cavity that
 receives the head of bone XXXII; fleshy from the tu-
 bercle of that bone: and membranous and fleshy from
 the middle of the  fore part of the radius.   Its fleshy
 belly sends off four round tendons before it passes un-
 der the ligament of the wrist, and is inserted into the
 fore and upp er part of the second bone of each finger,
 being divided near the extremity of the first  bone for
 the passage of muscle 152.   Its use is to bend the se-
 cond joint of the fingers.
   152.   Flexor digitorum profundus.  This muscle
 arises fleshy, from external  side of  bone  XXXIII,
 (idna,) and from a large share of the ligament which is
 situated between the two  bones  of the arm.  It splits
 into four tendons, a  little before it  passes  under the
 annular ligament of the  wrist, and these pass through
the slits in the tendons of muscle 151,  and are insert-
 ed into the fore and upper part of the third or last bone
 of the four fingers.  Its use is to bend the last joint of
the fingers.
   153.   Flexor longus pollicis  manus. This  muscle
arises by an acute fleshy  beginning,  from  the  upper
part of bone  XXXIV, (radius,)  immediately  below
its tubercle, and is continued down for some space on
 the fore part of this bone: and fleshy from the internal 
MUSCLES.                 123
 condyle of bone XXXII, (os humeri,) that terminates
 near the upper part of the origin from the radius,  and
 is inserted into the last joint of the thumb,  its tendon
 being confined  by the annular ligament of the  wrist.
 Its use is  to bend the last joint of the thumb.
   154.  Pronator radii quadratus.   This muscle  ari-
 ses broad, tendinous and fleshy, from  the  lower  and
 inner part of bone XXXIII; the fibres run transvers-
 ly, to be inserted into the lower and front  part of bone
 XXXIV.Its use  is to turn that  bone, together with
 the hand inwards.

         Muscles situated chiefly on  the Hand.

   155.  Lumbricalis,   This  muscle arises thin,  and
 fleshy from the  inside,  of the  tendons of muscle 152,
 a little above the annular ligament of the wrist, under
 which it passes, and is inserted by long slender tendons
 into the outer side of the broad tendons of muscles 148
 and 149, about the middle  of the first joint of the fin-
 gers.   Its use is, to increase the flexion of the fingers
 while the long flexors are in full action.
   156.   Flexor brevis pollicis manus.  This muscle is
 divided into two portions:  the first arises from the sides
 of bones 5 & 6  of the carpus or  wrist,, and from the
 internal surface of the annular ligament of  the wrist
 The second head arises from bone 7 of the wrist, and
 from the base of the metacarpal bone of the little fin-
 ger, and are inserted by the first head into  the outer
 sesamoid bone of the thumb, and  by the second into
 the inner sesamoid bones.  Its use is to bend the first
joint of the thumb.
   157.   Oponeus pollicis.   This muscle arises fleshy,
from bone  5 of the carpus or wrist, and annular liga-
ment, and is inserted tendinous and fleshy, into the un% 

s.Bs,
der and front part of the metacarpal bone of the thumb.
Its use is to  bring the thumb inwards, opposite to the
other fingers.
   158.  Abductor pollicis  manur.  This'musclc arises
by a broad tendinous and fleshy beginning, from the
annular ligament of the wrist, and from bone 5 of the
wrist, and is inserted tendinous, into the outer part of
the root of the first bone of the thumb.    Its use  is to
pull  the thumb towards the fingers.
   159.  Abductor pollicis manus.  This muscle arises
fleshy, from almost the whole length of the metacar-
pal bone, that sustains the middle fingers; from thence
its fibres are collected together, and arc  inserted ten-
dinous, into the inner part of the root of the first bone
of the thumb.  Its use is to pull the thumb towards the
fingers.
   160.  Abductor indicis manus.   This  muscle arises
from bone 5 of the wrist, and from the  superior part
and inner side of the metacarpal bone of the thumb,
A is inserted by a short tendon into the under and back
part of the  first bone of the forefinger.  Its use is to
Jbring the fore finger towards the thumb.
    161.   Palmaris  brevis.    This  muscle  arises
from the  annular ligament of the wrist,  and tendinous
membrane that is expanded on the palm  of the  hand,
and is inserted by small bundles of fleshy fibres  into
the  skin and  fat that covers muscle 140, and into bone
 4 of the wrist.  Its use is to assist in  extending the
 palm of the hand.
   162.  Abductor minimi digiti manus.  This  muscle
 arises fleshy, from bone 4 of the  wrist, and from  that
 part of the annular ligament next it, and is inserted
 tendinous, into the inner side of the upper end of the
 first bone of the little finger.   Its  use is to draw this
 finger from the rest. 
MUSCLES.                 125
  163.  Abductor minimi digiti manus.  This  muscle
arises fleshy, from the thin edge of bone 8 of the wrist,
and from that part of the annular ligament next to it,
and is inserted tendinous, into the inner side and front
part of the metacarpal bone  of the little finger.   Its
use is to bend and bring the metacarpal bone of tins
finger towards the wrist.
  164.  Flexor parvus minimi digiti.  This  muscle
arises fleshy from the outer side of  hone 8 of the wrist,
and from  the ligament  of the wrist which joins with
that bone, and is inserted by  a round  tendon into  the
inner and anterior  part of  the  upper end of the first
bone  of the little finger.  Its use is  to bend the little
finger.
   165.  Interosei interni.   These are three in number.
The first is called posterior indicis; it arises tendinous
and fleshy, from the brevis and inner part of the  met-
acarpal bone of the fore finger, and likewise from the
upper end of the one that supports the middle finger, &
is inserted into the posterior convex surface of the first
bone of the fore finger.   The second and  third called
prior annularis, and interosseus  auriadaris arises, in
the same manner, from the basis of the outside of the
 metacarpal bones that sustain the ring and little fin-
 gers, and  are inserted into the outside of the  tendin-
 ous expansion of muscle 139 that covers each of these
 fingers.  These three muscles draw  the  fingers into
 which they ere inserted, towards  the thumb.
   166.   Interosei externi.  There are four; muscles in-
 cluded under this one name;  the first of which, is call-
 ed abductor indicis manus, arises  from bone  5 of the
 wrist, and from the superior part, and inner side of
 the metacarpal bone of the thumb, and is inserted by
 a short tendon, into the outer and back part of the first
 bone of the fore finger.  The second called prior me* 
126
MUSCLES.
dii, arises by two origins, from  the roots of the meta-
carpal bones that sustain the fore and  middle  fingers,
and is inserted into the tendinous expansion from mus-
cle 139 which covers the back part of the  middle fin-
ger.   The third called posterior medii, arises  by  two
origins,  from the  roots of the  metacarpal bones, next
to each other, that sustain the middle and ring fingers,
and is inserted  with part second.  The  fourth, called
posterior annularis, arises from the roots of the meta-
carpal bones that  sustain the ring and little finger, and
is inserted into the inside of the  tendon, on  the back
of the ring  finger.  The use of the interossei externi
is to  extend the fingers into which they are  inserted,
and likewise to draw them inwTards towards the thumb,
except the third, which from  its situation and inser-
tion, is calculated to pull the middle finger outwards.

          Muscles  of the Inferior Extremities.

   167.   Pectinalis.   This  muscle arises broad and
fleshy, from the upper & anterior part of bone XXVII,
(os pubis) immediately above the foramen thyroideum,
and is inserted into  the front and upper part of the
linea aspera or rough line in the thigh bone, a little be-
low the  trochanter minor of the  same  bone,  by a flat
and short tendon.
   168.    Triceps adductor femoris.   This  muscle
as its  name (triceps) purports,  arises by three dis-
tinct heads, viz:
   1.   Adductor longus femoris.   This portion arises
by a strong roundish tendon, from the  upper and pos-
terior part of bone XXVII, (os pubis)  and is inserted
tendinous, near the middle of the posterior part of the
linea aspera or rough line of the thigh bone, being con-
 tinued for some distance down  it. 
                      MUSCLES.                  127"

   2.  Adductor brevis femoris.   This  portion  arises
 tendinous, from bone XXVII, (os pubis,) near  where
 theyjoin in the center, and is  inserted  tendinous  and
 fleshy, into the inner and  upper  part of the linea as-
 pera, or  rough ridge on the  thigh  hone,  from a little
 below the trochanter minor, to the beginning of the in-
 sertion of part 1.
   3.  Adductor magnus femoris.   This portion  arises
 a little lower down than the  former, near the joining.
 of the ossa pubis; tendinous  and fleshy,  from the tu-
 berosity of bone XXVI, (os ischium);  the fibres  run
 outwards and dow nwards, and  are inserted  into al-
 most the whole length of  the linea aspera,  into the
 ridge above  the  internal  condyle  of the thigh bone.
 The use of these three muscles,  or triceps,  are,  to
 bring the thigh inwards and  upwards,   according to
 the different  directions of their fibres;  and,  in some
 degree, to roll the thigh outwards.
   169.   Obdurator externus.  This muscle arises fleshy*
 from the lower part of the  inner origin of bone XXVI;
 (os ischium)  surrounds  the  foramen  thyroideum; a
 number of its fibres, arising from the membrane which
 fills up that foramen, are collected like rays towards a
 center, and pass  outwards  towards  the root of  the
 the back part of the neck of  the thigh bone, and  is in-
 serted by a strong tendon,  into the cavity at the  inner
 and back part of the root  of the  trochanter  major of
 the thigh bone, adhering in its course to the capsular
 ligament of the hip joint   Its use is to roll the thigh
 bone obliquely outwards, and to prevent the capsular
ligament from being pinched.
   170.   Gluteus maximus.   This muscle arises fleshy,
from the back part of bone XXV; from the whole ex-
ternal side of bone XXII, below the posterior spinous
process of bone XXV; (os ilium) and from theposteri- 
128                 MUSCLES.
or sacro-ischiatic ligament.   All  the fleshy  fibres run
obliquely forwards, and a little downwards, to form a
thick broad muscle, which  is divided  into a  number
of strong fasciculi or bundles,  and  is inserted by a
strong, thick and broad tendon into the upper and out-
er part of the linea aspera or rough ridge on the thigh
bone.   Its use is to extend the thigh, by pulling it di-
rectly backwards, and a little forwards.
   171.  Gluteus minimus.   This mnscle arises fleshy
from a ridge that is continued from the upper anterior
spinous process of  bone XXV, and from the middle of
the dorsum of that bone, as far back as its great niche,
 and is inserted by a strong tendon, into the  fore and
 upper part of the trochanter major of the thigh bone.
 Its use is to draw the thigh bone outwards, and a lit-
 tle backwards; to roll the thigh bone outwards espe-
 cially when it is bent
    172.  Gluteus medius.  This muscle arises fleshy,
 from the front superior spinous process of bone XXV,
 (os ilium) and from all the outer  edge of the spine of
 that bone,  except its posterior part, where it arises
 from the dorsum, and is inserted by a broad tendon,
 into the outer and upper margin of the trochanter ma-
 jor of the thigh bone.   Its use is to draw the thigh bone
 outwards,  and a little backwards.
     173.  Pyriformis.   This muscle arises within the
  pelvis, by three tendinous and fleshy origins, from the
  second, third, and fourth pieces of  bone XXII;  (os
  sacrum) from thence growing gradually narrower, it
  passes out of the pelvis, below the  niche  in  the  back
  part of bone XXV, (os ilium)  where it receives  a few
  fleshy fibres, and is inserted by a roundish tendon, into
  the upper part of the  cavity,  at the  inner  side of the
  root ol the trochan**.^ *~iinr  of the  thifth  bone.   Its 
WseiEs.                 129
use is to move the thigh a little upwards, and rolls it
outwards.
   174.   Gemini.   This muscle arises by two distinct
origins; the upper from the spinous process, and the
inferior from the tuberosity of bone xxvr; (os ischium)
also, from the posterior sacro-ischiatic ligament.   They
are both united by a  tendinous fleshy membrane, form-
ing a purse for the tendon of muscle 84, to which they
firmly adhere.  Its use is to roll the thigh outwards &
to preserve the tendon of muscle 84.
   175.   Qjiadratus femoris.  This muscle arises ten-
dinous and fleshy, from the outside of the tuberosity of
bone xxvi;  (os ischium;) and,  running transversely,
is inserted fleshy, into a  rough ridge, continued  from
the trochanter major of the thigh bone to the trochan-
ter minor.  Its use is to roll the thigh outwards.

            Muscles situated on the Thigh.

   176.  Tensor vaginae femoris.  This muscle arises
by a narrow, tendinous, and fleshy beginning, from the
external part of the  front superior spinous  process of
bone xxv, (os ilium,)  and is inserted  into the  thigh
bone a little below the trochanter major, into the inner
side of the membranous expansion which covers the out-
side of the thigh.  Its use is to stretch this  membran-
ous expansion, to assist  in the adduction of the thigli,
and somewhat in its rotation inwards.
   177.   Sartorius.    This muscle  arises  tendinous,
from the front superior  spinous process of bone  xxv,
(os ilium) but soon grows fleshy, and is inserted by a
broad and thin  tendon, into the  inner side  of bone
xxxrx, (tibia,) near the inferior part  of its tuhercle.
Its use is to bend the leg obliquely inwards, or to bring
t>ne leg across the other. 
130                 MUSCLES.
   178.   Rectus femoris.  This muscle  arises from the
 lower anterior spinous process of bone xxv, (os ilium,)
 and tendinous from the dorsum of the same bone, a lit-
 tle above the acetabulum or cavity for the head of the
 thigh bone:  runs down over the front part of the neck
 of the thigh bone; the fibres not being straight, but run-
 ning  down like the plumage  of a  feather, obliquely
 outwards and inwards, from  a tendon in  the  middle,
 and is inserted  tendinous into the upper part of the pa-
 tella or knee pan, from which  a thin tendon runs down
 on the fore part of that bone,  to terminate in  a  thick
 strong ligament, which is sent off from the lower  part
 of the knee  pan, and inserted into the tubercle of bone
 xxxix,  (tibia.)   Its  use is to   extend the leg, and in a
 powerful manner, by the intervention of the knee  pan,
 like a pully.
   179.   Vastus extcrnus.   This muscle arises broad,
 tendinous, and fleshy, from the root  of the trochanter
 major of the thigh bone,  and  upper part  of the linea
 aspera or rough ridge of ths  thigh bone, and is insert-
 ted into a large share of the upper part of  the patella
 or knee pan; part of it ending in an aponeurosis, which
 is continued  down to the leg,  and in its passage is firm-
 ly fixed to the head of bone xxxix, (tibia.)  Its use is
 to extend the leg.
  180.   Vastus internus.   This  muscle arises tendin-
ous and fleshy, from  between  the fore part of the thigh
bone and root of the trochanter minor, and from almo.st
all the inside of the linea aspera, or rough ridge of the
thigh bone, by fibres running  obliquely downwards and
forwards, and is  inserted tendinous,  into the upper
and inside of the patella or knee pan, continuing fleshy
lower than the one last described.  Part of it likewise
ends in an aponeurosis continued down  to the leg,  and 
MUSCLES.                 131
 fixed in its passage to (he upper part of bone xxxix.
 Its use is to extend the leg.
   181.   Cruralis.  This  muscle arises  fleshy,  from
 between the  two trochanters of the thigh  bone, and
 firmly adhering to the most of the fore part of the thigh
 bone, being connected to muscles 179 and 180, is inser-
 ted tendinous, into the upper part  of the  patella or
 knee pan, behind muscle 178.  Its use is to assist in
 the extension of the leg.
   182.  Semi-tendinosus.   This muscle arises tcndin*
 ous and fleshy, in common with the long head of mus-
 cle 184, from the posterior  part of the  tuberosity of
 bone xxvi, (osischium,) and  sending  down  a long
 roundish tendon, which ends flat, is. inserted  into the
 inside of the ridge of  bone xxxix, (tibia)  a little below
 its tubercle.   Its use  is to bend the leg backwards &
 a little inwards.
   183.   Semi-membranosus.  This muscle arises ten-
 dinous, from the upper and  back part of the tuberosi-
 ty of bone xxvi; sends down  a broad  flat  tendon,
 which ends in a fleshy belly; and, in its descent, runs
 at first on the forepart of muscle 184, betwesn it and
 muscle 183, and is inserted  tendinous  into the  inner
 and  back part of the  head of bone xxxix, (tibia). Its
 use is to  bend the  leg and bring  it  directly back-
 wards.
   134.   Biceps fiexor cruris.  This  muscle arises by
 two  distinct heads.   The first called  hngus,  rises in
 common with muscle  183,  and from the upper and pos-
 terior part of the tuberosity of hone xxvr,  (os ischi-
 um.)  The second called brevis, arises from the linea
 aspera or rough ridge on the thigh bone, from this ori*-
 gin it descends to join with the first head, a little above
the external condyle on the  lower  end  of  the  thigh 
132                 MUSCLES.
bone, and is inserted by a strong tendon, into the up-
per part of the head of bone xl, (fibula.)  Its use is to
bend the leg.
   185.   Popliteus.  This  muscle arises  by  a round
tendon, from the lower and back part of the external
condyle of the thigh bone,  then runs over the  liga-
ment that covers the knee joint; firmly adhering to it.
As it runs over the joint, it  becomes fleshy, and the
fibres run  obliquely inwards,  being  covered  with a
thin tendinous membrane, and  is inserted broad, thin,
and  fleshy, into a ridge at the upper and internal edge
of bone xxxix, (tibia)  a little below its head.   Its use
is to assist in bending the leg,  and to prevent the cap^
sular ligament from being  pinched.  After the leg
is bent, this  muscle serves to roll it inwards.

             Muscles situated on the Leg.

   186.  Gastrocnemius externus.   This muscle arises
by two distinct heads.  The first  head arises from the
 upper and back part of the internal condyle  of  the
thigh bone, and from that bone a  little above its con-
dyle, by two distinct tendinous origins.   The  second
 head arises tendinous, from the upper and back part of
 the  external condyle of the  thigh bone.    A little be-
 low the knee joint, their fleshy bellies unite in a middle
 tendon; and, below the middle of bone xxxix, (tibia,)
 it sends off a broad thin tendon, which joins  a little
 above the lower extremity of the tibia or  bone  of the
 leg with the tendon of muscle 187.
   187.   Gastrocnemius  internus.   This muscle arises
 by  two origins.   The first  is from the upper and back
 part of the head of bone xl, (fibula,) continuing  to re-
 ceive many of its fleshy fibres  from the posterior- part
 of that bone for some space below its head.   The other 
MUSCLES.
m
  origin begins from the posterior and upper part of the
  middle of bone  XXXIX:  (tibia)  and  runs along the
  inferior edge of muscle 185 towards the inner part of
  the tibia or bone of the leg,  from which  it receives
  fleshy fibres for some way down.  The  tendon of this
  muscle  where it unites with the former, forms a strong
  round chord which is called tendo Achillis, and is insert-
  ed into  the upper or back part  of bone 2 of the tarsus
  or instep, by the projection of which the tendo Achillis
  is at a considerable distance from the tibia  or bone of
  the leg.   Its use is  to extend the foot, by  bringing it
  backwards  and downwards.
    188.   Planiaris.  This muscle arises thin and fleshy,
  from the upper and back part Of the root of the external
  condyle of the|thighbone,near the inferior extremity of
  that bone, adhering to the ligament that  covers  the
 joint in its descent, and is inserted  into the inside of the
  posterior  part of bone 2  of the tarsus or instep.   Its
  use is to assist muscle 188, and to pull the capsular lig-
  ament of the knee from between  the bones.
    189.   Tibialis anticus.   This muscle arises  tendin-
  ous and fleshy from the middle of  that process of bone
  XXXIX, (tibia) to which bone XL, (fibula) is connect-
  ed : it then  runs downwards fleshy on the outside of the
  tibia or bone of the leg;  from which,  and the upper
  part of the interoseus ligament of the leg, it receives a
  number of distinct fleshy fibres ; near the extremity of
 the tibia or  bone of the leg, it sends off a strong round
 tendon,  which passes under the annular ligament of the
 instep,  and is inserted tendinous, into the inside pf the
 os cuneiformeinterunm one of the bones of the instep, and
 posterior end of the metatarsal bone that sustains the
k great toe.   Its use is to bend the foot,  by drawing 4t
       L 
134                 MUSCLES.
 upwards,  and,  at the same time,  to turn the toes in-
 wards.
   190.  Tibialis posticus.   This muscle arises  by a
 narrow fleshy beginning, from the fore and upper part
 of XXXIX, (tibia) just under the process that joins it
 to bone XL, fibula, then passing  through a  perfora-
 tion in the upper pi rt f the  interosseous  ligament of
 the leg, it continue, .s origin from the back part of
 the fibula or bone oi" the leg next the tibia, and  from
 near one half of the last named bone, and  is  inserted
 tendinous, into the upper and inner part of bone 3 of
 the instep, being further continued to the internum, k
 medium, of bones 5 of the instep; besides it gives some
 tendinous filaments to bones 2 and  4 of the instep, and
 to the root of the  metatarsal  bone that sustains the
 middle toe.   Its use is to extend the foot, and to turn
 the toes inwards.
   191.  Peroneus longus.   This muscle arises tendin-
 ous  and fleshy, from the fore part of the head of bone
 XL,  the fibres  running straight  down;   also  from
 the upper and external part of the fibula, or bone of the
 leg, where it begins to rise  into a  round edge, as far
 down as to reach within a hand's breadth of the ankle,
 by a number of fleshy fibres, which run outwards  to-
 wards a tendon, that  sends off a long round one, and
 is inserted tendinous, into the outside of the root of the
 metatarsal bone that  sustains  the  great toe, and by
 some tendinous fibres into the cuneiforme internum of
 the instep.   Its use is to move the foot outwards, and
to extend the foot.
   192.  Peroneus brevis.  This muscle arises by  an
acute fleshy beginn ne;, from  above the  middle of the
external part of bone XL;  (fibula)  from the outer side
 of the anterior spine of this  bone;  as  also from  its
round edge externally,  the  fibres  running obliquely 
      ^              WW
                   """miWULEs:                 t3#

outwards towards a tendon on  its external  side;  it
sends off a round tendon  which passes through the,
groove at the outer ancle, being  there  included under
the same ligament with that of muscle  191; and a lit-
tle farther it runs through a particular one of  its own,
and is inserted tendinous, into the root and  external
part of the  metatarsal bone that sustains the little toe.
Its use is to assist the former in pulling the  foot out-
wards, and extending it a li"i.O.l
  193.  Extensor longus digitoiAm pedis.  This mus-
cle  arises tendinous and fleshy, from  the upper  and
outer part  of the head of  hone xxxrx, (tibia),  and
from the head of bone xl, (fibula,) where it joins with
the tibia, or bone of the leg, and from the interosseous
ligament of the leg;  also  from  the  tendinous expan-
sion which  covers the upper and outside of the leg by
a number of fleshy fibres; and tendinous and fleshy,
from the anterior spine of the  fibula or bone of the leg.
It splits imo four round tendons under the annular lig-
ament of the tarsus or instep,  and  each is inserted by
a flat tendon into the root of the first joint of each- of
the four small toes, and is expanded over the upper side
of the toes, as far as the  root of the first joint.  The
use of this  muscle is to extend  all the joints of the four
small toes.
  194.  Extensor proprius pollicis pedis.  This muscle
arises by an acute, tendinous,  and fleshy beginning,
some distance below  the head  and front  part of bone
XL, (fibula) along which bone it runs to near its low-
er extremity, connected to  it  by a number of fleshy
fibres, which ascend obliquely towards a  tendon,  and
is inserted  tendinous,  into  the posterior part  of the
first and last joint of the groat toe.  Its  use is  to ex-
tend the great toe.
  195.   Flexor longus digitorum  pedis.   This  mus. 
MUSCLES.
cle arises by  an  acute  tendon,  which  soon becomes
fleshy,from the back partof bone xxxix, (tibia) some dis-
tance below its  head, which  beginning is  continued
down the inner edge of this bone by short fleshy fibres,
ending in its tendon;  also  by  tendinous, and fleshy
fibres, from the outer edge of the tibia,  and between
this double order of fibres, muscle 190 lies  enclosed.
Having passed under two annular ligaments,  it then
passes through a depression at the side of the os calcis9
or heel bone; and about the middle of the sole of the
foot, divides into four tendons, which pass through the
slits of muscle  198,  and each one is inserted into the
last joint of the four lesser toes.   The use of this mus-
cle is to bend the last joint of the toes,
  196.  Flexor  longus pollicis  pedis.   This muscle
arises tendinous, and fleshy,  a little below the head' of
bone XL, (fibula) and  its fibres continue to adhere to
that bone almost to its  extremity.  A little  above the
heel it terminates in  a round tendon,  which after  pass-
ing in a groove formed  at the posterior edge of bone  1
of the tarsus or instep,  and internal edge of bone 2 of
the instep, in  which it  is secured by an annular liga^
ment,  and is inserted into the last bone of the great toe*,
Its use is to bend the toe.

        Muscles chiefiy situated on the  Foot.

   197.  Extensor brevis digitorum pedis.   This  mus-*
cle arises tendinous, and fleshy, from the  fore and up-
per part of bone 2 of the instep, and soon  forms a
fleshy belly, which is divided into four portions,  send-
ing off an equal number of tendons  that pass over the
upper part of the foot,  under the  tendons of the last
described muscle, and is inserted by four  slender ten-
dons, into the  tendinous  expansion  of  muscle 193, 
MUSCLES.                 137
which covers the small toes, except the little one;  also
into the tendinous expansion of muscle 194 that covers
the upper part of the great toe.   The use of this muscle
is to extend the toes.
  198.   Flexor  brevis digitorum pedis.   This muscle
arises by a narrow fleshy beginning, from the inferior
and posterior part of a protuberance of bone 2, of the
instep; it soon forms a thick fleshy belly, which sends
off four tendons that split,  or divide  for  the passage
of the tendons of muscle 195, and are inserted into the
second bone of the four lesser toes.  The use of this
muscle  is to bend the second joint of the toes.
   199.   Lumbricales pedis.   This muscle  arises  by
four tendinous and fleshy beginnings, from the tendon
of muscle 195, just before  its division, and is inserted
by  four slender  tendons, into the  inside of  the first
joint of  the four lesser toes.  The use of this muscle
is to increase the flexion of the toes and to draw them
inwards.
   200.   Flexor brevis pollicis pedis.  This muscle ari-
ses tendinous, from  the under and fore part  of bone 2
of  the instep, where it joins with bone 4, and from the
os cuneiforme externum or bone of the instep, and is in-
serted into the internal and  external sesamoid bones
of  the great toe, and into the first joint of  the same.
Its use is to bend the first  joint of the great  toe.
   201.  Abductor pollicis pedis.    This  muscle arises
by a long thin tendon, from bones 2 and 3 of the instep,
 and from the root of the  metatarsal bone of the  se-
 cond toe, and is inserted  into the external  sesamoid
 bone of the great toe, and root of the metatarsal bone
 of the same.   Its use is  to bring this toe nearer the
 rest.
    202.   Abductor pollicis pedis.   This muscle  arises 
138                 MUSCLES.
from the internal side of the tuberosity of bone 2 of the
instep, and from a ligament which extends  from  this
tuberosity to the sheth of the tendon of  muscles 196,
and  also from the internal and inferior side of bone 3
of the instep, and other adjacent parts, and is inserted
into the internal sesamoid  bone, and the inferior and
internal part of the  root of the first bone of the great
toe.   Its use is to  seperate the great toe from the oth-.
crs, and to increase the curvature of the same.
  203.   Abductor  minimi digiti  pedis.  This muscle
arises tendinous and fleshy,  from a semi circular edge
of a cavity of the inferior  part of a protuberance of
bone 2 of the tarsus, and from the  metatarsal bone of
the little toe, and is  inserted into the  root  of the first
joint of the little toe.   Its use is to bend the little toe,.
and  its metatarsal bone, downwards,  and to. draw the
little toe from the rest.
  204.   Flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis.   This mus-
cle  arises tendinous  from bone of the tarsus or instep;
fleshy from the outside of the metatarsal bone that sus-
tains the little toe, below its protuberant part, and is,
inserted tendinous into the front extremity of the met-
atarsal bone, and root  of the  first joint of  this  toe.
Its  use is to bend this toe.
  205.   Transversalis pedis.   This muscle arises ten-
dinous, from the under part of the anterior extremity
of the metatarsal bone of the great  toe,  and from  the
internal sesamoid bone of the first joint, and is insert-
ed tendinous,  into the under and outer part of the an-
terior extremity of the metatarsal bone of the little toe,
and  ligament of the next toe.  Its  use  is to contract
the foot, by bringing the great toe, and  the two outer-
most toes nearer to each other.
  206.  Interosei pedis externi.   There  are lour mus-
cles included under this appellation.   The first arises 
                     MUSCLES.                  139

 tendinous and fleshy, from the outside  of the root of
 the metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from the root
 of the metatarsal bone of the next toe, its tendon is in-
 serted into the inside of the  tendinous  expansion that
 covers the back of the toes.  The second is placed in
 a similar manner,  between  the  metatarsal  bones of
 the fore and middle toes, and is inserted into the out-
 side of the tendinous expansion on the back of the foro
 toe.   The third and fourth are placed between the two
 next metatarsal bones, and are inserted into the outside
 of the middle and third toes.  The first of these draws
 the foro»toe inwards towards the great toe.  The three
 others pull the toes,  into which they are inserted, out-
 wards.   They all assist in extending the toes.
  207.   Interosei pedis intend.   There  arc three mus-
 cles included under this appellation. They arise ten-
 dinous and fleshy, from the basis  and inside of the met-
 atarsal bones of the middle, the third,  and little toes,
 terminating in a  tendon that runs to the inside of the
 first joint of  these toes, and from thence to their upper
surface, where the tendonj are lost in the tendinous ex-
pansion that is sent ofl'from  the extensors.   Each of
these three muscles serves to draw the  toe into which
it is inserted towards the great toe. 
 
        SYSTEM  OF  ANATOMY*

                  PART FOURTH.


      OF THE  MOUTH  AND THROAT.

  The cavity of.the mouth is formed by the connec-
tion of the lips and cheeks to the upper and lower jaws,
so that the teeth and alveoli or sockets  for the teeth,
may be considered as within  the  cavity.  Above  it is
°irmed principally by the palatine processes  of the
 ^per jaw sthd palate  bones.   Below, the cavity is
completed by several muscles, which proceed from al-
most the  whole internal  circumference of the lower
jaw, and, by their connections  with  each  otfier, with
the tongue and bone XVL, (os hyoides) which  form a
floor or  bottom to the cavity.  The cavity of the mouth
is lined  by a very thin delicate membrane, which is a
continuation of the skin from the  face and lips*  Under
this skin, or membrane, there are many small glandu-
lar bodies of a roundish form, the secretory ducts of
which pass through this membrane, to  the inner sur-
face of the mouth, for  the  purpose of lubricating  it
with the juices which they secrete,

                    TONGUE.

  The tongue is  a flat  body of an  oval  figure,  but
subject to considerable  changes  of form.    It is con-
nected at the  posterior or  back extremity of bone
XVI, (os  hyoides,) which is called its basis; the fore
or front,  and its  apex or  point.   The lower  part  of
the tongue is  connected with a number of muscles, 
 142          TONGUE, GLANDS.  &C.

 which are continued into its subw nee.   The connec-
 tion of the tongue is such, f' it     edges and apex are
 perfectly free and unconnected.^' t'he substance of the
 tongue consists principally *>? muscular  fibres  inter-
 mixed with adipose, or  fatty substance.   The lining
 membrane of the mouth continues from  the sockets of
 the teeth to the lower surface of the tongue, at wliich
 place if?is very thin; but, as it proceeds  to  the upper
 surface of the tongue, its texture changes considera-
 bly; and on this surface  it constitutes  the organ of
 taste.  The upper  surface'of the tongue, although it
 is continued from the thin membrane above  described,
 is formed by a rough integument which consists,,  like
 the skin of three lamince or  layers.   The  cutical is
 very thin; and under it,  the reta mucosum is thicker
 and softer than in other places.   The true  skin here |
 abounds with eminences of various sizes and forms,
 which are  called papillae.   The tongue answers a three
 fold purpose.  It is the principal organ of taste.  It
 is a very important agent in the articulation of words;
 and it assists in those operations upon our food, which
 are performed in the mouth.

          THE  SALIVARY  GLANDS.

  The salivary glands have such  a  close  connection-
 with the mouth,  that they may be described with it.
 There are three principal glands on each side:  the
parotoid, the submaxillary, and the sublingual.  They!
 are of a whitish or pale fleshy color, and are compo-
 sed of many small united masses,  each of which sends
 a small excretory duct to join similar ducts from the
 other, and thereby form the great duct of the gland.
 The parotoid gland is situated between the  mastoid
 process of  the temporal bone, and the back part of thi 
THE THROAT.                 143
 lower jaw.  The s»  Maxillary gland, is  situated im-
 mediately in the ah   ->f  le lower jaw.  The sublin-
 gual gland, lies so,  '   w ten the tongue is turned up,
 it can be seen protruuing nto the cavity of the mouth,
 and covered by the lining membrane, which  seems to
 keep it fixed in its place.
   These glands secrete a  fluid called  saliva, which
 when in a healthy state is inoderous, insiped,  . nd lim-
 pid, like water, but much more viscid, and of greater
 specific gravity.   The use of this fluid is to moisten
 the mouth; to mix with the food, and prepare it for a
 reception in the stomach.


                 THE THROAT.

   The word throat is here used as a general term to
 comprehend the structure of  all the parts at the back
 part of the cavity of the mouth.   This structure con-
 sists,

            I.  Of the Tonsil, Amygdake.

   Betwixt the arches of the  palate, on  each  side, lies
 a large oval gland.  These glands are called the ton-
 sils, or amygdalce.   These glands are  covered with
 the lining membrane  of these  parts, the surface of
 which is full of small holes.  These glands secrete a
 mucous, which is dip-barged  through the small open*
 ings, the use of wdiich is to  lul ricate the passage  of
 the throat, and facilitate the swallowing.  The amyg-
 dala; are often inflamed, and  swelled; when this is the
case swallowing is difficult 
144         LARYNX, EPIGLOTTIS, &C.

                2.   Of the Lai a'ix.

  In this  structure there  are  five cartilages, upon
Which its form and strength depend, viz:   the  cricoid,
the thyroid, the two arytenoid, and the epigbttiSi These
cartilages are joined to each other, and  are supplied
with muscles by whtch certain motions are effected.
  The cricoid or ring-like cartilage forms the basis of
this structure, which may  also be  considered as the
commencement of the wind pipe.
  The thyroid, or shield-like cartilage, is placed per-
pendicular to the cricoid cartilage,  being bent in-such a
manner, as to form an^ acute angle with a broad sur-
face on  each side of it  The angular part is at a small
distance above the front part of the cricoid cartilage,
and connected to it by a ligamentous membrane: while
its broad sides are  connected  to  its sides,  and thus
partially covering it, both  the upper and lower edges
of the thyroid cartilage, terminate posteriorly in pro-
cesses, which are called cornua, or horns.
  The arytenoid cartilages are two small  bodies of a
triangular pyramidal form, hut slightly  curved back-
wards.   They are placed upon the upper  and back
edge of the cricoid cartilage, near  to each other,  and
their  upper ends, taken together, resemble  the mouth
of a pitcher.  These two cartilages are the  posterior1
or back parts of the larynx.
  The epiglottis.   This  cartilage, when divested of
its membrane, is, of an oval form at its upper extrem-
ity, and rather angular below, terminating in a long
narrow process.  This cartilage is firmly attached to
the internal surface of the  angular part of the  thyroid
cartilage, to the tongue, and bone  XVI, (os  hyoides.)
The epiglottis closes over  the aperture of the  larynx,
-and  shuts up the passage from  the mouth into  the 
              OF THE PHARYNX.              145

larynx, when the back of the tongue is drawn back-
wards  as in swallowing.

               3.   Of tlie Pharynx.

  The pharynx is a large muscular bag which  forms
the great cavity at the back part  of the mouth, termi-
nating in the oesophagus, or swallow.   It is connected
above, to the cuneiform process of bone IV, (os occipitis)
to the  pterygoid process of bone VI, (os sphenoides,) and
to both the upper and lower jaw bones.   Its use is to
receive the food  when masticated, and force it into the
esophagus.
M 
 
         SYSTEM OF  ANATOMY;

                    PART FrFTH.


               OF THE THORAX.

   Before entering into a description of the thorax,
 it will be necessary in the first place to describe  the
 Mammae, or those glandular bodies situated on the an-
 terior part of i^, which, in females, are destined to the
 secretion of milk.  These glands lie between the skin
 and muscles 91 and 93, and are attached to the surface
 of those muscles by  a cellular membrane.  They  are
 of a circular form; and c insist of a whitish  firm sub-
 stance, divisible into small masses, which are compo-
 sed of still smaller masses.   Between these glandular
 portions a great deal of adipois or fatty matter is  so
 diffused, that, it constitutes a considerable  part of the
 bulk of the mammai or breasts.   The breasts  of the
 female becomes enlarged  about  the  age of puberty.
 They are also very large  during pregnancy and lacta-
 tion or suckling; but after the period of child  bearing,.
 they diminish.   They are supplied with blood by  the
 external and internal mamary arteries, the  branches
 of which enter them irregularly  in  several different
 places.   From the small glandular portions that com-
 pose the  mamma,  fine excretory  tubes  arise,  which
 unite together and form the great lactiferous  duets  of
 the gk.nd.   Those ducts proceed in a radiated manner
from the circumference to  the centre, and terminate on
 the surfai e of the nipple.  They are about fifteen  in
 number, and vary considerably in size.   The papilla* 
148
OF THE THORAX,
or nipple, in which  these ducts  terminate, is  in the,
centre of the mamma or breast:  it consists of a firm
elastic substance, and is nearly cylindrical in its form,,
The skin around the nipple is of a bright red  color in
virgins of mature age.  In pregnant women it is some-
times almost black.   The nipple abounds with sebac-
ous glands, which form small eminences on its surface.
This gland also exists in males,  although it is very
small.   In males  soon after birth, it has also  been
known to tumefy, and become very painful, in conse-
quence of the secretion and accumulation of a whitish
fluid, which  can be discharged  by pressure.  It also
sometimes swells and is painful, in ma,ks at the age of
puberty.

     1.   Of the form of the cavity of the Tlvorax.

   The cavity of the thorax is formed by the upper ribs,,
the vertebra;, and breast bone.   Its figure is  between
that of  a circle and an ov.ii; but is made irregular by
the vertebrae,  and by the upper edge of the breastbone.
The diaphragm has a great effect upon the figure of the
cavity of the thorax.  It protrudes into it from below,
with a considerable convexity; so, that  although it ari-
ses frpm the lower margin of the  thorax, the central
parts of it are nearly as  high as the  fouK'r rib.  The
position of the diaphragm is also oblique.   The  front
portion of its margin, being connected  to the seventh
and eighth ribs, is much higher than the back portion,
which is attached to the eleventh and twelfth.  In con-
sequence of the figure and position of the diaphragm,
the form of the cavity of the thorax has been compar-
 ed to the hoof of an ox, when its back part is presents
 ed forwards. 
        OF THE PLEURA & PERIUARniUM.       149

       3.  Of the arrangement of the Pleurae.

  The pleura, is  a membrane which lines the internal
surface of the thorax,  and  covers its viscera.  The
cavity of the thorax  is  every  where lined by this
smooth and glistening  membrane, which is in reality
two distinct portions or bags, which, by being applied
to each other latterally, from the  septum  or division
called mediastinum, which is attached posteriorly to
the vertebras  of the back, and in  front  to the breast
bone; thus dividing the cavity of  the thorax into two
parts.  But the two laminae,, or  layers  of which the
mediastinum is formed, do not every where adhere to
each other; for at the lower part of the thorax they are
separated, to form a lodgment for the heart; and at the
upper part of the cavity, they  receive  between them
the thymus gland.
  The surface of the pleura, like  that of the peritonae-
um,  and other membranes lining  cavities, is constant-
ly bedewed with a serous moisture, which prevents ad-
hesion of the viscera, the  mediastinum,  by dividing
the thorax into two cavities, obviates many  inconveni-
ences to-which we otherwise should be liable.  It pre-
vents the two lobes ot the lungs from compressing each
other when lying on the side, and consequently contrib-
utes to the freedom of respiration, which  is disturbed
by the least  pressure of the lungs.   If a puncture be
made between the ribs into the cavity of the thorax, the
 lungs on that side will  cease to  perform their office,
 while the other lobe, which is separated from it by the
 mediastinum,remains unhurt,  and continues  to.per-
 form its functions as usual.

               2.  Of the Pericardium,.

   This is the  membranous sac which' encloses thte 
150
OF THE HEART.
 heart, which upon a superficial v5c.v, seems only con-
 nected with its great vessels; but which adheres close-
 ly to the whole of its surface.  From  this surface  it
 is extended to those vessels;  from which  it proceeds,
 in a reflected manner, and forms an enclosure that lies
 loosely  about the heart.  The pericardium,  thus ar-
 ranged,  is placed between the two laminae, or folds  of
 the mediastinum or division  between the  two lobes  of
 the lungs: it adheres firmly to  the  mediastinum,  and
 also to the diaphragm,  and thus preserves the heart  in
 its proper position.  The pericardium is composed  of
 two laminse, folds or  layers, the internal  of which
 covers the heart, while the external extends  over the
 loose portions of the other, and blends itself with the
 mediastinum.   This membrane  effuses or secretes  a
 fluid, wdiich keeps the heart lubricated  and preserves
 it from adhering to the parts  around it.

                  4.   Of the Heart.

   The heart is  a hollow muscular viscrr?,  situated in
 the cavity of the pericardium, for the circulation of the
 blood.  It is divided  externally into a base,  or its
 broad oai't;  a superior and  inferior surface,  and an
 anterior and posterior margin.   Internally, it is divi-
 ded into a right and left ventricle.  The  situation  of
 the heart is oblique; its base being placed on the right
 of the bodies of the vertebrae, and its  apex obliquely
 to the sixth rib on the lei't side;  so that the left ventri-
 cle is almost behind, and the  right before.  Its lower
surface lies upon tin diaphragm.  There are two cav-
 ities adhering to the base of the heart, called right and
 left auricles.   The cavities in the heart are called ven-
 tricles, which are divided by a fleshy septum, called
 SeptuiUyWdis, into right and left ventricles.   Each 
        OF THE  TRACHEA OR WIND  PIPE.      151

 ventricle has two orifices; the one auricular, through
 which the blood enters, the other  arterious, through
 which the blood passes out.
   These four orifices are supplied  with valves  which
 are differently named.  The substance of the heart  is
 muscular; its exterior fibres are longitudinal, its mid-
 dle trrnsverse, and its interior oblique.  The auricles
 of the heart contract and  dilate together:  the same
 thing takes place with the ventricles,  the movements
 of which are  simultaneous.   When the contraction  of
 the heart is spoken of, that of the ventricle  is under-
 stood.  Their contraction is  called systole,  and their
 dilation diastole.   Every time the ventricles contract
 the whole of the  heart is carried forward with consid-
 erable force, the  point of which strikes the left side  of
 the chest, between the sixth and  seventh true ribs.

         5.   Of the  Trachea or T7-'ind Pipe.

  The wind pipe is  a cartilaginous and membranous
 canal, through which the air  passes into  the lungs.
 Its upper part which is called the larynx, is  composed
 of five cartilages, which has been previously described.
 This  tube begins at the lower edge of the  cricoid or
 ring-like cartilage, and passes down the neck in front
 of the oesophagus as low as the third vertebrae of the
 back, where it divides into two branches called bronchia,
 one of which  goes to the right and  the other to the
 left lung.  In the structure of the wind pipe, there are
 a number of flat cartilaginous rings placed  at  small
distances from each  other,  the edges  of  which  are
connected by  a membrane, so that they  compose  a
tube. 
15S               THE  LUNCS.
                 6.   Of th  Lungs.

  There are two of these organs;  each of which  oc-
cupies one of the  great cavities of the thorax.  The
lung in the right cavity  of the thorax is divided into
three lobes, that  in the left  cavity  into two.   They
hang in the chest,  attached at their superior part to the
neck, by means of the trachea, or wind  pipe, and arc
separated by lie mediastinum.  They are also attach-
ed to the heart by the pulmonary vessels,
  The substance  of the  lungs  is  of four  kinds,  viz:
vesicular^  vascidar, bronchial, and parenchymatous.
The vesicular substance is coniposca of the  air cells.
The vascular invests those cells like a net work.  The
bronchial is formed by the ramification of the bronchia
throughout the lungs,  having the ?.ir cells at their ex-
tremities;  and the spongy substance th«t  connects these
parts is termed parenchyma.   The  lungs are covered
with a very fine membrane, a reflection  of the pleura,
called pleura pulmonalrs.  The internal surface of the
 air cells is covered with a fine, delicate, and sensible
membrane, which is continued from the larynx through
the wind pipe and bronchia.   The  lungs are not  only
 useful in beeathing, but also in changing the  quality
 of the blood, which is circulated through  them by the
 pulmonary artery. 
SYSTEM  OF  AI¥ATOMY$

           PART SIXTH
             OF THE  A3D0MEN.

  This great cav?y occupies more than half the space
enclosed by the ribs, an.l all the anterior trunk of the
body below the thor.x.  The different parts contained
in the abdomen, are,

                   1.  Pcritonium.

   The internal surlacc ol' the abdomen  is lined by a
thin firm membrane called peritoneum,  which is very
smooth on its internal surface, and is immediately con-
nected with the cellular substance exterior to it.  This
membrane adheres closely to the front, side, and upper
portions of the abdomen;  and is extended  from  the
back surface so as to cover,  more or less completely,
the contents of the cavity.  Those contents which are
in close contact with the back surface of the abdomen,
 as some portions of the large intestines, which are cover-
ed only on their front surface, & are fixed in their pre-
 cise situation by the peritoneum; which extends from
 them  to the   contiguous  surface of the cavity,  and
 adheres where it is in contact, so as to produce this ef-
 fect.
   Other parts contained in  the abdomen, which  are
 not in close contact, but moveable to a distance  from
 the posterior surface of the abdomen,  are covered by
 fliis membrane,  which is extended to them  from  the 
154            OF  THE STOMACH.
 surface; and this extended portion forms an important
 part of the connection of the viscus and the cavity in
 which it lies.   This connecting part is called irusen-
 try;  when it passes to one of the large intestines,  or
 colon it is called mescolon ligament  when it passes to
 some of the other viscera.
   Some of the viscera, or parts contained in the abdo-
 men are more completely invested with the perttoneum
 than others.   The stomach, liver, and spleen,  are al-
 most completely surrounded by it; forming a coat for
 each of these.  That portion of the smaller intestinal
 tube, which is called jejunum and ileum, and the trans-
 verse portions of the large intestines, called, the  arch
 of the colon, are invested by it in the same way.  But
 a considerable portion of the duodenum and the  pan-
 creas are behind it.  The peritoneum, which covers tho
 stomach, is extended from the great curvature of that
 organ, so  as  to  form  a large membrane,  which de-
 scends like an apron before the  intestines.  This pro-
 cess is composed of  two lamiuae or folds of the peritone-
 um,  so thin and c'elicate as  to  resemble  the  cellular
 membrane. The part of this process which is be-
 tween the stomach and colon is called epiploon or omen-
 tum.This membrane supports the viscera of the abdo-
 men in their proper situations,  and  also forms a sur-
face for them,  and for the cavities wliich contain them,
so smooth and  lubricated, that no injury can arise from
their friction.

                2.  Of the Stomach.

  Before entering into a description of the stomach it
will in the  first place be necessary to give a brief de-
scription of the oesophagus, which is a  membranous
and muscular tube that descends from  the pharynx ta 
                  of "the STOMAch.             155

  the stomach.  It is  composed of three tunics, or mem-
  branes, viz.  common, muscular, and mucous.  From
  th< pliarynx, the oesophagus  passes dawnwards  be-
  tween the wind pipe and the vertebrae.  The internal
  coat of the oesophagus or swallow, resembles that of
  the fauces of the mouth, and is covered with  a very
  delicate cuticle.   It is also very vascular, and abounds
 with the orifices  of mucous  follicles,   from which is
 constantly poured out a mucous which  facilitates  de-
 glutition or swallowing.  The use of the oesophagus
 is to convey the masticated food from the mouth to th«
 stomach.
   The stomach, although of a very simple  structure,
 is a very important organ, and one too, which exerts a
 powerful influence upon every part of the body.  It is
 a membranous receptr.cle,  situated in  the  left hypo-
 chondriac and epigastric  regions, immediately  below
 the liver, and receives the  food from the oesophagus.
   It is of considerable length, but  incurvated.  It  is
 much larger at one  extremity than  the other, and
 changes  so gradually in this respect,  that it would ap-
 pear conical if it were straight.  It is  not,  however,
 strictly conical, unless when greatly  distended; for
 when moderately distended, it is rather  oval than cir-
 cular.   It is therefore considered as having two broad
 sides or surfaces, and two edges, which are the curva-
 tures.  The orifice in which the oesophagus terminates'
 is at a small distance from its largest extremity, and is
 called cardia.   The orifice which communicates with
 the intestines, is at the termination of its small incur-
 vated extremity, and is called pylorus.
  The situation of the stomach  in  the abdomen  is
 nearly transverse; the great extremity  is in the left
hypochondriac region, and the lesser extremity in the 
t56           of Tllli  Intestines
epigastric region, under the left lobe of the liver. The
stomach is connected to the diaphragm, liver, colon, &c*
It is composed of four laminae or coats.  There is first
a coat or external covering continued from the perito*
neum:  within this, and connected to it by a delicate
cellular substance, is a coat or stratum of muscular fi-   |
bres: next to this, is a layer of dense cellular substance,
called a nervous coat; and last is the internal coat call-
ed villous or fungous, from the structure of its surface.
  The internal coat of the stomach is generally cover-
ed, or spread over with  mucous, which is  effused upon
it by secreting organs.   Besides the mucous, a large
quantity of a different fluid, called gastric juice, or fluid
of  the stomach is 'effused from its surface.

                 3.  Of the Intestines.

   The intestines form a continual canal from the pylo-
rus, or lower opening of the stomach to the anus, which
 is generally six times the length of the subject to which
 they belong.   Although the  different parts of this tube
 appear  somewhat difTerent from each other, they agree
 in their general structure.  The coats of which they
 are composed, are much like those of the stomach.
    Although there is a considerable degree of uniform-
 ity in the structure of the  intestinal  canal, different
 parts of it are very distinguishable  from each  other
 by their outward appearance, by their size, their invest-
 ments, and their position.
    The first portion of the intestinal tube, for about the
 extent of twelve fingers'breath, is called the duodenum;
 it lies in the epigastric region;  makes three turnings,
 and between the first and second turning receives by a
 common opening, the panchreatic duct,  together with
  the biliary.  It is in this portion of the intestines that 
OF THE OMENTUM.
157
chylification is  chiefly performed.   The  remaining
portion of the intestines is distinguished by the names
of jejunum and ileum.
  The jejunum, which commences where the duoden-
um ends, is situated in the  umbilical region,  and is
mostly found empty; it is every where covered with
red vessels, and, about an hour and a half after a meal,
with distended lactaels.
  The ileum occupies the hypogastric region  and  the
pelvis:  It 13 of a paler color than the other, and ter-
minates by a transverse opening into the large  intes-
tines, which is called the valve of the ileum.
  The beginning of the large intestine is  firmly tied
down in the right iliac region, and from the extent of
about four  fingers' breadth is called the caecum.  The
great intestine (ailed colon then commences,  and as-
cends towards the liver, passes  across the abdomen,
under the stomach, to the left side,  where it is contor-
ted like the letter S, and descends to the pelvis;  at
which place it takes the name of rectum, from whence
it proceeds in a straight line to the anus.

               4.   Of the  Omentum.

   The omentum is an extension of the peritoneum, in
two laminm or folds, arising from  the concave  sur
face of the liver to  the lesser curvature of the stom-
ach; and these laminae or folds, after surrounding th i
stomach,, come in contact  with each other near its great
curvature.  From this portion of the  stomach, from
 the commencement of the duodenum, and also from the
 spleen, the omentum, composed of two lamina or folds,
 descends over the colons and the small intestines more
-or less low into the  abdomen; it is then  folded back-
 wards, and upwards, and  is continued uutil it meets
       N 
158              OF TnE  LIVER.

the great arch in the colon;  here  the  lamina  or folds
separate and enclose that part of the  intestine, on the
posterior side of which they again approach each oth-
er, and form a membrane like the mesentery,  of two
lamina} or layers, which pass from the concave or pos-
terior surface of the colon to the back of the abdomen.
where it is continued  into  the  membrane  which lines
that surface.   This last portion is called messocolm.
The portion between the liver and stomach,  is called
the omentum of Winslow, or the lesser omentum; and
the great portion between  the stomach and colon, is
called the great omentum.   The great and small omen-
tum, with a portion of the  peritoneum on  the  back of
the abdomen, from a  sac, which encloses a distinct cav-
ity in the abdomen.  The front part of  this  sack is
composed of two lamina, and between these  laminae
are the stomach and the great arch of the colon.  This
cavity formed by the two omenta, communicates with 3
the general cavity of the abdomen by  a foramen of a
semicircular form, which  is behind  the great cord of
of the vessels  that go to the liver.
  The use of this  membrane in the  animal  economy
has not as yet been ascertained with  any certainty. It
seems probable that one of its principal objects is to
protect the small intestines, and lessen the friction con-
sequent upon their motion; but it has been supposed
to answer several other important purposes.

                 5.   Of the Liver.

  The liver is the largest viscus, or  organ of  the ab-
domen, and ig situated in the right hypochondiiac  re-
gion, which it  occupies entirely;  and extends through
the upper portion of the epigastric into the left hypo-
chondriac region, being placed immediately under the 
                   OF THE LIVER               159

 diaphragm, and in close contact with it, as well as with
 the inner surface of the right hypochondriac region, it
 partakes of their farm, and is convex  above and con-
 cave below.
   The ligaments of the liver are five in number, all
 arising from the peritoneum.
   1.   The right lateral ligament, which  connects the
 right lobe of the liver with the  posterior part of the
 diaphragm.
   2.   The left  lateral ligament, which  connects  the
 convex surface and  margin of;the left lobe with  the
 diaphragm, and sometimes with the  oesophagus and
 spleen.                      .
   3.   The broad ligament,  which passes from the dia-
 phragm into the convex surface, and separates the right
 lobe of the liver from the left.   It descends from above
 through  a large fissure to the concave surface, and is
 then distributed over the surface of the whole liver.
   4.   The round ligament, Avhich may be traced from
 the umbilicus, and is formed by the degenerated coats
 of the rreat vein, wliich brings the florid  blood from
 thephu.enta  into the  veins of  the li-   '.  and from
 thence into the right side of the heart  of  tin foetus.
   5.   The coronary ligament,  w hi h is formed in con-
 sequence of the attachment of the  liver to the dia-
 phragm.
  The liver is divided into  aright and  left lobe, which
 is marked on the convex surface in the first place by
 the broad ligament;  between the great  lobes there is a
 small one, which is called lobulus spigelii, this howev-
 er,  belongs to the right lobe:  a little  below this is a
 process,  which  has  been  named   lobulus  caudatus,
 stretchixg downwards from the middle  of the  right
lobe to the lobulus  spigelii. The front  point  of the 
160              OF THE LIVER.
great lobe of the liver is called lobulus anonymus.
  There belongs to the liver five distinct systems of
vessels; viz: U\e vena porta; the arteria hepaticia; the
venue cavoz hepaticia;  the lymphatics;  and the billiary
ducts.  These with the nerves, form a  very intricate
system of vessels,  which should be well studied and
understood by every physician, who wishes to admin-
ister medicine successfully.
  The right lobe of the liver has the gall bladder at-
tached to it, and is partly buried in  its proper sinus,
or depression.  It has sometimes occurred that it was
merely suspended to the liver  by  a membrane like a
mesentery.  The gall bladder is a bag of  a pyriforra
shape; its greater  end or fundus, is contiguous to the
colon; its lower end or neck to the duodenum.   It is
generally of a size to contain an  ounce,  or an  ounce
and a half of bile.   The gall bladder is considered as
a receptacle, reserving  a sufficient  store  of  bile for
the  due change to be performed upon the food.
   The liver as all  other glands has  its  ducts, which
 are termed billiary  ducts.  'The vascular glandulus
 which compose almost the whole substance of the liv-
 er,  terminating in very small canals, or ducts,  wliich
 at length form one  trunk, the ductus hepaticus.   Their
 use is to convey the bile, secreted by the liver, into the
 hepatic duct;  this uniting with the duct from  the gall
 bladder, forms one common  canal, called the  ductus
 communis clialedochus, which conveys the bile into the
 intestinal canal.
   The secretion of bile is effeeted like all other glan-
 dular secretions; modified, of course, by  the peculiar
 structure of the liver.   The liver differs  from  every
 other secretory aparatus, in having two kinds of blood
 distributed to it:—arterial  blood by the  hepatic arte-
 ry J  and venous blood by the vena portae.   A question 
OF THE PANCHREAS.
161
has consequently arisen—from  which of these  is the
bile formed.  Anatomical inspection  throws no light
upon the subject, but it is generally believed  that the
bile is formed by the venous blood.
  The bile appears to answer a  two fold purpose in
the animal  economy.  It produces  a chemical effect
upon the alimentary mixture which  passes from the
stomach through the intestines;  and  it increases  the
peristaltic motion of those important organs.  By  an
inverted action of the duodenum, some of this fluid is
frequently carried upwards into the stomach;  it  then
often produces only slight derangement of the functions
and sensations connected with that  viscus  or organ;
but sometimes violent vertigo, and even convulsions,
seem to have arisen  merely  from the presence of a
large quantity of bile in  the stomach:  for they have
gone off completely upon the discharge of bile  by vom-
iting.
  Notwithstanding these effects of bile in  certain  ca-
ses, in which a great deal of it  exists in the stomach,
it is often carried into the mass of blood in large quan-
tities, and appears to be mixed with the semen, and to
circulate through the body, "without producing any
very sensible effect; and neither the brain nor the heart
appear to be much influenced by it.

               6.  Of the  Panchreas.

  The panchreas is a  glandular body of the abdomen,
of a long figure, compared to  a dog's tongue.   It is
vseven inches in length, and is irregularly oblong in its
form, one. extremiity being much larger than the other.
Its large extremity is in contact  with the duodenum,
from which it extends in a transverse direction to the
spleen, to wliich it is connected by the omentum and by
                                     N* 
 162           OF THE  panchreas.

 blood vessels.   It is not  invested  by the peritoneum,
 but is  situated  in the space which exists between the
 two laminae of the  mesocolon, as they  proceed from
 the back of the abdomen, before they come in contact
 with each other,  consequently its situation  is in the
 epigastric region under the stomach.
  This gland  differs from  the other large glands of
 the abdomen, inasmuch as it has not a large artery par-
 ticularly appropriated to it;  but instead of  this, it re-
 ceives  branches from the contiguous arteries.
  The panchreas resembles the salivary glands in co-
 lor,  and also  in  texture, and appears  to  consist of
 small bodies of a granulated form,  which  are  so  ar-
 ranged as to compose small  masses  or lobes that are
 united to each  other by a cellular membrane.  Each of
 these granulated bodies receive one or  more  arterial
 twigs,  and from it proceeds not only a vein but a small
 excretory duct, which, uniting with similar ducts forms
 a large duct in each lobe or mass; these open into the
 great duct of the gland, which proceeds  through it
 lengthwise from the left  extremity, in which it com-
 mences,  to the right;  this duct in  most cases unites
 with the bi,liary duct before it enters into the duoden-
 um; sometimes they open separately, but very near to
 each other.
  The use of  the panchreas  is to secrete the panchre-
 atic juice, which is to be mixed with the chyle  in  the
 duodenum.  The quantity of this fluid secreted is un-
 certain; but it must  be considerable, if we  compare
it with the weight of the  saliva, the  panchreas being
three times larger, and  seated in a warmer  place.
The use of this fluid is to dilute the viscid cystic bile,
to  mitigate its  acrimony,  and to  mix  it with the
food. 
OF THE  SPLEEN.              163
                  7.   Of the  Spleen.

   The spleen or milt is a spongy viscus of a purple co-
 lor, and so variable in form,  situation and magnitude,
 that it is hardjjto'dctermine either:  however in a heal-
 thy man it is in general placed in the left side,  in the
 hypochondriac region, between the eleventh and twelfth
 false ribs.   It is of  an irregular  oblong  form, with
 thick edges: and is commonly about three  or four in
 breadth; but it has often been found more than  four
 times this size.  The substance of the spleen is very
 spongy, tender, and soft; and is connected to the stom-
 ach, omentum, diaphragm, panchreas, colon,  and  the
 left kidney, by ligament, vessels, &c.
   The spleen is covered by one simple membrane, ari-
 sing from the peritoneum, which adheres to the spleen,
 very firmly, by the intervention of the cellular  struc-
 ture.   The spleen receives blood from the splinic ar-
 tery.
   The use of the spleen has not  hitherto been  deter-
 mined;  yet if the situation and fabric regarded,  one
 would imagine its use to consist chiefly in  affording
 some assistance to the stomach during the progress of
 digestion.
   Among all the notions that I have as yet read of rel-
 ative to the use of the spleen,  I have  not  found  one
 that satisfies my mind: and the only use that I can as-
 cribe to it, is, that it  serves the same  purpose to the
 living animal that a regulator does to a  watch, (i. e.)
 preventing the animal from going too long or fast; for
 it is a well known fact, that when the blood becomes
 very much heated, that it rushes into  the  spleen  and
 produces an acute pain, which, not  unfrequently com-
pells a person to stop. Were it not  then for the spleen, 
164
OF the kidnies.
man would be liable to overheat his blood, and thereby,
produce inflammatory complaints.

                6.   Of the Kidnies.

  The kidnies are two glandular bodies which secrete
the urine.   They are of a dull red  color, and  their
form has a strong resemblance to that of a bean,  call-
ed kidney bean.   They are situated in the lumbar re-
gion of the abdomen, one on  each side of the spine.
They are  opposite to the two last dorsal vertebrae, and
the two first lumbar.  They  are surrounded  with  a
large quantity of loose  adipose membrane,  which in
corpulent  persons forms  a very large  mass of fat
around them.  Each of the  kidnies receives  a  very
large artery; which proceeds immediately  from the
aorta.  A vein which opens into the  vena cava, ac-
companies the artery.
  There is a part called pelvis, and another ureter, at-
tached to  the kidnies, which receive and convey the
urine from the kidnies to the  bladder.   This is the
most extensive secretion, accomplished  by any of the
glandular structures of  the body.

              Of the Urinary Bladder.

  The urinary bladder is a large sac of a muscular  &
membranous structure, which occupies  the front part
of the cavity of the pelvis,  immediately within the os-
sa pubis.  The size of the bladder  is in a  continued
state of variation, according to the quantity of  urine
secreted.  When moderately distended, it is of an ir-
regular oval form, but  rather  more flat at  its lower
extremity than above.   It arises in  form according  to
the different circumstances of the pelvis.  It is fixed
firmly and immovdably to the pelvis immediately  with- 
         male  organs of generation.       165

in the symphysis pubis; so that it is always to be found
there of a smaller or larger size.
  There is some difference in the situation of the blad-
der v. ith regard to sex.   In males the relative situation
of the bladder and rectum is such, that the upper and
middle part of the rectum is behind the bladder.   In
females the vagina and  uterus are situated between the
bladder and rectum; so that the connection of these
last mentioned  parts  is  very different in the two
sexes.
   The bladder is composed of a coat consisting of mus-
culo fibres, of a stratum of cellular substance imme-
diately within this, and of an internal lining mem-
brane, which  has been  called villous, but as  there are
no villa perceptible  on  it, may  be  more properly de-
nominated mucous.  It should be observed, that in ad-
dition to these  coats,  the bladder has a peculiar  in-
vestment of the peritoneum; and also  of  the  common
cellular mc -.ibrane, which is placed between it and ev-
 ery part to which it is contiguous.  The functions  of
 the kidnies is ':o secrete urine, and that of the bladder
 to retain it, until the proper time for evacuation*

        9.   Of  the Male Organs of Generation.

    These organs consist of three  different parts,  viz:
 the testicles  and their apendagcS, vesiculse seminalLs,
 prostate gland, and of the penis.

    1.   The testicles are two bodies of  a flattened  oral
 form.   Each of them has a protuberance on its upper
 and posterior part called epididymis,  and is connected
 to parts within the cavity of the  abdomen by a thick
 cord which proceeds to it through the abdominal ring..
 Each testicle also appears to he contained  in a  sac* 
166      MALE ORGANS  OF GENERATION.
 which is suspended by this cord and covered  by the
 common integuments,  which is denominated scrotum.
 The scrotum or skin appears very often to be in  a state
 of corrugation; but does not differ from the structure
 of the skin in any other part of the body.  There is a
 small raised  line in  the  middle of this skin,  which
 commences  at the  root of the  penis,  and  proceeds
 backwards, dividing it into two equal parts; this line
 is denominated raphe.
   The chord above named, which is called the sper-
 matic chord, proceeds  to the testicles, through the ab-
 dominal ring, appears at first view  like  a bundle of
 muscular fibres; but it consists of an artery and veins,
 with many lymphatic vessels and nerves, and also the
 excretory ducts of the testicles,  connected to each oth-
 er by cellular substance, and covered by an expansion
 of muscular fibres,  which  are derived from the lower
 edge of muscle 71.   In addition to these  vessels the
 vas deferens which is  much firmer than either of them,
 is always to be distinguished  in the back  part  of the
 cord.  They are all covered in front and on the sides
 by the cremaster muscle, which passes with them from
 the lower margin of muscle 71, through the abdomin-
 al ring, and continuas to the upper part of the external
 coat of the testicle, which is a sac apparently contain-
 ing that organ, and upon this sac it is spread out and
 terminates.
   The external coat of the  testicles to which the sper-
 matic cord is attached is called tunica vaginalis: it is
 a complete sac enclosing the testicles  as the pericardi-
um does the heart.  The body of  the testicle is very
firm, in consequence of being enclosed in  a firm coat
called tunica albugince.  The body of the testicle, when
 the tunica albugince is  cut through, appears  to consist 
MALE ORGANS  OF GENERATION.
of a soft pulpy substance of  convoluted  threads  of a
yellowish brown color, which  is divided into separate
portions by a very delicate septa or divisions, attached
to the internal surface of the  tunica albuginea at th«
back part of the testicle.  At  the origin of these septa
or partitions, there is a  body, of a whitish  substance,
which extends lengthwise on the back part of the  tes^
tis, for the support of the ducts which pass from  the
substance of the testicle  to the epididymis.  This sub-
stance is called corpus Ilymorianum.
  The blood vessels pass into  the body of the  testicle
upon these septa or partitions  and one continued from
them to the filaments or tubes  of which the body of the
testicle  consists.
  The cavity formed by the tunica albugineais divided
into a number of apartments  by  the thin  partitions
above mentioned.   From these departments, proceeds
a number of small tubes, which run a straight  course,
and are called rasa recta.   These unite with each  oth-
er and form a net-work  on the  back  of the  testis,
within the tunica albuginea, which is called  reta testis.
From this  net work  other vessels proceed, running
through the albuginea epididymis, called  vasa  effcren-
tia.   These vessels are convoluted  in such  a manner
as to form bundles of a conical forr.i, and  are called
coni vascidosi.   These compose ..bout one third of the
epididymis, viz: all the upper  part of it.  The single
tubes which  form each of  these cones,  successively
unite into one duct, which is convoluted so as  to form
all  the  remainder  of the   epididymis:  the tube then
gradually enlarges and is less convoluted, and finally
becomes straight;  and then  takes the name  of vas  def-
erens, and continues on the  back of the testicle and at
the  inner  side  of the  epididymis  to  the  spermatic
cord. 
168      MALE  ORGANS OF GENERATION.

  The vas deferens is a very firm tube about one line,
or one tenth of an inch indianu ter, the cavity of which
is so small, that it will only  admit a  fine bristle.   It
passes upwards in the posterior part of the  spermatic
cord, and continues with it through the abdominal ring:
Soon after this it leaves the cord and dips down into
the cavity of the pelvis, forming a curve en the side of
the bladder, and proceeding backwards, and inwards.
On the lower part of the bladder the two vassa defer-
entia approach ej.ch other so gradually, that they ap-
pear to be nearly parallel.   Ti cy finally terminate al-
most in contact with each other in the back part of the
prostate gland, where they perforate the urethra, on
each side of a tiberclc,  called  caput gaUinaginis.

   2.  Vesiculce  seminalis.   These are two bodies of a
 whitish color, and irregular form, being broad and flat
 at their  posterior extremities,  and  terminating in a
 point at the other.   Their surfaces are convoluted or
 rolled together.  They are situated  between the rec-
 tum and bladder, and arc connected  to each other by
 a cellular membrane.  The convoluted tube composing
 the vesiculie seminalis, term■:nates in a very short duct,
 which is nearly of the same diameter with the vas def-
 erens, to which it is joined so as to form an  acute an-
 gle.
   The use of this organ is not as some suppose to con-
 tain semen, but to  secrete a peculiar mucous subservi-
 ent to the purpose of generation.

    3.  Prostate gland.  This is situated on the under
  and posterior part of the neck of the bladder,  so as to
  surround the urethra.   Its form has some resemblance
  to that of a chesnut, but is larger, and has a notch in the
  broad end like that  of the figure of the heart on playing 
           MALE  ORGANS OF GENERATION.      169

 cards.   This gland secretes a whitish fluid, the use of
 which is not yet known.

   4.   Penis.   This is the cylindrical part that hangs
 down, before the scrotum in males.  It is  divided by
 anatomists into the root, body, and head or glans penis.
 It is composed as  follows.
   Corpora cavernosa.  This composes the body of the
 penis: they are two irregular cylinders, that are form-
 ed by a thick dense elastic membrane, of a whitish lig-
 amentous appearance, and great firmness.  They are
 filled with a substance of cellular  structure,  which is
 occasionally distended with blood.   The roofs of these
 bodies, which are  attached to bone XXVI, (ischium.)
 and bone XXVII, (os pubis) are small and pointed at
 the commencement, and are united to theperiostum of
 the bones.
  Each of these cylinders is penetrated by the main
 branch of the  pudic artery, which is about  equal  in
 size to a hen's quill.  These arteries enter the corpora
 cavernosa near their union, and continue through their
 whole extent, sending off branches in their course:  the
 turgescence or swelling, and erection  of the penis  is
 produced by the blood which flows through these  ves-
 sels into the penis.

   Urethra.   This is  a membranous canal which ex-
 tends from the neck of the bladder to the orifice at the
 extremity of the penis; and for  a very  great part of
 its length is invested by a spongy structure, called the
corpus  sponginosum urethroc.   This latter part begins
at the distance of eight or ten lines from  the prostate
gland,  it is much larger at its commencement than at
anv other part except the glans,  and this enlarged part
is called the bulb, which is oblong, and rather oval in
       o 
170      MALE  ORGANS OF GENERATION.
form; it is marked by a longitudinal depression in the
middle,  which is very superficial.  It consists entirely
of a spongy substance.

   Glans penis.   This is  also  composed of a spongy
substance, but the coat which covers it is more thin 6c
delicate than that of the  other  parts of the  urethra.
The lower surface of the glans is filled to the extrem-
ities of the corpora cavernosa,  and projects over them
on the  upper and side  parts of the surface  of  the
penis, the edges of which is called corona glands.

   Integuments of the penis.  The glans penis is cov-
ered by a continuation of the skin,  which appears  al-
tered in its texture so as to resemble in some respects
the skin of the lips, and in like manner, is covered by
a delicate production of cuticle.
   Around the corona of the glans, especially on its  up-
per part, there are whitish tubercles, which are of dif-
ferent sizes in different persons.   The skin adheres
firmly to the whole extent of the corona of the  glans,
and is very delicate in its  structure,  as  it  continues
from the glans upon the body of the penis; but it grad-
ually changes  so as  to  assume the  appearance  and
structure of a common skin, and  continues  in this
state over the penis.  The  skin  is of much  greater
length than the  penis, and in  consequence  of its  ad-
hering firmly around the corona glandis, it necessarily
forms a circular fold or plait, which varies in size  ac-
cording to the length of the  skin.   This duplicature
or fold of the skin, where it takes place so as to cover
the glans of the penis, is called prepuce, the cutting off
of which constituted  circumcision  under  the Jewish
dispensation. 
         FEMALE  ORGANS OF GENERATION.     171

     10.  Of the Female Organs of Generation.

  The female organs of generation consist of the ute-
rus and ovaries with their  appendages;  and  of the
vagina with the structure which surrounds its external
orifice.   The uterus is situated in the pelvis, between
the bladder and rectum; and the  ovaries  are on each
side of it.  The vagina is a very  large  membranous
canal, wliich  passes from the uterus downwards  and
forwards, also between  the  bladder and  rectum,  and
opens externally.                       *
  Connected with the orifice of the vagina are several
bodies, which are called the external parts of genera-
tion.
  The urinary bladder lies above,  and in contact with
the vagina;  the urethra is also intimately connected
with it.  As  a full description of those parts does not
suit in a book designed for family use, I shall conclude
this part with the short description already given. 
 
        SYSTEOT  OF  AMTOMY;

                  PART SEVENTH.


         OF  THE BLOOD  VESSELS.

  The  blood  vessels arc flexible tubes, of a  peculiar
texture, through which blood passes from the heart  to
the different parts of the body, and returns again from
these parts to  the heart  They are to be found, in va-
rious sizes, in almost every part of the human body.
Those which carry the blood from  the heart, are more
substantial, and elastic than those which return  the
blood to the heart.  Those which carry the blood from
the heart are called arteries, and those that return the
blood are called veins.   The veins arc less substantial
and less elastic than arteries.
  There are two great arteries,  from which all the
other arterial  vessels of the body are derived.   These
two arteries are compared to the trunks of trees, and
the smaller vessels to their branches,  one  of  these
great arteries, called the aorta carries  the blood to ev-
ery part of the body.  The other called the pulmonary
artery,  carries blood exclusively to the lungs.
  The veins which correspond to the branches of the
aorta, unite with  each  other, so as to  form two great
trunks that proceed to the heart.   One of these trunks
coming from the superior parts of the body, is called
the superior,   or  descending vena  cava.  The other.
which comes from the lower parts  of the body,  is call-
ed the inferior, or ascending vena cava.
  The veins wliich correspond with the  branches  of
       o# 
the blood vessels in general.
 the pulmonary artery, and return the blood from the
 lungs to the heart, are four in number: two  of  them
 proceed from each lung, and are  called pulmonary
 veins.
   In many of the veins there are valves which prevent
 the blood they contain from moving towards the sur-
 face and extremities of the body, but  allow it to pass
 towards tire heart without impediment.
   From the construction of the cavities of the heart,
 and the position of the valves which are in them;  as
 well as in the situation of the  valves at the commence-
 ment of the great arteries,  and the above  mentioned
 a alves of the veins, it  is evident, that when the blood
 circulates, it must move from  the  heart, through the
 aorta, and its branches, to the different parts of the
 body, and return from those  parts  through the  venae
 cavce,  to the heart; that, when deposited in the heart
 by the venae cavoz, it must proceed through the pulmo-
 nary artery  to the lungs,  and return  from the lungs
 through the pulmonary  veins to the heart, in order to
 pass again from that organ into the aorta.
   It is also certain, that the blood is forced from the -
 heart into the arteries, by the contraction of the  mus-
 cular fibles of which the heart is composed; and  that
 the blood vessels  likewise perform part of the  circula-
 tion, they propelling the blood  which is thus  thrown
 into them;  the action of which appears to depend up-
 on causes of a complex nature.
  The arteries are composed of coats or tunics, which
 arc very elastic and strong, and which are also  very
 thick.   In consequence of the firmness of their coats,
 they continue open, after their contents are discharg-
 ed, like hard tubes.   They submit  to great dilation,
and elongation, when fluids are forced into them, and 
        THE BLOOD  VESSELS  IX GEXERAl.     175

return to their former dimensions when the distending
cause is Avithdrawn.  This elasticity answers  a very
important purpose  in the circulation of the blood.   It
admits the artery to distend  readily,  and receives the
blood which is thrown into it by the contraction of the
heart.  It also produces the contraction of the  artery:
which  takes place  as soon  as  the action of the heart
ceases; and this contraction  of the aorta necessarily
forces the blood  forward, as the valves at its orifice
prevent it from returning to the heart
  The motion of the artery, which  is so easily percei-
ved by the touch, and in many instances  also  by the
eye, is completely explained by the discharge of blood
into the artery from the heart, and by  the elasticity
of the vessel, by which it re-acts upon the blood.   In
some cases it is not simply the  diameter of the artery
which is enlarged, but a portion of the vessel is elon-
gated; and this elongation,  by producing a curvature
of it, renders its motion more visible.
  Elasticity, in the aorta, and its large branches, seems
to be the principal cause of the continuance of the mo-
tion which is  originally  given  to  the  blood  by
the heart  But there are many circumstances connec-
ted with the smaller vessels, which  evince that they
exert a power which is different from that of  elastici-
ty.   Thus the application of local  stimulants,  and of
heat, is followed by an increase-of  motion,  in the ar-
teries of the parts to which  they are applied.  Neither
of these causes could produce this effect  by  the influ-
ence of elasticity;  but the  effect  of these and other
similar causes is uniformly produced; and a power of
independent motion, or irritability,  is thus  proved to
exist in these vessels, and seems  essentially necessary
to the circulation of the blood. 
176      THE BLOOD VESSELS IN GENERAL.

  The^arteries are composed of a  dense elastic sub-
stance, of a whitish colour.  Their external surface is
rough, and intimately connected with the cellular mem-
brane, which every where surrounds  it in  varying
quantities.   Internally,  they are  lined with a  thin
membrane, which is very smooth  and flexible, and  is
also very elastic,  The substance which composes the
artery, and is situated between the cellular investment
and the internal membrane, consists of fibres, which
are nearly, though not comptetely circular,  but so ar-
ranged as to constitute  a cylinder.   The  fibres which
compose this lamina appear to be united to  each other
in a way which readily allows of their separation, at
the same time forming a firm texture.  Although arte-
ries appear widely different in their hardness, and their
elasticity, as well  as  their general texture, they are
considered, by a great many, as partaking more or less
of muscular structure.  It appears that the arteries
have  a power of contraction different from  that which
depends upon elasticity:  but whether this depends up-
on  muscular fibres  superadded  to them,  or  upon an
irritable quality in the elastic fibres of blood vessels,
is a question which as yet is not decided.
   The motion of the blood in the arteries  appears to
depend,
   1st,  Upon the impulse given to it by the action of
the heart
   2dly,   Upon the elasticity  of the  arteries, in con-
sequence of which they first give way  to   the blood
impelled into them, and then re-act upon it;  and
   3dly,  Upon  the power of contraction in the arte-
ries,  or their irritability.
   In the large arteries the blood seems to  move  as it
would through  an  inanimate elastic  tube,  in conse- 
         THE BLOOD VESSELS IN GENERAL.      177

quence of the impulse given by the heart, and kept up
by the arteries themselves.  In the smaller  vessels it
seems probable, that  the motion of the blood depends
in a considerable degree upon the contraction which
arises from their irritability.
  The obvious effect of the elasticity of the arteries is
to resist distention and elongation, and to contract the
artery to its natural state, when the distending or elon-
gating cause ceases to act.  But it must also resist the
contraction induced by the muscular fibres, and res-
tore the artery to its natural size when the muscular
fibres cease to act after contracting it.   It seems prob-
able that all the fibres of which the artery consists are
nearly but not completely circular.
  The internal coat of these vessels  is very  smooth,
but extremely dense and firm;  and  seems  to be ren-
dered moist and flexible by an exudation on its surface.
It adheres very closely to the contiguous fibres of the
coat exterior to it,  but may be very  readily peeled off
from them.  It is of a whitish colour,  and, like  the
fibrous structure  of the artery  is Aery elastic.  Like
that substance also it is easily torn or broken, and when
ligatures have been  applied to  arteries,  it lias often
been observed that the fibrous structure, and the inter-
nal coat have been  separated, while this external cel-
lular coat has remained entire.
  The arteries are supplied with their proper blood ves-
sels and lymphatics.  It is  to  be observed, that tire
blood vessels are not derived from, the artery on which
they run, but from the contiguous vessels.  These a&s-
sels have nerves also, which are  ratheu small  in  size*
when compared with those which  go  to  the  other
parts.
  The course of the  arteries  throughout the  body is 
ITS     THE BLOOD VESSELS IN GENERAL.

obviously calculated to prevent their exposure to press-
ure, or to great extension from the flexure of the artic-
ulations by which they pass.  With this  view  they  1
sometimes proceed in a winding direction;  and when
they pass over parts which are subject to great disten-
tion or enlargement, as the cheeks, they often meander;
and, therefore, their length may be increased by staight-
ening, without stretching them.
   In the trunk of the body the  branches of arteries
generally  form obtuse  angles with  the trunks from
which they proceed.   In the limbs these  angles are
acute.
   The communication of  arteries with  each other  is
termed anastomosus.  In some instances, two branch-
es which proceed in a course nearly similar, unite with
an acute angle, and  form one  common trunk.—Some-
times a transverse branch runs from one to  the  other
so as to form a right angle with each.  In other cases,
the two anastomosing branches  form an arch, or por-
tion of a circle, from which many branches go off.
   By successive ramifications, arteries  gradually di-
minish in size, until they are finally extremely small.
The small arteries do not carry  red blood, their diam-
eters being smaller than those of the red particles  of
that fluid, the serous or acqueous part of the blood can,
therefore, only pass through them.
   Many of the arteries which carry red blood,  and of
the last mentioned serous arteries terminate in veins,
•which are in some respects, a  continuation of the tube
reflected backwards.  They likewise terminate in ex-
halent vessels upon the external  surface, and upon the
various internal surfaces of the body.   The secretory
vessels of glands are likewise the termination of ma-
ny arteries.. 
         THE BLOOD VESSELS IN GENERAL.       179

   The veins, which return to the heart the blood car-
 ried from it by the arteries  are more  numerous than
 the  arteries, and often larger in diameter.   They gen-
 erally accompany the arteries,  and  very often two
 veins are found with one artery.
   In addition to these last mentioned veins, which may
 be called  deep-seated, there  are  many subcutaneous
 veins, which appear on almost every  part of the sur-
 face of the body.
   The capacity of all the veins is therefore much great-
 er than that of all the arteries.
   The subcutaneous veins, which are of considerable
 size, communicate very freely with each other, and al-
 so with the deep-seated veins.
   The trunks of the veins,  in those places where  no
 branches go off are generally cylindrical.  There are,
 however, some exceptions, in which these vessels are
 irregularly dilated, as sometimes happens  in  the case
 of the  internal jugular vein.
   Veins, directly or indirectly, originate from the ter-
 mination of arteries; but they do not pulsate as the ar-
 teries do, because the impulse given to the blood by
 the  heart, is very much diminished in consequence of
 the great diminution of the size of the vessels  through
 which  the blood has passed.
   In some cases, however,  when blood flows  from an
 open vein; the extent of its projection  is alternately
 increased and diminished, in quick succession, as if it
 were influenced by the pulsation of the heart
   The coats of the veins differ considerably from those
of arteries,—for they are thinner, and so much less firm,
that  veins, unlike arteries, collaps when they are emp-
ty.  They consist of  a dense elastic substance, the fi-
bres  of which are less distinct than  those of arteries, 
 180      THE BLOOD VESSELS IN GENERAL.

 but some of them are to be seen in longitudinal direc-
 tions.  These fibres can be made to contract by local
 irritation;  for if a vein be laid bare in a living animal, *
 and then punctured, it will often contract so as  to di-
 minish its diameter, although no blood shall have es-
 caped from the punctures.
   Next to the elastic substance,  is the internal coat,
 which is smooth and polished.    It  is with difficulty
 that it is separated from the substance exterior to it,
 although it may  be taken from it very easily in the «
 vena cava.   This internal coat is frequently so arran-
 ged as to form valves, Avhich are plaits or  folds  of a
 semilunar form, that project from the surface into  the
 cavities of these vessels*   Two  of these valves  are
 generally placed  opposite to each other;  and,  Avhen !
 raised up, they form a septum in the cylindrical cavi-
 ty of the vessel.   The septum, thus composed, is con-
 cave toAvards the heart.
   The valves have a great effect in preventing the con-
 tents of the veins from  moving in a wrong  direction:
 they therefore, necessarily modify the effects of lateral
 pressure, in such  a manner, that it  propels the blood
 forward,  or to the heart.
   These valves are generally formed  in the veins  of
 the muscular parts of the body, especially in those of
 the extremities.   They  are not found in those veins
 which are in the  cavities of the body, nor  in  the
 internal jugulars they are placed at an equal distance
 from  each other.
   The coats of the veins are someAvhat  transparent;
 in consequence of  which, those veins  near  the  skin
 have a bluish aspect, which is derived from the colour
 of the blood they contain.   The colour of the blood in
 the veins is  different from that in the arteries, being of
A darker red. 
             OF THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.         181

  The situation and arrangement of the large trunks
of the A-eins is much alike in  different subjects;  but
the branches, especially those wdiich are subcutaneous,
or near the skin, are Aery variable in their situations.



                OF THE  AORTA,
     Or tlie Great Trunk of the Arterial System.

  When the heart is in its natural situation, the right
Ventricle is  nearly anterior to the left, and, therefore,
the aorta, where it originates from the left ventricle, is
behind  the pulmonary artery, and covered by it  Its
first direction is so oblique towards the right  side of
the body, that it crosses the pulmonary  artery behind,
and appears on the right side of it  It has scarcely
assumed this position before its course alters,  for it
then proceeds obliquely backwards, and  to the left,
so as to form  a large curve or arch, which extends to
the left of the spine.   The position of this curve or
arch is so oblique, with respect to the body, that the
cord or diameter of it,  if it were extended anteriorly
and posteriorly, would strike the cartilage of the se-
cond or third right rib  about the middle of its length,
and the left rib near the head.   In consequence of this
position of the curve, the aorta crosses over  the right
branch of the pulmonary artery, and  the  left branch
of the wind pipe;  and  assumes a situation,  in front.
and to the left of the third dorsal vertebra;  from this
situation it proceeds downwards in  front, but rather
on the left side of the spine, and in contact  with that
column.
  As the aorta proceeds down  the spine, it is situated
between the two laminae of the mediastinum.  It con-
       p 
182        DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.
tinues its course along the spine until it arrives at the
cartilaginous substance between the fourth  and fifth
lumbar  vertebrae,  when  it  divides into  two  great
branches of equal size,  which form an acute  angle
with each other.  These are called the common or prim-
itive iliac arteries.
  From the aorta in this course are sent off the arte-
ries which are distributed to all the  parts of the bod}
for  their nourishment and animation, in the following
manner, viz:
  The aorta as above named  forms a  curve immedi-
ately after leaving the heart,  and proceeds in front
and on the left of the spine, to the cartilage between
the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebra, where  it bifur-
cates, or divides, and sends off at the heart
I.
      r~,           „  _.   .   C Which are spent upon the
      The two coronary arteries, £  heart at thePcurv.£ure.

                             fThe  carotid es are  ap-
II.    The common trunk of the j  propriated to  the head.
        right  subclavian & right J  They proceed on the side
        common carotid.        \  of the trachea and divide
III.   The  left common carotid. {  at the upper edge of the
                             (_ thyroid cartilage.

                             f Each of the subclavian*  is
                             J  the  first portion of the
IV.   The left subclavian.       <   great artery of the  up-
                             1  per  extremities  of its
                             l_ respective sides.

  The external carotid which is appropriated  to the exteri-
or of the head, and the upper parts of the neck, gives off,

                             rTo the thyroid gland, the
1.  The superior thyroid artery. <  larynx &  the parts con-
                             C.  tiguous to  the os hybides.
2.  The sublingual.
CTo the sublingual gland,
£ and the pharynx. 
            DISTRIBUTION OF  ARTERIES


3.   The facial.
183
To the sides of the  face,
      lips, and parts un-
    the lower jaw.
r To the
<  chin,
C  dertl
4.   The inferior pharyngeal.


5.   The occipital.



$.  The posterior Auricular.




7.  The internal maxillary.




8.   The temporal.
r The pharynx and contig-
<  uous parts.  The cavity
C  of  the cranium.

CTo  the back part of the
£  cranium externally.

r To the cavity of the ear,
<  and parts contiguous to
C  the external ear.

TTo the upper & lower jaw
I  bones,—the fauces,—the
^  pterygoid muscles,—the
I   palate,—the dura mater-
(..  & the interior of the nose.

rTo  the front and side
<  side parts of the cranium,
C  externally.
  The internal carotid, which is appropriated to the interior
of the cranium, sends off,
1.  The ophthalmic.


2,
C To the eye and its appen-
£  dages.
The anterior  artery  of the C To the anterior portion of
 brain.                     £  the cerebrum.

The  middle artery of  the C To the middle  and  back
 briin.                     (.  portion of the cerebrum.
              The left subclavian gives off,

                              rTo
1.  The internal mamillary.     < of
                              C &<
To the  anterior portions
  " the  thorax  mararns. 
1-84
DISTRIBUTION OP ARTERIES.

                   To the cerebellum,,  and
_.   The vertebral.



3.   The inferior thyroid.


4.   The superior intercostal.



5.   The cervicle..



6.   The scapulary.
rTo  the cerebellum,, ana
<  the posterior portion of
C  it

C To the thyroid gland, tra-
I  chea,  oesophagus, &c
 To some of the intercom
  tal spaces.

"To the muscles,,  glands,
  nerves,   &c.  on  the
  neck.

 To  the muscles  on the
  neck, and dorsum of the
  scapula.
  The axillary, is the next portion of the artery ot the up-
per extremities.   It gives off,

                               ("To the pectoral and oth-
1.   The thoracic and the external ) er muscles on the ante-
mamary arteries..
2.   The scapulary artery,
The circumflexae.
\  rior  part of the thorax
^ and shoulders.

r To the muscles about the
<  scapula, & the posterior
C part of the thorax.

r To the parts about the up*.
<  per end of the os hum eri,
C  or bone of the arm.
The humeral.  This is the third portion.  It gives off.
The profunda humeri.
The profunda inferior.
3.   The anastimotica.
{
to  the muscles  of the
 os humeri, or bone of the
 arm.
{to join with  an  artery
 from below, and  to the
 muscles. 
             DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.          185

               At the Elbow it gives off,

                     fBranches to the muscles in its course.
                     j A recurrent branch.
1.   The radial,       •< A branch to the thumb.
                     " to the radial  side of the index.
                     .to the arcus  profundus.
I1
                      {to the muscles on the fore arm,
                      to the wrist and hand.
                      A recurrent branch.

                     fBranches  to the  muscles  in  its
                     |  course.
3.   The ulna.         { to the arcus sublimus in the palm of
                     [< the hand, which sends off the arte-
                     ls ries to the fingers.


  The aorta gives off between the curvature  and the  great
bifurcation or division.


V.    Thebronchial arteries.   {^S^TtaS sub"


VI.   The cesophagal..............To the oesophagus.

\ttt   ti.   • *~«:,., ;„*«>..,.,w.*„i   a"to nme of the ten lower
VII.  The  infenor intercostal. { intercostal spaces.


VIII. The phrenic arteries........To the diaphragm.

                                 To the stomach, liver and
IX.
The cceliac artery.       £  £fj£
      ,_,       .         .  .   C Almost all the small intest-
X.    The superior messentene. £ ines,& part of the great.

XI.   Capsular arteries...........to the glandule  renales.
XII.  The  emulgents..............to the kidneys.
XIII. The spermatics..............to the testicles, ovaries &c

„___  „,,  .  ,  .         .  .    C to the left portion of the
XIV. The infenor messentenes. £ colon> and £he rectum.

        P* 
186         DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.
XV.  The lumbar arteries.
 pro the muscles on the loins
^  and  the  abdomen,  the
 V. spine 8c spinal cavity.
XVI,  The middle sacral.
^arothe coccyges, sacrum,
'  and rectum.
                At the great bifurcation.

XVII.  The primitive iliacs,one of which is divided on  each
         side of the pelvis, and are called internal and ex-
         ternal iliacs.  The internal iliac sends off,
1.  The ilio lumbar artery.     3
to the psoas,  and iliacus
 internus muscles.
2.   Sacro lateral.
"to the sacrum, internally
  and externally,  and to
  the cauda equina, or bun-
  dle of nerves at the low-
  er  end of the spinal mar-
. row.
3.   Umbilical.
4.   Obturator.
5.   Gluteal.
Cto the  bladder, uterus,
d and rectum.
I
to the muscles on the up-
 per and interior  of  the
 thigh, the hip joint, &c.
{to the muscles on the lat-
 eral  & posterior parts of
 the ossa innominata.
6.   Ischiatic.
f
 to the muscles, &c. on the
k  upper and  back part of
L the thigh.
p.  Internal pudic,
to the organs of generation 
DISTRIBUTION
ION  OF ART1
TERIES.
  The external iliac, is the first position  of the great artery
of the lower extremities, which passes under Paupart's liga-
ment to the thigh; but previously sends off,
1.  The circumflexa ilii.
2.  The epigastric.
 f A small artery, which is
 I  spent upon the iliacus in-
<  ternus  muscles, and the
 I  contiguous portions of the
 L abdominal muscles.

  (Which is spent upon the
   muscles, and integuments
   of the  anterior  part  of
 L the abdomen.
  The femoral artery.  This is the second portion of the great
artery of the lower extremity.   It  commences at Paupart's
ligament, and sends off,                 ^
1.  The .external pudic,
2.  The profunda.
 f to the exterior parts  of
 <(  the  organs  of  genera-
 ls tion.

 pro the  two circumflexx
•{  muscles, and to the mus-
 L cles on the thigh.
  The popliteal.  Is the third portion  of the  great artery,
and lies on the back part of the thigh.   It sends off the artic-
ular arteries which  anastomose with  each other, and  supply
the contiguous parts.  It divides into,
The  anterior  tibial,  which
 proceeds down the anterior
f A  recurrent  branch . to
 to anastomose with branch
 from above.
  part of the leg to the top of* Branches t0 the anterior
  the foot, from which it de-"\. mxlscleh of the le
.  scends to the sole.  It sends  Tarsal & metatars|, bran.
.  °**                       (_ ches to the upper part of
                              the foot.

The peroneal.  This  is near fThe muscles on the out-
  the fibula on the posterior)  side of the leg.
  side of the interosseal liga-"\ The ancle and outside of
  ment, and is spent upon     L the foot. 
188         EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.
3.   The posterior tibial.   This fBranches to the muscles.
     passes down behind the tibia | The medullary of the tibia.'
     and the internal ancle to the<( The internal and external
     sole of the foot, where it di- I  planter  arteries, to the
     vides, and sends off        L parts on the  sole of the
                                 foot and the toes.

  It is deemed unnecessary to enter into a particular descrip-
tion of all the arteries and veins, as plate IV. will shew at one
view, the situation of some of the  most important blood ves-
sels.
  EXPJLJIWJ1TOJV  OF  PLJ1TE  IV.

This plate represents the heart, large arteries, and veins, with
                some of the muscles, 8cc,
Superior Extremity.	u The anterior edge of muscle 94.
a Muscle 36.	vv Inferior part of the
b Muscle 112.	diaphragm.
c Muscle 41.	ww Its anterior edge cut,
d Os hyoides (bone vi.)	xx Kidnies.
e Thyroid gland.	y Muscle 72.
f Muscle 144.	z Os. ilium.
g Muscle 102. hh The clavicle cut.	
	Inferior Extremities.
i Muscle 129.	
k Muscle 122, cut at its ex-	a Muscle 89.
tremity.	b Muscle 90.
1 Muscle 130.	c The fleshy origin of mu s-
m Muscle 134.	cle 176.
n The heads of muscles 144,	dd Bones xvn, cut from
145, 8c 151.	each other.
o Muscle 142 cut at its ex-	e Muscle 176, cut from
tremity.	its origin. «
p Muscle 152.	/ Short head of muscle
q Muscle 136, cut at its ex-	168 cut.
tremity.	g Great head of the same
Ir Transverse ligament of the	muscle.
wrist.	k Long head cut.
s Muscles 137 & 138.	i Muscle 180.
t Muscle 103.	k Muscle 179.
 
ly 
p  rv
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.          189
/   Muscle 181.
m  Muscle 136.
n   Muscle 187.
o   Tibia (bone xxxix)
fi   Muscle 191.
q   Muscle 192.
r   Fibula (bone xl)
Heart and blood vessels.


A  Heart, coronary arteries
     and veins.
B  Right auricle  of  the
     heart.
C  Aorta ascendens.
D  Left subclavian artery.
E  Left carotid artery.
F  The common trunk which
     sends off the right sub-
     clavian and right caro-
     tid arteries.
G  External  carotid.
H  Faci al artery,which sends
     off the coronary artery
     to the lips.
I  The temporal artery.
K  Aorta descendens.
LL Iliac arteries.
MM Femoral, or crural  ar-
     teries.
  N. B.   The other arteries
of this figure have the same
distribution as the veins of the
same name.
I   The frontal vein,
2    *<   facial vein.
3   Vena temporalis profun-
     da.
4   Vena occipitalis.
5   External jugular vein.
6   Internal jugular vein.
7   The vascular arch on the
     palm  of the hand.
8   " Radial artery, 8c vein.
9   " Ulnar artery, 8c vein.
10 10 Cephaltic vein.
11  Basilicic vein.
12  Median veia.
13  Humeral vein.
14 14 External mammary  ar-
     teries and veins.
15  Axillary vein covering
     the artery.
16 16 The subclavian veins.
17    "   vena cava superior
18    '•   cutaneous arch  of
          veins on the fo»e
          part of the foot.
19    "   Front tibial vein
          covering the arte-
          ry.
20    '■'   Femoral vein (pro-
          funda.
21    '*   Upper part of  the
          vena saphena ma-
          jor.
22    "   Femoral vein.
23 23 •'   Iliac veins.
24 24 "   Inferior vena cava
25 25 "   Renal veins cover-
          eringthe arteries,,
26  26 "   Diaphragmatic
          veins. 
 
         SYSTEM  OF  ANATOMY;

                   PART EIGHTH.


  OF  THE BRAIN,  SPINAL  MARROW,  AND
                    NERVES.

   The whole of the soft mass which fills the cranium.
  is called the brain.  This mass is covered with three
  membranes, which are denominated dura mater, tunica
  arehnoidea, and pia mater.
   The dura mater encloses the brain and its apenda-
  ges, and lines the different parts of tlie cranium.   It
  consists  of one membrane of a very dense texture,
  which in several places is composed  of two or more
  laminae.  It is the tbickesi and strongest membrane of
[thebody, and is composed  of tendinous fibres,  which
[ have  a  shining appearance, particularly on its inner
  surface.
!■  The dura mater adhere every where to  the surface
  of the cranium, in the  same manner as the perioste-
  um adheres to the bones in  the other parts  of tbe
[tody.
i   The inner surface of the dura mater, which is very
 smooth, is in close contact with the brain, but adheres
 only where the veins go into the sinuses; & is lubricated
 by a fluid discharged through its vessels, which guards
"thebrain from danger.
I  The dura mater serves as a defence to the brain, and
|*pplies the place of a  periosteum  to the inside of the
'cranium;  giving nourishment to it.
  The tunica arehnoidea  is a very thin, tender, and 
192                OF THE BRAIN.
transparent membrane,  which  is  spread uniformly
over the surface of the brain, enclosing all its convo-
lutions, without insinuating  itself between any of
them.
  The pia mater is somewhat of the nature of the for-
mer covering, but is very vascular.  It covers the brain
in general,—enters double between all its convolutions,
and lines all the different cavities called ventricles.
  The pia  mater serves  to  conduct and  support the
vessels of the brain, and allows  them  to  divide1 into
such minute parts, as to  prevent the blood from enter-
ing the tender substance of this viscus with'too great
force.
  The brain is composed of four portions, viz.  cere-
brum,  cerebellum, tuber annulare, or pons  .varolii,  and
medulla oblongata.
  The cerebrum completely fills the upper part  of the
cavity of the cranium.   It  has some  resemblance to
half an egg, which has been divided horizontally; and
is composed of two equal  parts, which are  separated
vertically from each other by the falx or process of
the dura mater, which resembles a sythe  with the edge
turned down.  This vertical separation docs not ex-
tend through the centre of the cerebrum, althoagh it
divides it completely before and  behind.
   The upper surface of the two hemispheres is  con-
vex.   The under surface  is  rather irregular.  Each
hemisphere is divided into  three lobes:  the  anterior,
the middle, and the posterior.
   The anterior bbes of  the brain are  situated  on the
front part of the base of the  cranium, principally on
the orbitor process of  bone I (os frontis.)
   The middle bbes are lodged in the fossce or depress*
i»ns formed by the temporal and sphenoid bones. 
OF* THE BRAIN.                193
  The posterior bbes rest chiefly upon the tentorium,
or |process of the dura mater, which separates the ce-
rebrum from the cerebellum.
  The cerebelhnn is situated in the lower and posteri-
or part of the cavity of the cranium, in contact writh a
portion of bone  IV, (os  occipitis.)   It is of course
much less than the upper portion of the brain.
  It is covered by the tentorium, and is divided below
into two lobes, by a process of the dura mater called
falx minor.
  On the basis of the brain is a part called tuber an-
nulare, or pons varolii, wliich  is formed by processes
from the cerebrum and cerebellum;  and is in contact
with the anterior and inferior portion of the  cerebel-
lum  in the tniddle.   From this part the medulla oblon-
gata proceeds downwards and backwards, under the
cerebellum;  and between  the cerebellum,  the  medulla
oblongata, and  the pons varolii, is the vacuity, called
the fourth ventricle of the brain.
  The medulla oblongata is continued from the cavity
S;of the cranium, through the great cavity  of bone IV.
(os occipitis) into the great canal of the spine;  when
it takes the name of medulla spinalis or  spinal  mar-
row.
  The dura mater  passes with it through the great
foramen, and encloses the whole of it.   At the com-
mencement of the spinal  canal, this membrane is^at-
tached to the surrounding bones,  viz. to the margin of
the great occipital foramen, and to the upper vertebra
of the neck; but below this it is loosely connected by a
membrane which sometimes appears to contain a  little
adeps.  The tunica arehnoidea and thepia mater, also
invests the spinal marrow.
  The spinal marrow consists of medullary mater ex-
ternally, and cineritious or cortical mater  internally. 
194      OF THE BRAIN SPINAL MARROW, &c.
  The spinal marrow terminates in  a point near the
uppermost lumbar vertebra.   The  ligamenta donticu-
lata of the opposite sides join each other at this point,
and form a small cord, which  continuing downwards,
is inserted into the os coccygis.   These ligaments sup-
port, and keep fi  'd, the medulla and the nerves, as
they originate    a it.
  The brain and spinal marrow gives origin  to all the
nerves belonging to the human system; hence they are
distinguished into cerebral, and spinal nerves.  The
cerebral nerves are nine in number; and those  of the
spine thirty; these are distributed to the different parts
of the human system that is endowed with sensibility.
  Nerves are long white medullary  cords, which are
very sensitive.
  The following plate shows the regular nerves.
EXPL,&JYJlTOJr  OF  JPE.1TE  f*
A  The cerebrum.
B  The cerebellum.
CC The crura cerebri.
DDThe crura cerebelii.
EEE The spinal marrow.
1, 1 Branches of the fifth pair,
    arising from the union
    of the crura cerebri  &
    crura cerebelii.
2, 2 Branches of the sub-oc-
     cipital,  which  have
     double origins.
3, 3 Branches of the four cer-
     vical nerves and of the
     first dorsal.
4, 4, 4, 4, Branches  of  the
          dorsal nerves.
5, 5 Branches of the lumbar
     nerves.
6, 6 The sacral nerves. 
 
KEon.Att or s>Mrin uicAi. ni.»vi:s











  A!If*?**?. t\^m^
*3^ -Is
Ifl^
>// 
A  TABLE OF  NERVES.
     Cerebral Nerves.
1.  The first pair,  called ol-
    factory.
2.  The second pair called op-
    tic nerves.
3.  The third pair, or oculo-
    rum  motores.
4.  The fourth pair, or pa-
    thetici.
5.  The fifth pair, or trigem-
    iny which gives off
A  The opthalmic, or orbital.
B.   "•  superior  maxillary
       nerve.
C   "  Inferior  maxillary
       nerve.
6.  The sixth pair, or  abdu-
    centes, which  sends off
    a  branch to unite with
    one from the fifth, form-
    ing the great intercostal
    nerve.
7.  The seventh pair, or audi-
    tory nerves.
8.  The eighth pair, or par
    vagum, arising from the
    medulla oblongata.  The
    par vagum gives off
A The right and  left  recur-
    rent nerves.
B The several branches in
    the chest, to  form  the
    cardiac plexus.
C Several branches to  form
    the pulmonic plexus.
D Several  branches to  form
    oesophageal plexus.
E It then forms in the abdo-
    men the stomachic plex-
    us.
F The hepatic plexus.
G The splenic plexus.
H The renal plexus,  receiv-
    ing several branches from
    the  great intercostal,
    which  assists in their for-
    mation.
9. The uinth pair, or lingual
    nerves, which go  from
    the medulla oblongata. 
196              OF THE NERVES.
               SPINAL  NERVES.

  Those nerves are called  spinal,  which  pass out
through the lateral or intervertebral  foramina of the
spine.   They are divided into cervical, dorsal, lumbar,
and sacral nerves.

                 Cervical J\"erves.

  The cervical nerves are eight pair, viz:
  The first are called the occipital; they arise from the
beginning of the spinal marrow, pass out between the
margin of the occipital foramen, and upper vertebra
of the  neck, and are distributed about the occiput and
neck.
  The second pair of cervical nerves  send a branch
to the accessory nerve, and then proceed to the paro-
tid gland and external ear.
  The third cervical pair, supply the  integuments of
the shoulder blade, and muscles near about that place,
and send a branch to form, with others, the diaphrag-
matic nerve.
  The fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth pair, all
converge to form the brachial plexus, from which ari-
ses the six following.
  1.   The axillary  nerve,  which  sometimes  arises
from the radial nerve.  It runs backwards  and  out-
wards  around the neck of the os humeri, or bone of
the arm, and   ramifies the  muscles of the shoulder
blade.
  2.  The external cutaneal, which perforates muscle
130, to the bend of the arm, where it accompauies the
medium vein as far as the thumb,  and is lost in its in-
teguments.
  3,   The internal cutaneal, which descends on the in- 
OF THE NERVES.
197
  -side of the arm, where it bifurcates,  or  divides, from
  the bend of the arm, the anterior branch accompanies
  the basilic vein, to be inserted into the skin of the palm
,  of the hand;  the posterior branch runs down the inter-
  nal part of the fore arm, to be lost in  the skin of the
  little finger.
i.   4.  The  median nerve, which   accompanies the
I brachial artery to the fore arm, passes under the annu-
,  lar ligament of the wrist, and goes on to the palm of
  the hand, and then supplies the digital nerves,  which
I  go to the extremities of the thumb, fore and middle fin-
  gers.
■    5.  The ulnar nerve, which  descends  between the
  brachial artery and basilic vein, between the internal
  condyle of the humerus or bone of the arm; and the
  olecrannon, and divides in the forearm  into an inter-
  nal and external branch.   The internal branch passes
  under the ligament of the wrist, and  sessamoid  bone,
  to the hand, where it divides  into three branches, two
  of which go to the ring and little fiugers, and the third
 • forms an arch towards the thumb, in  the palm  of the
  hand, and  is lost in the contiguous muscles.  The ex-
  ternal branch passes over the tendon of muscle 141,
  and back of the hand,  to supyly the two last fingers.
 I   6.  The radial nerve, which sometimes gives off the
  axillary  nerve. It passes backwards, about tbe hu-
  merus or bone of the arm, descends on the outside of
  the arm, along the side of muscle 133 to the forearm.
  At the upper extremity of the radius or bone  of the
  fore arm, it divides into two branches; one goes along
  the radius to the back of the  hand,  and terminates in
  the interosseous muscle, the thumb, and the first three
  fingers; the other  is lost  in  the msscles of the fore
   arm. 
198               OF THE NERVES.
                  Dorsal Nerves.

  The dorsal nerves  are twelve pairs in number. The
first pair gives off a branch to the  brachial  plexus.
All the dorsal nerves are distributed to the  muscles of
the back, the intercostals, the abdominal muscles, and
the diaphragm.  The five inferior pairs go to the car-
tilages of the ribs, and are called costal.

                  Lumbar Nerves.

  The five pairs of lumbar nerves are bestowed  about
the loins and muscles,  skin of the abdomen and loins,
scrotum, ovaria, and diaphragm.  The second, third,
and fifth pairs unite,  and  form the obturator nerve,
which descends over muscle 89 into  the pelvis, and
passes through the foramen thyroideum to the obtura-
tor muscle, triceps, pectineus, &c.
  The third and fourth, with some branches of the se-
cond pair, from the  crural nerve, which passes under
Paupart's ligament with the femoral artery, sends off
branches to the adjacent parts,  and  descends  in a di-
rection to the internal condyle of the thigh  bone, from
whence it accompanies  the saphena vein, to the internal
ancle, to be lost in the skin  of the  great  toe.  The
fifth pair is joined  to the first pair of the sacral
nerves.

                  Sacral Nerves.

  There are  five pairs  of the sacral nerves, all  of
which arise from the cauda equina,  or termination of
the spinal marrow.  The first four pair give off bran-
ches to the pelvic viscera, and are afterwards united
to the last lumbar, to form a large plexus which gives
off, 
OF THE NERVES.              199
    The ischiatic nerve, the largest in the  body.   The
 ischiatic nerve, immediately at  its origin,  sends off
 branches to the bladder, rectum,  and parts of genera-
 tion;  proceeds from the cavity of the  pelvis through
 the ischiatic notch, between the tuberosity of the ischi-
 um, and great trochanter, to the ham, where it is call-
 ed  the popliteal nerve.  In the ham it divides into two
 branches, which descend and are distributed through
 the different parts of  the foot and toes.
   The nervous system consists of the medullary  sub-
 stance of the brain, cerebellum,  medulla, oblongata, and
 spinalis, and of the same substance continued  into the
 nerves by which it is distributed to  many  different
 parts  of the body.  The whole of this  system seems
 to be distinguished into four parts.
   1.  The medulary  substance contained in thecrani
 um  and vertebral cavity; the whole of which seems to
 consist of distinct fibres, but without the smaller fibres
 being  separated from  each other by any evident envel
 oping  membranes.
   2.  Connected with one part or  other of this  sub
 stance, are the nerves, in  which the  same  medullary
 substance is  continued: but here more evidently divi -
 ded  into fibres, each of which  are separated from the
 others, by an enveloping membrane, derived from th?
 pia mater.
  3.   Parts  of the extremities of certain  nerves, in
 which  the medullary substance is  divested  of the en-
 veloping membranes from the pia  mater, and so situa-
 ted as to be  exposed to the  action of certain external1
bodies, and perhaps  so formed as  to be affected by tte
action  of certain bodies only,  these are  named the
esntient extremities of the nerves. 
500              OF THE NERVES.
  4.  Certain extremities of the nerves, so framed as
to be capable of peculiar contractibility;  and, in con-
sequence of their  situations and attachments, to be,
by their contraction, capable of moving  most of the
solid and fluid parts of the body.   These are named
the moving extremities of the nerves.
  These several parts of the nervous system are every
where the same continuous medullary substance, which
is supposed to be the vital solid of animals, so consti-
tuted in living animals,  as to admit of motions being
readily propagated from any one part  to every  other
part of the nervous  system,  so long as the continuity
and natural living state of the medulary substance re-
mains.  In  the  living  man  there is an immaterial
thinking substance,  or mind,  constantly present,  and
every phenomenon of  thinking  is to be considered as
 an affection or faculty of the mind  alone.   But  this
 immaterial and thinking part  of man is so connected
 with the material and  corporeal part of him, and par-
 ticularly with the nervous system, that motions excited
 in this give occasion to  thought,  and  thought howev-
 er occasioned, gives occasion to new motions in the
 nervous system.  This mutual communication,  or in-
 fluence, is assumed with confidence as a fact;  but the
 mode of it I do  not  understand,  nor pretend  to ex-
 plain.
    The phenomena of the nervous system  appear  com-
 monly in the following  order: the impulse of external
 bodies act  upon the sentient  (see part 3  above) extrem-
  ities of the nerves;  and this gives occasion to percep-
  tion or thought, which, as first arising in the mind, is
  termed sensation.  This sensation according to its va-
  rious modifications, gives occasion to volition, or  the
  willing of  certain ends to be obtained by the motion 
OF THE NERVE3.               **
 of certain parts of the body;  and this  volition gives
 occasion to  the contraction  of muscular  fibres, by
 which the motion of the part required is produced.
   As the impulse  of bodies on the sentient extremi-
 ties of  a nerve does not occasion any sensation, unless
 the nerve between the sentient extremity and the brain
 be free; and as,  in like manner, volition does not pro-
 duce any contraction of  muscles,  unless the  nerve be-
 tween the brain and muscle be also free;  it is there-
 fore concluded from  both these facts, that sensation
 and volition, so far as they are connected  with corpo-
 real motions, are functions of  the  brain alone; and it
 is presumed that sensation arises only in consequence
 of external impulse producing motion in the sentient
 extremities of the  nerves,  and of that  motion being-
 propagated along the nerves of the brain;  and, in like
 manner, that the will operating in the brain only, by a
 motion begun, there propagated along the nerves, pro-
 duces the contraction of muscles.   From what is now
 said, we perceive more  distinctly the different func-
 tions of the several parts of the nervous system.
   1.  The sentient extremities seem to be particular-
 ly fitted  to receive the impression of external bodies;
 and according to the difference of these impressions,
 and of the  condition of the sentient extremity itself, to
 propagate along nerves motions of a determined kind,
 which communicated to the brain give occasion to sen-
 sation.
   2.  The brain seems to be the party fitted for, and
 susceptible  of, those motions with which sensation, and
 the whole consequent operations  of thought,  are con-
nected; and thereby is fitted to form a communication
between the motions excited in  the sentient, and those
in  consequence arising in  the  moving extremities of 
202               OF THE NERVES.
the nerves, which are  often remote and  distant from
each other.
   3.  The moving extremities are so framed as to be
capable of contraction excited by motion propagated
from the brain, and communicated to the contractile
fibre.
   4.  The nerves more strictly so called,  are to be
considered as a collection of  medullary fibres, each
enveloped in its proper membrane,  and thereby, so
separated from each other* as hardly to  admit of any
communication of motion from any one of the othere,
and to admit only of motion along the continuous med-
ulary substance of the same fibre, from its origin to
the extremities, or contrawise.
   From this view of the parts of the nervous  system,
of their several  functions  and  communication  with
each other, it appears that the beginning of motion in
the animal economy is generally connected with sensa-
 tion; and that the ultimate effects of such motions are
 chiefly actions depending immediately upon  the con-
 traction of moving fibres, between which and the sen-
 tient extremities, the  communication  is by means of
 the brain. 
        SYSTEM  OP  Ar¥ATOMY;

                   PART NINTH.


Of the Absorbents, general integuments,
  or the cellular membrane, & the skin.

  Absorbent  vessels.   The absorbent vessels are
small transparent tubes, of a delicate structure, which
exist in considerable numbers in almost every part of
the body.
  These tubes originate upon the surface of all the
cavities of the body; and of the cellular membrane,
in all the various parts into which it penetrates;  upon
the internal surface of the stomach, and the intestines;
and upon the skin.
  Those which  originate in the lower extremities, and
the cavity of the abdomen,  unite  and form a large
trunk, called the thoracic duct, which proceeds through
the thorax, and terminates in the left subclavian  vein,
at its junction with the internal jugular.
  Those of the  left upper extremity, the  left  side of
the head, and the contiguous parts, form a trunk which
terminates in the same place.   While  the remaining
absorbents, or those of the right upper extremity, and
(fife, right side of the head,  &c. also  form  a trunk.
|&iich terminates in a corresponding part of the right
Subclavian vein.
  The  absorbent vessels of the  middle size,  which
jijise from tbe union of the small vessels, and unite to
 brm the large,  in their progress to these large vessels,
 ■ass through certain bodies which have been denomina- 
 204                OF THE SKIN.

 ted conglobate glands;  and may be considered as appen-
 dages of the absorbent system.
   The absorbent vessels are  composed of two coats,
 which are thin, but dense and firm,  and also elastic.
 The coats of the thoracic duct may be separated  from
 each  other.  The internal surface of the outer coat is
 fibrous.  The internal coat, is a delicate, but strong
 membrane.
   Cellular membrane.   The cellular membrane is sit-
 uated between the skin and tbe muscles, which  is in-
 sinuated between the  different muscles, and  between
the fibres which compose them;  which also  connects
the different parts of the body to  each other.
   As it extends over the whole body,  and is most inti-
mately connected  with the skin, it is considered as one
of the integuments, although it is found in great quan-
tities in  some of the internal parts.
   It appears to be composed  of  membranous lamina,
exquisitely fine and delicate in their structure, which
are so connected to  each  other, that they compose
cells or cavities of various  forms and sizes.
   When these cavities are empty, this arrangement of
the cellular membrane is not  apparent; but when they
arc distended by water or air it is very evident.

   The  skin.  The skin is composed of three dissim-
ilar laminae, which  are  denominated,  the  cutis vera,
the reta mucosum, and the cutimla.
   Cutis vera.   This  is  the  innermost of the above
mentioned lamina,  and is much more substantial than
the others.   It is an elastic dense, and strong mem-
brane, which contains in its texlure a large proportion
of fibres that appear to be tendinous,  and are woven
together in an intricate manner.
   Blended with these fibres are an innumerable number 
                 ~"6V tTHTSkist.               205

 of vessels which enter into the texture of the skin.
 These vessels do not generally convey red blood, and
 therefore they arc not visible; yet they may be readi-
 ly brought into view,  by the application of  rubefa-
 cients during life.   Their existence is also demonstra-
 ted in the  vigorous infant, at birth, by the  universal
 redness of the skin, which is observable at  that time.
   The skin thus constructed, extends over  the whole
 of the body, and is continued into those cavities which
 open  upon the surface,  as the  mouth,  nose,  kc.  al-
 though its texture changes immediately upon  its  re-
 flection.
   This is the part which is called the true  skin, and
 when in a  healthy state is invariably white.  The va-
 riety  of colors in the human species depends upon the
 layer next to the cutis, which is now to be described.
   Bete mucosum.   Immediately in  contact  with the
 cutis vera,  is a thin stratum, of a pulpy  or mucilagi-
 nous consistence, which appears to be spread uniform-
 ly over it,  but cannot be detached without deranging
 its own texture.
   It can be best examined after the cuticle is raised in
 a blister.   In  this case it appears like  a pulpy  sub •
 stance, spread upon a membrane of a soft and  deli-
 cate texture.
  In this pulpy substance resides the pigmentum, or
 colouring matter, which gives the peculiar complexion
 to the different races of  men.   The  cutis vera is
 white, and the cuticle is  nearly  transparent in them
 all; but the rete mucosum is black in the Negro;  cop-
 per coloured, yellow or tawny, in many of the Asiat-
 ics; and yellow,  with a tinge of red  in the Indians of
 America; while it is transparent, or  whitish,  in  the
people of Europe and their descendants).
       B 
206               of the skin.

  The cuticula or epidermis.   This is  the  exterior
layer of the integuments or skin.  It appears to have
some resemblance to the matter of the nails, & of horn;
but is more flexible, even after allowing for the differ-
ence of thickness.  In those parts where it is the thin-
nest, it is semi-transparent.  It  is  insensible  and no
vessels can be traced in it; and extends over the whole
surface of the body, except the parts  covered by the
nails, and is accommodated to the surface of the skin,
by forming ridges or furrows corresponding to it.
  It adheres closely to  the cutis  and  rete mucosum;
and when irritated by mechanical violence, the surface
of the skin appears moistened by effusion.
  The adhesion of these membranes to each  other  is
as uniform as that of  two  smooth  surfaces glued to-
gether; but it is generally said that the  cuticle or ex-
ternal membrane is attached to  the  cutis by very nu-
merous and fine filaments.
   It has often  been asserted, that  these filaments are
the exhaling and absorbing vessels,  which pass through
the cuticle, to and from the skin, which appears  'very
reasonable.
   Notwithstanding the uniform adhesion of the  cuti-
 cle to the cutis, it  is observed,  in  the living subject
to be separated, and formed into vesicles by  a variety
 of causes, viz:
    1.  Pinching the skin, or violent mechanical  irri-
 tation ;  such as laboring with hard instruments.
    2.  By the application of cantharides, and certain
 other substances, which produce vesications.
    3.  Boiling  heat will generally produce vesication.
    4.  Certain  diseases  seem to produce  vesication,
 viz: erysipelas, %oma or shingles, and many other erup-
 tions which have no name. 
OF THE SKIN.
207
  In severe cases of the scarlatina,  or scarlet fever,
at the termination of the disease, large portions of the
cuticle are sometimes detached from the cutis.
  In the spring of  1833,  I attended on upwards  of
one hundred cases of the scarlet  fever, in the most of
which the cuticle was detached  from  the  cutis, and
peeled off entirely over the whole system, at the ter-
mination  of  the disease.  A  young  woman of this
county, Miss M. E. after recovering  from a severe
spell of the scarlatina, was so  speedily deprived  of
the cuticle, that she was left so tender she could scarce-
ly bear the  heat of the  sun for several months after
her recovery.
  There could be a great  many other  causes mention-
ed which would produce vesication.
  The skin answers a fourfold  purpose in  the animal
economy.  It is the organ of touch.  It covers  and
protects the whole structure.   It is the outlet of a por-
tion of insensible  perspiration, and performs absorp-
tion.
  The skin appears to have a  connection with the
lungs and stomach, from the consideration  that they,
with the liver  are generally affected  by checked per-
spiration;  and also from the consideration that erup-
tions of the skin, such as itrticaria,  or  nettle  rash,
have frequently relieved  children of  the  spasmodiac
croup.   In a word, the skin has such  a  connection
with the whole system, that the most  of diseases may
be traced back to checked perspiration. 
 
                 GLOSSARY.



   ACCELERATOR, From accelero, to hasten or propel.
   Acetabulum,  From acetum, vinegar: the cavity of the os in-
     nominatum, so called, because it resembles an ancient cup
     for holding vinegar.
   Acromion,  A process of the shoulder  blade.
   Addetamentum,  An addition to any part.
   Adductor,  To draw or contract.
   Anastomosis,  The communication of vessels with one  ano-
     ther.
   Anconeus, The elbow.
   Anterior, Before.  A term  applied to  what may be situated
     before another.
   Antihclix, The inner circle of the  external ear.
   Antitragus, An eminence of the outer  ear.
   Antrum,  A cavity which has a small opening into it.
   A/wneurosis,  A tendinous expansion.
   Articulation,  From articulus, a joint.
   Arytsenoid, Applied  to parts which are shaped like a funnel.
   Attollens, to lift up.   Applied to muscles, that raise the  part
     to which they are attached.

   BICEPS, Any thing having two heads,
   Bicusfiidatus, Any thing having two points.
   Bifurcate, Any thing that divides into  two parts, or forks.
   Bronchial, Appertaining to the wind pipe.
   Bursa,  A bag.
   Bursa mucosa, A mucous bag, near joints.

   CAROTID, (From a Greek word meaning to sleep,} an ar-
     tery of the neck.
   Cauda,  (From caudo to fall,) a tail.
   Cauda equina, A bundle of nerves starting  off at the lower
     end of the spinal marrow, is so called from its resemblance
     to a horse's tail.
   Cellular, Having  little cells.
   Cerebellum, (Diminutive of cerebrum,) the little brain.
   Cerebrum, The brain.
   Chondrosyndesmus, A cartilaginous ligament.
   Coccygis, A bone  resembling a Cuckoo's bill.
   Concha, A hollow vessel:  Applied to the cavity of the  ear.
   Condyle, Applied to round eminences ot bones at the joints.
   Constrictor,  to bind together.   A name given to  muscles.  .
—  f"-—mltitarl__Pallnd LLP M C-\A~A---------^— 
210                 GLOSS A*Y.
Coracoid, Any thing shaped like the beak of a crow.
Cornea, The sclerotic membrane of the eye is so called, be-
  cause it is of a horny consistence.
Cornu, A horn.
Coronal, (From corona.)  A crown or garland.
Corpus, A body.
Corrugator, From corrugo to wrinkle.
Costa, The rib of an animal,
Cremaster, To suspend.
Crico, Words compound of this belong to muscles, which
  are attached to the cricoid cartilage.
Cricoid, Resembling a ring.
Crista, Any thing which has the resemblance of a comb up-
  on the head of a cock.
Crura, The plural of crus,
Crus,  A leg,  or origin.
Cuticle, Diminutive of cutis, the skin.

DEGLUTITION, From deglutio, to swallow down.
Deltoides, A muscle so called, because it is  shaped like the
  Greek letter Delta.
Depressor, From deprimo, to press down.
Digastricus, Derived from two Greek words meaning  two
  bellies.  A muscle is thus named having two bellies,
Ductus, A canal or duct.

ENSIFORMIS, From ensis a sword  and forma  resemb-
  lance.   A term applied to parts resembling a sword.
Epigastric, From two Greek words meaning above the stom-
  ach.
Epiglottis, The cartilage at the root of the tongue that falls
  upon the glottis.
Erector, To raise up, a name given to muscles.
Ethmoid,  Any thing perforated like a seive.
Extensor, To stretch  out.

FORAMEN, From foro to pierce, a small opening.
Fossa, A depression or ditch.
Frontalis, From frons, the forehead.
Fungus, Proud flesh.  A term in surgery to express any lux-
  uriant formation of flesh on an ulcer.

GANGLION, A knot.
Gastritis,  Inflamation of the stomach.
Genoi, From a Greek word meaning the chin.
Glenoid, The name of articulating cavities of bones.
Glossa, From a Greek word meaning the tongue. 
GLOSSARY.
211
HELIX, the external circle or border of the ear.
Hepaticia, the liver.
Hepatitis, Inflammation of the liver.
Hypochondrium, From two Greek words meaning under a
  cartilage, that part of the body under the cartilages  of the
  short ribs.
Hyftogastrium.  The lower part of the abdomen.

INTERCOSTAL,  From inter between and costa a rib.  A
  name given to muscles, &c. between the ribs.
Interosseous,  From inter between and os a bone.  A  name
  given to muscles, &c. which are between bones.
Ischium, the loin.  A bone of the pelvis so  named because
  it is near the loin.

JUGALIS, ¥Tomjugum ayokz;  the  name of a bonejof the
  head.

LATERALIS, From latus the side.  Any thing situated on
  the side.
Latissimus, A term applied to broad muscles.
Laxator  , From laxo to loosen.  A name given to muscles.
Levator,  From levo to lift up.   A name given to muscles.
Linaea, From linum, a thread.  A thread-like appearance.
Linea Alba, A tendinous expansion, situated in the center of
  the anterior part of the abdomen.
Longissimus,  the longest.   Muscles are so named from their
  length.

MALLEOLUS, Diminutive of malleus, a mallet: the ancle.
Maseter, to chew; the name of a muscle.
Mastoid,  Processes of bones are so named,  when they  re-
  semble the nipple of a breast.
Maxilla, to chew. The upper and lower jaws are so called.
Meatus, An opening which leads to a canal or duct.
Mediastinum^ A membranous division formed by the  pleura
  dividing the chest into two parts.
Metacarpus,  That part of the hand which  is between the
  wrist (carpus) and fingers.
Metatarsus, That part of the foot between the tarsus & toes.
Malarix, A double tooth, so named because they grind the
  food.
Mons, A  mount or hill.
Moris Veneris, The eminence immediately over the  os pu-
  bis in women, that is covered with hair.

OBLIQUUS, Oblique^ A  term applied to parts from theis 
212                   GLOSSARY.
Obturator, A stopper up, or that which coverts any thing
Oculus, The eye.


PALMARIS,  From palma,  the  hand.  Belonging  to th
  hand.
Palpebrx, the  eye-lids.
Pericardium, A membranous bag that surrounds the heart.
Periosteum, The membrane which invests the external sin
  face of bones.
Perone, To fasten.  A name given to muscles.
Pia mater, The natural mother; so called because it embn
  ces the brain,' as a mother folds her child.
Pisiform,  Frompisum a pea, and forma likeness.  Pea-lik<
Pronator, A name given to muscles,  the use of which is  i
  turn the palm of the hand downwards.
Psoas, A name given to muscles, that belongs to the loins.
Pterygoid, Resembling the  wing of a bird.  A name given 1
  a process of the ethmoid bone.
Pudendum, From pudor  shame.    The  external parts <
  generation.
Pulmonary, Belonging to the lungs.


RECTUS,  Straight.
Retrahens, To draw back.
Rima glotidis, the opening of the larynx,  through  whic
  the  air passes in and out of the lungs.
Scapha, A sciff, or boat.
Sclerotic,  the name of one of the coats of the eye.
Scrobeculus cordis, the pit of the stomach.
Semilunar, Half moon shaped.
Septum, A partition.
Seratus,  From sera, a saw.  Any  thing resembling sa
  teeth.
Squmosa,  From squama, a  scale.  A term applied to bon<
  which lie over each  other.
Supinator, From supinus, upwards.  A name given to mus
  cles which turn the palm of the hand upwards.
Supra, Above.
Suture, From sua, to join together.
Systole, to contract;  the contraction of the heart.

TENSOR,  From tendo, to  stretch.  A name given  to tf
  muscles.
Teres,  Round, cylindrical.
Trachea, the wind pipe,  so  called  from its roughness. 
                   GLOSSARY.           '     213




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