UNITED STATES OF AMERICA FOUNDED 1836 WASHINGTON, D. C. OPO 16—67244-1 ORATION: CHEMISTRY AND BOTANY 5 PELIVERED BEFORE THE Phi Beta Kappa Society, AT NEW HAVEN, Dec. 9, 1802. , BY DH. KLI IVES, A. M. Published by order of the Society. $ NEW HAVEN: PRINTED BY JOEL WALTER* 1803. J AN ORATION, GENTLEMEN, 1 T was for the laudable purpcfe of exciting a fpirit of emulation and enquiry, among the members of this fociety, that an annual oration was inftituted. The tafic of addreffing you, which has devolved on me, I come to fulfil, by making a few obfervations upon natural philofophy. I Avail confine my obfervations to chemiftry and botany, pares of natural fcience which have indeed been too much neglccled by the learned in this ftate, although they have been purfued, with great induftry, by the philofophers of Europe. No apology is neceffary for addreffing this fociety up- on the fcience of chemiftry ; fince this fcience, is made a part of academic education in moft of the univerfuies of Europe ; and fince a great part of the learning of Eu- rope, is employed in the advancement of this fcience. Chemiftry treats of the properties of all material fub- ftances, and the changes of thofe properties in different circumftances ; as it is the fcience of the efrecls of heat and affinity upon all bodies. No part of natural fcience promifes greater utility to* 4 AN ORATION, r T rm man, whether it is confidered as a pleafing employment for the mind, as immediately applicable to every econo- mic art, to the fcience of medicine, or to the explanation of the phenomena of nature. In exhibiting a few of the principles and improve- ments of chemiftry, it is not my object to build it upon the ruins of any other fcience. All the feiences are mu- tually dependent and connected, by a common bond* There is but one great fyftem of mind and matter; but one great fit ft caufe, who has formed this fyftem* and who regulates it by his uniform providence; or rather whofe providence is this fyftem. To underfland this fyftem, the knowledge of its parts are effentially necef- fary. The fcience of chemiftry, as an important part of this fyftem, particularly claims our attention. Che- miftry was introduced into Europe by the conqueft of the Arabians. From avarice and a fondnefs for myftery, which was peculiar to the dark ages, it received fome flow and obfeure improvements. Of this period it is fufficient to obferve, that the ignorance, fuperftition and credulity Of the Europeans, influenced them in philofophy as well as in politics and religion. The fame extravagant fpirit, which roufed all Europe in defence of an empty fepul- chre, afterwards manifefted itfelf in the purfuit of the alkaheft, the philofophers (tone, the tranfmutation of the bafer metals into filver and gold, and an univerfal medi- cine. The remains of the fame fpirit are now exhibited in our newfpapers and apothecaries fliops, under the ti- tle of sovereign remedies, infalible balsams, balms af Gil- lead, and a long lift of patent medicines, which promife eternal youth and vigor to their purchafers. The hiftory* of the origin of chemiftry, is ufeful ou- * for the history of chemistry, see Bocrhaave's chemistry* AN ORATION. 5 JE=SS ly to prove how flow, laborious and uncertain, is the ad- vancement of the human underftanding, unlefs aided by the corre6l refults of obfervation and an unprejudiced love of truth. Chemiftry remained a mere colleclion of facts, until the laft century. It then received great im- provements from the philofophical experiments of Boyle, Hales, Scheele, Ingenhouze, Bergman, Prieftley, Black, Watfon, and many others. But to the united exertions of Morveau, Berthollet, Fourcroy, Chapial and Lavoifi- er, the world is indebted for the prefent iyilem of che- miftry—A fyftem which is not inferior to that of Newton, in the fimplicity and demonftrability of its firlt principles, or the uniform application of thofe principles, to the ex- planation of the phenomena of nature. The nomencla- ture of this fyftem, beautifully exhibits the connection, which exifts between language and logic. To fimple fub- ftances arbitrary names are given, to compound fubftan- ces are given names fignificant of the parts of the com- pofition and modes of combination. The inventors of the new fyftem, in every inftance, fubmitted their rea- fonings to the teft of experiment, and never fearched for truth, but by the natural road of experiment and obfer- vation; as mathematicians obtain the folution of a prob- lem, by the mere arrangement of data, and by reducing their reafoning to fuch fimple fteps, and to conclufions fo very obvious, as never to lofe fight of the evidence by which they are guided. Many are the difcoveries of chemiftry, both in the fublime and ufeful parts of philofophy. It teaches us a new principle of attraction, the attraction of affinity** * Affinity, or eleftive attraction, is a tendency which bodies have to unite and form a third substance, whose sensible proper'ies are unlike f ither body. Sir Isaac Newton formed the first table of affinities; which is now to the chemist what the logarithmic ta- bles are to the navigator. 6 AN ORATION. The laws of affinity, though more numerous and com- plicated, are not lefs uniform in their opperations, than the laws of gravitation. In addition to all thofe parts of matter, which are fubjedled to the laws of gravitation, to the laws of affinity, are iubje&ed light and calocie. The exiftence of ail the folid and fluid bodies in nature, which are not elementary fubftances, depends upon the principles of affinity ; without which, the world would be as in the creation, without form and void. By the knowledge of the laws of affinity, we decompofe bodies, and of their condiment elementary parts, produce a new creation. From analyfis it is demonftrated, that atmof. pheric air confifts of the fame elements, as that powerful fluid formerly called aqua fortis. The difference of the fenfible properties of thofe two fubftances, depends en- tirely upon the different ftat* of affinity. Aftronomy, aud the higher branches of the mathe- matics, are made a part of education, not on account of their being applicable to the purpofes of life, butbecaufe by their ftudy is acquired an accurate method of think- in °\ Like the mathematics, chemiftry teaches an accu- rate mode of reafoniug, and from the extenfive views of the laws of nature expand the mind. Among the difcoveries of modern chemiftry, none is more important, or leads to more interefting facls, than that of the compofition of our ».niofphere. Long had it eluded the refearch of philofophers, until the prefent analytic mode of rcafoning was introduced into chemif- try. This difcovery was made after a feries of accurate experiments, by the unfortunate Lavoifier. Previous to the difcovery of the atmoipheric air, was that of pure air, which was made almoft at the fame time by Lavofi- er, Prieftlcy and Scheele. To thefe fucceededthe difco- veries of the compofition of water, of the opperationa AN ORATION. 7 of combuftion, of the bafes of the acids, of vegetation and of animation, fo far as it defends upon refpiration. No fooner were the properties, and modes of com- bination of pure air known, than the principles of the oxygenation of the blood were eftablifhcd. It is now af- certained that life is literally a flame, fupported by a flow combuftion of our atmofphere. The difcoveries of the compofition of our atmofphere, and the effects of differ- ent airs upon the human conftitution, haveroufed the at- tention of philofophers, in every part of the world. Davis, Girtanner and Beddoes*, with rapid ftrides through the path of fcience, have promifed to open a new sera, and expel difeafe from man. There are enthu- fiafts and fanatics, among philofophers, as well as among feclaries. A fcience may be as much degraded by af- fuming fanciful theories, as by the effects of ignorance. The German philofophers, who formerly pretended to explain the caufe of a phenomenon, without having pre- vioufly afcertained its exifteece, were no lefs ridiculous, than fome new theorifts, who have attempted to fclve certain problems, by wonlsf which have no definite ideas annexed to them, and by principles utterly inapplicable. Falfe theory is not peculiar to chemiftry, it is to be found in every department of fcience. The prediction of Newton, when he obferved, " if the particles of air, fhould come in contacl, they would be converted into marble,'* has been verified, by the difcoveries of modern chemiftry. Our atmofphere is indeed the refervoir of the elementary particles of all bodies. And marble is but a compofition of fixed air, or carbone and lime, which is * Honor is due to these philosophers, for several important dis- coveries, both in medicine and chemiftry. + How many new theories have been formed and how many eld ones said to be destroyed by the word electricity ? AN ORATION, probably a corcspofite body. By analyfis and fynthefis, * are fliewn the converfion of a'us into plants, plants into animal matter, and animal matter into plants, and the original elements. Vegetable analyfis conftantly exhib- its three elements. Two of them, the component parts of water, oxygen and h)drogen, and thofe two a folventfor the third, which is carbone. In exhibiting the phenom- ena of the life of plants, and the mechanifm of their com- pounds, is fhewn that vegetable life, is merely a fucceffioa of chemical powers and attractions. Such a feries of facts, founded upon the moft correct experiments, explain- ing the nutrition of plants, will eftablifli a rational lyftem of agriculture, and lead to important improvements in that moft ufeful art. The different airs are only a modification of folid matter, cembined with caloric, and according to their dif- ferent affinities, are capable of afluming a concrete form, and being united to the moft fixed bodies in nature. The difcovery of the properties of airs, was follow- ed, by that of the beautiful procefs'in nature, the purifi- cation of the atmofphere, by means of the refpiration of plants* All parts of creation mutually labor, for the fupport and perfection of each other. Whatever element is rejected from the laboratory of one organized body, be- comes the food of another part of creation. It was dis- covered by Dr. Prieftly, and fince fupported, by the ex- periments of Count Rumford, that plants conftantly emit pure air; but from a feries of accurate experiments, Pro- feflbr Woodhoufe has proved, that plants emit pure only when fupplied with fixed air. The moft furprifing effects, to be reckoned among the laws of nature, are produced by chemical fubftances. Among which are the fulminating gold, filverand mercu- AN ORATION. 9 ry, the fpontaneous combuftion of phofphorus and pyro- phorus, at the common temperature of the atmofphere, and the hyper-oxygenated muriate of potafti. Three grains of the latter fubftance, by tritenation, produce an explofion truly aftoniuiing. By the union of two cold fluids, is produced a rapid and inftantaneous combuftion, almoft inextinguifhable. By the combuftion of two fim- ple airs, hydrogen and oxygen is produced a bright flame, and a heat fufficient to melt platina. The formation of meteors, and the fpontaneous combuftions, which caufe volcanic eruptions, are imitated and explained by the chemift. A catalogue of experiments, might be fwelled to a volume, every one of which would exhibit an inter- efting fact, or eftablifh fome law of nature. From exhib- iting and explaining the fublimeft pa#s of nature, chem- iftry condefcends to direct and explain even the culinary art. Chemiftry no longer, as in the dark ages, impofes up- on the credulity of the ignorant. It no longer attempt* to aftonifh the Simplicity of the vulgar; but is content to explain the fublime appearances and habitude of matter, upon found principles of philofophy, and to advance thf true intereft of man, by improving the ufefal arts and manufactures. From the numerous improvements and difcoveries, which the arts have received, within a few years, from chemiftry, I (hall name a few. It has long been a defideratum, with chemifts, to con- vert that part of onr fuel, which is loft in foot, into light and heat. The object has been obtained, by the inven- tion of the thermo-lamp*, by Citizen Leban. By this * See Med. Repos. vol. V. B 10 AN ORATION. apparatus, the hydrogen of the fmoke is conducted, in a moment, from one apartment to another, where it emits a mild heat, and a bright flame, without leaving either foot, aflies or coals. The difcovery was made from the analyfis of wood, the refult of which is one fixth car- bone and five fixths fmoke, a great part of which is hy- drogen or inflamable air. Guided by analyfis, the ingenious Clouet has disco- vered a procefs, for manufacturing fteel of a fuperior quality, by a direct compofition of clay, iron and car- bone. The analyfis of mineral waters has been an object which has long engaged the attention of philofophers. From the experiments of Mr. Boyle it received its firft improvements. Within a few years, it has been brought to perfection, by the celebrated Bergman and other Ger- man chemifts ; and is now defervedly ranked among the improvements of analytic fcience. Thefe medicines of nature may be compounded in places moft diftant from thofe laboratories of nature where they were firft formed. By analyfis, wool gives nearly the fame refult as oil. Guided by this fact Profeffor Chaptal has difcovered a procefs for manufacturing foap, from ufeful articles of woolen, and an alkaline lixivium. No inconvenience has followed from the introduction of this economical procefs to manufactories of cloth. There is fearce an art or manufacture, which has not, or is not, now receiving improvements from this fcience. By the introduction of the Oxygenated muriate of potafh to bleaching, the procefs has facilitated and fliort- ened to a furprifing degree: This difcovery, the honor AN ORATION. ri of which has been given to Berthollet, has been already adopted, by the linen manufacturers throughout Great Britain and France. Seguin has accurately demonftrated the theory of tanning, and made important improvements in that art, which he has communicated to the public, with a liberal- ity which does honor to himfelf and to fcience. Painting has received valuable acquifitions from Mexime. And the art of dying is found to confift in a fimple principle of affinity. It is no other than a coloring fubftance, and a fubftance called a mordant, which by its affinity, attach- es the color to the cloth. During the late war in Europe, this fcience relieved the wants arifing from fcarcity. In England, the vegeto- animal fubftance or gluten, which.refides in bran, was converted into bread. And in France, fubftances, which were not before known to be nutritive, were converted into wholeiome diet.----Such are the improvements, which neceflarily follow the knowledge of the component parts and principles of affinity of material fubftances. To (hew tlie connection of chemiftry, with all the arts and fciences, and to fhew the improvements which have flowed from this connection, would require the numerous volumes, which are conftantly publifhed upon the fubject. No department of human knowledge, has received fo great benefit from chemiftry, as the profeflion of medicine. From phyficians chemiftry had its origin, and for many centuries, was confidered as a mere appendage of their profeflion. There is indeed, a connection between che- miftry and phyfic ; and no phyfician can be a thorough fcholar in his profeflion, and be unacquainted with chem- iftry, Refpecting the acquifitions of the healing art,. i« AN ORATION. from this fcience, I fhall only generally obferve, that for the prefent improved ftate of phyfiology and pharmacy, we are indebted to chemiftry, and that the moft powerful articles of the materia medica, are creatures of the labor- atory*. By the German and French chemifts, every part of the human body has been fubjected to accurate analyfis ; und the elementary parts and mode of compofi- tion afcertained. So many important facts promife great improvements to the healing art. Already has chemift- ry, to a g»od degree, fwept away the dregs of quackery and ignorance. No longer, do the arts wait the flow im- provements of blind chance. They are now purfued, up- on philofophical principles. It is probable, that within a few years, many of the neceflaries and luxuries of life, will be made by a direct compofition, inftead of waiting the flow procefs of ^nature. Indeed, whole animal bo- dies have been converted into oil, by the abstraction of their azate. Chemiftry has received the addition of a new electri- al fluid, the laws ofwhich conftitute that part of chemif- try, entitled Galvjnifm. This difcovery, the honor of which, ought rather to be given to Valta,* than to Gal- vjnus, has already been fuccefsfully applied to the cure of difeafes, and promifes to folve fome parts of nature which have hitherto eluded the refearch of philofo- phers. To this part of chemiftry is probably referved to explain the connection, which exifts between mind and matter. No part of fcience, within twenty yea«s, has receiv- ed fo great improvements as chemiftry. The rapid pro- * Animal Chemiftry, fee the flth and 10th vols, of A.F. Four- croy's works. AN ORATION. 13 grefs of this fcience, fince the adoption of the new fyf- tem, and the prefent competition of its votaries promife to carry it, within a few years, to its ultimate point of perfection. Our country may already bcaft, of a long lift of chemifts, the number and accuracy of whofe exoe- riments, are not inferior to thofe of European chemifts; and who are ardently engaged, in the advancement of this fcience. Among whom, are Prieftley, Woodhoufe, Mitchel, Maclean, Pafcalis, and the late Prefident of the Medical Society of Connecticut. The other part of natural philofophy, upon which was propofed to make a few obfervations, is botany ; a part of fcience not lefs pleafing, though more neglected by our citizens, than any other of the whole circle of the fci- ences. This branch of knowledge, is recommended by the example of Solomon, who is recorded to have written of all the plants, from the cedar of Lebanon, to the hyfop upon the wall. The ancients were perhaps as well ac- quainted, with the virtues of plants, as the moderns j but their difcoveries are in a great meafure loft to us, for want of an accurate fyftem of defcription and claffifica- tion. This defect has been fupplied, by the labors of Turnfort, Ray, Boerhaave, Linnzeus and Miller, who have given to botany, a fyftem, which has defervedly ranked it among the fciences. In many parts of fcience, America is not inferior to the moft enlightened countries of Europe. The genius and enterprife of our citizens are not inferior. Yet how- ever degrading it may be to our national pride, it is a fact undeniable, that we are dependent upon the Europeans, for the knowledge of the plants of our own country. No part of the globe abounds, with fo great a variety of bo- tanical productions, which from their magnitude, number It AN ORATION. and furprifing effects upon the human constitution, prove in the vegetable, as the mammoth in the animal kingdom, that nature has not belittled her productions in America. There are conftantly imported, into our country, at a great expence, vegetable productions, which grow in wild luxuriance, in almoft every part of it. The productions of our country may be obtained without the lefs of their cffential properties by time or adulteration. Germany, England and France have fent botanifts, into our country, to difcover the treafures of our forefts. Thefe botanifts have carried home.fome of the plants, which are peculiar to this country, and are now publifh- ing their virtues* and claffification. Botanical gardens were eftablifhed in the ftates of New-York and South-Carolina, by the late king of France. The botanift whom he fent, was the learned Michaux, at prefent a member of the National Inftitute, and a botanical miffionary to the fouth feas. The difco- veries of a ten years refidence of this philofopher, which were the laft year publifhed in Paris, are truly worthy national attention.—Much good is done in this way, at a very trifling and infignificant expence. For this com- penfation, however fmall, the botanifts tranfmits to the country which fent him, the vegetable productions of all kinds, at once gratifying national curiofity, and enriching his native land, with the ufeful fpecies of the remotefi: iftands and provinces of the earth. While our native citizens have been ignorant or incu- rious of the treafures of the forefts, the induftrious bo- ■♦■ * The French botanifls have publifbed a courfe of experiments, made with the rnu» toxicodendron, a plant peculiar to this country. AN ORATION. 15 tanifts, from foreign countries, difcover, defcribe, and teach us how to know them. Not a fingle botanical garden has been eftabliftied in America, by any authority of our country, either politi- cal or academical. We truft that this reproach, will not long be attached to our country. Even in this State, which has been ftiled the Athens of America, botany has been moft neglected. Scarce a naturalift is here to be found, who can point out the generic difference of our plants, by their gender and their fpecific difference, by their foliage and fructification. I know not that a bota- nical work has been publiflied, by a native American, fave that of Profeffor Bartan, whofe talents and induftry promife to take from our country, the reproach anfing from the neglect of this part of fcience. That part of botany, which treats of the virtues of plants, has been entirely neglected. Already has America produced a bark, which has removed the fatality of that difeafe, which in lefs than forty years, deprived Britain of two of her monarchs.* And the properties of a root have been difcovered by Dr. Archer, which has proved a fuc- cefsful remedy againft a difeafe, upon which European authors were either filent, or which they confeffed that they could not cure. Notwithftanding the botanical difcoveries which have been made by Europeans, an unlimited field ftill lies open for the difplay of genius and enterprize. Our country every where, abounds with vegetable productions, the properties and defcription are yet m reserve, for the dif- * James the firft, and Oliver Cromwell, both died of the in- termittent fever. + See Areher's Treatife on the origina trachealis. 16 AN ORATION. covery of the Americans. It is worthy of remark, that many of the philofophers of our country are turning their attention to this branch of ufeful knowledge. ' Why a fcience ftiould be fo much neglected, the ftudy of which fo beautifully exhibits the perfect order and inimitable works of the Deity, in the vegetable kingdom, remains yet to,be accounted for. There muft b- power- ful reafons, which have induced our citizens, to oe indif- ferent to the difcoveries, in natural fcience; ftrong rea- fons, which have prevented them from fharing the honor of difcoveries fo important. Among others, the following reafons have, undoubt- edly had their influence. A fondnefs for political preferment, which has per- vaded every clafs of fociety; the dePre of honor, which has been attached to wealth rather than literary attain- ments, and party politics, which have taken place of every department of fcience. Party politics, which have inclined our citizens to depend upon intereft or influencs, for honors and emoluments. I truft this Society, which on account of its numer- ous branches is fo advantageoufly fituated to excite com- petion and communicate information, will not be the laft to patronize chemical and botanical enquiries, or be in- different to the difcoveries in the branches of natural fcience, the inventors of which'will perpetuate their names, ar.d receive the gift of fortune, and honors of Tofterlny, FINIS. ♦Tfo if ii