'S3S sjyy.y: ■*; js^st^. 4560 ENGRAVINGS OF THE BONES, MUSCLES AND JOINTS, / BY JOHN BELL, SURGEON. PART FIRST. CONTAINING ENGRAVINGS OF THE BONES. THE FIRST AMERICAN FRO^L-XHE^JECOND LONDON EDITION. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY ANTHONY FINLEY. # William Fry, Printer. 1816. TO DR. DANIEL RUTHERFORD, PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY, AND PHYSICIAN TO THE ROYAL INFIRMARY, EDINBURGH. SIR, IN presenting this Book of Plates to one who is so well able as you are to judge of their defects, I ought to add some value to the offer- ing by declaring the motives of it.—It is a mark of gratitude for the friendly care with which, in company with my worthy Master, you watched over me during a long and dangerous illness. Perhaps there can be no higher compli- ment betwixt medical men, than this confidence in time of sickness; and surely, if I may judge from my own feelings, nothing can be more grateful than the remembrance of kindnesses bestowed at such a time.—May your skill be long useful to your fellow-citizens; and may it be always valued as I value it. I am, Sir, With respect, Your Friend, and Humble Servant, JOHN BELL. PREFACE, WHEN a young man, who had been blind from his childish years, had his sight restored to him by our celebrated surgeon Chesselden, all his thoughts, and feelings, and pleasures, and pains, were very interesting to his friends; for that most delightful of all our senses was to him as a dream of fairy visions, confused, yet delightful, beyond all that the fancy can conceive. " He was like one newly born into the world, needing to learn anew all the " objects around him, knowing nothing by the eye, but all by the touch. " It was long before he found out that pictures represented solid bodies, " and then he was much surprised that those things, which to the eye " seemed prominent and round, were to the touch quite even and flat; he " asked his friends which was indeed the lying sense, feeling or seeing." " Being shown his father's picture in a locket, at his mother's watch, and " told what it was, he acknowledged a likeness, but was vastly surprised; asking vjji PREFACE. " asking, how it could be that a large face could be expressed in so little " room; saying, it should have seemed as impossible to him, as to have put " a bushel of any thing into a pint." Now there are many, who having enjoyed and used this precious sense during all their lives, have never come to know, like this young man, that, even within the narrowest circle, the representation is as perfect and true, as in the full size of the human body; foolishly imagining that nothing can be drawn but of its natural size. If a man were to take this fancy, that nothing of anatomy could be drawn but of the full size of life, with what high con- tempt must he look down upon these little plates; where I have endeavoured to represent, in this miniature form, what it must be confessed, might be more fully represented on a larger scale: and yet I am sensible, that those, who cannot understand these plates, will hardly profit even by that stately anatomical figure of full six feet high, which, being cut in copper, with googes, and chissels, and mallets, and all kinds of instruments, must esta- blish a reputation for its author; which, if not high, will not fail to be at least of a lasting kind; neither apt to be forgotten, nor liable, like other discoveries, to go astray. " As I proceeded in writing a book of anatomy, I felt more and more at " every step, the necessity of giving plates to it;" for a book of anatomy without these seemed to me no better than a book of geography without its maps; it was, in my mind, like teaching mathematics without diagrams, or solving PREFACE \x solving Euclid's problems without the helps of figures or lines, by the mere force of imagination alone. Indeed any one, who, studying without some help of plates, tries to understand and to remember an anatomical description with no other representation than words merely, will feel, that he is like one attempting'to work a rule of arithmetic without the use of cyphers, trying to remember the value and denomination of each part throughout the whole train of numbers; he is ingenious in difficulties, making an abstract subject of one belonging to the senses chiefly, and attempting to obtain by words, those ideas which must come to him only through the eye. It was while I was writing anatomical descriptions that I first thought of drawings, and of placing my subjects in those very shapes and postures in which they were explained:—and I conceived, that the descriptions and the drawings might thus be wrought into one perfect whole; being as two parts of one idea, or as one idea presented in a double form, once to the eye, and once again to the ear. If, in any material points, my drawings and descriptions shall thus agree, then must the ideas be made out to my reader clear and fair; and should insinuate themselves into his mind without labour or thought on his part; while he is not toiling from descriptions to drawings; not harassed* with continual interruptions, incongruous ideas, parts de- scribed burbot represented, or represented and not described; not travelling far and wide from the ideas of one author, to the representation of another; never trying to associate ideas which have no affinity, nor striving to bring drawings and descriptions together, which are as far, as may be, from being Part I. B parts x PREFACE. parts of the same idea, or from being capable of that close comparison which the student seeks, and misses with a disappointment which is continually renewed. Such must be the student's labour, (a labour which might wel oppress the most active mind,) if the teacher be not careful to preserve.for him this correspondence of ideas; whether he be employed in comparing his lecture with the subject lying before him, or his drawings with his book. From the first dawnings of anatomical knowledge, or at least from the very earliest invention of anatomical plates, this vitious practice has pre- vailed, that each author, careless of this correspondence of ideas; never thinking of the harmony that ought still to subsist between those notions which are to be conveyed by words, and those which speak to the eye, in the truer language of this subject; intending merely to write a book, and rather with the hopes of procuring himself a name, than with the prouder * expectation of multiplying and varying the sources of instruction, writes his book after his own way; and takes his plates, perhaps, where he is directed by his bookseller, or where he may most safely steal; and often choosing them of a fashion fifty years older than that book, into the gaps and inter- stices of which, they are to be nitched and stuck up, wherever they will make the handsomest figure, not where they will be of the mo^l use. This ironical praise may be very safely given to the older anatomists for their love of original drawings, that having once set their taste to one certain system of plates, they have been very constant and true to their first choice. It PREFACE. xi It is thus that the plates of Vesalius, Fallopius, or Eustachius, have de- scended, with some distortions and abridgments indeed, but still unpolluted with any stain of originality, nor vitiated by any one improvement of repre- sentation or of thought, through the books of Vidus Vidius, Pareus, Ste- phanus, Blanchardus, Veslingius, Riolanus, Verhein, Palfin, Dionis, and a thousand others. Thus have the once beautiful plates of Vesalius, (mangled and deformed, cut down to suit books of all sizes, twisted and accommo- dated to all subjects and all forms of explanation,) descended to us in such distorted shapes, that while we are looking over their books to fix upon them this indictment of plagiarism, we can hardly recognise the original drawings so fairly as to prove the deed. Even in the first invention of our best anatomical figures, we see a conti- nual struggle between the anatomist and the painter; one striving for elegance of form, the other insisting upon accuracy of representation. It was thus that the celebrated Titian consented to draw for Vesalius: though it is but too plain that there can be no truth in drawings, thus monstrously compounded betwixt the imagination of the painter, and the sober remonstrances of the anatomist, striving for accurate anatomy, where the thing cannot be; for those figures, which are supposed to be drawn truly from the anatomical table, are formed from the imagination of the painter merely; sturdy and ac- tive figures, with a ludicrous contrast of furious countenances, and active limbs, combined with ragged muscles, and naked bones, and dissected bow- els, v/hich they are busily employed in supporting, forsooth, or even demon- strating; strating with their hands. This vitious practice of drawing from imagination merely is well exemplified in this, that anatomists have, with one consent, agreed to borrow the celebrated Torso for putting their bowels into, to ex- plain them there; a practice which has descended from the time of Vesalius down to Chesselden, and from him to the systems of the present day. No painter in natural history, in botany, in mechanics, nor in any thing that relates to science, would dare to draw without his subject imme- diately before him: but anatomists, who most of all need this clearness and truth, have been most of all arbitrary and loose in their methods; not representing what they saw, but what they themselves imagined, or what others chos^to^peport to them:—hence the careless copying from book to book, the interpolations of anatomists, the interference of painters in a sub- ject degrading to their higher art, the errors and mistakes of engravers, and the subjection of true anatomical drawing to the capricious interference of the artist, whose rule it has too often been to make all beautiful and smooth, leaving no harshness nor apparent blur in all his work. Even the celebrated book of Albinus has been thus abused; and though he is sparing of cellular substance, and glands, and fat, and vessels; of all that gives a drawing its likeness to the human body; even the little that he had given, is now rounded down into the smoothness of ivory, as if a model had been made and drawn from. Albinus, (naturally sparing of ornament, and wanting in the natural character of parts) lived to see his drawings thus robbed of the little that they possessed of grace or nature; and then produced, as if in mere wan- tonness PREFACE. xjij tonness and sport, under the high title of Anatomy of Painting; but by one, who seems too grave to have intended any stroke of irony, so refined as this. A higher taste prevails in the present age; and the splendid and noble works of Morgagni, Haller, Bidloo, and Albinus, and of Chesselden, Hunter and Cowper, are drawn truly, and from nature, and cannot be for- gotten, while anatomy and the arts depending on it, continue to be esteemed. * Yet even, among those great men, we have seen an idea gradually im- proving, till at last it was brought by Haller to the true point. For Albi- nus's drawings are merely plans: Bidloo's tables are beautiful and mas- terly; but being wanting in regularity and order, they want altogether the clearness of a plan: Haller's drawings are as fair as Bidloo's, as regular as those of Albinus; and combine in one the truth and sometimes the elegance • of drawing, with the plainness and accuracy of a mere plan. If an anatomist shall set up a skeleton, and draw it in postures resem- bling those of life; if he shall dissect the human body, studying and^ drawing it in parts; if he shall continue drawing muscle after muscle, ant! one part after another, till he have gone through the whole; if he shall proceed then to take these drawings and notes of individual parts, and lay them over his first drawings of the bones; if he shall try to match the parts belonging to fifty individual bodies of different sizes, of various forms, dying, some suddenly, and others slowly, some full and muscular, others emaciated XJV PREFACE. emaciated and poor; what will the result of all this be, but a mere plan? It is a plan merely, through all the process, and in all its parts; it cannot be other than a plan when the whole work is accomplished and set up. It was an unlucky theory of this kind that carried the great Albinus, for fifteen years, through a course of laborious dissections, painful and useless to himself; but useful to all those who have to follow him: Still each drawing of his is but a mere plan, resembling no individual body, resem- bling in nothing the general drawing of the body; it is such a view as never is to be seen in a dissection. It is not, like our Cowper's nor like * Bidloo's, a true drawing of muscles dashed with touches of glands, and fat, and cellular substance, which are the natural distinctions of parts; nor mixed with the branchings of arteries or nerves, the chief objects for which we study the muscles; but it is like a statue anatomised, where all the irregula- rities of substance, all the gradations of bones, ligaments, tendons, and flesh, are rounded down with a studied smoothness; it is a figure which the student can never compare with the body as it lies before him for dissec- tion; it is a figure suiting more the eye of the painter than the eye of the anatomist; nor even pleasant to his eye, since it stands in attitudes, which Ho swelling of particular muscles seems to support. In the other extreme is Bidloo; for, in his plates, the master-hand of the painter prevails almost alone; while whole sheets of infinite labour serve only to explain the joinings of the clavicles, or perhaps the form of one trifling muscle or gland. The formal figures of Albinus are more desirable than *> PREFACE. xv than these. But, in either book, we regret either extreme; in Albinus we think that we understand every muscle of the human body! but our know- ledge hardly bears the test of dissection; the drawings and the subject never can be directly compared:—In Bidloo, we have the very subject before us! the tables, the knives, the apparatus, down even to the flies that • haunt the places of dissection, all are presented with the main object of the plate; and thus we have perfect confidence in the drawing; in which also the parts are laid out in a bold and masterly stile, so that the dead subject and the engraving can well bear to be compared. But in Bidloo there is often no classification nor arrangement, no breadth of parts, by wnrch we can understand a whole limb; a thigh is presented with no one marked point; neither the haunch nor the knee are seen: His plates are all elegance in respect of drawing; in respect of anatomy, they are all disorder and con- fusion; and one must be both anatomist and painter to guess what is meant, how the limb is laid, and what parts are seen. It is to Haller that we must give* the palm; who having to do with parts chiefly, and not with a whole, has seldom offended by drawing a dis- sected body, aftfcr a living form; nor by planning and dividing a living form' into the parts of a dissected body; but has given his drawings truly from the anatomical table; and with the truest drawing, has given, very oftenKall the distinctness of a plan. Now we should always remember that anatomy is to be learnt only by dissection; • PREFACE. XVI dissection;* dissection is the first and last business of the student; and when drawings are made for his use, the body should be laid out, as he is to order it in dissection; the belly should be displayed, as he can display it in his subject; an arm should be so drawn, that, when he dissects the arm of the subject, it may fall naturally upon the table, exactly as he finds it in his book; and still the posture of arms, and legs, and heads, should be preserved distinct and clear: enough of the general figure should be kept to explain the posture of parts; there should be kept up a natural correspondence among the several drawings; and while the true anatomical drawing is deli- * If anatomy is to be acquired in this way only, then must we understand by a school of anatomy a school of dissection: Yet those who have had the happiness of prosecuting their studies in foreign universities, or in the London schools, will hardly believe it; that there is at least one place of education much celebrated, and worthy to be so, where the study of anatomy is denied or proscribed.—Where not only it is not praiseworthy, but even dangerous to propose dissections; where the man who may be so bold as to do his duty in that most important study, shall be traduced in filthy pamphlets, thrust officiously, and with in- tendons not of the purest kind, into the hands of every young man who comes to school. If I have felt this, it has been still in silence; till I now speak of it, not formally, but by chance; not with the mean thought of presenting myself as a persecuted man,#nor of indulging a resentment which were lost upon such people, or upon such an occasion; but to make my ^acknowledgments to one, whose generous conduct is not unknown; who is truly interested in the honour and reputation of that university to which he belongs; who is at once an honour and defence to it; and whose single praise, (may I be allowed to say what touches myself so nearly,) " shall outweigh a whole theatre of others." vered 0 PREFACE, XVii vered upon one plate, a plan, if it be required, should be added upon the next. I know but too well that few will submit to learn anatomy, as they should do, by the dry reading of anatomical descriptions, and the tedious comparing of these with the subject, or with their plates; and there are very few, who have learned this useful truth, that they are to become acquainted with parts only by being masters of the whole. One proposes to himself to learn the bones only; another designs to attend chiefly to the joints; a third will study the arteries only, " for the arteries are of chief use "to the surgeon;" another delights in studying the viscera, and is sorely disappointed if he fail to understand the brain; while anatomy absolutely is not to be studied in parts, but is one fair and continued circle, where such is the correspondence, and mutual connection of all the parts, that he who would know the muscles, must first study the bones; and he who would learn the blood-vessels, and nerves, (which are indeed the most important to the surgeon,) must know the muscles thoroughly. It is according to the muscles, that all the other parts are to be described; for when we trace the course of a blood-vessel, it is by pursuing its intricate wanderings among the muscles: it gives its first branch to one muscle, its second branch to another; it forks into two, under the belly of a third; it goes through the substance of a fourth muscle, or accompanies its tendon, or runs along the edge of its fleshy belly: So that in describing a great vessel, we mark its exit from the trunk of the body, its entrance into the arm-pit or groin, its Part I. C course xvJjj • PREFACE. course down the arm or thigh; the dangers, the wounds, the operations of each great artery or nerve, are recorded according to the parts which their several branches supply. And besides these considerations, which cannot but have their weight, we must not forget, that the wounds of the muscles, the sprains of tendons, the rupture of ligaments, the collections under the general fasciae or broad tendons of the limbs, are of themselves sufficient and direct motives; the only ones, indeed, that need be assigned for teach- ing the anatomy of the muscles with particular care. Yet, labour it as we will, how poorly ought we to think of our own dili- gence, when we find Statuaries or Painters studying the anatomy of the human body, with a perseverance and success which may well put us to shame! Painters merely, who having no object so important, nor so inte- resting, as the injuries and accidents of the body, desire nothing more than to understand its external beauty and its form. The Greeks lived in the most delightful countries of the world; the most beautiful people; sometimes happy, and always free. Among them the arts grew and flourished, and were to all ranks the chief business and pleasure of life:—for moderation and simplicity was in their dwellings, while all their riches were reserved for shows and festivals, for adorning their native city, for the public use. Their temples, and streets, and halls were filled with represen- tations of a beauty, which never existed but among that happy people, or lives now only in their works, the admiration and reproach of our laggard times. They PREFACE, XL\ They saw, in their public games, the lovely forms of their youth moving in dignity and grace: For there were.seen in mixed assembly;—in their women, the purest models of female beauty;—in their young men, the grandest dis- plays of the manly form; moving and in action; inspired by every noble emulation, exulting in their strength; or advancing into the public view, only to show the beauties of their form.----Their artists needed no helps of anatomy; but in those delightful spectacles collected all the modes and forms of beauty, to combine them into one high ideal form.* The moderns have come poorly after, in this great career; copying coldly those half-animated forms, which are seen in our schools of the arts fixed in laborious postures, " selling their ignoble beauty for a price." Sensible of this great defect, our artists have taken the help of anatomy to correct this tame unmeaning form; studying with a noble perseverance, (but as their own critics acknowledge to us,) with but poor success. They study each muscle; they note down its direction and use; they guess at its office, and power in certain postures of the body; and try to mark it in its just place. The modern statuary, is like one wandering among the ruins of some noble city, who finding the remains of a temple, traces its lines among the ruins, and, upon this slender knowledge, tries to imagine and coldly repre- sent to us its lost form and ancient grandeur. * " We are taught by philosophy, the natural pre-eminence and high rank of specific " ideas above individual forms." Harris. It sx PREFACE. It was thus that Michael Angelo studied our profession: and studied it so, that the lessons of that great master are a reproach to those who profess anatomical knowledge. His knowledge of anatomy gave to all his works a cast "approaching more nearly to the Etruscan stile, than to the purer taste of the Greeks;" marking them too harshly with traits of learning. His violent distortions and sudden shortenings of the limbs are less pleasing to those who delight in the delicate and higher beauty; fitting him less for representing the female form, than for giving bold and terrible pictures of action and strength. But still he is correct and true in all that belongs to the anatomy of the human body; and his studies are a trial of the anatomist's skill;—for in looking upon one of these,, we find that the knee, the ancle, the neck, the wrist, each head and projecting point of bone, is truly marked; while the distortion of the figure, the violent action of the limbs, the shortenings and bendings of the joints, and the intricacy of the whole posture are difficult in the extreme; but still each limb is true, and every individual muscle swelling in its just degree, so as to preserve correctly the proportions and balance of the whole. Should not we be ashamed to compare our languid endeavours with the perfect knowledge of this great painter, the very notes of whose deeper studies in anatomy we are unable to read? But in our profession, though the very science might almost be defined a knowledge of parts, industry and knowledge are but of low repute, and the very name of diligence and mere labour, a term of reproach; while genius PREFACE. xxj genius is in truth nothing but a strong desire of knowledge, and the spirit of industry its truest mark. Let not the student of anatomy despise labour, nor hope to acquire his knowledge by other means. In justice to his own genius, he must take all advantage of descriptions, and drawings, and dis- sections, and plans; feeling, no doubt, in his first difficulties the need of every help, but striving to mount, by slow degrees, from such elementary books, as that which I now present him with, to those noble and splendid works, which were the beginning of correct anatomy, and will not be for- gotten, while that branch of knowledge is respected or known. And here may I not complain, that, in scheming these plates, I am curbed and bound in by the economy of my plan? If, indeed, by wishing merely, the thing could be accomplished, this word economy should never more be heard of in alf that relates to science; but many are to study our profession who cannot command those noble works; and every young man who is to study an art in which the interests of society are so immediate and so strong, should have the means of instruction put within his reach. If there be any teacher, then, who being circumscribed in point of time, would consent to offer his help and instructions in that form in which he could give them, regarding more his duty than his good name, to him this motive shall be my apology; it shall be my apology to all those who can feel with me a sincere desire to do good and to be useful;—but not to all!—for students have been already warned, that they must be jealous of those who pretend to give them plates; " that some are capable of making plates for " them, and some are not; that those who are best able to give them plates, " either xxJi PREFACE. " either will not undertake the labour, or cannot find time." And so, the half only of this delicate argument was left unpronounced, which was already but too plain. Now, although some unfortunate publisher of Anatomical drawings was thus left impaled upon the horn of this broken dilemma, any implied reproach could not be aimed at me particularly, since my book was not published; it was only advertised. This is perhaps a sort of caution, which it might in certain circumstances be very right, or very dutiful, or very convenient, perhaps, to give; as young men, no doubt, need some careful person to instruct and help their judgments, especially in such ten- der points as this. But should it ever happen, that a man of high rank and character should be found, striving to hurt any poor endeavours of mine, I might feel that rising within me, which it were almost a meanness to sup- press;* and reply to him in the words of Lord Shaftsbury:" " You, Sir, " have a character, which sets you above us far, and releases you from " those decorums, and constraining measures of behaviour, to which we " of an inferior sort are bound; you may liberally deal out your compli- " ments and salutations in what language you think fit; for I shall but " strive with myself to suppress whatever vanity might naturally arise in " me for such a favour bestowed; for, whatever may in the bottom be in- " tended by such treatment, it is impossible for me to term it other than a * Hie sapit, qui te sic utitur, omnia ferre Si potes ac debes. Juvenal. " favour preface. xxiii " favour, since there are certain enmities which it will ever be esteemed an " honour to have deserved."* The author surely will not be accused of such want of taste, and relish for elegant drawing or engraving, as to hold these plates out as excelling in what is beautiful; yet, may he not hope, that they are not wanting in what is useful? They want that size which gives splendour to a grander * Perhaps it was some such critic as this that contrived that great anatomical drawing, which either I should not have mentioned at all, or should have given some short account of.—Indeed it is not easy to deliver a fair history of even the most trivial improvement, and very seldom are we able to discover by what happy chance an idea first sprang up in the mind of its author; but perhaps the history of this grand figure might go in the follow- ing terms. The ingenious Mr. Cruikshanks, with the design of explaining all that he or Dr. Hunter had injected, of the lymphatic system, in one consistent view, took a delicate and elegant drawing of the human body, and laid his lymphatics upon it, explaining at the same time his intention, and making his apologies for this little plan; but he could not foresee that the idea thus first suggested was to receive, in passing through a greater mind, a grander form.—The expedient was tried again, and the second anatomist resolv- ing to outdo at one stroke all his rivals, and knowing of no surer way than this, had an engraving made of a most gigantic size! An Askapart! A figure of full six feet in height; which (bating the clumsiness of conception) has turned out to be a drawing of such singu- lar beauty, that it will not be rivalled; and as there can be no representation of the human body of more than six feet high, it positively cannot be excelled.—All those who under- stand the intention and effect of engraving, or who have any idea of the bold and free man- ner which class drawings require, must wonder even at the report of such a thing; but not as our poet Young wonders, " for wonder is involuntary praise;" if the emotion be involun- tary, it will most likely be of another kind, work, work, and of course that proportion, which gives the full idea of the human body; they want that elegant drawing, and careful engraving, which should do any idea justice, which is so necessary in delivering the minuter parts with character and truth; all is wanting that belongs to the idea of a grander work; an idea, which the author could not but feel, yet durst not indulge. But still he hopes they may be found simple, intelligible, and plain; having whatever belongs to a little system of plates, intended merely to accompany a book of anatomy, and chie#y designed for those who are entering on their studies, and but little advanced; and he trusts that he will be indulged, in trying fairly, whether by attending to the correspondence of ideas and representations, whether by ordering his drawings so as to suit his book, whether by a careful combination of descriptions, drawings, and plans, he shall not be able to deliver a system of anatomy, intelligible, or perhaps easy for his pupils; enabling them to enter the dissecting room with confidence, and to leave it, not without instruction; and qualifying them also for under- standing those illustrations, which he shall continue to give, or the corrections and remarks of other teachers:—for that student has but a mean idea of the value of his profession, who does not seek all means of instruction; and the teacher must have a poor conceit of his present knowledge, who does not hope, by his own diligence, to correct himself; or to receive lessons from others, sometimes friendly, too often in this .world tinctured with its enmi- ties and passion; such as are not pleasant in receiving, which still it is a duty to receive. WHILE PREFACE. xxv WHILE I have ventured to speak so fully concerning the general design of these plates, it is very natural for me to say also a few words concerning the mechanical labour. I have drawn my plates with my own hand. I have engraved some of these plates, and etched almost the whole of them: Which I mention only to show, that they have their chance of being correct in the anatomy, and that whatever, by my interference, they may have lost in elegance, they have gained, I hope, in truth and accuracy.—And while I mention this, I must not be ungrateful to Mr. Beugo, whose skill will, I hope, be shown on some higher occasion, and whose character must not be hurt by any thing that may be seen here; for wherever in these plates all is fair and clean, it is owing to his care; and those blots of execution, which are not fairly covered, have not come through his correcting hand.—Whatever he has done alone has been hurried, allowing no time for artful or laborious engra- ving, though still all that is here, I hope, is correct and true. I have endeavoured, also, to keep the explanation of these plates to the most simple and natural form; knowing, by long experience, that anato- mical descriptions are, even to the most earnest and diligent student, very tedious and hard to be understood. The loading of such a study as Ana- tomy with peculiar or affected language, and with needless terms of art, Part I. D where xxvj PREFACE. where too many are really needful, has a tawdry and vulgar appearance, of which we have much reason to be ashamed; it is a barbarous jargon, to which our ear is subdued only by long and inveterate custom: and our continual use of this trashy language in school books, presents to the stu- dent rhe difficult and harassing task of learning at once a new science and a strange language. Swift, who commends simplicity of language, and enforces his lesson by the most beautiful examples, says, " When the water is clear you will " easily see to the bottom;" but anatomists have stirred up their techni- cal terms so thick, that the student has but a poor chance of seeing to the bottom, unless we shall agree in letting this sediment quietly subside again. The medical student is, indeed, so accustomed to hard words, that he can scarcely think any book accurate or complete that is without them; and however well he may understand its descriptions, cannot believe them true. He is not only accustomed to know the most difficult parts by the hardest names, but to have the detail given to him in such expletives, as the Pos- terior, Anterior, Superior, Inferior;* and often after all, this Superior * Our science in this country has got this vile farrago, of Anterior, Superior, &c. through bad translations of Latin and French, where such words as Sufierieure or Superior are in their place. Anterior PREFACE. XXVii Anterior portion is but one extremity forsooth, or one portion of a part, which having other posterior extremities, or anterior portions, has to pass still through a long declension of these curious terms, which have not, like the terms in any other science, the property of conveying more regular and clear ideas, nor of saving superfluous words. They stand in place of the simple expression of upper or lower ends.—Now this clutter of hard names confounds the ear, as well as puzzles the judgment of the student, and is truly a disgrace to the science;—it looks as if we believed Anatomy to con- sist in strange terms, and that we could not write in true character of Ana- tomists, but by departing as widely as possible from the language of gentle- men. I have ventured, instead of " setting up this rank and file of tall opaque " words betwixt the reader's imagination and my own conceptions," to make every description as simple as may be,—using no hard words, but the pure names; choosing rather that my book should be plainly understood, than admired as a piece of unintelligible profound anatomy. FIRST BOOK. \ OF THE BONES. KOjYES cur lift/for PIj.1 . II JaeodJPloehf,. 9e> Pub" by AntS Finlev Philade /tO.YES II Jatob JPlooher Sr P^J>" tyAnt/wnyFinfy Philud? BOOK FIRST. OF THE BONES. PLATE I. Vwvwv%/vvwvw This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 35, to page 52. w\.vwvw«/wvw IN this Plate are represented the Adult and Foetal Sculls, that they may be fairly compared with each other;-----and there is explained here, not the minute anatomy of the individual parts, but the general view pnly, viz. the Bones of w;iich the Cranium is composed;-----the Sutures by which the several bones are joined. And, in the Foetal Scull, the form and pro- cess of Ossification; and the interstices called Fontanelles, which are always left membranous, during the slow ossification of the child's head. FIGURE I. 32 OF THE BOXES. FIGURE I. THE ADULT SCULL. \ The Frontal Bone, where (a) shows the serrated edge which forms the Coronal Suture;----(£) the flatter part behind the Eye, which is plain and hollow for lodg- ing the Temporal Muscle;----(c) is the acute angle of the bone, which is called the External Angular Process, from its forming the outer angle or corner of the eye;----and (d) is that prominence over the Nose, under which there is a small cavity within the bone, called the Frontal Sinus, which the surgeon avoids in per- forming the operation of trepan; though it is rather from the difficulty of perforating this part that he shuns it, than from any danger in the perforation. B The Parietal Bone. The letter B points to that great line, which running ac- cording to the length of the bone, with a rainbow-like arch, divides the sur- face into two equal parts, of which the upper and smooth-part (e) is covered with the thin expanded tendon of the Occipito-Frontalis Muscle, while the lower part (f) has its surface radiated; and these radii are the impressions of the particular bundles of which the Temporal Muscle* consists; so that " the white " semicircular line (B) represents the origin of the temporal muscle; and the con- " verging lines on the surface (/*) express the manner in which the fibres of " the muscle are gathered into a smaller compass to pass under the jugum." Vid. P. 61.—(g) points to a small hole in the back part of this bone, which is sometimes large, sometimes wanting; and which gives passage to a small vein of the integuments, (going inwards to the longitudinal sinus or great vein of the head) and also to a small artery, which accompanies the vein: (A) marks that corner which, running down sharper and longer into the temple, is often called BOOK FIRST, PLATE FIRST. -, called the Spinous Process of the Parietal Bone; and this corner is the more to be observed, that it is under it that the great artery of the Dura Mater runs. C The Occipital Bone, of which but a very small part is seen in this direc- tion. D Is the Temporal Bone, seen full and direct from one side; where (i) marks that thin upper edge, which forms the squamous suture; (6) the deep and flat part of the bone, on which the temporal muscle lies; (/) the Mastoid or Mamil- lary Process, named from its resemblance to a nipple; (m) the Styloid Process, which stands out over the back part of the throat to give origin to several mus- cles of the throat and tongue; (n) is the Zygomatic Process, which, joining with a similar process of the cheek bone, forms the zygoma or arch; () shows a small hole, which, like that of the parietal bone, transmits a vein passing from without into the great sinus or vein within the scull, and which be- longs sometimes to the temporal, sometimes to the occipital bone, or sometimes is in the suture betwixt them. E The Os Malae, or bone of the cheek, which forms the lower and fore part of the socket for the eye, and supports the cheek; and by its prominence or flatness gives the form of the face;----one process (jf) is seen here going up to meet the angular process of the frontal bone, and so is named the Angular Pro- cess of the Cheek Bone; while (r) another process, called the Zygomatic Process of the Cheek Bone, go|s^ meet the zygomatic process of the temporal bone forming the complete jugum, or yoke, under which the temporal muscle passes; and from that prominent part of the cheek bone, which is marked (i), there go two remarkable muscles, one the Masseter or Grinding Muscle, which passes from Part I. E this l4, OF THE BONES. this part of the cheek bone into the angle of the lower jaw to pull it upwards: while another, a very slender and delicate muscle, goes from the same pomt inwards towards the angle of the mouth, and is called Zygomaticus, or Distor- tor Oris. F points to the small bones of the Nose, named Nasal Bones; for there are two of them forming the root of the nose, and the left one is seen here; the small letter (?) points to what is called the Lateral Nasal Suture, which unites it to the upright process of the upper jaw bone. G Points to the Upper Jaw Bone, of which scarcely any thing is seen in this view, except the circle called the Alveolar or Socket Process, in which the teeth are set. H Marks the Lower Jaw Bone; and the letter is placed upon that point of the Bone which is called the Angle, into which the Masseter Muscle is fixed;----. (u) marks that process of the jaw which is called Coronoid or Horn-like, which goes up under the Zygoma to receive the great temporal muscle as it passes under the arch;—and (t>) is the Condyloid Process, or that branch of the lower jaw bone, which is crowned with the Condyle or head, forming the joint or hinge upon which the jaw moves; which head of the jaw bone is felt by putting the finger before the flap of the ear. The Sutures are, 1. The Coronal Suture, running across the head, joWing the frontal to the parietal bones, extending from ear to ear; and going down into the Temple, where it joins the Squamous Suture, and, like it., is scaled, (z. e.) wants the indentations of a re- gular suture. 2. The BOOK FIRST, PLATE FIRST. 35 2. The Lambdoidal Suture, joining the occipital to the parietal bones; striding over the occiput, resembling the Greek letter A.—But the resemblance is a little hurt by the accident of an Os Wormianum, or irregular bone, such as is found more frequently in this suture than in any other; sometimes single, as in the scull from which this was drawn; but sometimes in great numbers, and not unfrequently of the size of a crown piece; these Ossa Wormiana may displace the Lambdoidal Suture so, that being out of the usual direction, it may be mistaken for a fracture. 3. The Sagittal Suture, joining the parietal bones to each other; extending from the Lambdoidal to the Coronal Suture, as an arrow lies betwixt the string and the bow. 4. The Temporal or Squamous Suture, belonging chiefly to the temporal bone; and called squamous or scaled, because the edges of the temporal and parietal bones are there extremely thin, and are laid over each other like the scales of armour. One part marked (xv) lying betwixt the occipital and parietal bones, is named the Additamentum Suturse Squamosa?, or Supplement of the Squamous Suture. 5. Marks a part of the Sphenoidal Suture, joining the wing of the Sphaenoid Bone, to the temporal, frontal, and parietal bones, for, in this hollow under the zygoma, all these bones meet by thin scaled edges, and lap over each other; so that all the sutures in the Temple are squamous. 6. The Transverse Suture, is one which runs across the face, through the middle of the orbits, and over the root of the nose, and the end of it appears here, joining the angular processes of the frontal bone, and of the cheek bone. 7. The Zygomatic Suture. FIGURE II. 36 OF THF. BONES FIGURE II. THE FCETAL SCULL. EXPLAINS the FffiTAL Scull;----where we find the holes, processes, and other marks, very imperfect: Of course a shorter and more simple explanation will serve. \ Is the Frontal Bone; and the letter is so placed, as to mark the central point, where the ossification begins; the ossification being more perfect at this point, and going in a radiated form towards all the edges of the bone, leaves the ossification very imperfect all round the edge of the bone; and at (. (y) Marks the place where the Os Unguis should be seen; but it is pulled away to show the numerous cells of the (Ethmoid Bone. These cells are divided into two sets, one set attached to the Orbitary Plate, or flat square side of the (Eth- moid Bone, the other set to the Spongy Bone. 6. (j1*) Figure IV. shows that set of the cells, which more particularly belongs to the Spongy Bone, and (A) Figure III. shows the cells opened from, above, to give a view of those, which more particularly belong to the Orbitary Plate. Whatever farther is necessary to the demonstration of the (Ethmoid Bone, is to be found in Plates V. and VI. where the cells are particularly well explained. F I G U R E S V. and VI. rliXPLAIN the Sphenoid, Pteregoid, or Wedge-like Bone; it is named Pteregoid from its resemblance to a bat, and is so presented here, as to suggest the likeness. Part I. G Figure 50 OF THE BONES. Figure V. shows the back view of the bone, viz. that which is turned towards the scull;__Figure VI. shows the front view, viz. that which is connected with the bones of the face. Its Processes are, 1. The Alae, or wings, commonly named the Temporal Processes, for they lie in the Temples; the Temporal Muscles lie upon them, and their upper edge is squamous like the edge of the Temporal bone, and forms part of the Squamous Suture. 2. Marks that smooth surface of this Temporal Process, which, being turned to- wards the eye, enters into the Orbit, and so is named the Orbitary Process of the Sphoenoid Bone. 3. The small and sharp Spinous Process. 4. The hook-like point of the Spinous Process, which is often named the Styloid Process. 5. The External Pteregoid Processes; which are two flat and broad plates. 6. The two internal Pteregoid Processes; which stand off a little higher, and more direct from the body of the bone; they are smaller; and terminate in a little hook. The Pteregoid Muscles, which go to the lower jaw, arise from the processes themselves; and the Tensor Palati Muscle turns round this little hook. 7. The Azygous, or single Process; which is single, because it stands out from the middle of the bone. It forms part of the partition for the Nose, and is thence named Nasal Process. 8. The BOOK FIRST, PLATE THIRD. :, - 8. The two Anterior Clynoid Processes. 9. The two Posterior Clynoid Processes. 10. The space bounded by these four Clynoid Processes; which, from resembling a Turkish saddle, is named Sella Turcica. 11. The two little wings of Ingrasias, called the Transverse Spinous Processes. The cells, which occupy the body of this bone, lying under the Sella Turcica, arc to be seen at (,§•) Figure VI. and again in Plate VI. The Holes proceed next in order, and are marked also with a suit of numbers, that the demonstration may be continued and entire. . 1. (a) The two Optic Holes, transmitting the Optic Nerves; which are the second pair of the scull; for the first pair, viz. the Olfactory Nerves, pass through the (Ethmoid Bone. 2. (6) The Foramen Lacerum; or wide hole, which permits the third, the fourth, the first branch of the fifth, and the sixth pairs of Nerves to pass; for all these are smaller nerves, destined for the Muscles of the Eye, and enter thus at the bottom of the socket, while the second pair is the proper Optic Nerve. 3. (c) The Foramen Rotundum; it transmits the second branch of the fifth pair which goes to the upper Jaw. 4. (d) Is 52 OF THE BONES. 4. (d) Is the Foramen Ovale, (larger than the Foramen Rotundum) which transmits the third branch of the fifth pair, going to the lower jaw. 5. (e) The Spinous Hole, the Foramen Spinale, which is a small hole in the very point or tip of the Spinous Process. It is not for the transmission of a nerve; but for the entrance of that small artery which belongs to the Dura Mater, and which goes along the inner surface of the Parietal Bone, marking it with its furrow. A bristle is passed through this hole in one side, to show the course of the artery. 6. The sixth Hole. The Pteregoidean, or Vidian Hole, is not to be seen in this view; but is to be seen in the next Plate, IV. where it is marked with its proper number, 6. (jf) Represents the rough surface where the cuneiform or wedge-like part of this Sphoe- noid Bone has been broken off from the wedge-like process of the Occipital Bone. (g) Marks the Cells of the Sphoenoid Bone, which are occasionally very large, as in this Bone; and which make all the bone hollow under the Cella Turcica. (li) Shows where the Palate Bone had adhered to the Sphcenoid;—and the Palate Bone, being torn away, has broken, and left some of its small cells sticking here to the Sphoenoid Bone. Ar. B. The Cells of the Palate Bone are explained in the next plate. This Bone is connected;----at (i) Figure VI. with the (Ethmoid Bone before;—at (/) Figure V. with the Os Occipitis behind; at (1.) with the Temporal Bones in the Temples. The Spinous Process (3.) is locked in betwixt the Temporal and Occipital BOOK FIRST, PLATE THIRD. 53 Occipital Bones;—and the Pteregoid Processes (5.) are joined to the Palate Bone, and form the back of the Nostrils. Vide next plate, where the Pteregoid Processes are seen in their place. FIGURES VII. and VIII. THE VII. and VIII. figures of this plate explain the Upper Jaw Bone; Figure VIII. showing its Internal Surface, viz. that next to the nose, with the wide opening of the Antrum, or Great Cavity of the Jaw. Figure VII. showing the outside of the Bone, explaining the outside walls of the Antrum, or Great Cavity: so that, by comparing the two sides of the bone, one can easily understand the great extent of the Antrum, or Cavity; and how pulling a tooth will open the way for matter flowing out from it. 1. The Nasal Process which rises up on each side to form the sides of the nose. The Arch forms the sides of the nose; and the rough pointed ending of this Nasal Process is connected with the Os Frontis. 2. Is the Orbitary Plate, or that plate which forms the floor of the eye, and the roof of the Antrum, or Cavity. 3. The Malar Process, or that broad rough surface upon which the Cheek Bone rests. 4. The * yiy OF THE BONES. 4. The Alveolar Process, or that projecting semicircle, which holds the teeth; thence named Alveolar, or Socket Process. 5. The Palate Plate, or Process, of which we see the rough edge only, viz. that edge by which the Middle Palate Suture, the suture in the roof of the mouth, is formed. N. B. The Palate Plate is seen full in Plates IV., V. and VI. 6. The Antrum Maxillare, or Higmorianum. This great cavity appears with a very wide opening here in the naked bone; but this opening is covered in the entire scull, both by the lower spongy bone, and by the nasal plate of the palate bone. This nasal plate of the palate bone is left in this drawing covering a part of the Antrum; the rest of this opening is naturally covered by a membrane, which leaves but one small hole. The Nasal Plate of the Palate Bone which is left sticking upon the Antrum is marked (a). (6) Marks the only Hole of the Upper Jaw Bone. It is named the Infra-Orbi- tary Hole. A chief nerve of the face comes out here, named (with its hole) the Infra-Orbitary Nerve. The proper Infra-Orbitary Hole is marked (b); and the Canal by which the nerve comes down is marked (c): at this place the nerve lies under the eye, upon the floor of the orbit,—making a very large groove and hole upon this Orbitary Plate of the Upper Jaw Bone; for arteries running along bones do not make deeper grooves than the nerves do, N. ^This BOOK FIRST, PLATE THIRD. 55 N. B. This Infra-Orbitary Nerve is a chief branch dl the Superior iMaxillary Nerve. (L l\ 1 111 2 I 4H VIII Jabcob.J.PlccKtr-. Sc. PubUttud by Anthony Fiitiey Philadelphia BOOK FIRST, PLATE FOURTH PLATE IV. WVVIWVWVWVW This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 85, to page 104. ) the two Lower Spongy Bones, which are independent bones hurig by a hook upon the side of the Antrum Highmorianum, and consequently hanging very low in the nostril. FIGURES IV., V. and VI. EXPLAIN the Palate Bones; where Figures IV. and V. show the two Palate Bones separated from each other, and from the other bones. Figure VI. shows the two Palate Bones joined. On these drawings, the same figures still mark the same points,—the numbers marking Processes, and the letters running under them marking as usual the lesser parts. 1. Shows BOOK FIRST, PLATE FOURTH. 51) i. Shows the Palate Plate, or Process of the Palate Bones; and in Figure VI. the palate plates are joined, so as to form the back part of the middle palate suture: (jf) is the broad rough surface by which the two palate bones are opposed to each other, and which forms the Middle Palate Suture: (r) is the middle point, from which the Uvula, Pap, or Gurgulion hangs down. 2. Is the Pteregoid Process of the palate bones, having a little hollow into which the Pteregoid Processes of the Sphoenoid Bone are received. 3. Is the Nasal Plates, which lie within the nostrils; and which, by lying flat upon the sides of the Antrum Highmorianum, close it in part. 4. Is the Orbitary Processes; for the Nasal Process lies up along all the side of the nostril, and ends in a broader knob, which enters into the socket of the eye at its deepest part, and is there named Orbitary Process. 5. Marks the Cell or Cells of the Palate Bone, which are in its Orbitary Process, and which are joined to those of the Sphoenoid bone. FIGURES VII. and VIII. THE two Spongy Bones. Figure VII. Explains the rolled and spongy appearance of the spongy bone. It repre- sents that surface which is turned outwards, i. e. towards the septum of the nose. Figure VIII. shows that flatter side which is turned towards the Antrum Highmo- rianum, and closes it; and the letter (s) marks the small point, or hook-like pro- cess, by which this lower spongy bone is hung upon the edge of the opening into the Antrum Highmorianum. (t) is the fore end of the spongy bone, which is turn- ed forwards in the nose, covering the lower end of the nasal duct; so that in seeking to clear the duct with a probe, we must pass it under this point, (u) is the other end of the spongy bone, which is turned backwards in the nostrils. The 60 OF THE BONES. The position of the spongy bone in the nostrils is well explained in Figure III. and the fore part of the same spongy bone is seen in Plate VI. Figure II. FIGURE IX. Represents the vomer. 1. The Groove, in its upper part, by which it sits astride upon the Azygous Pro- cesses of the (Ethmoid and Sphoenoid Bones. 2. Its Lower Groove by which it sits down upon the rising point of the Maxillary and palate bones: and (r) Figure VI. shows how it stands upon the palate bones. The letter (u) Figure VI. shows the Great Groove turned upwards to be fixed to the Azygous Processes of the (Ethmoid and Sphoenoid bones, and the letter (n) Figure III. shows the Vomer in its right place in the nose, dividing the nostrils. 3. The Ragged Grooved Surface, which looks forwards and receives the plate of cartilage, which completes the artition betwixt the nostrils. FIGURE X. Represents the Cheek bone. 1. Shows the Upper Orbitary Process. 2. Marks the Inferior or Lower Orbitary Process. 3. The Maxillary Process. 4. The Zygomatic Process; and 5. Marks the plate which forms the lower and fore part of the socket for the eye, and so is named the Internal Orbitary Process. FIGURES GOOK FIRST, PLATE FOURTH. tfl FIGURES XL and XII. EXPLAIN the lower jaw bone, in two views; but every Figure applies to each bone, flti the Figures proceed in the order of the Text Book. 1. The Chin; the lines comprehend the Chin in their course, and they terminate so as to mark the small Mental Holes on both sides of the Chin, where the nerves, after having furnished the teeth, come out upon the face. 2. Marks the line of the Base of the Jaw, extending from the Chin to the Angle. 3. Marks the Angle of the Jaw, which is irregular and knotty, by the insertion of the great Masseter Muscle. 4. The Coronoid Processes of the jaw. 5. The Condoloid or Articulating Processes; (z/) the great hole which receives the lower Maxillary Nerve. We see here likewise the deep and wide groove that leads to the nerve; and another deep, but smaller groove, which shows where the nerve which belongs to the tongue, departs from the great nerve, and runs along the inner side of the jaw bone betwixt it and the tongue. 6. Is the Alveolar or Socket Process, with the" teeth in it. PLATE HOXKS. Oia/t'rt^for TV,. / J Be// ri,l Pub* by Anlhnny PinUv I'hjlad Jn*,d s r/„r,,,r Sc 1851 HI LYES EL . I Jacob ./ Plocher. Srpt Pub * bv Anthvnyfinlcy Philnd BOOK FIRST, PLATE FIFTH PLATE V. VWWVVWVWVW This Plate explains the Text Book, in all the Chapters upon the Scull. VWVWWVVWVW IS a general view of the Cranium,----explaining and connecting the de- monstrations of the individual parts. FIGURE I. IN this view, where the Cranium or Scull Cap is cut off, and the basis seen from within, the thing that first strikes the eye is,—the formal and regular division of the Cranium into three hollows (1. 2. 3.); and each of these is like a stage Qr deck, one lower than the other. (1.) Is the fore part of the basis of the Scull, the shallowest and most superficial hol- low. It is formed chiefly by the Frontal, (Ethmoidal and Sphoenoidal Bones. It is marked with undulating lines, corresponding with the intestine-like convolutions of the brain. .This division supports the Fore Lobes of the brain, and gives pas- sage to the Olfactory and Optic Nerves. (2.) Is a large hollow, cup-like, deeper than the first;----dying under the temple; formed chiefly by the wings of the Temporal and Sphoenoidal, and by the corners of the Frontal and Parietal Bones. This holds the Middle Lobes of the brain, contains the Petrous part of the Temporal Bone;—gives out all the smaller Nerves be- longing 04 OF THE BONES longing to the Eye, and all the great nerves belonging to the Upper and Lower Jaws; it gives also the Auditory Nerves, which enter here into the Petrous Por- tion of the Temporal Bone. (3.) Is a stage lower still, being the deepest hollow of the three; is formed chiefly by the cup of the Occipital Bone, and by a small part of the Temporal Bones;—and as the Cerebellum supports the back lobes of the brain, this hollow may represent the back lobes, or the third division of the brain;—so this last hollow contains the Cerebellum; gives out the Lingual Nerves, which pass through a hole of the Os Occipitis; and sends out the Spinal Marrow through the Foramen Magnum, or Great Hole. FIRST DIVISION. In the first division are seen the parts and holes of the Frontal, (Ethmoidal, and Sphcenoidal Bones. Frontal Bone. (a) Marks the Cancelli, or Diploe of the Frontal Bone so cut as to make the Cancelli appear very wide; but that proceeds from having cut the scull very low, which has taken off the outer layer of the Orbitary Process. (£) Marks the regular or proper Frontal Sinuses, which are thus understood to be like enlarged cells of the Diploe; while (c) shows a part of the cells going down into the Orbitary Plates: for the sinuses sometimes extend thus all over the eye, as in this scull; and the letter (c), while it points to this extension of the Frontal Sinus, is so placed as to mark the undulating forms, which the lobes of the brain give to this thin Orbitary plate of the Frontal Bone. (Ethmoidal BOOK FIRST, PLATE FIFTH t>.-> (Ethmoidal Bone. There is incased betwixt (c c) the Orbitary Plates of the Frontal Bone, the Cri- briform plate of the (Ethmoidal Bone;—where (d) marks the Cribriform Plate with its numerous small holes for transmitting the Olfactory Nerves, (e) Marks the Crista Galli, whence the falx begins. (/) Points to that hole which is called the Blind Hole, which is as small as a pin's point, and which belongs in common to the (Ethmoidal and Frontal Bones. N. B. The small crack to which the lines running downwards from (d) point, and which indicates the Suture surrounding the (Ethmoidal Bone and named (Eth- moidal Suture, can hardly be mistaken. Sphenoidal Bone. The Sphoenoid Bone is known here by its two processes named Transverse Spi- nous, or Little Wings of Ingrasias marked (,§•); the lines from the letter (,§•) point to the Sphoenoidal Suture, which separates this Bone from the Frontal and (Ethmoid Bones, (h h) Mark the two Anterior Clinoid Processes, (i) Marks the Posterior Clinoid Process; for it is rather one Process terminating in two little horns or knobs, (i) Is set down in the Sella Turcica in the very centre of the Cli- noid Processes where the Pituitary Gland is lodged. (/ /) Mark the two Optic Holes, which are scarcely seen, for they lie under the two Anterior Clinoid pro- cesses, so as to be almost hidden by them:----The two lines going from the letter, (w) mark the two wide grooves, which are formed by the Carotid Arteries as they rise by the sides of the Sella Turcica; and the letter (m) itself sits upon a large groove made by the Optic Nerves, where they enter into the Optic Holes. Part I. I SECOND 66 OF THE BONES. SECOND DIVISION. This division shows points of the Sphoenoid also, but chiefly of the Temporal Bone, and of the Corner of the Parietal Bone. Sphenoid Bone. (n) Shows the Foramen Lacerum under the Wing of Ingrasias, by which all the smaller nerves enter into the socket for furnishing the eye-ball, (o) Shows behind that, the Fpramen Rotundum for the nerve of the upper jaw: (/>) The Foramen Ovale for the nerve of the lower jaw:—and (q) shows the Spinous Hole, which is large here that it may be seen, (for naturally it is extremely small,) and the Groove formed by the great artery of the Dura Mater as it enters by this spinous hole, is also seen here (r) marked very hard and strong. Parietal Bone. It is upon the corner of the Parietal Bone, that this groove (r) is formed by the artery of the Dura Mater. Temporal Bone. The point of the Petrous Portion of the Temporal Bone is seen here projecting into the basis or floor of the cranium. The point of the triangular Petrous Portion is marked (s); and the Internal Auditory Hole, by which the auditory nerve or 7th nerve enters into the ear, is marked (?). THIRD DIVISION. In this third division nothing almost but the Occipital Bone is seen; and its parts are these—(u u) The two great hollows in which the lobes of the cerebellum lie_____ (y) is I • BOOK FIRST, PLATE FIFTH gy (v) is the Ridge betwixt these two hollows, which rises very high, is called the Internal Spine of the Occipital Bone, and has a small falx (somewhat like the larger one) attached to it. (w) Marks the Foramen Lacerum, or wide irregular hole betwixt the Temporal and Occipital Bones, through which the Lateral Sinus passes to go down into the neck, where it forms the Great Internal Jugular Vein. And the 8th pair of nerves, or Par Vagum, accompanies the vein through this hole. (x) Stands upon the very middle of the Cuneiform or Wedge-like Process of the Occipital and Sphoenoidal Bones; for the two bones meet here, without any deter- mined or regular limits for either.—And (y) stands in the centre of the Foramen Magnum, by which the Spinal Marrow goes down into the canal of the Spine. , FIGURE II. XHIS drawing explains the Basis of the Scull, as it is turned towards the neck and throat. But this surface is so rough, irregular, and confused, that it will not bear that fair arrangement and complete enumeration of processes which the first figure bears. The surfaces chiefly to be observed, and which may serve in some degree to arrange the subject, are 1st, The Jaw and Palate Bones. 2d, The Root, of the Temporal Bones. 3d, The Lower Part of the Occipital Bones. 1. About the Palate we observe, (a) The Alveolar Process of the upper Jaw Bone, robbed of many of its teeth; (b) the Palate Plate of the Upper Jaw Bone, forming a chief part of the roof of the mouth; (c) the Palate Plate of the proper Palate Bone, which forms nearly one third of the Palate; (d) the Transverse Palate Suture, which runs across the Palate, joining the Palate Bone to the Palate Process of the Jaw Bone; (e) The Middle or Longitudinal Palate Suture, which joins the bones of the opposite sides; (f) the Foramen Incisivum, or Anterior Palatine Hole, lying just behind the first cutting teeth, and common to both bones; (g) the posterior Palatine Hole, which permits the 58 OF THE BONES. the Palatine Nerve and Artery, to come down from the back of the nostrils to the Palate. The backs of the nostrils are formed by the rising plates of the proper Palate Bones, and by the Pteregoid Processes. At the back of the nostrils, we see, (h) the Vomer, so named from its resemblance to a plough-share, and standing exactly in the middle, for it is the partition of the nose; (i) the Outer Pteregoid Process, forming the back of the nostrils; (i) the Hook of the Inner Pteregoid Process, upon which the tendon of the Tensor Palati Muscle turns: and a small tip of the Palate Bones, which is at this point covered by these Pteregoid Processes of the Sphoenoid Bone, is named, the Pteregoid Process of the Palate Bone. And (/) marks the appearance outwardly of the Wedge-like Processes of the Occipital and Sphoenoidal Bones. 2. About the roots of the Temporal Bones we have, (m) the Root of the Zygomatic Process, where the Condyle of the lower Jaw plays; and (n) the Ridge just before the Condyle, upon the top of which the Condyle stands, in a dangerous situation, almost out of the socket when the jaws are opened wide; and which it slips over, getting into the hollow for the Temporal Muscle, when the lower jaw is dislocated, (o) Is the Mamillary, and (p) the Styloid Process, of the Temporal Bone, (q) Is the Oval Hole of the Sphoenoid Bone, for transmitting the great nerve of the lower jaw. (r) Is the Spinous Hole of the Sphoenoid Bone, for admitting the artery of the Dura Mater. (s) Is the hole near the point of the Temporal Bone for the Carotid Artery, (t 11) The Crucial Ridges of the Os Occi- pitis.—(«) The Posterior Tuber, or the Acute and Prominent Point of the Occipital Bone.—(x) The Additamentum Suturse Lambdoidalis, which joins the back corner of the Temporal to the Occipital Bone. The Zygoma, as formed by the Zygomatic Processes of the Temporal Bone, and of the Cheek Bone, is marked (y); and the hollow under the Zygoma for lodging the Temporal Muscle and the branch of the lower jaw to which that muscle is attach- ed, is marked (z); and is seen in this view on both sides full and large. SUPPLEMENTARY BOOK FIRST, PLATE FD?TH 69 SUPPLEMENTARY EXPLANATION TO PLATE V. OF THE BONES. HAVING, in doing the outline to this plate, found it possible to mark the points more correctly, I have added the following explanation in this sup- plementary page; and that they may unite easily with the first explanation, I repeat the essential points. In the Upper Scull there are, 1. The Optic hole (/). 2. On each side of the letter (m), there is the likeness of a second Optic hole, but it, is merely the impression which the last turn of the Carotid Artery makes. 3. (n) Is the Foramen Lacerum. 4. (o) Is the Foramen Rotundum. 5. (p) Is the Foramen Ovale. 6. (q) Is the Spinous Hole. 7. (z) Marks the round Hole by which the Carotid Artery enters the scull, after wind- ing through a crooked canal in the Temporal Bone, about an inch in length. 8. The figure (8.) points to a great breach in the rocky part of the Temporal bone; this breach is occasioned by the falling away of the Cartilaginous part of the Eusta- chian Tube. Therefore this wide breach is found in every Church-yard scull; and the hole for the Carotid Artery marked (z), opens where this breach ends. 9. It is observed of the great hole marked (xv), for the passage of the Jugular Vein, that it is large and irregular; that it is almost divided into two openings, by a small projecting point; the line extending from the letter (w), touches exactly this small point. 70 °F THE BONES. point. The eighth pair of nerves passes in the smaller opening before the point, ' the Jugular Vein passes in the greater opening behind it; a small bridle of the Dura Mater goes across from this point, and makes the two holes distinct in the fresh scull, and defends the eighth pair of nerves from the pressure of the Jugular Vein, when, (as often happens) it is turgid with blood. 10. The number (10.) marks the hole under the Condyle by which the ninth pair of nerves, the Lingual Nerve, goes out. In Figure II. the chief points are these, (f) Marks the Anterior Palatine Hole. (g) Marks the Posterior Palatine Hole. (ft) The Vomer, or bone forming the partition of the nose. (i) The outer Pteregoid Process. (k) The Inner Pteregoid Process. (/) The Cuneiform Process of the Occipital Bone. (1.) Marks the Foramen Lacerum, not that which is marked (n) in figure i. but ano- ther Foramen Lacerum belonging also to the orbit, not for the transmission of nerves, but for the lodging of fat. (q) Marks the Foramen Ovale. (r) The Spinous Hole. (2.) Is that great breach which is left by the fading of the Cartilaginous end of the Eustachian Tube. (s) Is the hole for the passage of the Carotid Artery, which as on the inside of the scull opens immediately behind the breach. (3.) Marks the great Thimble-like hole, by which the Lateral Sinus comes out from the Scull, to form the great Jugular Vein. (4.) Is a hole seated behind the Condyle, the hole marked (10.) in figure i. is before the Condyle, and gives passage to the nilyth or Lingual pair of nerves; this smaller hole is behind the Condyle, and gives passage to a small vein of the neck. PLATE nox ks Out//ttr Lor PL.M. J Bill del jMoi.J.Ploclnr. Sr Pit bluhed. InAmheny. finUy.Philadelphia t IJ (LYES /'/>.. , . J.J.P/orhei-.Sc J.Bell del Pub? by.Anthony.FmlevP'"1"'1'■ BOOK FIRST, PLATE SIXTH. 71 PLATE VI. vvvwv w\. vwvw This Plate explains the Text Book, in all the Chapters ufton the SculL wwwwvwww GIVES 1st, a general view of the Cranium, the reverse of the first plate; and 2d, a vertical section of the Cranium, which shows the relation and bearing of many important parts,—explains particularly the great train of sinuses or cells, which make all the basis of the Cranium hollow,—ex- plains also the spongy bones,—the Antrum Highmorianum,—the Nasal or Lachrymal Duct,—and the Mouth of the Eustachian Tube, which is seen here stuffed out, and dried, to make its opening immediately behind the nostrils at the back of the palate more distinct. FIGURE I. OUTSIDE OF THE SCULL.* A. TtlE Os Frontis; where (a) marks the bump of the Frontal Sinus; (b) The Superciliary Ridge, dotted with marks of its Nutritious Arteries; (c) The Super- ciliary Notch, and hole which the Frontal Nerve and Artery make. B. The * Let the reader remember that there cannot be a perfect correspondence of figures through all the plates; that no more could be attempted in the anatomy of the Bones, (a subject so irregular r2 OF THE BONES. B. The Parietal Bone, and the letter is so placed as to mark that semicircular ridge where the Temporal Muscle arises. C. Marks the Temporal Bone. Where (d) marks the Meatus Auditorius; (e) the Mastoid Process; (/) the Zygoma; and (g) a Double Squamous Suture, as in the scull from which this was drawn. D. Marks the Cheek bone where all its connections are seen; (ft) with the Temporal Bone; (i) with the Frontal Bone; (k) with the Upper Jaw Bone. E. Marks the Wing of the Sphoenoid Bone, where it lies in the Squamous Suture; and the four corners of bone forming the Squamous Suture, are (/) the corner of the Sphoenoid; (m) the corner of the Parietal; (n) the corner of the Temporal; and (o) the Corner of the Frontal Bone. F. Marks the Small Bone of the Nose, where the middle Nasal Suture is seen. G. Points to the Upper Jaw Bone. The letter is placed upon the Alveolar or Socket Processes; and the small letter (p) marks the Infra Orbitary Hole. H. Marks the Lower Jaw Bone, this letter touching the point of the chin; while the small letter (q) marks the line of the basis of the lower jaw; (r) the mark of the Masseter Muscle, the point into which it is inserted; (s) the Mental Hole by which a twig of the lower Maxillary Nerve comes out upon the face, just as the twig of the upper Maxillary Nerve comes out upon the face by the Infra Orbitary Hole at (p). In the Orbit, (t) marks the holes, which being within the orbit, (for arteries and nerves passing down into the nostril,) are called Internal Orbitary Holes, to distinguish them from the Supra Orbitary and Infra Orbitary Holes. Of these internal Orbitary irregular) than just to make each plate systematic and orderly in itself, without reference to any other plate. And so in each plate the great letters point to the general Bone, and the lesser alphabet marks and arranges the indiTidual parts. Holes, BOOK FIRST, PLATE SIXTH. -3 Holes, one is named the Anterior, the other is named the Posterior, Orbitar) Hole. So that in this drawing, there are seen all the holes around the Orbit, viz. (r) the Supra Orbitary Hole, or Superciliary Hole; (p) the Infra Orbitary Hole; and (t) the internal Orbitary Hole. In the Orbit is seen (u) the Transverse Suture on the right side pure; on the left side also it is seen, but appears very irregular, as it really is, for it joins together a great many irregular bones. » Within the orbit some other parts are also seen here, which are not so well explained in any other plate.—The whole constitution of the orbit is seen;—(1.) Marks the Os Unguis in its plain part, where the eye rolls upon it.—(2.) Marks the Groove of the Os Unguis, where the nasal duct lies; (3.) the Os Planum, which is in fact the plain side of the (Ethmoid bone as seen Plate III. Fig. III. at (e). (4.) Is the Orbitary Process of the Upper Jaw Bone. (5.) Is the Orbitary Process of the Sphoenoid Bone, which is exactly opposite to its Temporal Ala or wing (E.) (6.) Is the Orbi- tary Plate of the Frontal Bone, which forms far the greater part of the Orbit; and (7.) at the bottom of the Orbit is the Optic hole. In the Nose, the letter (v) denotes the Vomer, the bone which forms the partition of the Nose. FIGURE II. THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SCULL. A Is the Frontal Bone; where (a) marks the Coronal Suture seen from within like a mere crack, and not serrated or zig-zag, as on the outer surface of the scull; (b) marks the small projecting Spine, to which the falx is attached, and which projects sometimes half an inch, making it impossible to trepan safely at this point; (c) the Orbitary Process, or plate, which lies over the eye; (d) the Bump mark- Part I. K ing r4< OF THE BONES. ing the Frontal Sinus or cavity. (1.) The cavity or sinus itself, with a cross bar in it, as there commonly is. B The Inner Surface of the Parietal Bone; with the Artery of the Dura Mater, or rather its impression or furrow seen. C The Inner Surface of the Occipital Bone; where (e) marks the Winding Groove of the Lateral Sinus; (/) that Groove ending in the thimble-like cavity, and the thimble-like cavity ending in its turn in the Foramen Lacerum, by which the sinus gets out; and there passes along with it through this wide slit, the Par Vagum, or eighth pair of nerves, (g) Marks the thickness of the bone, at the place of the Crucial Ridge; (/?) its thinness, where it is loaded and pressed by the lobes of the brain, (i) Shows the section of the Foramen Magnum, (k) Marks the Cuneiform Processes of the Occipital and Sphoenoidal Bones.* D Marks the Temporal Bone, where (/) points out the Foramen Auditorium Inter- num, where the Auditory Nerve enters; and (nv) marks the Styloid Process. G Marks the Upper Jaw Bone, where it forms the Palate. H Marks the Lower Jaw Bone, where (n) is the section, showing the Cancelli of the Lower Jaw; (6) is the angle; and here upon the internal surface of the angle, the Pteregoid Muscle is implanted; (p) the hole by which the proper nerve of the Lower Jaw, the inferior Maxillary Nerve, gets into the heart of the bone; and there going round, accompanied with an artery, a branch of each is given off to every tooth; and what remains of the Nerve and Artery after this, comes out by the Mental hole upon the chin. The curious parts seen in this section are;—The Cells, Spongy Bones, and the Eustachian Tube. * There are two Foramina Lacera or wide holes, one belonging to the Sphoenoid Bone, in the bottom of the socket for the eye; and this one betwixt the Temporal and Occipital Bones, in the basis of the Scull over the neck or implantation of the vertebrae. The BOOK FntST, PLATE SIXTH 75 The Cells are marked (1, 2, 3;) for (1.) Marks the beginning of this long train of cells, being the cells of the Frontal Bone, commonly called the Frontal Sinuses, communicating with each other, and with the nose. (2, 2, 2,) Mark the Cells of the (Ethmoid Bone lying under the Cribriform Plate, and seen here by the cut- ting away of the Os Planum. (3.) Marks the Great Sinus of the Sphoenoid Bone. It was pretty large in this scull, and is known to belong to the Sphoenoid Bone, b\ the Sella Turcica and Clynoid Processes, which are seen in profile above it. (q) Marks^he back part of the Septum Nasi left; and looking past that, into the nostril, the Spoig^ Bones are seen; (r) the Upper Spongy Bone is already described as a mere process of the (Ethmoid Bone, hanging thus downwards into the top of the nostril: (s) the Lower Spongy Bone, is an independent separate bone; small, as is expressed Plate IV., and hooked upon the edge of the Antrum Maxillare at this part; the opening of the Antrum is here marked (s). The Lachrymal Duct ^s marked by the probe, (t)»passed upwards from the nostril, and it is seen, by the direction of this probe, that the duct opens into the nose, just under the point of the Lower Spongy Bone. The Eustachian Tube is a large internal passage to the ear; which opens at (u) just be- hind the back part of the Palate, and at the back opening of the nostril: here it is well expressed, the drawing being taken from a scull which had the cartilaginous opening of the tube stuffed out and dried. PLATE /ilXEJX FLMl J^eUekl JJ.riocluu- S°. _PuAlurhed by Ant/utnyPinky J'JiUad ? BOOK FIRST, PLATE SEVENTH PLATE VII. vwvwvwwvwv This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 105, to page 129. 'VWW\'W\,WVW\ EXPLAINS the Vertebra, with all their processes and parts; and as the same parts return in each Vertebra, the several Vertebrae ought to be explained rather by ranks and orders, than as individual BoneS. FIRST ROW. The first row, consisting of Figures I, II, and III, is drawn for the purpose of con- trasting the three classes of Vertebrae, viz. the Vertebra? of the Back, of the Neck, and of the Loins. FIGURE I. REPRESENTS a Vertebra of the Loins; and the peculiarities of the Lumbar Ver- tebra? are these. • (1.) The body is large and broad, thick, spongy and loose in its texture, and tipped with a ring, (a) of harder bone. (2.) The Articulating Processes, or, as they are called, the Oblique Processes, are large, for they have to bear much force; they stand directly upwards and downwards; the four 78 OF THE BONES. four Articulating Processes, (the two upper, as well as the two lower,) are marked 2, 2. (3.) The Spinous Process, is short, flat, very broad, and stands horizontally and directly out, so as not to embarrass the motions of the loins. (4.) The Transverse Process is short, direct, and very strong; and the Articulating Processes (2, 2) go off from the root of it. In each Vertebra, there is formed by the roots of the Transverse and Oblique Pro- cesses, where they arise from the body, a ring or circle of Bone, which is in each drawing marked (*); it is for containing the Spinal Marrow. FIGURE II. • Is a Vertebra of the Back; where, (1.) The body is shorter, and is a large segment (viz. nearly two thirds) of a small circle. (2.) The Articulating Process is small and flat, and a little inclined, but not very oblique. (3.) The Spinous Process is long, aquiline, depressed to such an angle that the two Spinous Processes almost touch each other, (as is seen in Fig. IV.) (3. 3.) and allow of but a very limited motion. (4.) The Transverse Process is long, stands directly outwards, or is inclined a little upwards, and upon every dorsal vertebra there are two marks for the articulation of the ribs; one (b) on the side of the vertebra itself, or rather betwixt the bodies of two vertebrae, for the proper head of the rib, (Fig. X. and XI.) (1.); and again there is another articulating surface (c) upon the face or fore part of the Transverse Process, which is for the articulation of the little knob (Fig. X. and XI.) (3.) upon the back part of each rib. FIGURE BOOK FIRST, PLATE SEVENTH 79 FIGURE III. I HE Cervical Vertebra has these chief characters, (1.) The body is small, firm, and of more solid and condensed bone than in the ver- tebra? of the loins or back. (2.) The Articulating Process is truly oblique. (3.) The Spinous Process is short, and is forked. (4.) The Transverse Process is short, forked, and has a large hole in it for a great artery of the brain, which by its passing through this canal of the vertebra? is named Vertebral Artery. SECOND ROW. This Row explains chiefly the connections of the Vertebra. FIGURE IV. SHOWS the manner in which one Dorsal Vertebra sits down upon another, so that the Articulating processes (2: 2.) check upon one another, and the Spinous Processes (3, 3) are seen to be long and aquiline, and lying so over each other as to prevent all motion backwards or forwards, while the ribs limit the motion to either side. But in this drawing the one Spinous Process is tilted up from the other a little, owing to the want of that intervertebral substance which should lie betwixt the bodies. The hole is seen here at (d) betwixt the two vertebrae, by which a nerve goes off at the interstice between each vertebra: so there are in all twenty-four nerves of the Spine, corresponding with the number of Vertebra? in the Spine. FIGURE 80 OF THE BONES. FIGURE V. TWO Dorsal Vertebrae are here seen in their right position, connected by the inter- vertebral substance; with the end of one rib in its place; and at (b) is seen one arti- culating surface on the body of the vertebra naked. At (c) is seen the articulating surface, upon the face of the Transverse Process, naked. At (d) is seen the head of the rib covering the two articulating surfaces; connected at (e) with the body, and at (f) with the Transverse Process of its own vertebra. FIGURE VI. IS a drawing of the Intervertebral Substance, which is of that ambiguous nature, that anatomists choose this name, to avoid the dilemma of calling it either Cartilage or Ligament, when it has not the character distinctly either of Cartilage or of Ligament. It is shown here as it is found betwixt the Lumbar Vertebra?; and the concentric circles of which it consists are better expressed towards the margin (g); but towards the centre, and especially in the very middle, it becomes soft, pulpy, the circles confused. The substance is so much softer in the centre, that there is almost a hole at (ft); especially when the bone is allowed to spoil a little, as this one was. At (i) is seen a slight indication of the Spinal marrow, (which was also corrupted,) going down through the great hole of the vertebra. THE THIRD ROW. Explains the forms of the Atlas and Dentatus; the two Vertebra? by which almost all the motions of the head are performed. Fig. VII. explains the Atlas; Fig. VIII. explains the Dentatus; Fig. IX. shows the way in which the Atlas sits down upon the tooth-like process and oblique shoulders of the Dentatus. FIGURE BOOK FIRST, PLATE SEVENTH S> FIGURE VII. EXPLAINS the Atlas, or first Vertebra, where we find, (1.) The body entirely wanting, and the place of the body supplied by Articulating Sur- faces (2,2), so large as to give sufficient strength and thickness to the sides of the ring. JV. B. At the place where the body should be, there is at (k) a smooth Articulating Sur- face for the Tooth-like Process of the Atlas rolling. There is at (/) a little tip or point, which is tied by ligaments to the margin of the Occipital Hole; at (tri) there is a sort of straitening in the ring, and at this point a ligament goes across the ring, dividing it into two, and holding firm the tooth-like process. (2.) The Oblique or Articulating Processes of this vertebra are oval, and of a con- verging form; and this peculiarity in their direction limits the motions of the head, so that it cannot turn, but only nod, upon the Atlas. (3.) The Spinous Process is wanting. A small knob represents the spinous process; and the want of this spine enables the Atlas to turn freely in circles upon the Dentatus. (4.) The Transverse Process, also ending in a little knob, and perforated by the large hole for the Vertebral Artery. FIGURE VIII. 1 HE Dentatus, where the points of description are, „ (1.) The whole body of the Vertebra, rising gradually towards the apex or point of its axis or tooth-like process, which is marked (m)P (2.) The broad flat articulating surfaces, like shoulders, at the root of the tooth-like process; upon which the atlas rests and turns. Part I. L 3. Th< 82 OF THE BONES (3.) The Spinous Process is short, thick, and forked. (4.) The Transverse Process short, knobby, and perforated with the Vertebral Hole. (n) Marks the Neck or Collar, the narrow part of the Tooth-like Process, where it is embraced by the Atlas;----.and (m) marks the Apex or pointed extremity of the Tooth-like Process.----(o) Shows how deep the ring of this particular vertebra is, and how fairly triangular its great hole for the passage of the spinal marrow is. FIGURE IX. EXPLAINS the manner of connection betwixt the Atlas and the Dentatus; shows the ring of the Atlas set down upon the shoulders of the Dentatus;—and here all the parts are marked with the same numbers as in the other drawings. FIGURES X. and XL ARE Drawings of the Ribs: where we see,—(1.) the Head of the Rib, by which it is joined to the body of the vertebra.—— (2.) The Neck or straitening beyond the head.—(3.) The Tubercle by which it is articulated with the Transverse Process. (4.) Another little Tubercle, beyond this second articulating surface.----(5.) The Angle of the Rib, or the point from which it begins to bend forwards, (p) the Groove in which the intercostal artery lies, (q) The more spongy end of the rib, with a sort of rude socket, which receives the cartilage that joins it to the sternum. FIGURE XII. Represents the whole length of the sternum. (1.) Marks the Upper Part of the Sternum; where (r) shows the pointed part of this first BOOK FIRST, PLATE SEVENTH, 83 first bone turned downwards to meet the second piece of the Sternum, (s) Is a hollow which makes way for the Trachea, &c. (t t) Are two articulating surfaces, by which the clavicle of either side is joined to this piece of the sternum. (2.) The second piece of the Sternum, of great length, receiving the cartilages of most of the ribs; and the sockets for receiving the cartilages are seen, though not very fully, all*along its edge at (u u), &c. (3.) Is the Ensiform Cartilage, which in most bodies is straight pointed, as in this drawing, but sometimes bifurcated;—sometimes bent down, or on the contrary turned remarkably upwards; very seldom ossified, except in those persons who are extremely old. PLATE liOXES PL VIII Jacob J Ploch er Sc Puhi by AiUh-ny PhOey Jfii Uul ' BOWK FIRST, PLATE EIGHTH. 85 PLATE VIII. VWWVVWVVX.W-W This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 105, to page 147. IW>'W\'W\WWA IS a general view of all the Bones of the Trunk. It is chiefly useful by showing the general position of Bones which have been already minute- ly explained, and requires only a very loose and general explanation, be- cause it is a general plate merely, upon which the parts and processes need not be minutely told. A. The Ring of the first Vertebra or Atlas. B The Tip of the Tooth-like Processes of the Dentatus. C The Bodies of the Cervical Vertebra?. D Their Transverse Processes. E The Holes betwixt the Vertebrae, by which the Cervical Nerves come out from the canal of the spinal marrow. F The First Rib, lying flat and level here; and it is at this place, betwixt the clavicle and the first rib, that the subclavian vessels come out. G The General Convex of the Thorax, formed by the middle of the ribs___(a a a) Mark the ends of the ribs which receive the cartilages, by which the ribs are joined to the sternum. G Marks the Seven True Ribs. H Marks the three first False Ribs, whose cartilages run into the cartilage of the seventh rib. I Marks 86 OF THE BONES. • I Marks the Two Loose or floating Ribs, whose cartilages do not join the other carti- lages, nor are united to the sternum; but standout' in the flanks, free and independent, their cartilages being buried in the thick flesh of the abdominal muscles. K The Cartilages of the Ribs. • L The First or triangular piece of the Sternum. M The Second or long piece, which receives almost all the Cartilages. N The Third piece, as it is usually called; though it is merely Cartilage, to extreme old age.—This third piece N is the Cartiiago Mucronata, Ensiformis, or Sword-like. O The Clavicle, or Collar Bone, as it lies upon the top of the chest; and here it is seen how the bone by its proper position, keeps off and supports the scapula or shoulder- blades. P Marks the lower border of the Scapula, (b) Marks the Acromian Process, to which the Clavicle is connected.—(c) Is the Glenoid or Articulating Cavity, for holding the shoulder bone; (d) is the Caracoid Process, showing how it projects on the in- side of the joint, in the hollow under the arch of the Clavicle.—It is plain from this position of the process, that it should be felt on the breast just above the border of the Axilla. Q. The bodies of the Lumbar Vertebra?, thick and massy to support the weight of all the parts above. R The Transverse Processes of the Lumbar Vertebra?, (z z) touch the Spinous Pro- cesses, where they appear in the interstices of the Transvere ones.—(e e e) Mark the intervertebral substances, or rather represent the putty, which is put betwixt the Ver- tebra? (in making our skeleton) to stand, in place of the intervertebral substance. S The Os Sacrum; where (ff) represent the holes of the Sacrum disposed regularly in pairs.—(gg) Represent the white lines, which were cartilaginous in the child, di- viding the Sacrum into five pieces, but are now consolidated into white lines of pro- minent bone particularly hard and firm.—(ft) Represents the joining of the Sacrum to the Os Ilium at either side, which joining is named the Sacro-Iliac Symphysis. TThat BOOK FIRST, PLATE EIGHTH, ^7 T'That division of the Os Innominatum, which is called the Os Ilium; where (i) marks the hollow bosom of that expanded wing, which lying obliquely outwards like the wing of a chariot, is called the Ala Ilii: the Iliacus Internus Muscle, arises from this surface.—(&) Is the circle called the Spine or Ridge of the Os Ilium.—(/) Is the sudden sharp point, by which the Spine ends, and which is there named the Spinous Process, to which the name Anterior is added, to distinguish it from others, which lie concealed in the joining with the Sacrum. This Anterior Superior Spi- nous Process has another under it smaller and marked (m), which is called the An- terior Inferior Spinous Process.—It is merely a small Bump, over the top of the socket for the origin of the Rectus Muscle, (n) Marks the back or Dorsum Ilii, from which the Glutaei Muscles arise. U U These two letters intersect all that part of the Os Innominatum, which is called Ischium; where (0) marks the body of the bone, where it forms a chief share in the socket, (pi) Marks the Spinous Process, which is seen through the opening of the Pelvis projecting towards the Sacrum.—(q) Marks the Tuberosity or Bump of the Os Ischium, the lowest point of the Pelvis, and the part upon which we rest in sit- ting; and (r) marks the Ramus, or branch of the Ischium, as it rises to meet a like branch of the Pubis. V Marks the third piece of the Os Innominatum, viz. the Pubis;—where (s) is the body, where it forms part of the socket for the thigh-bone;—(t) the highest point named Crista Pubis;—(u) points to the Symphisis Pubis, or joining of the opposite bones;—(v) marks the leg of the Pubis, descending to meet the leg of the Ischium. The Rami of the Ischium and of the Pubis form, with the other parts of the Os Innominatum; first the Arch of the Pubis;—secondly, the Thyroid Hole; and the Rami are said to meet one half belonging to the Pubis, and one half to the Ischium, because they are in fact separate in the child; a clear transparent cartilage, being interposed betwixt them.—-(x) Marks this Thyroid Hole; and (y) marks the Ace- tabulum or socket for the thigh-bone. PLATE /i(>x/:s EL IX Jacob J. Ploclier. Sc. . Pi, blished. byAltJwtiy. Pinley. Philadelphia.. 37 m BOOK FIRST, PLATE NINTH. 89 PLATE IX. vwx/wvwvwvw This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 147, to page 158. WW*%fVWWWW Represents the thigh Bone, Tibia, and Fibula. FIGURES I. and II. m REPRESENT the fore and back views of the Thigh Bone.—And in order that the letter press may proceed in the regular order of a little description or demonstration, the small figures are put upon each drawing; so that any number that is wanting on one drawing, must be found on the other. The First Figure shows the Back Part of the Thigh Bone, which is marked by our seeing here, from behind, the length of the neck of the bone;—the manner of its rising out of the two great processes, the Trochanters;—the projection and rough- ness of the Linea Aspera, and the deep hollow betwixt the Condyles. The Second Figure, or the fore view, is exceedingly simple, having no strong marks. The Linea Aspera is turned almost out of sight. The chief peculiarity of the fore view is, that it shows the bending form of the bone. Part I. M The • 90 OF THE BONES. The Points of Description are, (1.) The Body:—very thick, strong, of a cylindrical form, bending outwards with a gentle curve. (2.) The Head, which is very smooth, and very fairly circular. It is a large segment of a small circle, and is let pretty deep down into its socket. There is a dimple at (a), which marks the place where the central ligament once was. (3.) The Neck of the Bone, long, and almost horizontal, to set the shaft of the bone the wider off from the Haunch Bone, that it may move freely. (4.) The great Trochanter, a large bump or process for the insertion of the Gluta?i Muscles. (5.) The lesser Trochanter, a smaller process, for the insertion of many muscles which move the Thigh Bone inwards. (6.) The Linea Aspera, or j-ough line, from which much of tiro* Muscular flesh that covers the thigh arises.—And this Linea Aspera, or rough line, begins at (b) in a forking form from the roots of each Trochanter:—the two lines meet, and the Linea Aspera becomes single in the middle of the thigh, (c)—Towards its lower end (d) it forks again to go off towards each Condyle. (7.) The two Condyles, which form the great articulating surfaces of the Thigh Bone, where it lies in the knee-joint.—In Fig. II. we see that the inner Condyle (e) is the larger one; being larger to compensate for the oblique direction of the thigh bone. At (/) Fig. II. we see, covered with cartilage, the fiat polished surface upon which the Rotula or knee-pan rolls.—And in Fig. I. at (g) we see the very deep notch betwixt the two Condyles, in which the crucial ligaments of the knee-joint lie. FIGURE BOOK FIRST, PLATE NINTH 91 FIGURE III. The Tibia. 1 HIS is a drawing of the right Tibia, seen from before. The upper end belonging to the knee is large and broad, and is likened to the trumpet end of a pipe.—The lower head belonging to the ancle is small, and has one projecting point, viz. that which forms the inner ancle, and which is thought to resemble the flute-mouth of a pipe. The whole bone has the triangular or prismatic form of the Ulna and Radius. (1.) Is the Upper head of the Tibia belonging to the knee joint; where (ft) marks a lit- tle tubercle or rising, which divides the two articulating surfaces from each other. It is from the back part of this tubercle, that the cross ligaments of the knee joint arise, (i i) Mark the two lunar hollows, upon which the two Condyles of the thigh bone rest, and in which the semilunar or moveable cartilages of the knee joint lie. (k) Is that rough circle^ which bounds the articulating surface, and from which the Capsular Ligament arises. (/) Is the tubercle or bump of the Tibia, upon which we rest in kneeling, and into which the great fore tendon called the Ligament of the Patella is fixed: and (m) is the prominent ridge of the shin, which begins from this tubercle, and goes downwards in the waving form of an Italic^ (u) Is that part of the Tibia which receives the upper end of the Fibula. (2.) Is the middle part of the bone, which is of a triangular or prismatic form, and the figure (2)*is repeated upon each of the three angles. (3.) Is the lower and smaller head of the Bone belonging to th&ancle joint; where (n) marks the smooth hollow which receives the bones of the foot, and which is named (like the articulating surface of the Radius), the Scaphoid, or Boat-like Cavity of the Tibia, (o) Marks the projection or process of the inner ancle, which guards the joint, preventing luxation inwards, (p) Is the small cavity on the side of the Tibia, which receives the lower head of the Fibula, in the way that is represented in next plate* FIGURE go OP rl'HE BONES. FIGURE IV. IS a drawing of the Fibula, which is a long slender bone, so extremly simple in its form, that there needs be no further description than this, that the shaft of the bone (q) is exceedingly slender,—is much longer than the Tibia,—and is triangular like the Tibia. The upper end (r) is laid under the projecting head of the Tibia, at (u Fig. III.) and it is laid flat upon it; so that this articulating and smooth surface (r) is smooth only for the sake of a very slight degree of shuffling motion. The lower end (s) is the larger.—It unites with the lower end of the Tibia (p Fig. III.) to form the ar.cle joint. This guards the ancle joint without, as the Process of the Tibia guards it within. And this smooth articulating surface (t) is for re- ceiving the side of the Astragalus, that bone of the foot by which chiefly the ancle joint is formed. PLATE BOXES PL X Jacnh J Plcchei- Sc Publishedby.1i-1■' /•inlnPhilad'? BOOK FIRST, PLATE TENTH 9S PLATE* X. WV\A/VVWVWVW This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 153, to page 166. vwvwwvi/wvw « EXPLAINS the Connections of the Tibia and Fibula, and all the Bones of the Foot and of the Toes. FIGURE I. SHOWS the Tibia and Fibula laid to each other as they lie in the leg; and here all the letters and figures, explaining the Tibia and Fibula of the last plate, are put upon the very same points; so that no new letters nor figures are required, except (v), to mark that space betwixt the Tibia and Fibula in which the Inter-osseous Membrane lies; and (x) to show the arch which is made by (o) the process of the inner ancle, and (s) the lower head of the Fibula forming the outer ancle: for the deepness of the arch, and the projection of these two points, show how very secure the ancle joint is; the smooth head of the Astragalus marked (a PI. X. Fig. IV.) being received deep into this arch. FIGURE 94 OF THE BONE*. FIGURE II. bHOWS the Outer Surface of the Rotula or Patella, which is rough, and marked with many points where its nutritious arteries enter. FIGURE III. bHOWS the Lower Surface of the Patella, vizr that which is turned towards the cavity of the joint; and here there is seen a rising line at (#) which lies in the great hollow betwixt the two Condyles;—while the two hollows on each side of this rising move upon the convexities of the Condyles. In short, this smooth inner sur- face of the patella is moulded as it were upon the surface marked (f) in the last plate, Figure II. F I G U R E S IV. and V. EXPLAIN all the Bones of the Foot, viz. of the Tarsus or instep, of the Meta- tarsus, and of the Toes. The bones of the Tarsus are seven in number, fewer and larger than the bones of the Carpus. (1.) The Astragalus is that great bone which immediately forms the ancle joint;— where (a) marks the great ball or cartilaginous puUy which is received into the arch formed by the Tibia and Fibula.—(b) Is the flat side of the bone upon which the processes of the inner and outer ancles lie, embracing the joint closely.—(c) Is a little flat neck or projection which lies over the heel-bone.—(d) Is the neck of that large round head which makes a ball and socket joint with the" Os Naviculare, which is marked (3). (2.) The BOOK FIRST, PLATE TENTH. 95 (2.) The Os Calcis lies under the Astragalus, and is the largest of the Tarsal Bones, supporting all the weight of the bodv; and here these points chiefly are seen.—(e) The tip of the bone, which looks upwards, receiving the Tendo Achillis, or great Back Tendon.—(f) The lowest rough point; the point of the heel upon which we stand.—(g) The head, by which the Os Calcis is joined to the Os Cuboides, marked (7.) the Os Cuboides being received at this part into a large hollow socket of the Os Calcis. (3.) Is the Os Naviculare or Scaphoides, which has been so named from its resem- blance to a boat. But if there be any such resemblance it is effectually concealed in all these views. The Os Naviculare has rising edges and a fair round socket, which is turned towards the Astragalus (1.) to receive the large round head of that bone. (4, 5, and 6.) Are the Cuneiform or Wedge-like Bones; and in this view the square external surfaces chiefly are seen;—and these Cuneiform Bones, ought just to be reckoned simply according to their order, the first, second, and third cuneiform bones, beginning with that which supports the great toe. (7.) The Os Cuboides is a large square or cube-like bone, as its name implies, but by no means a regular cube.—It forms a larg^share of the Tarsus, and supports the Metatarsal Bone of the Little Toe. The Cuneiform Bones are less easily understood, and I have therefore made a second drawing of the foot, Fig. V. (where the same letters and marks are still preserved,) in which I have shown the point of the Cuneiform Bones, the Metatarsal ones being taken away. In this figure the faces of the Cuboid and of the Cuneiform Bones are directly seen. And it is understood why they are called Cuneiform or wedge-like bones, for the upper surfaces marked (4, 5, 6,) are broad and square; __while their lower surfaces at (*) are small and pointed; these smaller ends of the wedges being turned inwards or towards the soal of the foot. In Fig. IV. (h) marks the five Metatarsal Bones; so named from their being placed on the • •JO OF THE BONES. the Tarsus.—(i) Marks the first rank or phalanx,—(k) the second,—(/) the third rank of the bones of the toes. FIGURE VI. bHOWS the foot in profile, and explains particularly well the large head of the Astra- galus (d). These drawings are just half the size of nature, whence it may easily be understood how large this head of the astragalus is;—as large fully as the head of the shoulder bone:—and the socket of the Os Naviculare, (3), into which this head of the astragalus is received, is both larger and a deeper circle than the Glenoid Cavity of the Scapula, into which the head of the shoulder bone is received. The manner in which the process (c) of the Astragalus is joined with the Os Calcis, (2) so as to allow of a shuffling motion, is also explained here. The great length of the first bone, or Metatarsal Bone of the great toe (ft) is also to be observed, be- cause it is sometimes to be cut away; and it should not be forgotten that it goes very deep into the foot. The small bone, commonly called Sesamoid Bone, from its resembling, or being thought to resemble, a grain of Sesamurir (though it is much larger), is seen here at (m) lying under the ball of the great toe, where it is connected with the tendons of the short flexor muscles of the great toe.—There are commonly two under the ball of each great toe, and there are occasional Sesamoid bones under the other toes, and sometimes under the great joint of the thumb. The several Phalanges, as they are called, or ranks of bones in the toes, need not again be explained. The only important point remaining to be explained, is the double arch of the foot; for there are two arches. First (n) the great and general arch;—the two points of which are the tip of the heel, and the ball of the great toe. These points alone of all the foot touch the ground.—The elasticity of this arch, proceeding from its nu- merous • BOOK FIRST, PLATE TENTH 97 is supported under the weight of the whole body, both by the particular ligaments belonging to the individual joints of the foot,—and more particularly by the Great Fascia or ligament, (I would call it,) of the sole of the foot, which from one point (the heel) extends to the root of each toe individually. But there is also a second and particular arch, which the bones of the Tarsus form among themselves. This arch is explained by showing a large central hole, which is expressed in each of these drawings, and is marked (0).—In Fig. IV. there is only a darkness showing where this central hole is.—In Fig. V. the hole is seen fair (by the Tarsus being turned round) and is marked (0).—In Fig. VI. it is explained by a broken pencil, (0) thrust up through this central opening. Part I. N PLATE hox/:s J>], XI Jacob . J. Plocher. Sc. Pa blijud ■ by. Anthony. Pinley. Philadelphia. BOOK FIRST, PLATE ELEVENTH 99 PLATE XI. VWVWW\A/V%fVV* This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 166, to page 177, VWVWWVVWVVXi OF the Scapula, Clavicle, and Arm Bone. FIGURES I. and II. EXPLAIN the Scapula, showing, 1st, its internal,—2dly, its external surface. The Scapula or Shoulder Blade, is of a triangular shape, (a) Marks its flat surface, which is turned towards the ribs, hollow, to suit the convexity of the ribs.—And the letter (a) is repeated all over the surface, to show the little risings of this sur- face; for this is the part upon which the Sub-scapular Muscle lies; and these risings are the marks of its fibres. (b) Shows the Outer Surface of the Scapula, which is in its turn a little convex;—is crossed by the Spine, or that high ridge (8) which divides it into two surfaces;— the lower surface (c) holding the infra-spinatus;—the upper surface (d) holding the supra-spinatus muscle. The Lines and Process of the Scapula are these; (1.) Is the upper Costa or border of the Scapula, where (e) marks a notch, which is sometimes a complete hole, or when incomplete it is made out by a ligament. It gives passage to the Scapular arteries and nerves, (2.) Is 400 0F THE HONES. (2.) Is the Lower Costa or border, which is round, and at the place (/) gives origin to the Teres Major and Teres Minor muscles. 3.) This long side is called the Basis of the Scapula, and has the great Trapezoid and Rhomboid Muscles implanted into it from above and behind; while the Serratus AnticUs is implanted into it from before and from below. (4.) Shows the Upper Angle which receives the Levator Scapula? Muscle. (5.) The Lower Angle. (6.) The Glenoid or Articulating Cavity, which is particularly small and superficial, considering how large the head of the shoulder bone is. (7.) The Neck of the Scapula so called; it is the smaller part which supports the head, though, properly speaking, there is no neck;—and when the head of the shoulder bone is said, in a luxation, to lie upon the neck of the Scapula, it lies upon the place marked (g). (8.) The Spine of the Scapula, which divides the upper surface, and which, rising higher as it goes forwards, terminates at last in the Acromion Process. (9.) Is the Acromion Process; it is just the end of the spine, which turns its flat side towards the head of the shoulder bone, and overhangs the shoulder to defend the joint, and prevent luxations upwards. (10.) And there is still a farther security; for the Coracoid Process (10) stands upon 1 the inner side of the joint, and defends it within. It is named Coracoid Process, from its being crooked like the beak of a crow. FIGURE III. EXPLAINS the Clavicle or Collar Bone: a bone which is extremely simple in its form, and has few or no parts;—and in which the letter (ft) marks the middle, the roundest part of the bone, that point which is most prominent in trie breast; the part most frequently broken, (i) Marks the end nearest the Thorax, and shows the BOOK FIRST, PLATE ELEVENTH. l0T the circular articulating surface, by which it is joined to the Sternum; and under this end a small moveable cartilage lies, (k) Marks the outer end, or that which is turned towards the shoulder blade: the Clavicle is flattened at this end, and touches the Acromion by one single point only. FIGURE IV. 1 HE Os Humeri, Shoulder Bone, or Arm Bone. (1.) The head is large,—flat,—is a small segment of a large circle,—seems quite dis- proportioned to its socket, (6. Fig. I. II.) (2.) Is the neck as it is called; though there is no proper neck; there being no length, nor narrower part betwixt the body and the head of the bone. (3.) The Greater Tuberosity. (4.) The Lesser Tuberosity;—-the Greater and Lesser Tuberosities being two knobs, for the insertion of those muscles which come from the Scapula. (5.) Is the Groove betwixt these tuberosities, for the passage of the long tendon of the Biceps Muscle, which runs here as a rope does in its pulley. (a) Marks the roughness about one third down the arm bone, into which the tendon of the Deltoides is implanted. (b) Marks the place, where (a little below its middle) the Os Humeri turns flatter, be- cause it is to terminate flat and broad, to favour the hinge-like joining of the bones of the fore arm; and (6.) Shows one ridge on the inner side of the arm bone; (7.) Shows another similar ridge or edge of the bone, on its outer side-—each ridge running down towards its own Condyle. (8.) Is the external Condyle, smaller and less projecting, because it gives origin only to the extensors of the hand and fingers, a set of muscles which dp not need much power nor the advantage of a long lever. (9.) Is 102 OF THE BONES. (9.) Is the inner Condyle, which is very long and very prominent, to give a greater power to those muscles which bend the hand and fingers. The elbow joint, being a very strict and limited hinge, has a long articulating surface: —and there are properly two surfaces, one for the Radius, and one for the Ulna. (10.) Is the longer articulating surface, to which the Ulna is so joined as to perform none but hinge-like motions. (11.) Is a neat small round knob, tipped with smooth articular cartilage; and to this small knob, the face of the button-like end of the Radius is applied; and by the roundness of this knob the radius is enabled to perform not only the hinge-like motions to accompany the motion of the Radius; but also its own free circular motions, by which the. hand is carried round. (12.) Is that very deep hole which the Coronoid Process of the Ulna checks into. (13.) There is a similar one marked (13,) which belongs to the demonstration of the fore part of the shoulder-bone, and is to be seen by turning to the next plate. PLATE /tiXAX ) X ill IV t'uMCrhed by Aruh/>n\: finle^i J^fiHaci': BOOK FIRST, PLATE TWELFTH 103 PLATE XII. wwwvwwvvw This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 177, to page 190. vvxwvvwwvvw EXPLAINS the Radius and Ulna, Carpus and Fingers. FIGURE I. IN the drawing of the Os Humeri, all the descriptions and letters belonging to the last plate belong equally to this. This drawing were superfluous, but for the important purpose of showing the back part of the articulating surface, where we do not find that round surface marked (11) in the last plate, and which is called the Lesser Head of the Humerus, but only the hinge-like surface for the articulation of the Ulna. And the chief object of this drawing, is to show, that here also upon the back part of the bone, there is a deep hollow betwixt the Condyles; on the fore part of the bone the hollow is for receiving the Coronoid Process of the Ulna, which checks into that hollow when the arm is bent forwards; but here upon the back part, this deep hollow marked (13,) receives the Olecranon, or great process of the Ulna, when the arm is extended. It is also to be observed, that in this drawing the twisted form of the bone is well expressed.and truly, not caricatured; for the edge does in fact turn thus round. FIGURE 104 OF THE BONES. FIGURE II. The Ulna. 1 HE Ulna is the longer of the two bones which lie in the fore arm. The whole bone is of a triangular shape, with three sharp edges; the upper end is larger, and belongs to the elbow joint; the lower or Little Head belongs to the wrist. The bone has these points of description. (1.) Is the great cavity, which receives the lower end of the humerus to form the elbow joint, and this is called the Greater Sigmoid cavity. (2.) The Olecranon, a large tubercle which marks the point of the elbow upon which we rest, and guards the Sigmoid Cavity behind. (3.) The Coronary Process which stands up, and guards the Sigmoid Cavity before. (4.) The Hollow, where the side of the smaller button-like head of the Radius rolls, called the Lesser Sigmoid Cavity. (5.) The Prominent Roughness, into which the tendon of the Brachialis Internus is implanted; and it leads to the sharp ridge. (6.) The Sharp Ridge, from which the Inter-osseous Membrane goes off. (7.) The Lower Head of the Ulna, which is small, and button-like; for it is received into a hollow on the side of the Radius, and it is upon this point, viz. the little head of the Ulna, that the radius turns in the continual motions of the hand. (8.) Is the Styloid Process of the Ulna, which is pointed, as the name implies; from it ligaments go off to strengthen the joint of the wrist. FIGURE III. EXPLAINS the relative position of the Radius and Ulna. The Ulna is marked with figures according with the above description; the Radius is also marked with its points of demonstration. l. (a. a. a.) BOOK FIRST, PLATE TWELFTH. H)j l. (a. a. a.) Repeated on the three sides of the Radius, explain the general triangular form of the bone, marking particularly its three edges. 2. (b) Marks the upper head of the Radius, flat, round, and button-like, with the side rolling upon the Lesser Sygmoid Hollow of the Ulna. 3. (c) The neck of the Radius or straighter part, which immediately supports the head. 4. (d) The Bump or Tubercle of the Radius, into which the tendon of the Biceps Muscle is implanted. 5. (e) The Lower Head of the. Radius; the Bone is thus gradually enlarging towards its lower end. 6. (/) The Scaphoid, or boat-like Cavity on the lower end of the Radius for receiving the two largest bones of the Carpus;—forming the wrist joint. 7. (g) The Styloid Process of the Radius, which bounds the wrist joint towards the side of the thumb: and here it is seen how the little head of the Ulna (7) is received into the hollow socket on the side of the Radius.—The two sharp edges of the Ra- dius and Ulna are opposed to each other, showing how the Inter-osseous Membrane stretches from the one bone to the other, filling up all the space marked (h). And it is here seen that the Radius is somewhat arched towards the Ulna, so as to roll round it without touching it, or hurting or disordering the numerous muscles, &c. which lie upon the Inter-osseous Membrane. FIGURE IV. EXPLAINS the Bones of the .Carpus or Wrist, as they are seen from the outside, or back of the hand. The Bones of the Carpus are eight in number, they are divided pretty regularly into two rows;—and we rather choose to count and demonstrate them according to their rank, than as individual and separate bones: for as separate bones there is nothing very particular in any one; but by their combination and form, and as they relate to Part I. O die 106 op THE BONES. the wrist joint, or to the fingers, it surely must be important, I should rather say, necessary, for the surgeon to remember them. FIRST ROW. Farming the Wrist Joint. m (1.) The Scaphoid Bone, where the figure (1.) marks the regular round surface, which forms a chief part of the ball and socket-joint of the wrist. And (a) marks the great hook-like projection of this bone, whence that strong ligament which braces down the tendons of the Carpus arises. (2.) The Lunated Bone, where the figure is so placed as to mark the large ball-like surface of this bone which joins with the Os Scaphoides to form the ball of the wrist. And the lunated part of the bone is concealed, when thus joined with the others. (3.) The Cuneiform Bone, of which only the broad or square surface is seen on the back of the wrist, while the narrower part of the wedge is in the palm. (4.) The Pisiform Bone, so named from its roundness, this bone is a little removed from the direction of the row to which it belongs. SECOND ROW. Receiving the Metacarpal Bones. (5.) The Os Trapezium; or first bone of the upper row named Trapezium, from its square and angular form. It has the ball of the thumb planted upon it, and the figure points directly to that socket which receives the thumb. (6.) The BOOK FIRST, PLATE TWELFTH. 107 (6.) The Trapezoides, so named from its resemblance to the last. (7.) Os Magnum, for it is the greatest; and it has a curious head which is in this view concealed under the Os Lunare; for the head of the Os Magnum is received into the semicircular hollow of the Os Lunare, forming a ball and socket joint with that bone. (8.) The Os Unciforme, or hook-like bone; the hook of which is towards the palm, and therefore not seen in this view. N. B. In this drawing of the Carpus, Fig. IV. this group of bones is made to rest chiefly upon two of t|re corner bones, viz. the hook of the Os Scaphoides, and the id Os Pisiforme. FIGURE V. IS also drawn chiefly with the intention of explaining the carpus; and here the same numbers may serve, for the position of the Carpus is very little changed. (1.) Is the Scaphoid Bone. (2.) The Lunar Bone, forming with the Scaphoid the ball for the wrist joint. (3.) The Os Cuneiforme. (4.) The Os Pisiforme is out of sight. (5.) The Trapezium which supports the thumb; (6.) (7.) (8.) The Trapezoides, Magnum, and Unciforme, supporting all the other fingers; and here the Os Magnum (7.) is seen a little fuller; so that the round head of it can almost be seen jointed with the Os Lunare. The 1st, 2d, and 3d Phallanges or rows of bones belonging to the several joints of the fingers, need not be explained; and the round heads for the joints of these finger bones explain themselves. FIGURE VI. PRESENTS the Carpus in a new direction; showing those bones which are less perfect- ly seen in the other drawings;—and it is necessary to observe, that the group of the Carpal 108 OF THE BONES Carpal bones is now turned, so as to show that face of them which receives the Metacarpal .Bones;—and the group now rests chiefly upon the points of the two upper Corner Bones, viz. the Trapezoid and Unciform Bones; as in the other view it rested upon the lower Corner Bones, viz. the Scaphoid and Pisiform Bones. So that here there is only the upper row fairly demonstrated, viz.—(5.) The Os Trapezium;—(6.) the Os Trapezoides;—(7.) the Os Magnum;—(8.) the Os Un- ciforme. (b) Marks a small pointed projection of the Os Trapezium, whence the Carpal Ligament arises.—(c) Marks the great Unciforme or hook-like process of the Unciform Bone, which is another point whence the sanje cross ligament of the Carpus rises.—(d) Marks the arch which the Carpal Bones make, and the Tendons of the wrist lie in this arch, and are bound down by the cross ligament crossing from the one corner point, to the other. # * ENGRAVINGS !>!•' TUB MUSCLES ANT) JOINTS, • ENGRAVINGS OF THE BONES, MUSCLES AND JOINTS. BY JOHN BELL, SURGEON. PART SECOND. CONTAINING ENGRAVINGS OF THE MUSCLES AND OF THE JOINTS. THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY ANTHONY FINLEY. William Fry, Printer. 1816. jirsrL/js I'L.I. ui. by : -.-dey FkticuL1" ItilS BOOK SECOND. OF THE MUSCLES. PLATE I. MUSCLES OF THE FACE. This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 191, to page 213. WVWWWVWVW THIS Plate explains the chief Muscles of the Face; and there are seen here several Muscles also of the Neck, Throat, Shoulder, and Breast.— It was drawn from a subject that had been hanged, and the neck being broken, the head lies flatter upon one shoulder, than it should do even in the dead body; for the Atlas and Dentatus, the two first Vertebrae of the Neck, were fairly broken loose from each other.—The muscles are more distinctly seen on the left side; on the right side they are thrown into shadow, and are but faintly indicated—The muscles of the outline are truer in point of Anatomy; while, in the full engraving, the general 4 OF THE MUSCLES. general appearance, the thinness and delicacy, and the undefined con- nections of the muscles, are well expressed; and it is to be particularly noticed, that the Levator Anguli Oris (7.) is not so true in the engraving, while it is, I believe, very true and correct in the outline. (1.) Is the Occipito Frontalis, which covers the Occiput and forehead, with its two fleshy bellies, and the crown or top of the head with its thin flat tendon- The Occi- pital Belly is not seen here. The thin Tendon sometimes mistaken for the Pericra- nium, is marked (a); the Frontal Belly is marked (b); or rather there are two Frontal Bellies marked (b b). Each Frontal Belly sends a small slip of fibres, or a peak, down upon the back of the Nose marked (c).* The Frontalis is connected chiefly with the skin, but little with the bone; is chiefly for furling up and wrink- ling the skin of the forehead. (2.) Is the Corrugator Supercilii, more connected with the Orbicularis Oculi, than with the Occipito Frontalis, and lying under the Occipito Frontalis. (3.) Is the Orbicularis Oculi; arising by a small white Tendon («f),from the Nasal Process of the Jaw Bone. Its fibres go in regular circles round the eye, and they are continued circles which return to the white Tendon in the corner of the eye, whence they first arise; the whole muscle is thin, flat, broad, very distinct, shuts the eye-lids, compresses the eye, squeezes out the tears.f * This Nasal Peak of the Occipito Frontalis is not the slip which is fixed into the Os Frontis; that lies deeper, while this Nasal Peak is superficial, runs down the back of the Nose, expanding upon it, and forming with the muscles below a sort of fascia, or Tendinous expan- sion, which covers the Nose. This Nasal slip is implanted rather into the skin of the Nose, and wrinkles it; while the General Muscle corrugates the skin of the forehead. t The whole of what we call the Orbicularis Oculi, is named by Walther, Corrugator Oculi; and he seems to divide it into an upper and lower portion, by the names of Musculus Semi- circularis Palpebrae Superioris, and Musculus Semicircularis Palpebral Inferioris. BOOK SECOND, PLATE FIRST. 5 The Corrugator Supercilii (2.) arises from the Os Frontis betwixt the Eye-brows, andlies under that Peak of the Frontalis which expands upon the back of the Nose.— This Corrugator may almost be considered as merely a slip of the Orbicularis Oculi (3.); for in fact the fibres of the Corrugator go round the orbit with the upper fibres of the Orbicularis Oculi, and mix with them, so as to form the upper edge of the Orbicularis; and thence the names of Corrugator and Orbicularis are some- times interchanged.* (5.) fls the Levator Labii Superioris, and Al,e Nasi; This muscle arises by a small double Tendon, from the Nasal Process of the Upper Jaw Bone, and has one little slip (e) going into the Ala Nasi for dilating it; and another (f) going into the uppar lip, for drawing it upwards.:): (6.) Levator Labii Superioris Proprius, arises from the Jaw Bone at the very edge of the Orbit, and above the Infra Orbitary Hole§. It has two slips of fibres, one (g) coming from the bone, from under the Orbicularis Muscle, and another slip, (ft) which is continued from the lower fibres of the Orbicularis Muscle itself. So this is a Biceps Muscle; it lies superficially; it draws the middle of the lip up- wards; it is often named as a Biceps or two headed Muscle.|| * Walther, in his description of his own and Sanctorin's Plates, draws into the explanation of this Corrugator Muscle, all the upper part of the Orbicularis Oculi; as if it were but a part •A the Corrugator. t It will be observed here, that the suite of the numbers 1,2, 3, &c. is not regularly followed, because it was impossible to explain absolutely every muscle in any set of drawings, however full. \ "Maxime hunc in usum habent ilii, qui detractores contemptoresque sunt aliorum, et fc( forte haec verba in uno vel alteio eundum motum excitabunt." § This is the Musculus Pyramidalis of Walther. || Eustachius draws the muscle with these two heads. Albinus describes the little head (h), as a distinct part of the muscle, both in his explanation of Eustachius, and in |his own plates. OF THE MUSCLES. 7.) Levator Anguli Oris; arises above the dog tooth, and is tnence named Caninus- This muscle arises under the Infra Orbitary Hole, as the last arose from above it; this of course lies under the last, and so is less perfectly seen here. Its direction is different from that of the Levator Labii; as it runs more perpendicularly, or runs rather outwards than inwards. It is short; two headed like the last; rises properly from the Socket Process of the first Grinder. It lifts the Angle of the mouth, whence its name; and it operates on both lips, whence it is named, Levator Communis. (8.) Zygomaticus Major; arises from the Zygomatic Process of the Cheek Bone; goes inwards to the corner of the mouth; is long, slender, oblique in its direction. It passes over that hollow in the Cheek Bone, which is filled up with fat, and so when the muscle is dissected, it falls into this loose flaccid and bending form*. (9.) The Zygomaticus Minor, like it, but not always found. (10.) The Buccinator, is seen here to lie deeper; it forms the flat part of the cheek; it arises from the Coronoid Process of the Lower Jaw, and from the roots of the back Grinders. It goes forward with direct fibres, (as seen here,) towards the corner of the mouth. (11.) The Triangularis, is neat, small, triangular; its base arises from the Jaw, its point ends in the corner of the mouth.—It draws the corner of the mouth down, and is named Depressor Anguli Oris, or the Depressor Communis Labiorum. (12.) Is the Depressor Labii Inferioris Proprius. This muscle arises from the line of the Jaw, touches and crosses its fellow under the middle of the lower lip. They pull the lip downwards, (13.) The Orbicularis Oris, is thick, broad, and fleshy; forms the fleshy part of the lip; Cant observes this separate part proceeding from the fibres of the Orbicularis, so particu- larly, as to reckon it almost a distinct muscle, a depressor of the lower Eye-lid; saying " Ex " conspectu ilium habere decet pro depressore Musculo Palpebral Inferioris." Cantii Impetus. * This Zygomaticus Major,is sometimes split into two insertions at the angle of the mouth. BOOK SECOND, PLATE FIRST. y lip; is in the red part of the lip, but is much broader than the red part. Its fibres are gross and strong, they go in a circular direction fairly round both lips, the}- are not interrupted at the angles of the mouth; they send up a small slip, which passing in the furrow of the lip, and mounting upon the Septum of the Nose, is named Nasalis, and is marked (i). {15.) The Constrictor Nasi, is here distinctly marked running over the point of the Nose*. (30.) Is the Temporal Muscle; which is seen here, lying under its fascia. The fascia, or Tendinous expansion of the Temple being here entire, and nothing cut away but the Membraneous Muscles of the ear, the Anterior and the Superior Auris. (31.) Is the Masseter, which is a short, thick, and fleshy muscle; and to lay it en- tirely open, the Parotid Gland which is marked (/£), is dissected up from the cheek, so that the head of the Masseter is seen arising from the Cheek Bone; and its lower end is seen implanted into the Jawf. (m) Marks the Fascial Artery, or Labial Artery, as it is called, the Artery of the face, crossing over the angle of the Jaw. Thus we see in the dead body, those muscles which give form and character to the human countenance, tying all dead and flaccid. The mouth open, the lips loose and shrivelled; the angles of the mouth dropping down, the cheek sunk; and the eye also closed, and sunk down within its orbit.—All the countenance is deformed, and the traits of individual character or beauty, quite gone:—but still enough re- mains to explain to us what those muscles are, upon which chiefly the interesting variety of expression and form depends. The Occipito Frontalis wrinkles the forehead: * This is the Transversus Nasi of Walther. The action of this muscle is very distinctly seen, in the agony of an Asthmatic fit; it is seen also in violent distortion, produced by rage, or despair. Cant compares it to that muscle in the dog, by which he curls the Nose, and shows the te-eth in snarling. t This is sometimes called, the Musculus Manso&. 8 OF THE MUSCLES forehead: the Corrugator Supercilii knits the brows: the Levatores Labioruni lift up the lip, spread wide the nostrils, and open the mouth; the Depressores Labiorum depress the lip; the Triangular Muscles draw down the corners of the mouth; the Zygomatic Muscle distorts the cheek, and the Orbicularis Oris antago- nises all these, and closes the mouth.—These muscles, while they are performing more important offices, also express the passions, and mark the countenance with traits never to be effaced, the true study of those who would be Physiognomists; who talk but idly, when they speak of expression in those immoveable features, which are formed rather by the Contour of a bone. " The sagacious forehead or (economical " nose," are the rhapsodies of an Enthusiast, not the serious observations of a sedate man, studious of that subject, which is interesting above all others. The shapes of the bones determine the general form of the face. One great muscle, the Masseter, gives the rounding of the cheek; the rest are all delicate and moveable muscles; and the great characters of the face, center round the mouth and nostrils where these muscles converge. The lean and delicate face, gains in expression where the cheek is hollow, the angle of the mouth moveable, the lines strong; but in those who are bloated, the cheek is fuller, the lines obliterated, the delicate turnings of thought and feeling are lost; all but the more violent strains of passion are hur- ried in the mass. The great lines of character, are the line of the Zygomatic Mus- cle, coming from above, and of the Triangular Muscle coming from the chin; and the moving point towards which they all act, is the corner of the mouth. In chear- ful emotions the features arise all towards the eye, which becomes full and turgid. In the depressing passions the features sink, the eye is languid, and the whole coun- tenance gets a thoughtful serious cast. But still it is the corner of the mouth, that is the central point of all these changes. The corners of the mouth are continually supported by the action of the Levator, and of the Zygomatic Muscles; they are raised high in smiling, so as to form a dimple there. They are raised higher in laughter, so as to swell the cheek, wrinkle the eye- b-OOK SECOND, PLATE FIRST. g ^hardness to all the features; and saliva and foam proceed from the universal pres- sure upon all the glands, B MUSrLEK i OF THE MUSCLES MUSCLES OF THE EYE. Figures XII. and XIII. of Plate II. Explain the Muscles of the Eye. The origin of the Muscles at the bottom of the Orbit, being once understood, all theii mechanism will be very plain and easy, for this single point has been the chief diffi- culty from the first. Galen counted the Levator Palpebral, as one of the proper muscles of the eye; Vesalius understood better than Galen the origin of the Recti Musculus from the bottom of the Orbit, but like Galen he has drawn the eye from Brutes, and has described its muscles, and drawn them in so confused a way, that it is not easy to comprehend that muscle of his, " which adheres in all its " course to the Optic Nerve. (Septimus Oculi Musculus, nulla ex parte a visorio " nervo liberatus.") But even after this discovery of the true origin of these muscles, one author of very high reputation, Mr. Lieutaud, denied the origin of these muscles around the root of the Optic Nerve; believing that the fixed point, or center of all these muscles, was a point a little to the outer side of that hole, by which the Optic Nerve enters the socket. But now this point, of their general origin from the bottom of the socket, is universally acknowledged; and the chief dispute is, whether these five muscles, in arising round the root of the Optic Nerve, begin from the periosteum of the socket; or from the bone itself, or from the outer coat (the Dura Mater) of the Optic Nerve; or whether they do not arise by a particular ring, which surrounds the root of the Optic Nerve; for Valsava believed that these muscles began by a sort of ring, which as it surrounded the root of the Optic Nerve, he chose to call Circulus Moderato- rius Nervi Optici. But in this dispute, as usually happens, both parties are right, and both are in some degree wrong; for two of the five muscles arise more properly from the outer coat of the Optic Nerve, while the three others arise plainly from the BOOK SECOND,PLATE FIRST. j j file Dura Mater where it forms the periosteum of the Orbit; the Dura Mater gra- dually assuming the nature of a common tendon, from which those three muscles arise. The place where this tendon begins, is the inner end of that Foramen Lacerum which belongs to the Sphoenoid Bone, and which admits the smaller nerves to enter for the muscles of the eye; for when the Dura Mater has come out by this hole from the Cranium into the Orbit, it assumes, just where it covers that hole, a hard and tendinous nature, becomes white, assumes the appearance of a tendon, and is in fact, the common Tendon by which three of the muscles arise; and as this hole is below the Optic Nerve, and toward the outer side of it, the muscles which arise by this common tendon are chiefly those which pull the eye outwards or down- wards; and so this common tendon gives origin to the Abductor, Deprimens and Adductor. But those muscles again which cover the upper part of the Optic Nerve, arise close round the margin of the Optic hole; they touch the nerve and adhere to it; by ad- hering to the nerve, they may be said to arise from the nerve or from that Angle of the Dura" Mater where it comes through the Optic hole, to go over the Optic Nerve. So the Levator and the Obliquus Superior arise from the Dura Mater, where it forms the sheath of the Optic Nerve; while the Deprimens, Abductor, and Adductor, arise by one common tendon from the Dura Mater where it covers the Foramen Lacerum, forming the periosteum of the orbit. This is all seen at (a), Figures XII. and XIII. where (a) shows the fringed edge of the Dura Mater surrounding the root of the Optic Nerve; (b) the origin of the Levator and Obliquus Superior, in the angle where the Dura Mater turns backwards. And (c) shows the origin of the Abductor and Deprimens coming from the Periosteum of the Foramen Lacerum, a little to one side of the great Nerve. The only other difficult point, and which is more important still, since it explains the relative size, and shape, and course of these muscles, is the true place of this central 12 OF THE MUSCLEs central point from which the muscles rise, or in other words, the true place of the Optic hole by which the Optic Nerve enters, and from the margins of which all these muscles rise. This will be easily explained by the marginal plate, which shows the holes within the socket; the position of the eye with regard to those holes, and so explains the relative length of each of-the muscles. 1st, The eye is placed in the socket, as I have represented by the circle (a), not direct- ly in the middle, but a little to one side. The eye does not look out from the Orbit in the direction of the Axis of the Orbit; for the axes of the two orbits meet almost in the bottom of the socket, crossing in the Cella Turcica,* but both the eyes look directly forwards. The plane of the fore part of the Orbit being oblique, and falling off towards the temple, while the eye looks directly forwards; the axis of the Orbit, and of the eye can not coincidef. This is the reason of the Pupil, being nearer to one angle and not in the center of the socket, for which we have the best authority, that of measuring the eye when we please. But the authorities of books on this point are these; Heister makes the Pupils distant three inches from each other. Camper makes the Pupils distant two in- ches and a half. But the eye being compared not with the other eye, but with its own socket, it is found that the center of the Pupil is eight lines from the outer angle of the eye, and seven lines from its inner angle^:. These are my rules for placing the eye in its socket, in this plan. And the eye being thus regularly placed, we find by this drawing, (not geometrically true, but still sufficient for proving and illustrating so plain a matter as this is), that the Foramen Opticum and the larger end of the Foramen Lacerum are much above the center of the orbit, and towards the inner side; whence it is plain that the Optic Nerve in going towards the ball of the eye, mores a little outwards and descends. And it is also very * Camper. f Winslow, Academie des Sciences $ Petit Academie des Sciences. a OOK SECOND, PLATE FIRST. 1 ■< very manifest, that since the muscles, to get at their insertions must go round the globe of the eye; those which go round by the outer side of the eye, or pass under it, must be longer, while their antagonists which keep to the inner side of the eye or go over the globe, must be shorter. And so the Adductor Muscle which is on the side next the nose, is the only straight muscle; it is the shortest, while the Ab- ductor is the longest. The Abductor and the Deprimens Oculi, are the longer muscles of the eye: The Adductor and the Levator Oculi, are the shorter muscles. In this plan, the center of the socket (a) is marked by the crossing of its two dia- meters. The center of the Pupil is marked at (b) nearer the inner angle of the eye, the Foramen Opticum is marked (c), and the inner end of the Foramen Lacerum is marked (d). In PLAN FOR THE MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 14 OF THE MUSCLES. In Figure XII. these points are seen; (a) the ring which the Dura Mater forms, where it comes from the brain into the Orbit, accompanying the Optic Nerve; (6) the origin of the Obliquus Superior and Levator, from this part of the Dura Mater surrounding the Optic Hole, (c) The origins of the Abductor and Deprimens, but the letter (c) points more particularly to the origin of the Abductor, which is here seen to be a Biceps, or two-headed muscle, having two Tendons, and the smaller nerves which belong to the muscles of the eye are seen at (d), passing betwixt these two tendinous origins of the Abductor. For it is to be remembered, that this Ab- ductor along with two of the Recti, rises from that part of the Dura Mater which covers the Foramen Lacerum; and that the small nerves enter the socket by the Foramen Lacerum. From this root round the Optic Nerve, the muscles are seen going forwards. 1. The Obliojjus Superior or Trochlearis (29) uppermost, the longest muscle of the eye, with its slender Tendon passing through the Cartilaginous Pulley (e), which is left still in its place attached to the Superciliary Ridge of the Frontal Bone ( f). 2. The Obliojjus Inferior, (30) is seen, the shortest muscle of the eye, arising from the lower part of the Orbit, and going backwards to antagonize the last. 3. The Rectus Superior, (25) next to the Rectus Internus which it hides, is the shortest muscle. 4-. Rectus Externus (28) or Abducens Oculi, is the longest of all the straight muscles of the eye. 5. The Rectus Inferior or Deprimens Oculi (26) is shorter than the Abducens (28) but longer than the Rectus Superior (25), because the Optic Nerve enters a little above the center of the Orbit. The tendons of these Recti Muscles are seen expand- ing flat and broad upon the forepart of the eye; where by shining through that thin and Transparent skin, which covers the forepart of the eye, they form what is called the Albuginia, or white coat of the eye. There BOOK SECOND, PLATE FIRST, 15 There remains but one muscle belonging to the eye, and that is, the Levator Palpe- BRiE Superioris (4); which is explained in Figure XIII. where it is seen rising from the upper part of the Optic Hole at (a), along with the other muscles; it lies over all the other muscles, and expands into a thin and membraneous flesh (b), which runs imperceptibly into the substance of the upper eye-lid; and seems to end in (c) the Tarsus, or Cartilaginous hoop of the eye-lid. The XIV Figure of this plate, explains the muscles of the outward ear, as they are expressed by Cowper. Where (17) marks the Superior Auris or Atollens; and (19) the Posterior Auris or Retrahens, as they are explained in the book of the muscles, p. 240. PLATE ~n.n. BOOK SECOND, PLATE SECOND. 17 PLATE II. VWiVWVWWWW This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 212> to page 231. vwwwwvwvw THIS plate belongs chiefly to the Throat; explains the Cartilaginous and bony parts, of which the upper part of the throat and especially the flute part or Larynx is formed; shows the Os Hyoides; the Thy- riod, Cricoid, and Arytenoid Cartilages; the Epiglottis; and the Mem- branes and Muscles by which these Cartilages are connected, so as to form a rigid tube consisting of parts moveable upon one another, and yet so firm upon the whole, as to be a protection to all the more delicate parts of the throat, and to be the center of all the motions of the Jaws, and Tongue, and Windpipe, and Gullet; or of the Larynx and Pharynx, as they are called. THIS Plate explains first all the individual parts one by one; and then joins them, showing how the whole is composed; without which regular form of demonstration, nothing could be clearly understood of parts so very intricate and difficult, and having so long a catalogue of hard names connected with them. FIRST C 18 OF THE MUSCLES. FIRST ROW. The first row gives the parts single and entirely dissected; and there is represented, (1.) The Os Hyoides, which resembles jn its general form the lower Jaw Bone of a child, or what is called the Thought Bone of a fowl; (a) is its basis, (b) its horn, (c) the Cartilaginous joinings of the horns and body, and two little Tubercles stand perpendicularly up at the place of this joining, which are called the Cornua Minora or lesser horns, or Appendices of the Os Hyoides. These Cornua Minora are here represented in outline. The Os Hyoides is named also the bone of the Tongue, and its connections are especially to be observed, viz. that it lies in the root of the tongue; forms in a manner the top piece of the Trachea, is tied by a membrane to the Thyroid Cartilage, has the Epiglottis (5.) or valve of the wind- pipe planted upon it. And that these connections may be understood, this bone is marked with this figure (1.) in all the other drawings. £2.) Is the Thyroid or Shield-like Cartilage; which is indeed the shield of the Throat, for it is broad, flat, and very deep, and a full inch in length; it is thick, and often ossified. And accordingly it is this broad Cartilage that defends the more delicate parts; its upper horns (d d), are tied to the Os Hyoides by a long liga- ment; its lower ones (e e) closely embrace the Cricoid Cartilage. In this drawing, the Cartilage is set so as to rest upon its two lower Cornua, and to support and balance it a common pin marked (*), was thrust into it. (3.) Is the Cricoid Cartilage; which is not, like the Thyroid, a semicircle merely, i. e. wanting at the back part, but is an entire ring which forms, as it were, the uppermost and firmest ring of the Trachea, but which still belongs properly to the Larynx. It is shallow before, and very deep in the back part of its circle, plainly for the purpose of raising the Arytenoid Cartilages, (those small Cartilages which BOOK SECOND, PLATE SECOND. 19 which form the Rima Glottidis or opening of the windpipe); and by this deepness at its back part, the Cricoid Cartilage raises the opening of the Glottis so high, (as is seen figures vii. and viii.) that it is behind the very center of the Thyroid Car- tilage where it is well defended and safe. The Articulating Surfaces upon which the Arytenoid Cartilages sit down, are marked (f). (4.) The Arytenoid Cartilages, are the small and moveable ones, which are of a Triangular form; they are set down upon the upper border of the Cricoid Cartilage, by their base (g) with a very moveable articulation; and (g) points to the socket surface of the Arytenoid Cartilage by which the articulation is formed. For here the two uppermost drawings of the Cartilage are set opposite to each other, almost in their natural positions, and resting upon their basis, while the lowest drawing of the three, is turned up so as to show its joint. The two sharp points of the Ary- tenoid Cartilages stand perpendicularly upwards, and give the shape and opening of the Glottis. The tips of the two Arytenoid Cartilages are seen over the Thyroid Cartilage in figure viii. and the Cartilages are seen full in figure vii. settled in their place, and forming the Rima Glottidis or chink of the windpipe, which is narrower or wider as they are moved by their muscles. (5.) Shows the Epiglottis, which may be compared to an Artichoke leaf. It flaps down like a small tongue or valve, and, by clapping neatly down upon the Rima Glottidis, makes the food and drink glide clear over the Glottis, and into the Gullet or Pharynx. The Epiglottis is represented in this drawing, so as to explain its connection with the Os Hyoides, and of course with the root of the tongue. SECOND ROW. The connections are explained in the figures of the second row; each part preserves its peculiar marks (1. 2. 3.) &c. and it is seen in figure vi. in what succession these parts stand. (1.) The 20 OF THE MUSCLES FIGURE VI. (1.) The Os Hyoides, connected by its long horns with the upper horns of the Thyroid Cartilage. It is a ligament (ft) of a full inch in length that connects them. And the common membrane of the Trachea is continued from the Os Hyoides, to the Thyroid Cartilage, so that the gap betwixt them is filled up by a strong, but thin membrane (i). (2.) The Thyroid Cartilage is next, it stands forwards in the throat to defend the other parts; is distinctly felt without; is the most prominent part of the throat; and named Pomum Adami. (3.) Is the Cricoid Cartilage, which in this profile of the throat, is seen to be very shallow before, as it is deep behind. The Arytenoid Cartilages, (4.) are necessarily hidden in this view; and the Epi- glottis (5.) is cut away, to make this drawing more simple and easy. The Thyroid Gland is marked (6.) the chief part of it is seen on the nearer side of the Trachea, and a part also of the right lobe is seen coming round from the other side behind the Trachea, and almost surrounding it. (7.) Marks the Trachea, and the figure is here made to point to the uppermost ring, that the true place of the Thyroid Gland might be understood, for it lies not upon the Thyroid Cartilage (2.) nor upon the Cricoid Cartilage (3.) as might be supposed, but upon the second ring of the Trachea, leaving the first one free. FIGURE VII. and VIII. Are chiefly useful in explaining the places of the two Arytenoid Cartilages, and the way in which they form the opening of the Glottis. Figure VII. The Os Hyoides is cut away. The Thyroid Cartilage (2.) is seen in its BOOK SECOND, PLATE SECOND. 21 its place, defending and concealing the Arytenoid Cartilages; or at least the tips only of the Arytenoid Cartilages are seen (4.) peeping over the border of the Thy- roid Cartilage. (3.) The fore-part of the ring-like or Cricoid Cartilage, is seen connected with the upper ring of the Trachea; but leaving an interstice (£) of a triangular form, at which point, (and not betwixt the rings of the Trachea), Mr. Vique D'Azir proposes to perform the operation of Bronchotomy. Figure VIII. Shows the back view of the same dissection. The Os Hyoides is shown in outline, and in its true position with its small ligament which connects it with the upper horns of the Thyroid Cartilage; and here it is explained how (1.1.) the two horns of the Os Hyoides project far beyond the Larynx. They belong more properlv to the Pharynx, " and hold the Pharynx extended, as we " hold a bag open with the finger and thumb." (2. 2.) Show how deep the Thyroid Cartilage is; how fairly it incloses the Cricoid Cartilage, and conceals and defends the Arytenoid Cartilages and the opening which they make; and here it is seen, that the edges of the Thyroid Cartilage belong also to the Pharynx, for the borders of the Thyroid Cartilage do, in fact, form part of the sides of the Pharynx; they assist the horns of the Os Hyoides, in keeping the bag of the Pharynx extended. And the Constrictor Pharingis, (54. 55.56.) the great Circular Muscle which embraces the Pharynx, arises chiefly from the tips of the horns of the Os Hyoides, and from this projecting edge of the Thyroid Cartilage. (3.) Is seen the great deepness of the Cricoid Cartilage behind, and it is seen by (4.) how the Glottis (which is just the opening betwixt the two Arytenoid Cartilages), is raised by this deepness of the Cricoid Cartilage, in its back parts. The third row of figures exhibits the more important of those delicate muscles by which the Cartilages are moved upon each other; but before these muscles are explained, it is necessary to observe the place and effect of the Epiglottis, which is well seen in figure x. and by the assistance of this figure joined with the de- monstration 02 OF THE MUSCLES monstration of figure vi. the succession of parts is very fairly explained.—1. The Os Hvoides.—2. The Thyroid Cartilage.—3. The, Cricoid Cartilage follow each other in figure vi.—4. The Arytenoid Cartilages, figure vii. and viii.—5. The Epiglottis, figure x.—6. The Thyroid Gland, figure vi.—7. The rings of the Trachea, betwixt which rings, and below the Thyroid Gland, the operation of Bronchotomy is to be performed. This x. figure then compleats those connections of the parts of the throat; and the effects of accidental wounds, or of the attempts of Suicides, or of our operation of Bronchotomy will be easily understood. Suicides in their attempts very com- monly cut so high in the throat, immediately under the jaw, that they seldom wound the Carotid Artery; nor do they even hurt the more material parts of the throat; for they strike so high, (commonly above the Thyroid Cartilage), that they do not touch the Trachea, nor injure the Glottis. They only cut off the Os Hyoides from the Larynx; they do not so properly cut the throat as the tongue; and when the food passes by the wound, it does not come from a cut of the Oesophagus across the Trachea, but comes merely from the root of the tongue. These Lateral views explain also how idle it is to talk of performing Bronchotomy above the Thyroid Cartilage, since the Thyroid Cartilage is not in the Trachea, and since the obstruction is below that point, being commonly in the Thyroid Gland, which is here marked (6).—Mr. Vique D'Azir is not more correct in his Anatomy, where he advises Bronchotomy to be performed betwixt the Thyroid and Cricoid Carti- lages, in the Triangular Membranous space marked (k): for, that is exactly by the side of the Sacculus Laryngis, or Sac of the Larynx, a mucous secreting bag, which lies here on the inside of the Trachea; and the Trocar would lie almost in the opening of the Glottis, or so near it, that the irritation could not be endured. The Larynx cannot bear the operation of Bronchotomy, because it is moveable, furnished with many muscles that are easily excited; and the least irritation near the Glottis, throws them into violent contractions. But the Trachea itself, can easily bear to be transfixed BOOK SECOND, PLATE SECOND. 23 transfixed with the Trocar, which neither excites contractions, nor gives pain: Be- sides the obstruction which requires Bronchotomy, is seldom in the tongue or mouth; more commonly in the Larynx; not unfrequently in the Thyroid Gland. So that almost all the occasions that can be supposed, are such as keep us down to the very lowest point of the Trachea, viz. That nearest the chest. THIRD ROW. This row is for demonstrating the chief muscles of the Larynx, and Pharynx; and of course, the motions of these several parts upon each other. And it explains, first, the muscles which lie immediately upon the Cartilages of the Larynx, and which move the parts of the throat upon each other; and these lead to a know- ledge of those longer muscles, which come from the jaws, or chin, or sternum or shoulder; and by which the whole throat is moved. These are represented care- fully in the middle figure of this third row, and also in the next plate. Figure IX. Explains chiefly the Hyo-thyroidsei, and Crico-thyroidsei Muscles; for first, The Crico-thyroid^i (42), arise by a small pointed origin, (/) from the fore part of the Cricoid Cartilage; go upwards and obliquely outwards about an inch in length; are implanted by a broad insertion (m), into the lower border of the Thyroid Cartilage, and where they end, the next muscle begins. For the Hyo-thyroidjEus (41), is a long, flat, and fleshy muscle, about an inch and a half, or two inches in length; lying flat upon the smooth face of the Thyroid Cartilage; rising from the lower border of the Thyroid Cartilage below, and implanted broad and fleshy above, into the basis of the Os Hyoides a little to one side, and to a part of the horn. Sometimes this muscle is divided into two slips, as it is drawn by Cowper, but more commonly it is single, as represented here, and the upper end of the Sterno-hyoideus (34), is seen here marked with its proper number. The 24 OF THE MUSCLES. The Sterno-thyroideus is implanted into the Thyroid Cartilage, at the point where the Crico-thyroideus (42) ends, and the Hyo-thyroideus (41) begins; so that the Crico-thyroidseus is in part covered by the Sterno-thyroideus; and the Hyo-thyroi- deus again looks like a continuation of the same muscle. In Figure X. are seen chiefly the small muscles by which the Cartilages of the Larynx are moved upon each other, modulating the voice. And the chief of these are, first, the Crico-Arytenoideus Posticus, and secondly the Arytenoideus Transversus. The Crico-arytenoideus Posticus (45), " is a small Pyramidal Muscle, which rises " broader from the back part of the Cricoid Cartilage, where the ring is broad " and deep; and going directly upwards, is implanted with a narrow point into the " back of the Arytenoid Cartilage. This pair of muscles pulls the Arytenoid " Cartilages" backwards and outward, so that they at once lengthen and wTiden the slit; enlarging the opening of the Glottis. Under this lies the Crico-aryte- noideus Lateralis, the smallest of these muscles, which arises from the rim of the Cricoid, and is inserted into the root of the Arytenoid Cartilage, and plainly sepa- rates the Arytenoid Cartilages, and widens the Glottis. The Arytenoideus Transversus, (43) is seen here. It is seen crossing betwixt :h< two Arytenoid Cartilages, going from the root of the one, to the root of the other: its natural office being to contract, or occasionally to close the Glottis. The Arytenoideus Obliojjus, is a very delicate muscle which lies under this, in the same way that the Arytenoideus Lateralis lies under the Arytenoideus Posticus*. The XI. Figure explains the Constrictores Pharyngis, and the Styloid Muscles; for (n) represents the Velum Pendulum Palati, cut off from the roof of the mouth, and * The young student should carry the throat to his room, wash it in a hand bason, steep and dissect there.—A piece of Anatomy, which with these drawings he will easily manage, which is hardly uncleanly, and cannot but be very important. It is indeed neglected only from being thought impracticable. BOOK SECOND, PLATE SECOND. 25 and hung out by strings; (o) is the Uvula or Pap, in the centre of it; (p) is the Anterior Arch of the Palate; (q) is the Posterior Arch; (r) is the Tonsil lurking betwixt the arches at the side of the root of the tongue; (s) is the tongue; (1.) is the Os Hyoides; (2.) is the Thyroid Cartilage; (3.) the Cricoid Cartilage; (6.) the Thyroid Gland; (t) the Trachea; (u) a piece of wood thrust up through the Oesophagus, and appearing again in the throat at the back part of the tongue; and the great constrictor muscle, is seen going in waves round this piece of wood; or in other words, coursing round the upper part of the Oesophagus, i. e. the Pha- rynx; and (v) is the last point of this demonstration, and the most important, for it is the Styloid Process, whence (39.) (53.) and (58.) the three Styloid Muscles arise*. The muscles then which are to be seen in this drawing of the throat are, 1. The set of the three Styloid Muscles; 2. the Constrictor Pharyngis; and 3. the Vaginalis Guise. The Styloid Muscles are, the Stylo-glossus (58.) arising from the forepart of the Styloid Process and going forwards into the substance of the tongue, stretching forwards into its point for drawing it back into the mouth. The Stylo-hyoideus (39), which begins rather from the backpart of the Styloid Process, and goes here into the side of the Os Hyoides, being slender at its be- ginning, and broad towards its insertion, as all the Styloid Muscles are. The Stylo-pharyngeus (53.) lies behind or under the Stylo-hyoideus; for it lies close upon the Gullet or Pharynx, expands upon that part of the bag where it is held extended upon the horns of the Os Hyoides; so that the Stylo-pharyngeus, when it expands upon the Pharynx, touches the horn of the Os Hyoides, which is marked (x), and as the middle constrictor of the Pharynx arises especially from that * The Stylo-glossus I had described in my book of the muscles; but after classing it in the general arrangement, I had forgotten it in the description of individual muscles. D 26 OF THE MUSCLES that point of the Os Hyoides, the lower fibres of the Stylo-pharyngeus run along- side of the upper fibres of the middle constrictor, so that they almost mix. Fhese three Styloid Muscles perform the first movement in the act of swallowing, for they all coincide in lifting up the throat, pressing back the root of the tongue against the palate, (to straiten the Arches of the Fauces;) and confining the morsel. By compressing the morsel, they push it down, and so begin that action, which is completed by that strong Muscle of the Pharynx, which is next seen. For the Constrictor Pharyngis, (55.) is a very large and fleshy muscle, which covers five inches (in length) of the Oesophagus, and pushes down the morsel, which is already pressed by the contractions about the top of the Pharynx, and chiefly by the action of the Styloid Muscles. The Constrictor is fairly enough divided into three muscles, (54. 55. and 56.) of which the upper one, which cannot be seen here, rises about the back of the jaws, and from the basis of the skull, and from the root of the tongue. The Middle Constrictor, marked (55.) rises from tips of the horns of the Os Hyoides alone, and goes in a diverging form upwards, till it almost touches the skull, and downwards pretty low upon the Gullet. The Lower Constrictor (56.) arises from the borders or wings of the Thyroid Cartilage, and from the ring of the Cricoid Cartilage. This is the thickest and fleshiest of all the Constrictors; it is very large, and goes obliquely upwards, covering the lower part of the middle Constrictor, and a small space is left, a kind of angle betwixt the two Constrictors, which is thin and membraneous, and there the tips of the horns belonging to the Thyroid Cartilage, are faintly indicated, as shining through the thin membrane. The Oesophagus is still farther covered with a sheath of muscular fibres, which run in a perpendicular direction longitudinally along it, till they expand at last upon rhe stomach itself. This sheath of muscular fibres is called the Vaginalis Gul.£. and is marked (57.) PLATE BOOK SECOND, PLATE THIRD. 27 PLATE III. vwvwvwvwvw This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 317, to page 220. VWVWVWVWWV IHIS Plate explains the connection of the muscles of the throat; it explains chiefly the greater muscles coming upwards from the breast and shoulder; or downwards from the Styloid Process, pulling the throat upwards towards the jaws, or downwards towards the Sternum; and these muscles, though they belong chiefly to the throat, do occasionally move the jaws. In Figure I. which represents the head of an old man, the skin of the neck is dissec- ted off, and cut away, nearly in the line of the Jaw Bone; so as to show, (a) the Jaw Bone; (b) the Parotid Gland, lying behind the angle of the jaw; (c) the Sub- maxillary Gland, lying under the corner of the jaw; (d) the Great Carotid Artery, which carries blood to the head; (e) the Great Jugular Vein, by which that blood is returned; (g) is the Thyroid Gland, which consists of two lobes, one lying upon the right side of the Trachea, the other upon the left side, the two lobes are joined by a narrow slip of the Glandular substance which lies upon the fore-part of the Trachea, and is called the Isthmus, i. e. neck betwixt the two lobes, joining together the two lobes of the Gland. The Gland is large, where the bulk of it can lie at either side of the Trachea; but its Isthmus marked (g) is very thin, and almost membranous. 28 OF THE MUSCLES. membranous, where it lies upon the fore-part of the Trachea. We find the Gland smaller in men, larger in women; of great variety in respect of size; very generally so large, as to be distinguished'by the fingers on the outside of the throat; very often enlarged, and often descending deep behind the Trachea, so that the two op- posite lobes almost meeting behind, surround that Tube, and explain to us how ter- rible and how incurable (by any operation at least), that suffocation must be, which proceeds from a swelling of this Gland. This form of the Gland almost surround- ing the Trachea, the two opposite lobes nearly meeting behind, is better explained in the Trachea, drawn at Figure vi. Plate ii. The parts of the Trachea, with which the muscles are more immediately connected; are, (1.) The Os Hyoides, which lies in the root of the tongue. (2.) The Thyroid Cartilage, where it projects to form the Pomum Adami. (3.) The Cricoid Cartilage, which is above the Thyroid Gland. Therefore the Thyroid Gland is hardly entitled to the name of Thyroid, since, in place of resting upon the Thyroid cartilage, it lies quite below both the Thyroid and Cricoid Cartilages, upon the first, or rather upon the second ring of the Trachea. The Muscles are these, (137.) Is the Sterno-Mastoideus, the great muscle of the neck; thrown back to expose those smaller muscles which belong properly to the throat; and there is seen, (34.) The Sterno-Hyoideus, coming up from the Sternum, going upwards to the Os Hyoides, long, flat, ribband-like, and bending where it passes over the Thyroid Gland. (35.) The Sterno-Thyroideus, coming also upwards from the Sternum; stretching towards the Thyroid Cartilage; lying under the last named muscle; like it flat and ribband-like; covering also the Thyroid Gland, and bulging a little where it passes over the chief bulk of the Gland. (36.) The Omo-Hyoideus, coming upwards from the shoulder. It is a digastric or two-bellied BOOK SECOND, PLATE THIRD. 29 two-bellied muscle. The belly (36.) is fixed into the Os Hyoides. The middle ten- don (ft) is seen under the Mastoid muscle; and the lower fleshy belly lies too deep to be seen, for it rises from the Scapula near the Coracoid Process. These are the chief muscles which pull the throat downwards. The muscles which pull the throat upwards are the Mylo-Hyoideus, the Bi venter, and the Stylo-Hyoideus muscles. (37.) The Mylo-Hyoideus arises from the whole length of the Jaw Bone, from the chin to the angle; and it arises not from the lower border of the jaw; but rather from the inner surface of the jaw-bone, almost as high as the sockets for the teeth. It is thick and fleshy; but still it is flat and broad; and goes downwards in a radiated or fan-like form, to be implanted into the basis of the Os Hyoides. Within this muscle lies hidden the Genio Hyoideus; without, lies the fore belly of the Digastric Muscle; the Sub-maxillary Gland (c) is an external Gland, and lies under the corner of the jaw without, (i. e.) over the Mylo-hyoideus; the Sub- lingual Gland is an internal Gland which lies under the tongue beneath this muscle. The Mylo-hyoidei muscles of opposite sides are united to each other by a rapha or tendinous seam or line, which is seen at (i), and which goes down from the center of the chin to the center of the Os Hyoides. (40.) The Biventer Maxilla Inferioris belongs after all more properly to the throat than to the jaw; it is called Biventer from its two bellies, which are indeed very distinct and beautiful; one belly (k) arises from the root of the Mastoid Process, and so is seen here coming out from under the Parotid Gland; the fore-belly (/) is seen arising from under the chin; the middle tendon has the number of the muscle (40.) put upon it at that point where it passes the side of the Os Hyoides, and there it is attached to the Os Hyoides, not merely by running through a sort of Cartila- ginous loop on the side of that bone, but also by running through a loop made by the flesh of the Stylo-Hyoideus muscle, which forks at its insertion. (39.) Is the Stylo-Hyoideus coming from under the Parotid Gland, and implanted in- to OF THE MUSCLES II. The muscles which pull the throat upwards are, (40.) The Digastricus, of which the first belly (40.) is seen coming out from under the Thyroid Gland, while the fore belly (n) being cut away from the chin, hangs down. (39.) The Stylo-Hyoideus Muscle, which is seen turning over the tendon of the Digastricus, and tying it down in its place. (53.) The Stylo-pharyngeus, which lies very deep behind the other Styloid Muscles, passes down under the arm or branch of the Os Hyoides, and expands upon the Pharynx. xV. B. In this drawing, the Styloid Muscles are dissected upwards very nearly to that point (under the Parotid Gland,) where they rise small and delicate, from around the roots of the Styloid Process. III. The muscles which compose the chief bulk of the tongue, are these, (58.) The Stylo-glossus, which comes small and delicate from the root of the Styloid Process; expands as it goes towards the tongue, and whose office is to pull the tongue down into the mouth. (59.) The Hyo-glossus, which I have represented as one single flat muscle, rising from nearly the whole length of the Os Hyoides*. (60.) Is the Genio-glossus, so named from its rising from that point of the lower jaw bone (o), which is called the chin; its fibres go into the tongue in a radiated form, in every direction, capable of performing all kinds of motions, of lolling the tongue out, and also of retracting it again; whence this muscle has by way of pre-eminence been * From its arising in three fasciculi or distinct bundles, viz. one from the basis, one from the horn, and one from the Cartilage of the Os Hyoides, it has been called the Basio-chon- dro-cerato-glossus, or each fasciculus has occasionally been described, as a distinct muscle. BOOK SECOND, PLATE THIRD. 33 been named Musculus Linguae Pollychrestus. And (r) is the tongue itself, com- posed chiefly of these muscles, and covered with its membrane. The Genio-hyoideus (38.) is a muscle rising from the same point (o), of the chin; is implanted into the Os Hyoideus. This muscle which rises from the point of the chin only, lies under the Mylo-hyoideus (37.) (vide Figure i.) which rises from the whole length of the jaw; and these together pull the Os Hyoides, and of consequence the throat upwards. So that there is seen by these two drawings, first, how the Mylo-hyoideus, (37.) figure i. and the Genio-hyoideus, (38.) figure ii. pull the throat upwards. Secondly, how the Diagastric Muscle (40.) and the three Styloid Muscles, figure ii. pull the throat up- wards and backwards. Thirdly, how the Sterno-thyroidei, Sterno-hyoidei, and Omo- hyoidei pull the throat downwards. And it is lastly very plain, that these at the same time that they are properly muscles of the throat, are occasionally muscles of the lower jaw, the only ones indeed which pull it down; little force is needed for this, the jaw dropping almost by its own weight; but, as the motion must be quick and voluntary, it must be done by muscles; and when the muscles from the Sternum fix the throat or pull it down, the Genio-hyoidei, Mylo-hyoidei and Bi- venter depress the jaw; so that the motions of the jaw and throat, or in other words, the action of chewing and swallowing have this consent, that they are partly per- formed by the same common muscles, so that we cannot chew and swallow at once; the jaw which moves in chewing the morsel, must be fixed when it is to be swal- lowed; and so the motions for chewing and swallowing alternatively succeed each other. E PLAIT BOOK SECOND, PLATE THIRD. $5 PLATE III. This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 217, to page 220. wvvwvwwvvw THIS explains the greater muscles, coming upwards from the breast or shoulder, and downwards from the chin and Styloid Process; and by which the whole throat is moved. And these muscles though they belong chiefly to the throat, do occasionally also move the jaws. In Figure I. is seen, 1. The Os Hyoides, where it lies in the root of the tongue. 2. The Thyroid Cartilage, where it projects to form the Pomum Adami. 3. The Cricoid Cartilage, which is above the Thyroid Gland; therefore the Thyroid Gland is hardly entitled to that name; since in place of resting upon the Cartilages of the Larynx, it lies quite below both the Thyroid and Cricoid Cartilages, properly upon the uppermost ring of the Trachea, or upon the first and second ring; then (a) is the Thyroid Gland which consists of two lobes, one lying upon the right side of the Trachea, the other upon the left side; the two lobes are joined by a narrow slip of the Glandular substance which lies upon the forepart of the Trachea, and is called the Isthmus, i. e. neck betwixt the two lobes, joining together the two lobes of the Gland. The Gland is large, where the bulk of it can lie at either side of the OF THE MUSCLES. the Trachea; but its Isthmus marked (a) is very thin, and almost membranous, where it lies upon the forepart of the Trachea. We find the Gland smaller in men, larger in women, of great variety in respect of size; very generally so large, as to be distinguished by the fingers on the outside of the throat, very often enlarged, and often descending deep behind the Trachea; so that the two opposite lobes al- most meeting behind, surround that Tube, and explain to us how terrible and how incurable (by every operation at least), that suffocation must be, which proceeds from a swelling of this Gland. This form of the Gland almost surrounding the Trachea, the two opposite lobes nearly meeting behind, is better explained in the Trachea, drawn at Figure vi. Plate ii. The Muscles here are, First, the Mylo-hyoideus, (37.) which arises from the whole length of the jaw, i. e. from the chin almost to the angle; and it rises not from the lower border of the jaw, but rather from the inner surface of the jaw, almost as high as the sockets for the teeth. It is thick and fleshy, but still is flat and broad; it goes down to the Os Hyoides, is implanted still fleshy, and with radiated or fan-like fibres, into its upper border. The Genio-hyoideus lies within this one; the fore- belly of the Digastricus lies flat upon it without; the Sub-maxillary Gland (b), is an external gland and lies (under the corner of the jaw,) above the flat belly of this muscle; but the Sub-lingual Gland lies under the root of the tongue, is an inter- nal Gland, and lies under the belly of the Mylo-hyoideus Muscle. The Mylo- hyoideus of each side is united with its fellow by a tendinous line (c), or rapha which goes down from the point of the chin, to the center of the Os Hyoides. Second, the Digastricus, (40.) or Biventer, is a muscle having two bellies, one rising from under the Mastoid Process, another arising from the tip of the chin. The fore- belly and the middle tendon only are seen here; the back belly, viz. that which rises from BOOK SECOND, PLATE THIRD. 37 from the root of the Mastoid Process, being hidden by the Sub-maxillary Gland (d). The fore-belly of the Digastricus rising from the chin, is marked (e); the middle tendon is marked (/). At this place it runs through a loop of ligament, and so is attached to the side of the Os Hyoides. Thirdly, the Sterno-hyoideus (34.) is seen here coming from the Sternum, going to the Os Hyoides; passing flat and ribband-like over the Thyroid Gland, and bulg- ing a little where the chief bulk of the gland lies below. Fourthly, the Sterno-thyroideus (35.) rises like it a little deeper and behind it; is like it a flat and ribband-like muscle; like it covers the Thyroid Gland, and bulges a little over the place where the chief bulk of the Gland is. And where this Sterno- thyroideus ends, the Hyo-thyroideus (41.) begins, and is like a continuation of that muscle. Fifthly, the Omo-hyoideus (36.) once named Coraco-hyoideus, comes upwards from the shoulder, from near the Coracoid Process. It crosses the neck obliquely, and is inserted along with the other muscles, into the side of the Os Hyoides. And lastly, the Sterno-mastoideus (137.) the great muscle of the neck which runs obliquely across, forming the Contour of the neck, and the chief muscle which appears outwardly, is seen here lying flaccid and ragged, still connected with the skin and flesh; and dissected clean, at its lower part only, where it rises by (g) a small round tendon from the Sternum, and by (ft) a broad fleshy origin from the clavicle, of which (i) indicates the broken end. The whole muscle, passing oblique- ly across the neck is implanted under the ear into the Mastoid Process, and from its origins and insertions, it is named the Sterno-cleido-mastoideus Muscle, THE SECOND HEAD, Is the drawing of a freer dissection of all these muscles; where all the Anatomy7 of the throat is seen, for the Parotid Gland, the Carotid Artery, the Jugular vein, the eighth 3g OF THE MUSCLES. eighth pair of nerves, and the chief muscles both of the throat, and of the tongue are here. The Face is laid open, so that some of its thin cutaneous muscles are seen; as the Or- bicularis Oculi, (3.) slightly indicated; the thick mass of the Masseter (31.) is seen; the Temporal Muscle (30.) is seen, not dissected, but lying under the thick Fascia of the temple, and (a) the great Parotid Gland, is seen lying before the ear, the lower corner of the Gland being dissected up from the deep hollow under the angle of the jaw, in order to shew the place of the Styloid Process, and the muscles rising from it. (b) Marks the great internal Jugular vein, (c) Marks the Carotid Artery, (d) Marks the Par Vagum, or eighth pair of Nerves, which comes out along with the Jugular vein, and runs down the neck betwixt the Jugular vein and the Carotid Artery^ inclosed along with them in a sheath formed out of the com- mon cellular substance; and (e) marks the Thyroid Artery, which is the first branch of the Carotid Artery, and takes this sharp turn backwards, to go down to the Thyroid Gland. The Muscles are, i. The Sterno-mastoideus, (137.) which is lying flaccid, being dissected and laid aside to uncover the Artery and the vein which lie under it. 2. The Digastric Muscle, (40.) of which the upper belly is seen drawn out from its true direction by a thread, and it is thus displaced a little in order to show the Styloid Muscles; and that belly (g) which comes from the chin, and which is seen in its place in the first figure, is here seen cut up and turned backwards, and hanging by that point at which the middle tendon is attached to the side of the Os Hyoides. 3. The Styloid Muscles lie in a group, round the root of the Styloid process; the Styloid Process itself is marked (m); and the Stylo-glossus (58.) is seen going to- wards the tongue. The Stylo-pharyngeus (53.) is seen going down towards the Pharynx, BOOK SECOND, PLATE THIRD. 39 Pharynx, covered by the Stylo-hyoideus, (39.) which is fixed into the side of the Os Hyoides; and which forking into two, where it touches that bone, embraces the middle tendon of the Digastricus, so as to let it run as a rope in a pulley. 4. The set of muscles composing the tongue, and making up its chief bulk and sub- stance, are also explained here. The Genio-hyoideus (38.) is seen lying in the root of the tongue, coming from the point on the inner surface of the chin, and inserted into the Os Hyoides. The Genio-glossus, (60.) is next seen, going from the same point into the substance of the tongue, with fibres radiated in every direction; some fibres going backwards, some upwards, and some again forwards, it is capable of performing all the various motions of the tongue, hence it has been called Musculus Pollychrestus. Then the Hyo-glossus, (59.) which rises from the Os Hyoides, I have represented as one single muscle, and have given it here the most simple name. It is drawn as rising from the whole length of the Os Hyoides*. 5. The set of muscles coming upwards from the Sternum or shoulder, are also well explained here; for the Sterno-hyoideus, (34.) is seen running up along the forepart of the Trachea, bulging out a little where it passes over the Thyroid Gland, which in this woman was very large; and bending the more because the muscle (which is full six inches long), is here fully dissected, and so lies quite flaccid and loose. The Sterno-thyroideus, (35.) is seen very distinctly, also covering the Thyroid Gland lying behind, and under the last named muscle. N. B. The Hyo-thyroideus, (41.) is seen continuous with this one, beginning where it ends like a continuation of the same muscle. Lastly, The Omo-hyoideus, (36.) is seen coming obliquely upwards from the shoulder, and here it is very distincdy seen that at (n), the place where this muscle runs under the belly of the great Sterno- * From its arising in three fasciculi or distinct bundles, viz. one from the basis, one from the horn, and one from the Cartilage of the Os Hyoides, it has been called the Basio-chon- dro-cerato-glossus, or each fasciculus has occasionally been described as a distinct muscle. 40 OF THE MUSCLES. Stemo-Mastoideus Muscle, it is not fleshy, but small, delicate and tendinous. Then this muscle has a middle tendon which though very short, (being but an inch in length), is yet very distinct and very constant; so that the Omo-hyoideus is pro- perly a Digastric Muscle, as fairly as the Digastricus Maxillae Inferioris. It has one belly from the shoulder, near the root of the Coracoid Process; one at the throat, from the Os Hyoides; and the middle tendon (n), runs under the belly of the Sterno-mastoideus. So that there is seen by these two drawings, first, how the Mylo-hyoideus, figure i. and the Genio-hyoideus, figure ii. pull the throat upwards. Secondly, how the Digas- trict Muscle, and the three Styloid Muscles, figure ii. pull the throat upwards and backwards. Thirdly, how the Sterno-thyroidei, Sterno-hyoidei, and Omo-hyoidei pull the throat downwards. And it is lastly very plain, that these at the same time that they are properly muscles of the throat, are occasionally muscles of the lower jaw, the only ones indeed which pull it down; little force is needed for this, the jaw dropping almost by its own weight; but, as this motion must be quick and voluntary, it must be done by muscles, and when the muscles from the Sternum fix the throat or pull it down, the Genio-hyoidei, Mylo-hyoidei and Bi- venter depress the jaw; so that the motions of the jaw and throat, or in other words, the action of chewing and swallowing have this consent, that they are partly per- formed by the same common muscles, so that we cannot chew and swallow at once; the jaw which moves in chewing the morsel, must be fixed when it is to be swal- lowed; and so the motions for chewing and swallowing alternatively succeed each other. PLATE HOOK SECOND, PLATE FOURTH. 41 PLATE IV. wwwvwvwvw This and tlw two following Plates explain the Text Book, from Page 232, to Page 285, www vw WWW THIS plate explains those broad muscles, which, belonging to the Scapula, lie flat upon the back, covering the whole of the trunk, and which are very remarkable in beautiful statues. The muscles are chiefly the Trapezius, and the Latissimus Dorsi; and this drawing is not so much of value as a piece of Anatomy, as in explaining to the student the first appearance of his disseGtion of the back; and by explaining the great muscles of the Scapula, it marks a good, beginning for the Anatomy of the arm. The Trapezius Muscle, (62) " is one of the most beautiful muscles of the body, of " a Lozenge-like form. Covers all the back and neck quite round to the fore-part of " the shoulder; the two muscles extend from the tip of the one shoulder, to the " tip of the other, and from the nape of the neck quite down to the loins." The strong middle tendon by which the two muscles of the opposite sides are connected, is marked (a), the insertion into the Occiput is marked (b), and the insertion into the spine of the Scapula, is marked (c). "The Latissimus Dorsi, (70.) it is the broadest not only of the back, but of the u whole body, covering all the lower parts of the back and loins." Its broad, flat, and F 42 OF THE MUSCLES. and glistening tendon is marked (d), the chief belly of the muscle is marked with its number (70.); the place where its fibres cross is marked (e), and it then runs under the arm into the deep shadow, being implanted into the arm bone to pull the arm backwards. The Deltoides (71.) next appears, the skin being thrown down carelessly, so as to show where this muscle rises from the Spine of the Scapula; and especially its origin is seen; for it rises from the Spine of the Scapula (c), and in part from that line of the Scapula into which the Trapezius Muscle is inserted. A small part of the Teres Major, (76.) is seen in the space betwixt the Deltoides, and the Latissimus Dorsi; a small part of the Infra-spinatus, (74.) is seen lying upon the Scapula, under this (the back) part of the Deltoid; and also a small part of the Rhomboides, (65.) is seen under the edge of the Trapezius Muscle. Upon the haunch, the upper part of the great Gluteus Muscle (163). is seen uncovered of the skin, which hangs like a scroll over the edge of the table. PLATE BOOK SECOND, PLATE FD?TH. 43 PLATE V. This Plate with the IV. & VI. explains the Text Book, from Page 232 to Page 285. vw WWW WWW 1 HIS plate shows the arm in that posture into which it naturally falls, when thrown out upon the table, viz. standing upon the lower angle of the Scapula, the shoulder joint raised, and a little supported, the elbow touching the table, the fore-arm lying flat along the table, the wrist raised by the box of knives thrust under it, and the hand dropping over the box, so as to touch the table again, with the knuckles. Figure I. describes the outermost layer of Muscles. Figure II. (a fuller dissection,) explains those which lie under, and contains every muscle quite down to the bone. The two drawings are explained as one, since they are indeed two drawings of the same arm in one posture; and the most natural arrangement for this explanation is, 1. Of the muscles lying on the Scapula, and moving the shoulder bone. 2. Muscles lying on the arm, and moving the Radius and Ulna, the two bones of the fore-arm, and 3. The muscles which lie upon the fore-arm, and which move the wrist, and fingers, and thumb. I. Muscles 44, OF THE MUSCLES. I. Muscles lying upon the Scapula. There is seen here, the part of the Serratus Major Anticus Muscle, (66.) which lies upon the fore-part of the chest, which goes backwards under the Scapula, be- twixt it and the ribs; and which is implanted, as is seen here, into all the line of the Basis of the Scapula, to pull it forwards. The place where the Supra-spina- tus (73.) lies, above the Spine, is seen filled with its muscle in the upper drawing, and the place of that muscle is seen empty, and with only naked bone in the lower drawing. The Infra-spinatus, (74.) is seen both in the upper and in the lower drawing, co- vering all that part of the Scapula, which is below the Spine. The Teres Minor, (75.) is seen both in the upper and in the lower drawing, lying in its place not much dissected, and so little separated from the Infra-spinatus (74.) that it looks rather like a particular fasciculus of that muscle, as indeed it is; but though the Teres Minor is not in its fleshy belly easily distinguished from the Subscapulars, yet it has its tendon very distinct. The Teres Major (76.) is neither like the Teres Minor, nor is it round as its name imports, but is a large, flat, and long muscle which comes along with the Teres Minor, from the angle of the Scapula, and being here fully dissected, and hanging flabby, it is seen, that it twists under the shoulder bone, and is implanted, not like the Teres Minor, which goes into the knob on the outside of the head of the shoul- der bone; but low down, and upon the shaft of the bone, almost as low as the in- sertion of the Deltoid Muscle; so that the shoulder bone is embraced betwixt the two Teretes Muscles, even in the natural condition of the parts; and in the aukward twistings of a luxation, the head of the bone is often closely embraced and strangled, as it were, betwixt the two Teretes muscles, and not unfrequently under the sub- scapulars; an accident which makes the bone more difficult to reduce; but very often the BOOK SECOND, PLATE FIFTH. 45 the joint is not at all embraced by the muscles, but is quite loose and moveable, and its being easily reduced, is rather perhaps to be considered as a sign of the joint being much hurt and all these muscles torn away. (71.) Is the Deltoides, the last muscle which proceeds from the Scapula on this side of the arm. It is seen here rising from the Spine of the Scapula (a), from the tip of the Acromion Process (b), and also it has an origin from a part of the clavicle. It is seen here implanted in the arm bone at (d), about one third down. In the upper drawing it lies in its place; in the lower drawing it iscut up and turnedjback- ward, to show the head of the bone, and the insertion of the Teres Minor. But there are still two other muscles which rise from the Scapula, to be implanted into the arm bone, viz. the Subscapulars, (77.) and the Coraco-brachialis, (72.) w hich are both seen in the next plate. II. The Muscles moving the fore-arm, and which lie upon the arm, are the Triceps and Anconeus behind, and the Biceps and Brachialis Internus before. The Triceps (80.) was once described as three muscles, but is now accounted as one muscle, having three heads; (e) the first, a long head, which rises from the lower edge of the Scapula, near the Glenoid Cavity; and, coming down betwixt the Teres Major, and the Teres Minor Muscles (75.) and (76.) meets the second head which is shorter; for the second head of the Triceps (f), rises from the shoulder bone, a little below the head of the bone, and takes a long origin from almost the whole length of the humerus. In these two drawings, the first and second head only of the Triceps is seen; but in the next plate, the third or shortest head (g) of the Triceps is seen, coming rather from the inner side of the bone, and lower down. The Anconeus, (81.) or Muscle of the Elbow, is a small muscle not very easily found nor understood. It lies exactly upon that part of the elbow on which we rest in lean- ing upon the arm. It is seen in the upper drawing only, and is marked with its number (81.) (78.) The i6 OF THE MUSCLES. (78.) The Biceps, the Thick Muscle of the fore part of the Arm, is seen in the upper figure. But the middle of its belly only is seen; its heads lying under the Deltoid Muscle. The Brachialis Internus, (79.) which lies under the Biceps, is seen in the upper drawing, but it is better seen in the lower drawing; and the manner of its rising from the fore part of the shoulder-bone is tolerably well expressed. Neither of the heads of the Biceps can be seen in the upper drawing, because of the Deltoid Muscle; but in the lower drawing, where the Deltoid is cut up from the Scapula, and reclined backwards, the longer head of the Biceps is seen raised upon the blow-pipe, (ft) which is passed under it just where the tendon is coming out from the Capsule of the shoulder joint; for this head of the Biceps is a long and slender tendon, which comes from within the cavity of the shoulder joint. and goes down under the belly of the Deltoid Muscle, being tendinous quite to the middle of the arm. The muscles of the Fore Arm are arranged in my description of the Muscles under two classes. I. The Extensors of the wrist, fingers, and thumb, which all keep the outer round side of the fore-arm, arising chiefly from the outer Condyle. II. The Flexors, or Benders of the wrist, fingers, and thumb, which lie all upon the inner flat side of the fore-arm, rising in their turn, chiefly from the inner Condyle. In these drawings the extensors only can be seen; in the drawings of the next plate all the flexors are seen. To begin then with the Muscles lying upon the upper or radial edge of the fore arm, there is, (92.) The Supinator Longus Radii, which turns the palm of the hand up; for it rises from the shoulder bone, above the elbow joint, and goes down the fore-arm with a long flat tendon, which is marked (i) to be planted into the Radius at its fore-part. (102.) The Supinator Radii Brevis, is a deeper Muscle, and therefore it is seen only BOOK SECOND, PLATE FIFTH. 4r only in figure ii. where it is seen lying close upon the Inter-osseous Ligament, rising from the Ulna, going across to be inserted broad and fleshy into the Radius, and turning the Radius upon the Ulna, so as to throw the palm upwards. The two next muscles keep also very exactly to the Radial edge of the arm; belong to the wrist; are the extensors of the wrist on the Radial side of the arm; and are named Extensores Carpi Longior et Brevior. (93.) The Extensor Carpi Radialis Longior, rises from the arm bone just under the place of the Supinator Longus (92.); has a strong fleshy belly like it; and its long tendon accompanies the long tendon of the Supinator, and is implanted near the root of the thumb, at (k), to bend the wrist back. (94.) The Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevior, rises also from the shoulder bone, but lower, and thence it is shorter; but it is in all other respects like the former; like it has a short thick fleshy belly; a long and slender tendon, running along the wrist, is implanted into the back of the hand, at the root of the fore-finger, at (/); and like the former it bends the wrist backwards. These three muscles, the Supinator, and the two extensors, form the chief flesh of the fore-arm just under the elbow joint, and the three bellies make three dimples and three curious swellings, which are drawn by the painter with great care, for they make the chief marks of the fore-arm; and the true drawing of the fore-arm (in its bendings and fore-shortenings, and especially in its strong exertions of pulling or grasping,) consists chiefly in the right placing of these three bellies, where they cover the joint; and it is the rising belly of the Supinator, which (in the drawing), joins the fore-arm rightly to the arm. These three muscles are seen lying in their places in the upper drawing, but flaccid. In the lower drawing, the Supinator, (92.) is cut away, and the place, whence it was cut out from the arm-bone, is marked with its number (92.), while the long Extensor (93.) and the short Extensor (94.) are both left in their place; but they are much dissected, and allowed to hang over 48 OF THE MUSCLES. over by their own weight to the inner side of the fore-arm, so that in this lower drawing their tendons are less perfectly seen. (95.) The Extensor Carpi Ulnaris is seen in the upper drawing dissected very clean, lying loose and flabby, but yet not separated from the Ulna; whereas in the lower drawing it is so fully dissected, as to fall away from the Ulna, leaving the bone at (m) naked. And so there remains of all the muscles on this side of the fore-arm, those only which extend the fingers and thumb; and they are all seen, in the upper drawing, dissected, but still in their places. In the lower arm they are all thrown loose. (96.) The Extensor Communis Digitorum is seen in the upper drawing thick and massy; covering the other slender muscles. This muscle goes to all the fingers, by the tendons (n n) which are seen on the back of the hand. In the upper figure the Ex- tensor Communis is in its place; in the lower drawing it is cut up, and thrown out upon the table. (97.) Extensor Digiti Minimi vel Auricularis is seen only in the lower drawing, for in the upper drawing it is covered by the Extensor Communis. It is like a slip of the Extensor Communis, and consequently it is cut up here along with the Ex- tensor Communis. The slender tendons of the Extensor Communis are marked (nn). The slender tendon of the Auricularis is marked (o). But the fore finger also has a particular Extensor, which is named Indicator, and the thumb has three Extensors, named 1st, 2d, and 3d. (98.) The Extensor Primus Pollicis is the first upon the edge of the arm, passing obliquely over the Radius (99.) The Extensor Secundus is next to that; and the Extensor Tertius (100.) is next to that again. These three Extensors are seen fully dissected in the lower drawing, hanging loose, and their slender tendons distinctly seen. In the upper drawing they are less dissected; and the manner in which the three tendons cross obliquely over the wrist, and the manner of their coming up to the thumb touching the great joint of it, is well explained. It is seen here that these tendons are bound BOOK SECOND, PLATE FIFTH. 49 bound down by the Annular Ligament (*); and by raising the thumb strongly in our own hand, we can compare it with this dissection, for we see the starting up of these tendons of the thumb, and we see at the same time the point distinctly marked at which the ring of the Annular Ligament holds them down. The Indicator (101.) lies next to the Extensor Tertius Pollicis; it rises from the Ul- na; its slender tendon goes up to the fore-finger to extend it. This muscle is seen only in the lower drawing. In the upper drawing all the muscles are in their na- tural places, the tendons being bound down by the Annular Ligament which is marked (*). It is a tendinous expansion, thin, flat, and ribband-like, and the mus- cles extending the fingers are seen through this transparent band. It is called the An- nular, or ring-like Ligament of the wrist. G PLATF J500K SECOND, PLATE SIXTH 51 PLATE VI. This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 217, to page 220. vwwwwwww THIS Plate explains all the flexor muscles of the hand, wrist, and fingers, by a drawing taken when the arm was set up for the figures of the last plate, and consequently the postures are expressly the same; and the parts, as the Scapula, the Clavicle, and the position of the fore-arm, must be easily understood. The Seratus Major Anticus (66.) is still seen hanging down from the basis of the Scapula. Part of the Supra-spinatus (73.) is seen above the Spine. The Subscapularis (77.) is seen filling the whole of the hollow of the Scapula, lying under the Scapula, betwixt it and the ribs. The Teres Major (76.) is seen here also hanging down flaccid from the place, where it is implanted into the shoulder bone. That part of the Deltoides (71.) which arises from the Clavicle (a) is seen here. The Biceps Brachii (78.) is seen in the upper drawing with the belly marked (78.), lying in its place. Its longer slender tendon which comes from within the shoulder joint is marked (b). Its shorter tendon which still is very long but thick and fleshy, is 52 OF THE MUSCLES. is seen marked (c), coming from under the Deltoid muscle where it rises from the Coracoid Process. Its flat tendon, which expands upon the fore-arm, and strengthens the general fascia of the arm, is seen spreading out over the muscles at (d), and the ragged edges of the fascia are seen lying out upon the muscles, for the muscles both above and below are dissected clean, while the fascia of the arm is left only at (d), that the connection betwixt this fascia and the Biceps tendon might be explained. In the lower drawing the shorter head of the Biceps (c) is seen cut away from the Cora- coid process (e), and hung up by a string. The longer head (b) is pulled upwards by a string, that it may be seen how it comes from under the clavicle, where it rises within the shoulder joint. The Coracoid Process whence the shorter head arises is marked (e), and it is seen that there are three points of muscles sticking to the apex of the process; for the little pectoral muscle (67.) is implanted into it; and the Coraco-brachialis (72.) and this shorter head of the Biceps rise from it. The Brachialis Internus (79.) is seen in both arms, lying under the belly of the Biceps, and rising from the bone. The Coraco-brachialis (72.) is seen in both the drawings. In the upper drawing it is touched by the short head of the Biceps, which makes it less distinct. In the low- er drawing the short head of the Biceps is tucked up. The Coraco-brachialis is fully dissected, and is left flaccid and hanging away from the arm bone; and its ori- gin from the Coracoid Process (e) and its insertion into the middle of the shoulder bone at (g) are both well seen. Over the middle of the bending of the Coraco-brachialis there is seen the remains of a flat and broad tendon, (69.) sticking to the arm bone, which is the cut tendon of the great pectoral muscle, which is implanted thus low upon the Os Humeri, to give it the advantage of a lever in pulling the shoulder bone inwards. I have used the mark (69.) of the pectoral muscle to point out its tendon. The Triceps (80.) is also well seen, especially two of its heads, viz. the longest head ( f), and the shortest head (g), while the head which is of a middle length lies upon the back part of the bone, and cannot be seen in this view. The BOOK SECOND, PLATE SIXTH. 53 The muscles of the Fore-arm, i. e. all the Flexors of the hand, fingers, and thumb, are shown here; in the upper drawing, they are in their natural position, in the lower drawing, they are separated for demonstration, and some of them are hung out. In the upper drawing, the muscles of the fore-arm are few and simple,lying regularly in their places; and so are easily understood. One muscle belonging to the outside of the arm is seen here, viz. the Supinator Radii Longus, (92.) the belly of which is seen lying upon the Radial edge of the arm, above the elbow; the next to that is the Pronator Teres, (82.) It rises at (ft), from the internal Condyle; is implanted into the Radius at (i), and turns the hand prone, (/. e.) flat down. It is called Pronator Teres, because it has a round fleshy belly, very opposite in shape to the Pronator Quadratus; for the Pronator Quadratus, (91.) which is seen in the lower drawing, is of a square form, lying flat upon the Inter-osseous Membrane, rising from the Ulna, implanted into the Radius, and having only one direct office, viz. that of turning the Radius. The next muscle to the Pronator Teres, is the Flexor Carpi Radialis, (85.) or the bender of the wrist, on the side of the Radius. Its head is covered in part by the expanding tendon of the biceps at (d); then the rest of the muscle is naked; and its long tendon is seen as it goes along the Radial edge of the fore-arm marked (£). The Palmaris Longus, (83.) is a long, slender, and delicate muscle; it is merely a bender of the wrist; and comes by a small head from the inner Condyle of the Hu- merus, and its small tendon runs down the middle of the arm till it touches the Annular Ligament of the wrist, to be implanted into it. This Annular Ligament I have marked (*); but though it has the same mark with the Annular Ligament on the outside of the arm, it is not a continuation of the same Ligament, nor is it like it, but is a short, thick, and very strong ligament passing across from the Pisiform, to the Scaphoid bone of the Carpus. It is shorter and stronger than the Annular ^Ligament of the outside; it has a firmer origin from two particular bones, and 54 OF THE MUSCLES. and has a deeper arch under it: for the tendons which it binds down are very numerous, and connected with much stronger muscles than those on the back of the hand. The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris, (86.) lies along the ulnar edge of the arm; is a penni- form or feather-like muscle, very fleshy; rises from the inner Condyle along with the Palmaris Longus, (83.) and is implanted by a strong round tendon into the projecting Pisiform Bone. The Flexor Digitorum Sublimis, (87.) is a very large thick bellied muscle. It is called Sublimis, because it is the outermost of the two flexor muscles. It is seea here lying in its place, thick and fleshy in its belly; its tendons passing under the arch of the Annular Ligament, appearing in the palm of the hand, to go to all the fingers; there are four distinct tendons, which are here supported upon a blow-pipe marked (m); and the place of the Flexor Profundus, which lies under, it is seen at (88.) In the lower drawing, the muscles of the fore-arm are seen much freer and better. The Pronator Teres (82.) is seen in its place, thick, round, and fleshy. The Palmaris Longus, (83.) is thrown out upon the table; by which it is seen how short and delicate its muscular belly is; how long, slender, and delicate its tendon (n) from which it has got its name. And the Palmar Apponeurosis, or tendinous web, (/), which covers the palm of the hand, and which like the palm is of a triangular form, is here cut up and left connected with its tendon. The Upper Flexor of the fingers, or Flexor Sublimis, (87.) is supported by a liga- ture, so as to draw its four tendons nearly into a straight line, showing how they are split near the fingers, whence this muscle is often named Perforatus. The deep Flexor, Flexor Profundus, (88.) is left at its origin. Its belly is raised and drawn out a little, and held extended by a pin; and the three tendons of this muscle are seen going through the loops, or splits of the tendon of the last muscle, whence this one is named Musculus Perforans. These BOOK SECOND, PLATE SIXTH 5j These tendons of the Perforans and Perforatus are also well seen in the uppermost figure, where the perforating tendons are raised over the blowpipe (o), and the perforated tendons are also supported upon another blowpipe (m). The muscle marked (88*) which seems to go with a particular tendon towards the fore- finger, as if it were a particular Flexor for the fore-finger, is merely that head of the general Flexor which goes to the fore-finger, it is a part of the Flexor Profundus; and this particular appearance is produced merely by dissecting this belly a little too high up; for this muscle, and the Flexor Sublimis also, are divided or diviseablc into four distinct bellies, for each of the four distinct fingers which they serve. The Flexor Longus Pollicis, (90.) is a large and strong muscle for bending the last joint of the thumb; its tendon is seen going in under the two short muscles of the thumb, and is seen again at (q) escaping from betwixt the short Flexors, and going forwards to the point of the thumb. The Pronator Quadratus, (91.) is seen lying flat upon the Interosseous Membrane which is marked (p). The muscles of the Hand are not fully explained, but yet the chief muscles are seen. The Abductor Brevis Pollicis, (103.) is seen in the upper drawing rising from the outside of the Annular Ligament. The Flexor Brevis Pollicis, (105.) is seen rising also from the Annular Ligament Another head rises deeper in the hand, but is not seen here, there is seen only the tendon of the long Flexor, passing betwixt these two heads of the short Flexor. The Opponens Pollicis, (104.) cannot be seen here, because it does not move any of the joints of the thumb. It belongs only to the Metacarpal Bone of the thumb; and of course it lies under these two. The Adductor Pollicis, (106.) or, that which carries the thumb towards the fore- finger, is also seen here; but so much under shadow, that it is not to be distin- guished from the Abductor Indicis, (110.) For the Adductor Pollicis and Abduct.ii j6 OF THE MUSCLES. Abductor Indicis lie close upon each other, and are of the same flat and trian- gular shape. The muscles of the little finger are the Abductor and the Flexor Minimi Digiti; but it is the Abductor Minimi Digiti (107.) only that is seen here, lying on the edge of the palm, under the little finger; which we feel acting, when we spread wide the little finger, or when taken with that slight cramp which we often feel upon the lower edge of the palm. PLATE \trx l /:> 1*1. A II fJu&iyy /'•./■L-U/y /'///^/-/." ///. BOOK SECOND, PLATE SEVENTH. 57 PLATE VII. >V\A'W\'VW\*«VV\*. This Plate explains the Text Book, from page 235, to page 31o wwwwvvww« THIS plate represents the Trunk of the body in various drawings; explaining those muscles of the Scapula, which lie flat under the Trapezii Muscles;—also the serrated muscles, which raise or depress the ribs in breathing; the Lon- gissimus Dorsi, and Sacro-Lumbalis, the chief muscles which support the Spine; and it also explains the Intercostal Muscles; the Levators of the ribs; the lesser muscles of the neck and Spine; and the Recti Capitis, the small nodding muscles of the head. It explains a set of muscles, which are found in the book from page 235, to page 310. From page 235 of the book, forwards, are explained the chief muscles of the Scapula; as the Levator Scapulae, the Rhomboid Muscles, and the Serratus Anti- cus; and these three are the chief outermost muscles in the dissection represented in figures i. and ii. The Levator Scapula, (63.) is seen in Figure I. on both sides, rising from the Transverse Processes of the upper Vertebrae of the neck, and going downwards to be implanted into the upper corner of the Scapula, whence it is named Musculus Angularis Scapulae. The Rhomboid muscles, (64. and 65.) are two flat muscles which come with a thin flat tendon from the Spines of the neck and back, and are implanted quite flesh)-, H but 58 OF THE MUSCLES. but still thin and flat, into the whole length of the basis of the Scapula. The divi- sion betwixt the cervical portion of this muscle, (64.) which is the Rhomboides Minor, and the larger portion coming from the Spines of the back, and which is named Rhomboides Major, (6.5.) is very slight. Part of the Infra Spinatus, (74.) is seen here; the Deltoides, (71.) is also seen; the Serratus Major Anticus, (66.) or great muscle for moving the Scapula forwards, is seen lying upon the side of the chest, rising from the ribs to pass under the Scapula, where it is implanted into the whole length of the Basis of the Scapula, exactly opposite to the insertion of the Rhomboides. But in Figure II. the Ser- ratus Major Anticus is represented again lying under the Scapula; and the Scapula, to show it, is cut almost away from the trunk, and is thrown out into a very unnatural position, and the confluence of the separate heads or Serrae by which this muscle rises from each of the ribs i9 indistinctly marked. Thus the Serratus Anticus is seen to be a muscle belonging to the Scapula; but the Serrati Postici, (113. 114.) are muscles of the ribs belonging chiefly to respira- tion, and they are seen in Figure I. and these muscles of the ribs are explained in the book from page 285, to page 290. The upper Serrated muscle lies flat under the Rhomboides; the lower Serrated muscle lies in like manner flat under the La- tissimus Dorsi muscle; but they cover the Longissimus Dorsi and Sacro-lum- ^alis muscles, the lower Serratus covering their fleshy bellies, and the uppermost covering their tendons. The Serratus Superior Posticus (113.") is seen lying flat upon the side of the neck; on the right side the Rhomboides covers it; on the left side it is seen naked. It be- gins by a neat flat shining tendon, resplendent like the colours of a fish turning in the water; and this flat tendon (which is exactly like the flat tendon of the Rhom- boid muscle) comes from the three lower Spines of the neck, and divides into three neat small fleshy heads which are marked (a a), and these are implanted into three of the ribs; and bv raising three ribs it is plain that they must raise the whole chest. The BOOK SECOND, PLATE SEVENTH 59. The Serratus Inferior Posticus (114.) is the exact antagonist of this, and exactly like it in all respects, only that it goes obliquely from below upwards, to pull the ribs down. It arises by a silvery shining tendon like the upper one; the tendon is very strong, but thinner than a sheet of paper. It ends in three heads, which are thin flat slips of flesh, inserted into the three or four lower ribs a little beyond their angles. The Levatores Costarum, (115.) are concealed by these muscles, but are seen in the next dissection, Figure II. where they are seen to be in number twelve pairs corresponding'with the number of the ribs. The nine uppermost are seen to be short; the three lower pairs are seen to pass one rib, and to take hold on the rib below. Whence they are named Levatores Costarum Longiores. The Levatores Costarum are these twelve distinct muscles, rising from the transverse process of each vertebra, and going down to lay hold upon each rib; and so they lie flat upon the outside of the ribs, and keep close to the Spine, and are short. But there are besides regular plans of fibres lying in the interstices of the ribs, which go from the edge of one rib to the edge of the other, and fill up the space betwixt the ribs and hence are named Intercostals. The internal intercostals exactly resemble the ex- ternal intercostals. The external intercostals only can be seen here, and they are seen best in the left side of figure ii. marked (116.) the three lower internal inter- costal muscles lying upon the three lower ribs are longer than the others, just as the lower Levators are longer; but it is not so in the outer layer of intercostals which (except in a few straggling fibres) are all of equal length. The muscles which raise the trunk from the stooping posture, and especially the Qua- dratus Lumborum, Sacro-Lumbalis, Longissimus Dorsi, Transversalis Colli, and Cervicalis, are explained from page 297, to page 301, and they are all pretty distinctly marked in figures i. and ii. In Figure I. the Longissimus Dorsi (126.) and the Sacro Lumbalis (127.) are seen only in the middle of the back; for they are covered by the Rhomboid and Serratus superior (30 OF THE MUSCLES. superior muscles above, and in the same way by the Serratus inferior Posticus be- low; but in figure ii. the three great muscles of the Spine, viz. the Quadratus Lumborum (125.) the Longissimus Dorsi (126.) and the Sacro-Lumbalis (127.) are seen quite uncovered, and in their whole length; for their tendinous origin in the loins at (d), their middle bellies at (126, 127.) and their long tendinous inser- tions at (c), are all distinctly seen; and also their connection with the Cervicalis Descendens (128.) is explained. The Quadratus Lumborum, (125.) which is cut away on the right side, is seen dis- tinctly on the left side, arising big and fleshy from the spine of the Ilium, and insert- ed partly into the transverse processes of the loins, but chiefly into the lowest rib. The common tendon of the Longissimus Dorsi, and of the Sacro-Lumbalis, is seen at (d); it is a firm, thick, and strong origin, which is thus entirely tendinous without, but fleshy within; it rises from the Sacrum, Ilium, and transverse processes of the Vertebras, and fills up all the hollow upon both sides of the Spine. The belly of the Sacro-Lumbalis (127.) parts from the belly of the Longissimus Dorsi, (126.) at the top of the loins, nearly opposite to the lowest rib. The Longissimus Dorsi keeps closer by the Spine, and is inserted by a double row of tendinous feet; but they lie so under its own belly, and under the belly of the Sa- cro-Lumbalis, that they are hidden from the view. The tendinous feet of the Sacro- Lumb alis are well seen, spreading out wider from the Spine and attaching themselves to the ribs; and these tendons marked (c c) are seen in figure i. lying flat and regu- lar, each in its right place; but in figure ii. they are more dissected, are torn up a lit- tle from the flat surface of the ribs, and hang somewhat loose and flaccid. On the right side of the neck is seen the Cervicalis Descendens, (128.) rising from the transverse processes of the neck, going down to be implanted tendinous into the back, (z. e.) into the ribs. The Cervicalis is inserted under the upper tendons of the Sacro-Lumbalis, and the Longissimus Dorsi, on the other hand, is seen to send a delicate slip of tendon up into it; so that the Cervicalis seems equally connected with both BOOK SECOND, PLATE SEVENTH. 61 both of these muscles, but it is rather more beholden to the Longissimus Dorsi, for this slip; while the accident of the Cervicalis rising under the tendinous feet of the Sacro-Lumbalis makes hardly any connection. On the left side again there is seen, the Transversalis Colli (129.); which rising from the Transverse Processes of the back, ascends towards the Transverse Pro- cesses of the neck; it is rather strong and fleshy, has little connection with any other muscle; the Cervicalis Descendens lies under it, while this the Transversalis is in its turn covered by the Splenitis and Complexus*. The * There are three slender muscles in the neck, which are in danger of being confounded, viz. the Trachelo-mastoideus, the Transversalis Cervicis, and the Cervicalis De- scendens. It is impossible to give a perfect drawing on so small a scale, nor indeed is it possible by any drawing, to represent them so that they shall be easily found, and distin- guished; perhaps they will best be found by following this order of dissection. 1. The Tra- pezius and the Rhomboides, the two large flat external muscles belonging to the Scapula, are to be cut away; and then the Serratus Superior where it covers the lower part of the Complexus is to be raised. 2. The Splenitis and Complexus are to be dissected and laid aside; and 3. the Trachelo-mastoideus, and the two other muscles come into view. Of these, First, there lies immediately under the Complexus the Trachelo-mastoideus, large and fleshy, rising from the Transverse Processes in the back and lower part of the neck, by ten- dinous and fleshy feet, and going obliquely upwards and outwards till it is implanted fleshy into the Mastoid Process; and though it is more fleshy than the two muscles which come next, it still is so much a mixture of tendon and flesh, as to be named the Complexus Minor, Secondly, there is the Transversalis Cervicis, which lies immediately under the Tra- chelo-mastoideus, keeps close to the Spine, i. e. lies in the hollow by the side of the Spinous Processes. It rises from the Transverse Processes of the back to be implanted in the Trans- verse Processes of the neck; is immediately covered by the Trachelo-Mastoideus; and covers in part the Cervicalis Descendens.—Thirdly, there is the Cervicalis Descendens, which lies more to one side than the Transversalis Cervicis; it therefore lies more properly under the Trachelo-Mastoideus; its feet or tendinous origins begin from the tips of the Transverse Processes of the neck, just where the feet or small tendons of the Levator Sca- pulas begin; it is very slender and is a confused mixture of tendon and flesh, being chiefly tendinous, though it is fleshy in part. It is necessary to give this warning, that not even the argest drawing can make this piece of dissection perfectly easy; perhaps it may be the easier for this description and arrangement. 62 OF THE MUSCLE? The rising slip of the Longissimus Dorsi has led to this explanation of the Transversalis, and of the Cervicalis Descendens; but naturally before these, there should have been explained the two larger muscles which cover them, viz. the Splenius and Complexus, which are best seen in figures i. and iii. In figure i. are seen, the Splenii (118.) straight and flat, lying along the side of the neck, like the legs of the letter V. and in the interstice or place of their forking, is seen the chief belly of the Complexus, (119.) where it is implanted into the Occiput, lying under the Splenii. In figure iii. the Splenii are cut away, the Complexus only is seen, the chief belly of the Complexus where it is implanted into the Os Occipitis is marked with its proper number (119.); while its feet (partly tendinous and partly fleshy), by which it rises from the Transverse Processes of the neck and back, are marked (e e). The muscles belonging exclusively to the Spine, are next seen in figure iii. for the chief of them are these two, First, the Spinalis Dorsi, (131.) or long muscle be- longing to the Spinous Processes of the back. It runs along the whole back from spine to spine; it is very slender and almost entirely tendinous, and is marked with its number, (131.) Secondly, the Multifidus Spin^, (133.) which is a confused mixture of tendon and flesh, but thick and massy enough to fill all the hollow over the Oblique Processes of the Vertebra, and betwixt the Spinous and Transverse Processes. Three of the four small muscles which perform the quick turning and nodding motions of the head, are explained upon the head, figure iv. where the two small muscles called Recti Capitis are seen dissected fairly, and laid over a blow-pipe; and here it will be observed that the two Recti Minores (121.) are smaller, and lie deeper betwixt the Atlas and the Scull, that the Rectus Major (122.) is not as its name implies, a straight muscle, but is truely oblique. One of the Oblique muscles is also shown here, for there are two oblique muscles, somewhat like the Recti or straight ones. The Oblique Muscle (123.) which is here shown, is the Obliquus BOOK SECOND, PLATE SEVENTH. 63 Obliquus Superior, which rises from the Transverse Process of the Atlas, to be inserted into the Occiput. The Obliquus inferior, which rises from the Dentatus to be fixed into the Atlas is here cut away, for only the Atlas is left in this drawing. PLAT*: BOOK SECOND, PLATE EIGHTH fc>5 The drawings and plans which are numbered, VIII. IX. X. 8c XI. explain chapter vi. and vii. of the book, containing t/ie Abdominal Muscles, the Diaphragm, and the muscles of the Perineum. Plate VIII. gives a general view of the Abdominal Muscles, as they are first laid open. Plate IX. gives a second dissection of the Abdominal Muscles, showing the successive layers of the great Muscles which cover the abdomen. Plate X. explains the general appearance of the Diaphragm, and its relation to the body. Plate XI. explains by plans and drawings, the Diaphragm and the muscles of the parts of generation. PLATE VIII. EXPLAINS the first dissection of the Abdominal Muscles in a lateral view; and the chief intention of the drawing is, to show the general appearance of the belly when uncovered of its skin; to show the great size of the Musculus Obliquus Externus, " and how it covers all the side with " its fleshy belly, and all the fore-part of the Abdomen with its thin " expanded tendon;" to explain the two great lines or marks, the Linea Alba, and Linea Semi-lunaris, and to show the ring of the Abdo- minal Muscles, and the ligament of the thigh in their true shapes, with the exit of the great arteries of the thigh, and the passage of the Sper matic Cord. The description then of these few parts needs hot be tedious. First, the great belly o£ the External Obliqjje Muscle of the Abdomen is marked with its proper number (143.); and it is seen here how it covers the side, how it lies out upon the fore-part of the Thorax, and how it rises from the ribs by indigita- I 'ions. 66 OF THE MUSCLES. tions, which are marked so dark that they can be understood only by the indigita tions (a a a) of the Serratus Major Anticus Muscle, in the interstices of which they rise. The belly of this muscle covers only the side, stops suddenly at (bb), which represent the flat tendon, the fibres of which go obliquely from above downwards and in- wards, whence it is named Obliojjus Descendens. The letters (ccc) show the line which is called Linea Semi-lunaris; and the letters are so placed, as also to point out the intersections or tendinous lines which divide the Recti, or straight muscles of the Abdomen, into four or five distinct bellies; and consequently the letters (ccc) also mark the several bellies of the Rectus, shining through the thin expanded tendon of the External Oblique. (*) Marks the head of the Rectus Muscle, where it rises from the border of the Thorax, touching the Pectoral Muscle (69.), and at the place of this mark (*), the muscle is uncovered of its sheath; this mark serves also another use, for it is repeated again below near the navel, so that these two marks show the whole length of the Linea Alba, or white line, which is seen running down all the center of the belly from the Sternum quite to the Pubis, passing through the navel, and formed by the meeting of the tendons of all the muscles. And it is perhaps worth notice, that the small holes marked very dark, which are neat, small, and round, and which appear in every dissection, like Oilet Holes, and are espe- cially frequent over the surfaces of the Recti Muscles, are just the openings by which the great Cutaneous Veins of the Abdomen pierce the flat tendon of the External Oblique Muscle, to get to the bellies of the Muscles which lie under it, or rather to come back from them, returning chiefly the blood of the Epigastric Arteryf. The t I question whether it be not truly a wound of one of these large veins, (and they are greatly dilated in dropsy of the belly), which occasions that kind of bleeding, which so often happens in tapping the belly. LOOK SECOND, PLATE EIGHTH. 67 The tendency of the Oblique fibres of the Abdominal Muscle to split is easily seen, and the manner of its splitingto form the Ring of the Abdominal Muscles is faithfully represented, where (d) marks the lower pillar of the ring; (e) the upper pillar of the ring; and it is plain that (d) while it forms the lower pillar of the ring, is at the same time the Ligament of the thigh, (f) Marks the Spermatic Cord coming through the opening of the ring; (g) marks the femoral Artery coming from under Poupart's Ligament, or the Ligament of the thigh. Whence it will be understood how Bubonocele or Hernia of the Groin, following the course of the Spermatic Cord, will proceed obliquely inwards, and must (in attempting to re- duce it), be pushed from within outwards: and how a femoral Hernia will by coming out from under the femoral Ligament, be lodged fairly in the thigh, far from the Groin; lying very deep, apt to be concealed from the Surgeon; and how by following the course of the great vessels of the thigh, the Femoral Hernia will proceed from within obliquely outwards, so that, in attempting to reduce this Hernia, we must push from without obliquely inwards. PLATK BOOK SECOND, PLATE NINTH 69 PLATE IX. This Plate along with the former explains the Text Book, from page oil, to page 323. (»/WWWWVW\/V\ EXPLAINS the second dissection of the belly; where the muscles being cut and thrown out upon the thighs, may seem irregular and confused, though it is truly the natural order and true appearance of the dissection. The view is not foreshortened enough to make a pleasant drawing, because it was necessary to look from a high point, as in seeing a dissection from the seats of a Theatre, in order to have a full view of all the belly, from the Pu- bis to the Sternum. 1. The External Oblique Muscle, (143.) is entirely cut away, and no part of it remains on either side. 2. The Internal Oblique Muscle (144.) is seen on both sides; on the leftside of the body it is cut up from its insertion, and is thrown down upon the thigh, showing chiefly how thick and strong its fleshy belly is; but on the right side of the body it is left in its place, where the obliquity of its fibres is well seen, and where the chief points of the description are fulfilled in the drawing, viz. that the chief belly of the Obliquus Internus is at the Iliac Spine, that the central fibres only are direct, going across the Abdomen to the Linea Alba; and that the higher fibres ascend 70 OF THE MUSCLES. ascend towards the Sternum, while the lower ones go obliquely downwards to the Pubis. This is the muscle which gives that muscular covering of the Spermatic Cord, strong in animals, though weak in man, which is named Cremaster. The testicle of the right side is torn up from the Scrotum, and thrown out upon the thigh, that the connection of the Spermatic Cord with this the Internal Oblique Muscle, might be seen; and although it could not be distinctly expressed in so small a figure, without exaggerating and departing from the true drawing, yet there is a conical form of the Spermatic Cord at its upper end, which shows where the Cremaster Muscle joins it. 3. The Transversalis Abdominis, (145.) is seen on the left side. It looks at first sight much like the Internal Oblique, but it is to be remembered, that the Internal Oblique of this side (144.) is thrown down over the thigh. The Transverse sends all its fibres directly across the Abdomen; and it is seen to belong to the inner surface of the Thorax, as much as the External Oblique Muscle belongs to the outer surface of it. (a a) Represent the place where the flesh of this muscle ends, and the tendon begins; and the tendon at this point is strongly attached to the tendon of the inner Qblique Muscle. The letters (a a) mark the edge where the two thin tendons adhere to form the sheath for the Rectus Muscle; the letter (b) is placed in the sheath itself; the sheath is seen again on the left side empty, and marked (bb), with the bowels of the Abdomen shining through the back part of the sheath, which though very dense and strong, is yet thin and almost transparent. But at the lower part (c), it is less perfect, or rather is wanting; the thinner mem- brane of the Peritoneum only being found there. 4. The Rectus Abdominis, (146.) of the leftside remains in its place; it is dissected on its fore-part, so as to show the tendinous intersections (dd), where the fore- part of the sheath adheres; but at the back of the sheath, (i. e.) at (b) there are no such adhesions, and though the Rectus is so attached at the fore-part, as to be very BOOK SECOND, PLATE NINTH. 71 very difficultly dissected; it lies at its back part so loosely, that it is easily turned out of its sheath with the point of the finger, or the handle of the dissecting knife. The Rectus Abdominis of the right side, (146.) is thrown down like a strap over the thigh, so fully that its tendon by which it is fixed into the Pubis is seen, but not very distinctly here, because the tendon is small, when the Pyramidal Muscles are found, as in this subject. The Pyramidal Muscles, (147.) which are as Supplementary Muscles, are seen fully dissected, with neat, small, and fleshy bellies, of a very regular Triangular form; the base of the Triangle being the origin of the muscle from the Pubis; the Apex of the Triangle being its insertion into the Linea Alba, and the mark (*) is put upon the place of the Symphisis Pubis. PLATE 1 BOOK SECOND, PLATE TENTH 73 PLATE X, This Plate explains the Text Book, from Page 323, to Page 328. '\/VVWWV\